Theoretical Foundations: Important

Constructs and Definitions

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL THE PSYCHOLOGICAL CONTENTS OF CULTURECONTENTS OF CULTURE

No valid measure of culture Researchers have tended to use race or ethnicity

instead. This produces stereotypic beliefs and opinions

(Zuckerman, 1990) Are you really measuring differences in culture

or some other demographic variable? i.e. socioeconomic, education, social, etc.

Sampling Adequacy Is sampling African Americans from Texas the

same as sampling African Americans from Wisconsin? Can these results be generalized to all African Americans?

Issues with Cross-Issues with Cross-Cultural ComparisonsCultural Comparisons

Other IssuesOther Issues Validity and Reliability of variables

across cultures. Different cultures can define and measure

constructs differently (i.e. intelligence may not mean the same thing in another country as it does in the U.S.)

Language and Translation Research environment, setting, and

procedures The U.S. uses Intro to Psych classes

So how do we measure So how do we measure Culture?Culture?

Traditionally culture has been broken into subjective and objective elements (Triandis, 1972 & Kroeber & Kluckholn, 1952)

Subjective elements have been categorized into: Domains: opinions, attitudes, values, behaviors, norms, etc. Dimensions: Individualism, Collectivism, power distance,

uncertainty avoidance, masculinity, etc.

The challenge is to identify dimensions for which the domains vary.

Hofstede’s Cultural Hofstede’s Cultural DimensionsDimensions

Individualism, Collectivism

Power Distance

Uncertainty Avoidance

Masculinity, Femininity

Long, Short Term Orientation

DimensionsDimensions Individualism-Collectivism (IC) --

(Hofstede, 1980: Kluckholn & Strodtbeck, 1961: Mead, 1961: Triandis, 1972)-Best known--the degree to which a culture encourages, fosters, and facilitates the needs, wishes, desires, and values of the individual over those of a group--Members of individualistic cultures see themselves as separate and autonomous individuals, whereas members of collectivistic cultures see themselves as fundamentally connected to others.

Dimensions (cont.) Dimensions (cont.) Power Distance (PD) (Mulder, 1976,

1977;Hofstede, 1980, 1984) Inequality in power between less-powerful

individual and a more powerful individual. PD has to do with the degree to which different

cultures encourage and maintain power and status differences among the members of an organization.

Dimensions (cont.)Dimensions (cont.) Uncertainty Avoidance (UA)

(Hofstede, 1980, 1984) Degree to which cultures create

institutions and rituals to deal with anxiety created by uncertainty.

Dimensions (Cont.)Dimensions (Cont.) Masculinity (Hofstede, 1980, 1984)

Degree to which cultures foster traditional gender differences.

--the degree to which cultures foster traditional gender differences among their members, e.g. drawing organizational parallels between gender relations that are present in the larger society.

Hofstede’s Cultural Hofstede’s Cultural DimensionsDimensions

Long, Short Term Orientation

Degree to which cultures encourage delayed gratification of material, social, emotional needs

HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE HOW DOES CULTURE INFLUENCE HUMAN BEHAVIORS AND MENTAL HUMAN BEHAVIORS AND MENTAL

PROCESSES?PROCESSES?

Figure 1.5: How Does Culture Affect Behavior?Figure 1.5: How Does Culture Affect Behavior?

Ecological Factors

Social Factors

Biological Factors

Culture

Enculturation

via

Family

Community

Institutions

Psychological Processes

AttitudesValuesBeliefs

OpinionsWorldviews

NormsBehaviors

Cultural influences on Cultural influences on behavior and mental behavior and mental

processesprocesses This system is dynamic and interrelated

Although culture is an important factor influencing behavior so are other factors like personality, context

Depending on context, cultural influences on behavior may change

Understanding culture in perspective: Understanding culture in perspective: universals and culture-specificsuniversals and culture-specifics

Universals: psychological processes that are found in all humans, but individual variability may be present.Ex) all humans make attributions about reasons underlying human behavior

Culture-specifics: some psychological processes may be present only in a particular culture or cultures due to non-universal, unique environments and genetics.

Ex) different cultures may differ in the way they make attributions

Etics and EmicsEtics and Emics Universals are Etics

Culture specifics are Emics

On psychological On psychological knowledge and truths: A knowledge and truths: A

RecapRecap Is the knowledge we learn in

psychology applicable to all or only to some people of some culture?

By asking this question, psychology can move toward producing accurate knowledge that applies to all humans or that is specific to some humans.

Psychology must incorporate the influence of culture to become a true science.