theories of personality - d. fry science -...

Learning

chapter 9

Learning Objectives:

1. What are the two types of stimuli and responses that

form the basis of classical conditioning?

Behaviorism • Part of the LEARNING PERSPECTIVE

• Focus on observable behaviors, rather than what goes on in the mind

• The environment determines our behaviors • Conditioning = the association between environmental stimuli

and behavioral responses

• Learning = conditioning • Classical conditioning

• Operant conditioning

• John Watson • Founded behaviorism

• Psychology should only consider observable behaviors, so humans can be studied objectively

John Watson

Famous Quote:

“Give me a dozen healthy infants, well-formed, and my own special world to bring them up in, and I’ll guarantee to take any one at random and train him to be any type of specialist I might select—doctor, lawyer, artist, merchant-chief, and yes, beggar-man and thief, regardless of his talents, penchants, tendencies, abilities, vocations, and race of his ancestors.”

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Definitions

• What is Learning? • A relatively permanent change in behavior due to experience

• What is Conditioning? • The association between environmental stimuli and the

organism’s responses

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Classical conditioning

The process by which a previously neutral stimulus

acquires the capacity to elicit a response

through association with a stimulus

that already elicits a similar response

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Classical conditioning

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Ivan Pavlov

• studies on dog salivation

• observed that dogs salivated BEFORE food was placed in its mouth

• conditional “reflex”

Translated into conditioned

Classical Conditioning

Unconditioned stimulus (US)

Elicits a response in the absence of learning

Unconditioned response (UR)

The reflexive response to a stimulus in the absence of learning

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S-R Pair that is instinctive/innate


Learning occurs when a neutral stimulus is then regularly paired with an unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned stimulus (CS)

An initially neutral stimulus that comes to elicit a conditioned response after being paired with an unconditioned stimulus

Conditioned response (CR)

A response that is elicited by the conditioned stimulus

– Occurs after the CS has been

associated with the US

– Similar to the US

– A learned response

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S-R Pair is learned

Classical Conditioning: Eye-Blink Experiment

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whistle Puff of air from

straw Eye-blink

What are the unconditioned stimulus (US) and

unconditioned response (UR) ?


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Puff of air from

straw Eye-blink

US UR


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straw Eye-blink

What are the conditioned stimulus and

conditioned response?


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straw Eye-blink

Neutral Stimulus US UR

+


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whistle Eye-blink

CS CR

Another example

When Alan feeds his fish, he first turns on the aquarium light and then puts in the fish food. After a while he notices that they swim to the top as soon as he turns on the aquarium light. What is the conditioned stimulus

1. Fish food

2. The aquarium light

3. The aquarium

4. Alan

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Last Class in Review

• Behaviorism (learning perspective) • Observable behaviors

• Learning = Conditioning

– Environment determines behaviors

• John Watson

• Learning – Relatively permanent change in behavior

• Classical Conditioning – Unconditioned Stimulus – elicits reflexive behavior

– Unconditioned Response – reflexive behavior

– Conditioned Stimulus – elicits learned behavior

– Conditioned Response – learned behavior

Learning

chapter 9

Learning Objectives:

1. How does the process of extinction work in classical

conditioning? What is spontaneous recovery?

2. What do stimulus generalization and discrimination

refer to in classical conditioning?

3. How can classical conditioning help us to learn

emotional responses to objects, people, and places?

4. How do the principles of classical conditioning

contribute to food aversions and reactions to medical

treatments?


Review • Geraldine has an automobile accident at the corner of 32nd street and

Cherry Ave. Whenever she approaches the intersection now, she begins to feel uncomfortable; her heart begins to beat faster, she gets butterflies in her stomach, and her palms become sweaty.

– US:

– UR:

– CS:

– CR:

• Calvin was chased and assaulted by an aggressive rooster when he was barely three years old. As an adult he still gets little blips in his stomach when he hears the word rooster and he claims that birds make

him nervous.

– US:

– UR:

– CS:

– CR:

Principles of classical conditioning

Extinction

Spontaneous recovery

Higher-order conditioning

Stimulus generalization

Stimulus discrimination

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Extinction

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Whistle

CS

Eye-blink

CR

Extinction

The weakening and eventual

disappearance of a learned

response

In classical conditioning, it

occurs when the conditioned

stimulus is no longer paired

with the unconditioned

stimulus.

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Spontaneous Recovery

• The reappearance of a learned response after its apparent extinction

• Eye-Blink Example: We extinguished your learned response of eye-blinking

(CR) to a whistle by not pairing the whistle (CS) with the puff of air (US); however, if tomorrow you are walking down the street and hear a policeman blow a whistle your eye might blink (CR). This would be spontaneous recovery, or the reappearance of a response, after extinction has occurred.


A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus.

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Neutral stimulus


A neutral stimulus can become a conditioned stimulus by being paired with an existing conditioned stimulus.

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In classical conditioning, occurs when a new stimulus that resembles the conditioned stimulus elicits the conditioned response

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Teapot

whistle

Similar to

CS

Eye-blink

CR

Stimulus discrimination The tendency to respond differently to two or more similar stimuli

In classical conditioning, occurs when a stimulus similar to the conditioned stimulus fails to evoke a conditioned response

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Train

whistle

Similar to

CS

Eye-blink

CR does

not occur

What is learned in classical conditioning?

We learn that the first stimulus predicts the second.

For classical conditioning to be most effective, the stimulus to be conditioned should precede the unconditioned stimulus.

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Learning to like

Where do sentimental feelings come from?

Objects have been associated in the past with positive feelings.

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Classical Conditioning and Emotions

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Neutral Stimulus

Pre-9/11


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Neutral Stimulus

Events of 9/11

Sadness

Anxiety

Fear

US

UR


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CS

Sadness

Anxiety

Fear

CR

Classical Conditioning in Advertisements

Advertisers use attractive women, pop icons, and popular music to attract us to products

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Learning to fear We can learn fear through association.

Phobias

“Little Albert” experiment –

- Watson and Raynor

- Established rat phobia in 11-month old boy though classical conditioning

- Fear generalized to other furry objects (stimulus generalization)

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Unlearning fear

Counterconditioning The process of pairing a conditioned stimulus with a stimulus that elicits an incompatible response.

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Systematic Desensitization A variation on counterconditioning developed for the treatment of phobias

Rod’s Story From the time he was 5, Rod’s favorite food was peanut butter. Some days he

would eat it right out of the jar. Other days he would make elaborate

sandwiches with layers of peanut butter, jelly and bananas. His mother would

allow him to eat only 2 of these at any one time. There were days when Rod

waited for hours to have his peanut butter at night, on top of ice cream. He

would keep eating the peanut butter off the top and piling on more, until his

mom said, “That’s enough, Rod”. Rod’s favorite times were when he and his

dog would eat peanut butter together. He would take a spoonful for himself and

give one to the dog. The only thing that stopped him from eating the whole

thing was his mother’s warning that it would make the dog sick.

Then came a day when his mom was called to help a neighbor and told Rod “I’ll

be back in an hour. You be good”. Rod new exactly what he would do, he got

out a full jar of Peanut butter, a spoon, and sat down with his dog. They ate the

PB spoonful by spoonful until the jar was al gone. When Rod’s mother

returned she found him on the couch. He said he felt sick and the dog looked

sick too. As Rod became more nauseated, he had to vomit. For the first time

in his entire life he hated the taste of PB. He couldn’t even stand the thought of

eating it. Ten years passed before he was able to eat it again. Although he can

eat it now, his passion for it has never returned. Adapted from Rod Plotnick, Intro to Psychology 2nd edition

Taste Aversions Food Aversions - What are the unconditioned stimulus

and unconditioned response?

- What are the conditioned stimulus and

conditioned response?

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Classical conditioning and medical treatments

Cancer patients undergoing chemotherapy often react to waiting rooms with nausea

Why?

What are the conditioned stimulus and conditioned response?

What are the unconditioned stimulus and response?

How might placebos sometimes give patients real relief?

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Applying Classical Conditioning

• While caring for your friend’s dog, you notice that it displays a fear-like posture as you roll up the newspaper. You try this several more times and become convinced that this dog is generally afraid of the rolled-up newspapers

US:

UR:

CS

CR:

• If the dog was also afraid of magazines (and wasn’t ever hit with a magazine), what might this be an example of


• Joan, an animal trainer, has been phobic about monkeys since an earlier attack. However, because of the money, she has agreed to work with monkeys for a movie studio. At first, just going anywhere near the cages makes Joan tense, sweaty, and apprehensive. Lately though things have changed. Working with such cuddly, affectionate, human-like creatures is causing Joan to wonder why she ever felt such extreme distress.

US:

UR:

CS:

CR:

• What other principles of classical conditioning are at play here?


• At a red light, Bob and Fred automatically tensed and felt chills when they heard the screech of tires behind them. Later, while watching a car race, Bob remarked how the screeching of tires was having little effect on him. Fred agreed and wondered why they reacted at all, because neither had as much as a dent on his driving record.

• What principles of classical conditioning do you see here?


• Early in their relationship, the mere sight of Donna excited Jack. This gradually died out; however, as Donna behaved tolerantly, but indifferently. When the relationship ended, Jack was bored with Donna and didn’t even think about her for the next year. Now, he was surprised at how excited he was becoming at seeing Donna through the window of a bus.

US:

UR

CS:

CR:



• Bill couldn’t ever remember being so sick and nauseated. He would never go to that restaurant again or eat chicken again. All he could think about was the good dinner his mother was going to prepare for his homecoming. When he walked in the kitchen, he became flushed and felt nauseated when he saw a brown turkey sitting on the dinner table.

US:

UR:

CS:

CR:


Last Class in Review • Principles of Classical Conditioning

– Extinction

• CS is no longer paired with US and the CR eventually disappears

– Spontaneous Recovery

• Reappearance of CR after apparent extinction

– Higher-order conditioning

• Pairing of a neutral stimulus with CS, where neutral stimulus become new CS

– Stimulus generalization

• When a stimulus that is different, but similar to CS, elicits the CR

– Stimulus Discrimination

• When a stimulus that is similar to the CS, fails to elicit the CR

• What is learned with Classical Conditioning

– That 1 stimulus predicts a second

– Emotions

• Learning to like –objects and places evoke emotions, advertisements

• Learning to fear – “Little Albert” experiment

– Counterconditioning

• Taste Aversions

• Medical Treatments

Operant Conditioning • Learning Objectives:

1. What are 3 types of consequences that a behavior might produce?

2. What is the difference between positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement in operant conditioning?

3. How do extinction, generalization, and discrimination take place in operant conditioning? How are these processes different than in classical conditioning?

4. What is the difference between a continuous and intermittent schedule of reinforcement?

5. How could you use shaping of approximations to train a chicken to play tic-tac-toe?

6. What are 6 reasons punishments usually fail to change behavior?

7. Under what circumstances might rewards backfire?

Operant conditioning (aka Instrumental Learning)

The process by which a response/behavior becomes more or less likely to occur depending on its consequences

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Let’s consider our example:

John’s behavior (choosing the apple) became MORE likely because of the consequence (getting praise and a toy)

Operant conditioning (aka Instrumental Learning)

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How is this different than Classical Conditioning?

- For classical conditioning it does NOT matter what happens after the behavior

- Classical conditioning more reflexive

- Operant conditioning more complex and voluntary

- “operating” on the environment

Operant Conditioning: Edward Thorndike (1874-1949)

• Famous experiment

– How cats escape from puzzle boxes

• Law of Effect

– Responses closely followed by satisfying

consequences are more likely to recur

– Responses followed by aversive

consequences are less likely to recur

Operant Conditioning: B.F. Skinner (1904-1990)

• Radical Behavioralism

– Reworked Thorndike’s Law of Effect into

Operant Conditioning

– Distinguished from John Watson and


– To understand behavior we must focus on

the external causes and consequences

Consequences of behavior 1. Neutral consequence:

neither increases nor decreases the probability that the response will recur.

2. Reinforcement: strengthens the response or makes it more likely to recur

3. Punishment: weakens a response or makes it less likely to recur

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Detention

Response becomes

less likely

Sleeping in class

Response become

more likely

Using the potty

Reinforcement

A stimulus strengthens or increases the probability of the response that it follows.

Primary reinforcers are inherently reinforcing and typically satisfy a physiological need.

- Food, water, caressing, comfortable air temperature

Secondary reinforcers are stimuli that have acquired reinforcing properties through associations with other reinforcers.

- money, praise, good grades, awards

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Types of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement (+)

When a pleasant consequence follows a response, making the response more likely to recur.

Negative reinforcement (-)

When an unpleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response more likely to recur.

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Types of reinforcement

Positive reinforcement (+)

When a pleasant consequence follows a response, making the response more likely to recur.

Negative reinforcement (-)

When an unpleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response more likely to recur.

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Toy = pleasant

consequence John is more

likely to choose

the apple in the

future

Aspirin removed

headache (unpleasant

event)

Teacher more likely

to take aspirin in the

future

Punishment

The process by which a stimulus weakens or reduces the probability of the response that it follows.

Primary punishers are inherently punishing.

- pain (e.g. hitting), extreme heat/cold

Secondary punishers are stimuli that have acquired punishing properties through associations with other punishers.

- criticism, demerits, scolding, bad grades, fines

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Types of punishment

Positive punishment

When an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making the response less likely to recur.

Negative punishment

When an pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur.

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Types of punishment

Positive punishment

When an unpleasant consequence follows a response, making the response less likely to recur.

Negative punishment

When an pleasant consequence is removed following a response, making the response less likely to recur.

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Jail = unpleasant

consequence

Man less likely to

commit crime again

Aggressive Behavior Aggressive Behavior

less likely

Time Out = Removal of

pleasant consequences

(toys, time with friends)

Rewards and Punishments Reinforcement Punishment

Positive

(adding)

Giving a

pleasant

consequence

Giving an

unpleasant

consequence

Negative

(subtracting)

Taking away an

unpleasant

consequence

Taking away a

pleasant

consequence

Increase Response

Decrease Response

Rewards and Punishments Increase Behavior Decrease Behavior

Positive

Stimulus

Positive

Reinforcement

(add stimulus)

Negative

Punishment

(remove stimulus)

Negative

Stimulus

Negative

Reinforcement

(remove stimulus)

Positive

Punishment

(add stimulus)

Your turn

Your first time camping in the woods, you are bitten over 45 times by mosquitoes, resulting in lots of swollen, itchy bumps on your arms, legs, and back. You never want to go camping again. What kind of consequence did you confront on your first camping experience?

1. Positive reinforcement

2. Negative reinforcement

3. Positive punishment

4. Negative punishment

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The Skinner box

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A cage equipped with device that delivers food or water

when an animal makes a desired response

The Skinner box

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• At first the animal accidentally presses the lever and is rewarded with food or

water

• After this behavior occurs accidentally several times, the animal learns that if

he presses the lever, food will follow

•The behavior (pressing the lever) increases because food is a reinforcement

Principles of operant conditioning

Extinction In operant conditioning, occurs when a response is no longer followed by a reinforcer

“My first extinction curve showed up by accident. A rat was pressing the lever in an experiment on satiation when the pellet dispenser jammed. I was not there at the time, and when I returned I found a beautiful curve. The rat had gone on pressing although no pellets were received.…”

B.F. Skinner

Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a learned and extinguished behavior

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No

toy

Apple choosing behavior

decreases and eventually

disappears



The tendency for a behavioral response that has been reinforced (or punished) in the presence of one stimulus to occur (or be suppressed) in the presence of a similar stimulus


The tendency of responses to occur in the presence of one stimulus but not another that differs from it on some dimension

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Substitute teacher (stimulus similar to

regular teacher)

Aunt Martha

(stimulus different

than teacher)

Behavior

doesn’t

occur




To teach stimulus discrimination:

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Pigeon pecks to get reward

in response to both circle

(original stimulus) and oval

(similar stimulus)

Pigeon learns to

discriminate between the 2

stimuli and peck only in

when the circle is shown FOOD NO

FOOD

Schedules of reinforcement

Continuous Every occurrence of a response is reinforced.

- learning is most rapid

- extinction rapid

Intermittent (partial)

Only some occurrences of a response are reinforced.

- Response more resistant to extinction

- Fixed-ratio, fixed-interval, variable-ratio, variable-interval

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Schedules of reinforcement

Simple reinforcement schedules produce characteristic response patterns.

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Continuous vs. Partial reinforcement and Extinction

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Intermittent Reinforcement Schedules

• Can you think of any behaviors that might be explained by intermittent reinforcement? – Lucky charms/Superstitions

• a batter wears a certain hat and gets a home run

• a gambler lights up a cigarette and gets blackjack

• “Find a penny pick it up, all the day you’ll have good luck”

– Why are these so resistant to extinction? • They are reinforced on an intermittent schedule

Shaping

An operant conditioning procedure used to teach complex behaviors by reinforcing successive approximations of a desired response

• Getting an animal to do tricks

• Getting a toddler to say water

– Successive Approximations • Behavioral responses that are reinforced that are increasingly similar

to the desired response

Instinctive drift: the tendency for an organism

to revert to instinctive behavior

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Behavior modification (aka applied behavioral analysis)

The application of operant conditioning techniques in a real-world setting To teach new responses

To reduce or eliminate maladaptive or problematic behavior

What types of situations might this be used in? • Toilet Training

• Elimination of bad habits (smoking, nail biting)

• Therapy for autistics

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Behavior modification for Autism (adapted from Lovas, 1981)

1. Select a target behavior (making eye contact)

2. Have child sit in chair facing you

3. Give command “Look at me” every 5-10 seconds

4. Reward the child with praise and food for correctly looking you

• Remember successive approximations

5. Repeat step 3 until the child is repeatedly following the command “Look at me”.

6. Gradually increase the duration of eye contact to 2-3 second with praise throughout the time at first and then only after the requisite amount of time has passed.

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What conditions are needed for punishment to work?

1. It needs to immediately follow the behavior

2. It is better if it is mild rather than harsh

3. It needs to be consistent

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Why do punishments often fail?

1. If the punishment is administered inappropriately • Blind rage, shouting obscenities

2. When the recipient responds with anxiety, fear, or rage • Classical conditioning may cause the punishment to generalize to

the place, person, or circumstances surrounding the punishment

3. Punishments are often only effective temporarily or under certain circumstances

• Only when parents are around

4. When it does not immediately follow the behavior

5. When it does not inform the recipient how it might be avoided in the future

6. When a consequence thought to be a punishment proves to be reinforcing

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When are rewards bad?

If external reinforcers undermine internal reinforcers

External reinforcers Reinforcers not inherently related to the behavior being reinforced

- money, praise, gold stars

Internal reinforcers Reinforcers inherently related to the behavior being reinforced

- enjoyment, satisfaction

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Last Class in Review • Operant Conditioning

– The process through which a behavior becomes more or less likely depending on its consequences

– Edward Thorndike

• Cat puzzle boxes

• Law of Effect

– BF Skinner

• Radical behavioralism

• Skinner box

– Consequences of Behavior

• Neutral

• Reinforcement – increases behavior (Positive vs Negative, Primary vs Secondary)

• Punishment – decreases behavior (Positive vs. Negative, Primary vs Secondary)

– Principles of Operant Conditioning

• Extinction, Stimulus Generalization, Stimulus Discrimination, Schedules of Reinforcement, Shaping (Behavior Modification)

– Conditions needed for Punishments to work

• Why punishments fail

• When are rewards bad

Learning Objectives

• Learning (finishing up) 1. What is latent learning and observational learning?

2. What did the Bobo Doll Study show?

Operant Conditioning Review

• Tim asks his mom for a toy at the store. She says no. Tim starts to scream and cry and continues to do so until his mom gets him a toy. Immediately upon receiving the toy, Tim stops crying. In this example what is the positive reinforcement and negative reinforcement?

– Positive reinforcement:

– Negative reinforcement:

Operant Conditioning Review

• Jenny and Johnny’s moms are both trying to potty train their children. Jenny’s mom gives Jenny a cookie everytime she goes on the potty, while Johnny’s mom give Johnny a sticker and praise everytime he goes on the potty. Who is using the primary reinforcer and who is using the secondary reinforcer?

– Primary reinforcer:

– Secondary reinforcer:

Moving on from Behaviorism

• Edward Tolman

Which way

should I go?

Where is that

cheese?

Latent learning Tolman & Honzik experiment:

3 groups of rats in maze:

1. Always found food at end of maze

2. Never found food

3. No food for 10 days, 11th day received food

Learning is not ALWAYS immediately expressed in performance

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A form of learning that is not

immediately expressed as an

overt response, it occurs

without obvious reinforcement

Social learning theory

Social cognitive theories emphasize how behavior is learned and maintained.

We learn through observation and imitation of others in a social context

Emphasis on cognitive processes such as plans, expectations, and beliefs

Agree with Behaviorists that learning occurs through operant and classical

conditioning

BUT ADD that for humans cognitive processes (plans,

expectations, beliefs) affect how we learn and what information

we learn

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Observational Learning

Observational learning involves learning new responses by observing the behavior of another rather than through direct experience

- knowledge results from seeing a model behave in certain ways and experiencing the consequences

Bandura’s Bobo doll study

Nursery school children watched a film of two men

(Johnny and Rocky) playing with toys.

Johnny refuses to share, and Rocky hits him, getting

all the toys.

Children who watched the video were significantly

more violent afterward than children in a control

group.

chapter 9

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