Scéal na Gaeilge

The story of Irish

CÉRBH AS DON GHAEILGE?IRISH – WHERE DID IT COME FROM?

IRISH IS A CELTIC LANGUAGE CLOSELY RELATED TO SCOTTISH GAELIC AND MANX,AND MORE DISTANTLY RELATED TOWELSH, BRETON AND CORNISH. THE MAJOR

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE TWO CELTIC GROUPS CAN BE SEEN BY COMPARING TWO

WORDS. ‘HEAD’ IS CEANN IN IRISH AND PEN IN WELSH; ‘FAIR’ IS FIONN IN IRISHAND GWYN IN WELSH. THE CELTIC LANGUAGES ALL DERIVE FROM A COMMON

INDO-EUROPEAN SOURCE.

Fréamhacha na GaeilgeThe Origins of Irish

There is much debate about the origins ofIrish. The most commonly-accepted theory isthat an early form of Celtic originated incentral Europe and was brought to Ireland byinvaders or migrants during the Iron Age. An alternative theory is that it originated onthe Atlantic seaboard (a Celtic language mayhave existed in modern-day Spain andPortugal as early as the Bronze Age). The truthis that we do not know for certain where theCeltic languages originated or when a Celticlanguage came to Ireland. Estimates vary from1800BC to 50BC, most scholars suggesting adate between 500 and 300BC.

By the 5th century Irish had become thedominant language in Ireland and it remainedso until at least the 18th century.

OghamEven before the arrival of Christianity in Irelandin the 5th century, the Irish had developed aform of writing known as Ogham. It involved asystem of notches inscribed on stone or wood.Almost 400 stone carvings, such as the OghamStone at Aghascregagh in Tyrone, havesurvived. They usually mark burials orboundaries.

Ogham script and stone

The decline in the use of Irish was the result of a host of complex factors: the

consolidation of English as the language of the Tudor administration; the

introduction of English and Scots during periods of plantation and

confiscation; the increasing prestige of English and its potential for social

mobility; the stigmatisation of Irish and its enduring association with poverty

and emigration; and ongoing industrialisation and urbanisation.

Donegal Gaeltacht during the 1940s

By the end of the 20th century Irish wasspoken as a community language primarily onthe western seaboard – in areas known as ‘theGaeltacht’. Irish is the language of the home,community, school and church in many ofthese areas. Currently 28,000 teenagersattend Gaeltacht summer courses in 42summer colleges, staying with Irish-speakingfamilies. For many learners of Irish thesummer Gaeltacht course is their firstexperience of living Gaelic culture. Mostlearners in Ulster go to the DonegalGaeltacht. There were still residual Gaeltachtsareas in Antrim, Derry, Tyrone and Armaghwhen Northern Ireland was established in1921. Native speakers of Irish survived inArmagh and Tyrone until the late 1960s, andin the Glens of Antrim until the 1980s.Recordings have been made of some of thesespeakers. Most Irish speakers in NorthernIreland base their speech on the Donegaldialect, which is similar to that of east Ulster.

Athbheochan na GaeilgeThe Language Revival Movement

Douglas Hyde

Irish declined dramaticallythroughout the 19thcentury. The Gaelic League(Conradh na Gaeilge) wasfounded in 1893 inresponse to the languagecrisis. The League, foundedby Douglas Hyde, the sonof a Protestant rector, andEoin MacNeill from theGlens of Antrim, heavilyinfluenced the languagepolicies of the newlyestablished Free State(1922), which adopted anambitious language revivalpolicy, based mainly onthe education system.Although this policy wassuccessful in creating alarge number of fluentIrish speakers, it failed tocreate new sustainablenetworks or communitiesof speakers and Irishcontinued to decline inthe Gaeltacht.

Eoin MacNeill

Oidhreacht ChoiteannA Shared Heritage

Rev. William Neilson

While Irish speakers were predominantlyCatholic in religion, there has also been asubstantial number of Irish-speakingProtestants in Ulster. Some Irish-speakingCatholics converted to Protestantism (this isknown from direct evidence, but can also bededuced from the large number of Protestantswith Irish Gaelic surnames). Scottish Gaelicspeakers were among the Protestant settlerswho came to Ulster in the 17th century. OtherProtestants living in predominantly Irish-speaking areas also learned the language.

In the early 19th century, Ulster Presbyteriansled the movement to revive the Irish language.Robert MacAdam and R.J. Bryce founded theUlster Gaelic Society in 1828 (along withJames McDonnell, a member of the Church ofIreland), while Samuel Ferguson, Rev. WilliamNeilson, W.H. Drummond and the Brysonfamily were teachers, academics, collectorsand promoters of the language. Irish wastaught in the Belfast (later Royal) Academy inthe 1780s, and in the Belfast (later Royal)Academical Institution during two periods inthe 19th century.

Dr Reuben J. Bryce

In 1835, the Presbyterian

General Assembly passed a

motion requiring Irish (which in

1841 it referred to as ‘’our

sweet and memorable mother

tongue”) to be studied by

candidates for the ministry. The

Presbyterian Church is the only

church to have made the Irish

language a compulsory subject

of study for its clergy.

Merchant Hotel

Anglicans have also been deeplyinvolved with the language and wereforemost in publishing religiousmaterial in Irish. The Bible was firsttranslated into Irish by William Bedell,Church of Ireland Bishop of Kilmore, inthe 17th century. There were also anumber of Irish language poets whowere members of the Church of Irelandbetween the mid-17th and mid-18thcenturies; the clergymen Rev. PatrickDinkin of County Down and Rev. PilibMac Brádaigh of County Cavan, and aCounty Clare landlord, Michael Comyn.

Until the political upheavals of the late19th century, some Protestants andunionists readily identified with theIrish language. The Ulster Bank adoptedthe motto ‘Lamh Dearg Eireann' (RedHand of Ireland) for its coat of arms,which can be seen today above theMerchant Hotel in Belfast. The mottoalso appears above St. George's Marketin Belfast. The chain of office of theLord Mayor of Belfast has theinscription ‘Erin go Bragh’ (Ireland for

ever), and on her visit in 1849, QueenVictoria noted in her diary that thecitizens of Belfast “often called outCéad Míle Fáilte and it appears in everysort of shape.”

The Gaelic League had originally been abroad church including Catholics,Protestants, nationalists and unionists.However, by the early 20th century theIrish language had become almostexclusively associated with Irishnationalism and Catholicism andunionist identity became increasinglydefined in opposition to Irish nationalistidentity.

“The dissenting minister of this place,Moses Neilson, is a most agreeablecharacter, and a man of much cultureand learning. He is perfection in Latin,Greek and Hebrew, as in the native Irishtongue. The Dissenters and Papists ofthis parish mostly speak in that language.. .” (Hugh Johnston, landlord ofRademon, near Crossgar, Co Down, 1784)

Gaeilge an Lae InniuIrish Today

According to the 2006 Census, the Republic has over 1.5million Irish speakers (41% of the population), 340,000 ofwhom speak Irish on a daily basis and of this figure,260,000 are between the ages of 5 and 19 (Irish is acompulsory subject in schools). The highest concentrationof daily speakers are within the Gaeltacht areas ofDonegal, Mayo, Galway, Kerry, Cork, Waterford and Meath.

In Northern Ireland, according to the 2011 Census184,898 (10.65% of the population) have someknowledge of the Irish language. The majority of speakersare within the Catholic community, although 13,715 ofthose recorded were “Protestants and Other Christians”.

With the exception of a small urban neo-Gaeltacht whichwas set up in west Belfast in 1969, the Irish-speakingcommunity in Northern Ireland consists largely ofinformal networks of people, the majority of whom arelocated in the urban centres of Belfast, Derry and Newry.Carntogher, in County Derry, has plans for the restorationof this area as a modern, 21st-century Gaeltacht. This isthe only community outside the Gaeltacht where themajority of primary school children receive theireducation through the medium of Irish.

Oideachas Education

Almost 5,000 children are enrolledin Irish-medium education inNorthern Ireland – Irish is thelanguage of instruction in theseschools. There are 45 pre-schools,38 primary schools, one secondaryschool and three secondary unitswithin English-medium schools. Themajority of the children attendingIrish-medium schools come fromEnglish-speaking homes.

Over 30,000 children avail of Irish-medium education in the Republicof Ireland, and Irish is a compulsorysubject in English-medium schools.

Coláiste Feirste pupils

A range of Irish languageprogramming and onlineresources are available throughbroadcast and digital media onthe BBC (www.bbc.co.uk/irish).Programmes supported by theIrish Language Broadcast Fund– a minimum of 70 hours peryear – are broadcast on theBBC, TG4 and RTÉ. The fundalso supports the independentproduction sector in NorthernIreland, providing a range oftraining initiatives(http://northernirelandscreen.co.uk/categories/7/ilbf.aspx).

Na Meáin agus na hEalaíona

The Media and the Arts

Cultúrlann Uí Chanáin, Derry

Cultural centres host a wide range of artsperformances and classes: Cultúrlann MacAdam Ó Fiaich in Belfast (www.culturlann.ie);Cultúrlann Uí Chanáin in Derry(www.culturlann-doire.ie); An Droichead,Belfast (www.androichead.com); GaelárasMhic Ardghail, Newry; and An Carn, Derry(www.ancarn.org).

Literary works, both prose and poetry, areproduced for children and adults. The Belfastpoet Gearóid Mac Lochlainn has gainedinternational recognition for his poetry andhas been granted many awards both at homeand abroad. The Belfast company AntSnáthaid Mhór has won many prizes for itsbeautifully illustrated books on Irish folklore(www.antsnathaidmhor.com). Many of thesepublications, and others, can be found at Irishlanguage bookshops in the cultural centres mentioned above.

The main Irish languagecentre in Belfast is the FallsRoad Cultúrlann, which is aconverted Presbyterianchurch

The English language has borrowed extensively from other languages,particularly French. Its borrowings from Irish include:

Irish Meaning EnglishBean sí ‘fairy woman’ BansheeBog ‘soft’ BogGo leor ‘enough, plenty’ GaloreGob ‘beak,’ GubSlog ‘to drink or swallow’ SlugSmidiríní ‘in bits’ SmithereensTóraí ‘outlaw’ Tory

Iasachtaí ón GhaeilgeWords from Irish

Irish has also borrowed words from other languages. Its borrowingsinclude:

Latin Irish EnglishAngelus Aingeal AngelInfernus Ifreann HellLiber Leabhar Book

Norse Irish EnglishBátr Bád BoatPenningr Pinginn PennyBjórr Beoir Beer

French Irish EnglishChambre Seomra Room or chamberBotel Buidéal Bottle Sucre Siúcra Sugar

Iasachtaí ó Theangacha eile

Words from Other Languages

Sloinnte - Ag baisteadh daoineSurnames - Naming people

Hereditary surnames – those which go on unchanged from one generation to thenext – did not appear until the Middle Ages. They were taken up first by thearistocratic classes and gradually worked down the social ladder. Even then somecountries were slow to adopt universal surnames, which did not becomecompulsory in the Netherlands until 1811 or in Turkey until 1934. Icelanders stilldo not use hereditary surnames. Each generation of children takes its father’sforename and adds ‘son’ or ‘dóttir’, for example, Karl Jónsson or Katerina Jónsdóttir.

Ireland was one of the first European countries to use hereditary surnames.The earliest recorded surname, that of Ó Cléirigh (O'Cleary – now usuallyClarke) appears in The Annals of Ireland for the year 916. Irish surnames areoften based on the personal name of a king or chieftain. For example, theO’Neills of Ulster took their name (Ó Néill) from a High King of Ireland, NiallGlún Dubh – Black-kneed Niall – who died in 917, while the descendants ofBrian Ború, High King of Ireland, who died in 1014, became Ó Briain (O’Brien).

The word Ó, (originally Ua) means ‘grandson’, while Mac (sometimes Mag)means ‘son’. In surnames, both mean ‘descendant of’. Women have their ownforms, both of which derive from a shortened form of the word nighean‘daughter’. Ní is used with Ó surnames and adds an ‘h’ to the surname, forexample, Máire Ní Mhaoileoin. Nic is used with Mac surnames, for example,Meabh Nic Grianna.

In Britain, the practice of adopting hereditary surnames appears to havedeveloped after the Norman Conquest in the 11th century. By the 15thcentury most English families, and those from Lowland Scotland, had adoptedthe use of hereditary surnames. In Gaelic Scotland they followed the IrishGaelic pattern, but tended to use only the Mac form. Early Welsh surnames,following the Act of Union in 1536, used the Welsh ap (a shortened form ofmap, the equivalent of mac). It survived in surnames such as Upjohn (Ap John)and Price (Ap Rhys). In later generations some patronymics became hereditarysurnames and an ‘s’ was sometimes added to the forename to represent theword ‘son’, for example Evan + ‘s’ became Evans.

Anglicised versions ofGaelic surnames began toappear in English languagetexts in the 17th century.By the end of thefollowing century only theanglicised forms wererecognised in law andmany of the ‘O’ and ‘Mac’prefixes were abandoned.Anglicisation took anumber of forms.

The first was to try toreproduce the sound ofthe original Gaelic inEnglish orthography, forexample:

Mac an tSaoir‘descendant of thecarpenter’ became‘McAteer’.Mac Giolla Íosa‘descendant of theservant or devotee ofChrist’ became‘MacAleese’.

This process also gave riseto some ratherunfortunate Englishversions such as Farty forÓ Fathartaigh (descendantof the wise one), HorrorforÓ hEarchadha(descendant of the noblewarrior) and Rotten for ÓRódáin (descendant of thestrong one).

Modern spellings are notusually quite asobjectionable, but theycan vary widely. Forexample, the surname MacAoidh, and its variant MacAodha, produce McHugh,MacCue, MacCoo, McKay,McKee, Magee, McGoo,McGhee, Ghee, McCoy,Kay, Kee, Key, Hughes,Hewson, Heuson andEason, to name but a few.

The second method ofanglicising Gaelicsurnames sought anEnglish languageequivalent, for example:

Mac Eoin ‘descendant of[St] John’ becameMcKeown.Ó Coileáin ‘descendantof a whelp, or youngdog’ became Collins.Ó hUiginn ‘descendant ofthe Viking or sea-rover’became Higgins.

The third method was thetranslation of the Gaelicsurname, for example:

Mac Gabhann‘descendant of theblacksmith’ became‘Smith’.Mac an tSionnaigh‘descendant of the fox’became ‘Fox’.Ó Marcaigh ‘descendantof the horseman’became ‘Ryder’.

A fourth process wasthrough mistranslation, forexample.

Mac Con Aonaigh‘descendant of thehound of the assembly’sometimes became ‘Bird’as part of the namesounded like éan, theGaelic word for ‘bird’.

Mac Giolla Eoin‘descendant of theservant of St John’became ‘Monday’ aspart of the namesounded like Luan, theGaelic word for‘Monday’.

A fifth process appears tobe one of aggrandisementwhere the Gaelic namewas substituted for ahigher status name, forexample:

Mac Thaidhg, normally‘MacTague’, became‘Montague’. Ó Maolagáin, normally‘Mulligan’, became‘Molyneux’. Ó Doibhlin, normally‘Devlin’, became‘D’Evelyn’.

As a result of its historyIreland now has a widerange of surnames whichdid not originate inIreland. Gaelic Scotlandgave us surnames such asMcDonnell, Sweeney,McDowell and McAlister.Gaelic names likeCasement and Cowancame from the Isle ofMan. The Scottishlowlands provided namessuch as Elliot, Maxwell,Stewart and Wilson.Surnames from Englandinclude Attwood, Bingham,Copeland and Eastwood.The Norman French andHuguenots also broughttheir names. NormanFrench names includeBurke, Dillon, Fitzgerald,Hackett and Savage whilethe Huguenots broughtnames such as Alderdice,Duprey, Latour, La Toucheand Lefanu.

Gaelic surnames are normally based onancestral or given names, or on a person’soccupation. Others describe humancharacteristics or personal qualities. Someare also based on the names of animals orplants, while others like the Maol andGiolla names are associated with the earlychurch. Unlike English surnames, Gaelicsurnames have very few toponymics, thatis surnames which describe location, likeHill, Lake, Forrest, or London. This mayreflect the importance of kinship in earlyGaelic society where who you were relatedto was more important than where youwere from.

The following tables illustrate a range ofGaelic surnames from both Scotlandand Ireland:

Sloinnte Sinseartha Ancestral or Given Names

Gaelic Surname English version(s)

Mac Alastair McAlister, MacCallister, MacLester, Lester‘descendant of Alastair’(from the Greek ‘Alexander’)

Mac Pháil McFaul, MacFall, MacFail, MacPhail‘descendant of Paul’

Mac Mánuis McManus, Maynes, McMaynes, ‘descendant of Magnus‘ McMainess(from the Norse forename ‘Magnus’)

Mac Pháidín McFadden, MacFadyen, MacFadzean, ‘descendant of little Patrick’ Fadden

Mac Seáin McShane, Johnson, Johnston‘descendant of John’

Mac Shitric McKitterick, MacKeterick, MacGetrick, ‘descendant of Sitric’ McKitrick(from the Norse forename)

Mac Thómais McComish, McComb, McCombie, ‘descendant of Thomas’ MacTavish

Sloinnte Gairmiúla Occupational Names

Gaelic Surname English version(s)

Mac an Bhaird‘descendant of the bard’ Macanward, MacAward, McWard, Ward

Mac an Easpaig ‘descendant of the bishop’ MacAnespie

Mac an Fhilidh‘descendant of the poet’ MacNeilly, Neilly, Neely

Mac an Taoisigh‘descendant of the chieftain’ McIntosh, Mackintosh

Mac an tSaoir‘descendant of the craftsman’ McAteer, MacIntyre, Carpenter, Freeman

Mac Gabhann‘descendant of the smith’ McGown, McGowan, Goan, Smith

Ó Labhradha‘descendant of the spokesman’ Lavery, Lowry

Tréithe Pearsanta Personal Features

Gaelic Surname English version(s)

Mac Dubhghaill McDougal, McDowell, Madole, ‘descendant of the dark foreigner’ Madowel, MacDole, Doyle (Ó Dubhghaill)(a Norseman or a Gallowglass)

Mac Fhionnghaile McGinley, MacKinley, Kinley‘descendant of the fair-haired person of valour’

Mag Fhinn McGinn, Maginn, MacGinne, Finn, Fair, ‘descendant of the fair-haired one’ Phair

Ó Caiside Cassidy‘descendant of the curly-haired one’

Ó Cinnéide Kennedy‘descendant of the ugly-headed (fearsome-headed) one’

Ó Donnghaile Donnelly‘descendant of the brown-haired warrior’

Ó Dubhthaigh O’Duffy, Duffy, Duhig, Dooey, Dowey‘descendant of the dark-haired one’

Cáilíochtaí Pearsanta nó Morálta Personal or Moral Qualities

Gaelic Surname English version(s)

Mac Dhíomasaigh McGimpsey, Dempsey (Ó Díomasaigh)‘descendant of the proud one’

Mac an Fhirléighinn McErlean, MacErlain, MacNerlinn,‘descendant of the learned one’ Killerlean

Ó Dochartaigh Docherty, Dohery, Doherty, Dogherty, ‘descendant of the harmful one’ Dorrity, Dougherty

Mac F(h)earaigh McVerry, McAree, McGarry, Megarry ‘son of the manly one’

Ó hÉigeartaigh Hegarty‘descendant of the unjust one’

Ó Mealláin Mellon, Mallon‘descendant of the pleasant one’

Ó Pronntaigh Prunty, Brunty, Bronte, O’Prounty, ‘descendant of the generous person’ O’Prunty, O’Prontye

Sloinnte a bhain le hAinmhithe nó Plandaí Animal and Plant Names

Gaelic Surname English version(s)

Mac an tSionnaigh McAtinney, Tinney, Shinnick, Fox, Todd‘descendant of the fox’

Mac Con Uladh McCullagh, MacCully, Colow, Collo, ‘descendant of the hound of Ulster’ McAnaul, McAnulla, McNaul, McNully

Ó Cuilinn Cullen, Collins, Cullion, Quillan, Quillen,Holly- ‘descendant of the [place of] holly tree’

Ó Droighneáin Drennan, Dreinan, Drinane, Drinan, ‘descendant of the blackthorn’ Thornton, Thorn, Torrens, Tarrant

Ó Faoláin Phelan, Whelan‘descendant of the little wolf’

Ó Fiaich O’Fee, Foy, Fay, Fey, Hunt‘descendant of the raven’

Ó hAirt Hart, Harte‘descendant of the bear’

Sloinnte le ‘Giolla’ agus ‘Maol’ ‘Giolla’ and ‘Maol’ Surnames

Giolla and Maol occur in many Gaelicsurnames. The word ‘gillie,’ which means‘servant’, is still used until this day in fishingand hunting circles in Ireland and Scotland.The word maol means ‘bald’ or ‘tonsured’which refers to the tonsured, or partiallyshaved heads, of early Christian saints orholy men. Maol also occurs in the sense of‘leader’ in names such as Mac Cathmhaoil‘battle-chieftain’ (Campbell, McCawell,Campfield), Mac Maoláin ‘leader’ (McMullan,McMillen), Maoldúin ‘leader of the fort’(Muldoon), and Maolmhuaidh ‘leader of thevictorious’ (Milmoe, Molyneaux).

Gaelic Surname English version(s)

Mac Giolla Pheadair Gilfedder, Kilfeddar, Kilfeather‘descendant of the devotee of Peter’

Mac Giolla Íosa MacAleese, Gileece, Gillis, Gillies, ‘descendant of the devotee of Jesus’ MacLeish, MacLice

Mac Giolla Mhuire Gilmore, Kilmurry, MacElmurray,‘descendant of the devotee of Mary’ MacIlmurry, Murray

Mac Giolla Dé Gildea, Kildea‘son of devotee of God’

Ó Maol Bhríde Mulready, Reidy, Mulreed‘descendant of the devotee of St. Bridget’

Ó Maolchiaráin Mulhern, Mulhearn, Mulherrin, Mulkerrin‘descendant of the devotee of St. Kieran’

Ó Maolchalainn Mulholland, Holland, Maholm‘descendant of the devotee of St. Callan’

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www.ultach.org

A Primer of the Irish Language, compiled at therequest and for theuse of QueenElizabeth 1 by ChristopherNugent, 16thcentury.