thinking language and iq

7/29/2019 Thinking Language and IQ

1/102

1

EXPLORINGPSYCHOLOGY(8th Edition)

David Myers

PowerPoint Slides

Aneeq AhmadHenderson State University

Worth Publishers, 2011
http://www.hsu.edu/dept/dap/StyleGuide/Images/c_oval.jpg


2/102

2

Thinking, Language,

and Intelligence

Chapter 9


3/102

3

Thinking, Language, andIntelligence

Thinking Concepts

Solving Problems Making Decisions and Forming

Judgments

THINKING CRITICALLY ABOUT: TheFear FactorDo We Fear the RightThings?


4/102

4

Language Language Development

Thinking in Images

Animal Thinking and Language


5/102

5

Intelligence What is Intelligence?

Assessing Intelligence

CLOSE-UP: Extremes of Intelligence

Genetic and Environmental

Influence on Intelligence Group Differences in Intelligence

Test Scores


6/102

6

Thinking

Thinking, or cognition, refers to a process thatinvolves knowing, understanding,remembering, and communicating.


7/102

7

Cognitive Psychologists

Thinking involves a number of mentalactivities, which are listed below. Cognitive

psychologists study these in great detail.

1. Concepts2. Problem solving

3. Decision making4. Judgment formation


8/102

8

Concepts

The mental grouping of similar objects, events, ideas, orpeople. There are a variety of chairs but their common

features define the concept of a chair.


9/102

9

Category Hierarchies

We organize concepts into category hierarchies.

CourtesyofChristineBrune


10/102

10

Development of Concepts

We form some concepts with definitions. Forexample, a triangle has three sides. Mostly, weform concepts with mental images or typical

examples (prototypes). For example, a robin isa prototype of a bird, but a penguin is not.

Triangle (definition) Bird (mental image)

DanielJ.Cox/GettyImages

J.Messerschmidt/ThePictureCube


11/102

11

Problem Solving

Problem solving strategies include:

1. Trial and Error

2. Algorithms3. Heuristics4. Insight


12/102

12

Algorithms

Algorithms, which are very time consuming,exhaust all possibilities before arriving at a

solution. Computers use algorithms.

S P L O Y O C H Y G

If we were to unscramble these letters to form a wordusing an algorithmic approach, we would face

907,200 possibilities.


13/102

13

Heuristics

Heuristics are simple,thinking strategies

that allow us to make

judgments and solveproblems efficiently.Heuristics are less

time consuming, butmore error-prone than

algorithms.

B2MProductions/DigitalVersion/GettyImages


14/102

14

Heuristics

Heuristics make it easier for us to use simpleprinciples to arrive at solutions to problems.

S P L O Y O C H Y GS P L O Y O C H G YP S L O Y O C H G YP S Y C H O L O G Y

Put a Y at the end, and see if the wordbegins to make sense.


15/102

15

Insight

Insight involves asudden novel

realization of asolution to a problem.Humans and animals

have insight.

Grande using boxes toobtain food


16/102

16

Insight

Brain imaging and EEGstudies suggest that

when an insight strikes(the Aha experience), it

activates the righttemporal cortex (Jung-

Beeman & others, 2004).The time between notknowing the solution

and realizing it is about0.3 seconds.

FromMarkJung-Beekman,

Northwestern

UniversityandJohnKounio

s,DrexelUniversity


17/102

17

Obstacles in Solving Problems

Confirmation Bias: A tendency to search forinformation that confirms a personal bias.

2 4 6

Rule: Any ascending series of numbers. 1 2 3 wouldcomply. Wasons students had difficulty figuring out the

rule due to a confirmation bias (Wason, 1960).


18/102

18

Fixation

Fixation: An inability to see a problem from afresh perspective. This impedes problem

solving. An example of fixation isfunctional

fixedness.

The MatchstickProblem: How would

you arrange sixmatches to form fourequilateral triangles?

FromProblemSolvingby

M.Scheerer.Copyright1963by

ScientificAmerican,Inc.AllRightsReserved.


19/102

19

Using these materials, how would you mount thecandle on a bulletin board?

Candle-Mounting Problem

FromProblemSolvingbyM.S

cheerer.Copyright1963by

ScientificAmerican,Inc.AllRightsReserved.


20/102

20

The Matchstick Problem: Solution

FromPro

blemSolvingbyM.Scheerer.Copyright1963by

Scientific

American,Inc.AllRightsReserved.


21/102

21

Candle-Mounting Problem: Solution


22/102

22

Making Decision & FormingJudgments

Each day we make hundreds of judgments anddecisions based on our intuition, seldom using

systematic reasoning.


23/102

23

Using and Misusing Heuristics

Two kinds of heuristics, representativeheuristics and availability heuristics, have been

identified by cognitive psychologists.

Amos Tversky Daniel Kahneman

CourtesyofGreymeyerAward,University

ofLouisvilleandtheTverskyfamily

CourtesyofGreymeyerAward,University

ofLouisvilleandDanielKahneman


24/102

24

Probability that that person is a truck driver is far

greater than an ivy league professor just becausethere are more truck drivers than such professors.

Representativeness Heuristic

Judging the likelihood of things or objects interms of how well they seem to represent, or

match, a particular prototype.

If you meet a slim, short, man who wears glassesand likes poetry, what do you think his profession

would be?

An Ivy league professor or a truck driver?


25/102

25

Availability Heuristic

Why does our availability heuristic lead us astray?Whatever increases the ease of retrieving

information increases its perceived availability.

How is retrieval facilitated?

1. How recently we have heard about the event.2. How distinct it is.3. How correct it is.


26/102

26

Overconfidence

Intuitive heuristics, confirmation of beliefs, andthe inclination to explain failures increase our

overconfidence. Overconfidence is a tendency tooverestimate the accuracy of our beliefs and

judgments.

In the stock market, both

the seller and the buyermay be confident abouttheir decisions on a

stock.


27/102

27

Exaggerated Fear

The opposite of havingoverconfidenceis

having an exaggerated

fear about what mayhappen. Such fears maybe unfounded.

The 9/11 attacks led to adecline in air travel due

to fear.

AP/WideWorldPhotos


28/102

28

The Effects of Framing

Decisions and judgments may besignificantly affected depending upon how

an issue is framed.

Example: What is the best way to marketground beef as 25% fat or 75% lean?


29/102

29

The Belief PerseverancePhenomenon

Belief perseverance is the tendency to cling toour beliefs in the face of contrary evidence.

If you see that a country is hostile, you are likelyto interpret their ambiguous actions as a sign of

hostility (Jervis, 1985).


30/102

30

Perils & Powers of Intuition

Intuition may be perilous if unchecked, butmay also be extremely efficient and adaptive.


31/102

31

Language

Language, our spoken, written, or gestured work,is the way we communicate meaning to ourselves

and others.

Language transmits culture.

M.&E.Bernhe

im/WoodfinCamp&Associates


32/102

32

Language Development

Children learn theirnative languages muchbefore learning to add

2+2.We learn, on average(after age 1), 3,500 wordsa year, amassing 60,000

words by the time wegraduate from high

school.

TimeLifePictures/GettyImages


33/102

33

When do we learn language?

Babbling Stage:Beginning at 4 months,

the infantspontaneously utters

various sounds, like ah-goo. Babbling is not

imitation of adultspeech.


34/102

34


One-Word Stage:Beginning at or around his firstbirthday, a child starts to speak one word at atime and is able to make family members

understand him. The word doggy may mean lookat the dog out there.


35/102

35


Two-Word Stage:Before the 2nd year, a childstarts to speak in two-word sentences. Thisform of speech is called telegraphic speech

because the child speaks like a telegram: Gocar, means I would like to go for a ride in the car.


36/102

36


Longer phrases: After telegraphic speech,children begin uttering longer phrases (Mommy

get ball) with syntactical sense, and by early

elementary school they are employing humor.

You never starve in the desert because of all thesand-which-is there.


37/102

37



38/102

38

Explaining Language Development

1. Operant Learning: Skinner (1957, 1985)believed that language development may beexplained on the basis of learning principles

such as association, imitation, andreinforcement.


39/102

39


2. Inborn Universal Grammar: Chomsky (1959,1987) opposed Skinners ideas and suggestedthat the rate of language acquisition is so fast

that it cannot be explained through learningprinciples, and thus most of it is inborn.


40/102

40


Childhood is a critical period for fullydeveloping certain aspects of language.Children never exposed to any language

(spoken or signed) by about age 7 graduallylose their ability to master any language.


41/102

41

Genes, Brain, & Language

Genes design the mechanisms for alanguage, and experience modifies the brain.

MichaelNew

man/PhotoEdit,Inc.

EyeofScience/PhotoResearchers,Inc.

DavidHumeKennerly/GettyImages


42/102

42

Critical Period

Learning new languages gets harder with age.


43/102

43

Thinking & Language

Language and thinking intricately intertwine.

RubberBall/Almay


44/102

44

Language Influences Thinking

Linguistic Determinism:Whorf (1956) suggestedthat language determines the way we think. Forexample, he noted that the Hopi people do not

have the past tense for verbs. Therefore, the Hopicannot think readily about the past.


45/102

45

Language Influences Thinking

When a language provides words for objects or events,we can think about these objects more clearly and

remember them. It is easier to think about two colorswith two different names (A) than colors with the same

name (B) (zgen, 2004).


46/102

46

Word Power

Increasing word power pays its dividends. Ithelps explain the bilingual advantage of bilingual

children to inhibit one language while usinganother.


47/102

47

Thinking in Images

To a large extent thinking is language-based.When alone, we may talk to ourselves. However,

we also think in images.

2. When we are riding our bicycle.

1. When we open the hot water tap.

We dont think in words, when:


48/102

48

Images and Brain

Imagining a physical activity activates the samebrain regions as when actually performing the

activity.

JeanDu

ffyDecety,September2003


49/102

49

Language and Thinking

Traffic runs both ways between language andthinking.


50/102

50

Do animals have a language?

Animal Thinking & Language

Honey bees communicate by dancing. The dance

moves clearly indicate the direction of the nectar.


51/102

51

Do Animals Think?

Common cognitive skillsin humans and apes

include the following:

1. Concept Formation2. Insight3. Problem Solving

4. Culture African grey parrot assorts redblocks from green balls.

WilliamMunoz


52/102

52

Insight

Chimpanzees show insightful behavior whensolving problems.

Sultan uses sticks to get food.


53/102

53

Problem Solving

Apes are, much likeus, shaped by

reinforcement whensolving problems.

Chimpanzee fishing for ants.

CourtesyofJenniferByrne,c/oRichard

Byrne,

Depa

rtmentofPsychology,Universityo

fSt.Andrews,Scotland


54/102

54

Animal Culture

Animals display customs and culture that arelearned and transmitted over generations.

Dolphins using sponges asforging tools.

Chimpanzee mother using andteaching a young how to use

a stone hammer.

CopyrightAman

daKCoakes

MichaelNichols/NationalGeographicSociety


55/102

55

Do Animals Exhibit Language?

There is no doubt thatanimals communicate.

Vervet monkeys,whales and even honey

bees communicatewith members of their

species and otherspecies.

Rico (collie) has a200-word vocabulary

CopyrightBaus/Kreslowski


56/102

56

The Case of Apes

Gardner and Gardner (1969) usedAmerican Sign Language (ASL) to trainWashoe, a chimp, who learned 181 signs

by the age of 32.


57/102

57

Gestured Communication

Animals, like humans, exhibit communicationthrough gestures. It is possible that vocal speechdeveloped from gestures during the course of

evolution.


58/102

58

But Can Apes Really Talk?1. Apes acquire their limited vocabularies with a

great deal of difficulty, unlike children whodevelop vocabularies at amazing rates.

2. Chimpanzees can make signs to receive areward, just as a pigeon who pecks at the key

receives a reward. However, pigeons have notlearned a language.

3. Chimpanzees use signs meaningfully but lackhuman syntax.

4. Presented with ambiguous information, peopletend to see what they want to see (perceptualset).


59/102

59

Sign Language

American Sign Language (ASL) isinstrumental in teaching chimpanzees a

form of communication.

When asked, this chimpanzee usesa sign to say it is a baby.

PaulFusco/MagnumPhotos


60/102

60

Syntax Comprehension

Others have shown that pygmy chimpanzeescan developeven greater vocabularies and perhaps semantic nuancesin learning a language (Savage-Rumbaugh, 1993). Kanzi(shown below)developed vocabulary for hundreds of

words and phrases.

Copyrig

htofGreatApeTrustofIowa


61/102

61

Conclusions

If we say that animals can use meaningfulsequences of signs to communicate a capability

for language, our understanding would be

naive Steven Pinker (1995) concludes, chimpsdo not develop language.


62/102

62

Intelligence

Do we have an inborn general mental capacity(intelligence)? If so, can we quantify this

capacity as a meaningful number?


63/102

63

What is Intelligence?

Intelligence (in all cultures) is the ability to learnfrom experience, solve problems, and use our

knowledge to adapt to new situations.

In research studies, intelligence is whatever the

intelligence test measures. This tends to beschool smarts.


64/102

64

Intelligence: Ability or Abilities?

Have you ever thought that since peoplesmental abilities are so diverse, it may not be

justifiable to label those abilities with only one

word, intelligence?


65/102

65

General Intelligence

The idea that general intelligence (g) existscomes from the work of Charles Spearman(1863-1945) who helped develop the factor

analysis approach in statistics.

Athleticism, like intelligence, is many things


66/102

66

General Intelligence

Spearman proposed thatgeneral intelligence (g)is linked to many clusters that can be analyzed

by factor analysis.

For example, people who do well on vocabularyexaminations do well on paragraph

comprehension examinations, a cluster that

helps define verbal intelligence. Other factorsinclude a spatial ability factor, or a reasoningability factor.


67/102

67

Contemporary Intelligence Theories

Howard Gardner (1983, 1999) supports the ideathat intelligence comes in multiple forms.

Gardner notes that brain damage may diminish

one type of ability but not others.

People with savant syndrome excel in abilities

unrelated to general intelligence.


68/102

68

Howard Gardner

Gardner proposes eight types of intelligences andspeculates about a ninth one existentialintelligence. Existential intelligence isthe ability to

think about the question of life, death and existence.


69/102

69

Robert Sternberg

Sternberg (1985, 1999, 2003) also agrees withGardner, but suggests three intelligences rather

than eight.

1. Analytical Intelligence: Intelligence that is assessedby intelligence tests.

2. Creative Intelligence: Intelligence that makes us

adapt to novel situations, generating novel ideas.3. Practical Intelligence: Intelligence that is required

for everyday tasks (e.g. street smarts).


70/102

70

Intelligence and Creativity

Creativity is the ability to produce ideas that areboth novel and valuable. It correlates somewhat

with intelligence.

1. Expertise: A well-developed knowledge base.2. Imaginative Thinking: The ability to see things in novelways.

3. A Venturesome Personality: A personality that seeks

new experiences rather than following the pack.4. Intrinsic Motivation: A motivation to be creative fromwithin.

5. A Creative Environment: A creative and supportive

environment allows creativity to bloom.


71/102

71

Emotional Intelligence

Emotional intelligence is the ability to perceive,understand, and use emotions (Salovey and

others, 2005). The test of emotional intelligence

measures overall emotional intelligence and itsfour components.


72/102

72

Emotional Intelligence: Components

Component Description

Perceive emotionRecognize emotions in faces,

music and stories

Understand emotion Predict emotions, how theychange and blend

Manage emotionExpress emotions in different

situations

Use emotionUtilize emotions to adapt or be

creative


73/102

73

Emotional Intelligence: Criticism

Gardner and others criticize the idea of emotionalintelligence and question whether we stretch this

idea of intelligence too far when we apply it to our

emotions.


74/102

74

Assessing Intelligence

Psychologists define intelligence testing as amethod for assessing an individuals mental

aptitudes and comparing them with others using

numerical scores.


75/102

75

Alfred Binet

Alfred Binet and hiscolleague Thodore

Simon practiced a moremodern form of

intelligence testing bydeveloping questions

that would predict

childrens futureprogress in the Parisschool system.


76/102

76

Lewis TermanIn the US, Lewis Termanadapted Binets test for

American schoolchildren and named thetest the Stanford-Binet

Test. The following is theformula of Intelligence

Quotient (IQ),

introduced by WilliamStern:


77/102

77

David Wechsler

Wechsler developed theWechsler Adult

Intelligence Scale (WAIS)and later the WechslerIntelligence Scale forChildren (WISC), anintelligence test for

school-aged children.

AI


78/102

78

WAIS

WAIS measures overall intelligence and 11 otheraspects related to intelligence that are designed toassess clinical and educational problems.


79/102

79

Principles of Test Construction

For a psychological test to be acceptable it mustfulfill the following three criteria:

1. Standardization2. Reliability3. Validity

S d di i


80/102

80

Standardization

Standardizing a test involves administering the testto a representative sample of future test takers in

order to establish a basis for meaningfulcomparison.

l


81/102

81

Normal Curve

Standardized tests establish a normal distributionof scores on a tested population in a bell-shaped

pattern called the normal curve.

R li bili


82/102

82

Reliability

A test is reliable when it yields consistent results. Toestablish reliability researchers establish different

procedures:

1. Split-half Reliability: Dividing the test into twoequal halves and assessing how consistent thescores are.

2. Test-Retest Reliability: Using the same test on twooccasions to measure consistency.

V lidi


83/102

83

Validity

Reliability of a test does not ensure validity. Validityof a test refers to what the test is supposed to

measure or predict.

1. Content Validity: Refers to the extent a testmeasures a particular behavior or trait.

2. Predictive Validity: Refers to the function of a test

in predicting a particular behavior or trait.

E t f I t lli


84/102

84

Extremes of Intelligence

A valid intelligence test divides two groups ofpeople into two extremes: the mentally retarded (IQ70) and individuals with high intelligence (IQ 135).

These two groups are significantly different.

Hi h I t lli


85/102

85

High Intelligence

Contrary to popular belief, people with highintelligence test scores tend to be healthy, well

adjusted, and unusually successful academically.

M t l R t d ti


86/102

86

Mental Retardation

Mentally retarded individuals required constantsupervision a few decades ago, but with a

supportive family environment and specialeducation they can now care for themselves.

Fl Eff t


87/102

87

Flynn Effect

In the past 60 years, intelligence scores have risensteadily by an average of 27 points. This

phenomenon is known as the Flynn effect.

Genetic and Environmental


88/102

88

Influences on Intelligence

No other topic in psychology is so passionatelyfollowed as the one that asks the question, Is

intelligence due to genetics or environment?

G ti I fl


89/102

89

Genetic Influences

Studies of twins, family members, and adoptedchildren together support the idea that there is asignificant genetic contribution to intelligence.

Ad ti St di


90/102

90

Adoption Studies

Adopted children show a marginal correlation inverbal ability to their adopted parents.


91/102

91

Heritability

The variation in intelligence test scoresattributable to genetics. We credit heredity

with 50% of the variation in intelligence.It pertains only to why people differ from one

another, not to the individual.

E i o e tal I flue e


92/102

92

Environmental Influences

Studies of twins and adopted children also showthe following:

1. Fraternal twins raised together tend to show

similarity in intelligence scores.2. Identical twins raised apart show slightly lesssimilarity in their intelligence scores.

Early Inter ention Effects


93/102

93

Early Intervention Effects

Early neglect from caregivers leads children todevelop a lack of personal control over the

environment, and it impoverishes their intelligence.

Romanian orphans with minimal

human interaction are delayed in their development.

Schooling Effects


94/102

94

Schooling Effects

Schooling is an experience that pays dividends,which is reflected in intelligence scores. Increased

schooling correlates with higher intelligence scores.

To increase readiness for schoolwork,

projects like Head Start facilitate leaning.

Group Differences in Intelligence


95/102

95

p gTest Scores

Why do groups differ in intelligence? How can we

make sense of these differences?

Ethnic Similarities and Differences


96/102

96

Ethnic Similarities and Differences

1. Racial groups differ in their averageintelligence scores.2. High-scoring people (and groups) are more

likely to attain high levels of education and

income.

To discuss this issue we begin with two disturbingbut agreed upon facts:

Racial (Group) Differences


97/102

97

Racial (Group) Differences

If we look at racial differences, white Americansscore higher in average intelligence than black

Americans (Avery and others, 1994). European NewZealanders score higher than native New

Zealanders (Braden, 1994).

White-Americans Black-Americans

Average IQ = 100 Average IQ = 85

Hispanic Americans

Environmental Effects


98/102

98

Environmental Effects

Differences in intelligence among these groups arelargely environmental, as if one environment ismore fertile in developing these abilities than the

other.

Reasons Why Environment Affects


99/102

99

yIntelligence

1. Races are remarkably alike genetically.2. Race is a social category.3. Asian students outperform North American

students on math achievement and aptitude tests.

4. Todays better prepared populations wouldoutperform populations of the 1930s on intelligencetests.

5. White and black infants tend to score equally well

on tests predicting future intelligence.6. Different ethnic groups have experienced periods

of remarkable achievement in different eras.

Gender Similarities and Differences


100/102

100

Gender Similarities and Differences

There are seven ways in which males and femalesdiffer in various abilities.

1. Girls are better spellers

2. Girls are verbally fluent and have large vocabularies3. Girls are better at locating objects

4. Girls are more sensitive to touch, taste, and color

5. Boys outnumber girls in counts of underachievement6. Boys outperform girls at math problem solving, butunder perform at math computation

7. Women detect emotions more easily than men do

The Question of Bias


101/102

101

The Question of Bias

Aptitude tests are necessarily biased in the sensethat they are sensitive to performance differences

caused by cultural differences.

However, aptitude tests are not biased in the sensethat they accurately predict performance of one

group over the other.

Test Takers Expectations


102/102

Test-Takers Expectations

A stereotype threat is a self-confirming concernthat one will be evaluated based on a negative

stereotype.

This phenomenon appears in some instances inintelligence testing among African-Americans

and among women of all colors.

thinking language and iq

Documents