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Table of Contents Equity Analysis of California High Speed Rail 1-24

Kahului Airport Master Plan 25-29

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Equity Analysis of California High-Speed Rail

November 15, 2013

1


INTRODUCTION The California High-Speed Rail (HSR) project, which is projected to begin construction in 2014, will link

the State’s four largest metropolitan areas (Sacramento and San Francisco to the north; Los Angeles and

San Diego to the south) with the nation’s first true high-speed train system. According to studies by the

California High-speed Rail Authority (CAHSRA), the high-speed rail network is projected to carry between

22.6 and 32.6 million passengers per year by 2030. This article is an analysis of the relative social equity

of the high-speed rail system for different user groups. Equity is defined as “fairness in the distribution

of goods and services among the people in an economy” (Friedman, 2002). In the context of HSR, equity

can be defined as both the geographic accessibility to the proposed stations and the potential use of the

HSR by different demographic groups. The article includes analysis of the 2000-2001 California

Household Transportation Survey (CAHTS) to determine the demographic profile and travel patterns of

long-distance travelers in the State and the relative geographic accessibility of long-distance travelers to

the proposed high-speed rail stations.

BACKGROUND

Arguments Against High-Speed Rail Many criticisms have been leveled against the California HSR proposal since its inception. However,

most of the criticisms come from an economic perspective. Detractors contend that HSR lacks a realistic

funding source, that its ridership and revenue models are flawed, that California lacks the density to

make HSR viable, and that the economic and environmental benefits are overstated (APTA, 2012). Rail

advocates and the High-speed Rail Authority have responded to many of these criticisms with policy

papers and by revising its potential routes as well as its cost, ridership, and revenue estimates (APTA,

2012). Arguments that address the social equity of HSR contend that the system will mainly serve urban

elites, that it may economically detract from the central valley region in favor of the major metropolitan

areas, and that local communities will be unduly impacted. The following paragraphs further describe

the major social equity arguments put forth against the California HSR.

Elitism

Some critics of high-speed rail contend that it is publicly subsidized yet inherently more beneficial to

economic elites than to average citizens. Randle O’Toole, of the Cato Institute, stated in an editorial in

2009 that “the train’s only advantage is for people who are going from downtown to downtown. Who

works downtown? Bankers, lawyers, government officials, and other high-income people who hardly


November 15, 2013

2

need subsidized transportation. Not only will you pay $1,000 for someone else to ride the train; that

someone probably earns more than you” (O’Toole, 2009). Others make similar claims about economic

elitism, but add arguments about race: “since the fares will be about the same as regional jet, probably

the same people who use regional jet, that is to say, a largely Anglo, middle and upper income customer

base (will use HSR). Low income people and many people of color likely won’t be able to afford the

fares” (Brenman, 2011).

Local Opposition

Local opposition to the California HSR has come mainly from two sources: the San Francisco Peninsula

and the Central Valley. This opposition may be categorized under spatial equity in which local residents

argue that they will bear the brunt of the negative effects of the project while others will reap the

benefits (Williams, 2013).

In the Central Valley, locals have brought lawsuits arguing that the proposed alignment

threatens farmland. Locals are also upset about the land acquisition process, arguing that they have

been in “financial limbo for years as the authority weighs different paths for the train, leaving farmers

wary of planting crops or investing in new equipment in case their land ends up being gobbled up.”

Kings County sued the California High-Speed Rail Authority, alleging that the plan for the line “violates

sections of Proposition 1A” (Tavlian, 2011). In addition, “two other plaintiffs are focused on the effect of

the current rail line design and its impact on property owners, including Kings County farmers and

ranchers.

Opposition from the San Francisco peninsula centered on the proposed route and its local

impacts. According to the San Jose Mercury News, opponents forced rail officials to redo their plans,

when “Judge Kenny in 2009 and again in 2011 ruled in favor of the Peninsula cities, forcing the rail

authority to spend about a year each time revising its plans slightly while still keeping the same

Peninsula route”(Rosenberg, 2013).

Regional Equity

High-speed rail is promoted as an economic development tool in California and elsewhere in the world

(Nuworsoo and Deakin, 2009). Proponents argue that HSR can help economically depressed areas, such

as California’s central valley, access markets in the more prosperous metropolitan areas, while providing

valuable construction and redevelopment jobs in all areas along the route (Ehlers et al., SPUR, 2011, p.

4). Opponents argue that the increased market access that HSR provides can allow firms in the larger

metropolitan areas to outcompete firms in the newly connected smaller cities. In the latter case HSR

could potentially increase disparities among regional economies. However, certain authors argue that

regional economic effects are uncertain and that “these effects depend predominantly on the manner in

which the urban actors react to the new opportunities offered by improved accessibility” (Monzon,

Ortega and Lopez, 2013).

Limited Usage of Current Infrastructure

Some argue that HSR would create geographical barriers in the communities it traverses. They contend

that the least detrimental method of locating high-speed rail infrastructure is to use existing rail rights-


November 15, 2013

3

of-way since this approach would not add further spatial barriers in cities. However, the use of existing

rail rights-of-way has two inherent problems. One problem is the assumption that property along major

rail lines can feasibly and cost effectively be used for high-speed rail operations, but that might not

necessarily be the case. The second problem is the assumption that high-speed trains can coexist with

high density freight operations and that cooperation can be achieved with carriers (Schweiterman and

Scheidt, 2007).

Mobility at the Expense of Accessibility

Others argue that high-speed rail prioritizes mobility above all else whereas research shows that areas

supporting fast travel rarely have many origins and destinations together. Opponents argue that if

distances increase more than speeds in the long run, accessibility can be degraded as a result (Grengs et

al. 2010). This motivation to achieve mobility or efficiency above other considerations can also lead to

situations in which richer cities are likely to gain while disadvantaged cities would end up in a

comparatively worse situation (Monzón et al, 2013).

Overview of Long-Distance Travel Behavior in the US Long-distance trip is typically defined as a trip that is 50 miles or more from home, totaling 100 miles or

more round-trip. It constitutes only a small fraction of daily travel. While Americans typically make three

or four person trips per day (Bierce et al, 2012), long-distance trips typically occur a little less than once

a month on average (FHA, 2006). According to the Federal Highway Administration (2006), Americans

make about 2.6 billion long-distance trips on average per year. However, long-distance trips are not

evenly distributed across the population. 61 percent of Americans make no long-distance trips in a given

year, while 5 percent of the population makes 25 percent of the long-distance trips (FHA, 2006).

Americans make approximately 90 percent of commute trips by the private auto (US DOT, 2009);

similarly, approximately 90 percent of long-distance travelers choose the private auto (FHA, 2006). Air

travel accounts for 7% of all long-distance trips, with the remaining 3% by bus, train, and all other

modes. According to the Federal Highway Administration, 45% of all long-distance trips were made

within the same state (FHA, 2006). The following paragraphs describe additional characteristics of long-

distance trips in the US.

Regional Variability

Long-distance travel and the demographic characteristics of travelers vary throughout the United States.

Those living in the more intensely settled coastal regions of the Atlantic and Pacific rim make fewer long-

distance trips per capita than those in the middle regions of the nation with a range of 8.4 trips per year

in the Mid-Atlantic region to 11.2 trips in the West North Central region. Those living in the largest

metropolitan areas (of 3 million or more population) are twice as likely to make a trip of 1,000 miles or

more than those in small towns or rural areas (FHA, 2006). Similarly, there are also differences in the

numbers of long-distance trips in different parts of California, where the most long-distance trips are

made by residents in the largest metropolitan areas of the San Francisco Bay and Southern California

(Bierce et al, 2012).


November 15, 2013

4

Differences among Income Groups

Higher income people in rural areas make more trips that are 50 miles or longer while low income

people in inner cities take the fewest long-distance trips (USDOT, 2006). Low income households depend

more on private vehicles for long-distance-trips than higher income households. Households with

incomes greater than $50,000 use the automobile for 87 percent of long-distance trips, while

households with incomes less than $50,000 use the automobile for 92 percent to 93 percent of long-

distance trips (Sharp et al, 2001). This gap widens as income increases. For households with an income

of greater than $100,000 per year, the share of long-distance trips by air increases sharply upwards of

400 miles and the share by auto drops below 50 percent for trips that are 1000 miles or more. For low-

income households earning less than $25,000 per year air travel increases sharply upwards of 1000

miles and the share by auto drops below 50 percent for trips that are 2000 miles or more. (USDOT,

2006).

Differences by Education Level

There is an association between level of education and the amount of long-distance trips taken. Adults

with a high school education or less take 34 percent of all long-distance trips even though they

represent 49 percent of the adult population over 18. Adults with a bachelor’s degree or higher take 37

of all long-distances trips even though they represent 24 percent of the general population (Sharp et al,

2001).

Long-distance Travel Modes

There is variability among travel modes in both average distances travelled and the proportion of long-

distance trips made by each mode. The average long-distance trip by private vehicles is 220 miles long

one way; bus and train trips average 400 miles and air trips average 1,500 miles (USDOT, 2006). 97

percent of all trips made under 300 miles were made by private automobiles but autos only constituted

22 percent of all trips made over 2000 miles, (Sharp et al, 2001).

Distribution of Travel Distances

While the classification of long-distance trips includes those that are 50 miles or more in length there is

much variation in the distribution of lengths of long-distance trips as shown in Figure 1. The distribution

is positively skewed with a long tail to the right. In California, for instance, nearly 60 percent of all long-

distance trips are no more than 100 miles long while 25 percent are between 100 miles and 200 miles

long. Thereafter the number of trips drops off precipitously for longer distances.

Implications for Travel by HSR

These patterns of travel behavior pose several questions about likely patronage and beneficiaries of

HSR. The questions relate to the subjects of contention by opponents of HSR and include use by persons

of different income groups and educational levels, trips of varying distances and purposes, and travel by

residents of small and large communities. This article investigates these questions further in the

following section.


November 15, 2013

5

Figure 1: Distribution of Long-Distance Trip Lengths in California

ANALYSIS OF LONG-DISTANCE TRIPS IN CALIFORNIA

Data Sources and Limitations There is scarcity of long-distance data compared to everyday travel data. Most large-scale travel surveys

record person trips on a given day. However, the average person is not likely to make a long-distance

trip on the survey day, as Americans averaged only .067 long-distance trips per day in 2001 and

Californians averaged only .093 trips per day in 2008 (Bierce et al., 2012). Therefore, even very large

travel surveys such as the National Household Travel Survey (NHTS) and the California Household Travel

Survey (CHTS) contain small proportions of data records on long-distance trips. Out of the 175,861 trips

recorded by the 2001 CAHTS, a mere 4,287 trips (or 2.4 percent) were determined to be long-distance

trips. The majority (57%) of the long-distance trips that were captured CAHTS were less than 100 miles

long.

The preferred dataset was the 2010 update of the California Household Travel Survey (CHTS),

which was published in June of 2013 by the California Department of Transportation (Caltrans).

However, the approval process to access secure geospatial data needed for the analysis was not yet

granted at the time of this article. The main dataset used was therefore the CHTS 2000-2001 under the

assumption that traveler characteristics and location patterns would not be vastly different between the

2000 and 2010 surveys. Data was also explored from the 2009 National Household Travel Survey (NHTS),

published by the Bureau of Transportation Statistics (BTS), which is part of the Research and Innovative

Technology Administration (RITA) of the U.S. Department of Transportation (U.S. DOT). However, the

-

200,000

400,000

600,000

800,000

1,000,000

1,200,000

50 to 99miles

100 to 199miles

200 to 299miles

300 to 399miles

400 to 499miles

500 to 599miles

600+ miles

Nu

mb

er

of

Trip

s

Trip Length


November 15, 2013

6

NHTS dataset is not used because it contains geographic information at the core-based-statistical level,

which proved insufficiently detailed for this analysis. The 2000-2001 CHTS contains geocoded trip data

at the latitude and longitude level that is compared to proposed California High-speed Rail (CHSR)

station locations. For statewide level analyses, the California Department of Transportation rates the

overall reliability of the 2000-2001 CAHTS at 0.8 percentage points for a 95% confidence interval.

Analytic Procedure Analysis of the CHTS data involved a series of tasks: combining demographic information with trip

records; selection and cleaning up of long-distance trip records; geocoding proposed HSR station

locations; calculation of distances between trip origins and destinations from nearest HSR stations; and

determination and comparison of average access distances by demographic characteristics of long-

distance travelers. Additional details of individual tasks are outlined as follows:

1. Data preparation – This involved combining demographic information available at the household

level with the trip records of individual household members.

2. Long-distance trips –The original dataset of person trips did not include variables for distance or

travel route. We estimated trip distances from the longitudes and latitudes of trip origins and

destinations using the formula for the great circle distance, which provides the shortest distance

“as the crow flies” between any two points on the globe. It is noteworthy that actual route

distances would be longer than the circle distances, but the latter are sufficient for the purposes

of the analysis which focuses on relative access rather than actual route length. A refinement

involved identification of long-distance trips among trip records that did not have coordinates

destination, many of which were trips that ended outside the State of California. These were

identified as records that involved modes most often used for long-distance trips, including

those coded as, “Greyhound/Trailways/intercity bus”, “airplane-commercial”, “airplane-

private”, and “other.” Although, there was still a chance that certain long-distance trips were

unaccounted for, this was deemed best available sample data. The final dataset had 4,287 trip

records out of the full dataset of 175,861 trip records.

3. Geocoding of HSR stations – At the time of the analysis, all station locations were to be

considered tentative until the final Environmental Impact Reports were approved. Therefore, for

the purposes of this analysis, all proposed station locations, including cities with multiple siting

alternatives were geocoded using ESRI ArcGIS 10.1.

4. Distances between trip origins, destinations and nearest HSR stations – ESRI ArcGIS 10.1 “Near

Analysis” function, which calculates shortest distance vectors between pairs of points “as the

crow flies” helped to identify the nearest proposed rail station to each trip origin and

destination.

5. Comparison of average access distances by demographic characteristics – The data table from

ArcGIS 10.1 was exported to IBM SPSS for exploration of the demographic characteristics and

travel behavior patterns of long-distance travelers. Weights were applied to the sample data to

correct to the full population.


November 15, 2013

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6. Equity analysis involved the assessment of the relative accessibility of travelers of various

demographic characteristics including ethnicity, age, income, and trip purpose.

Profile of Long-Distance Travelers in California Before proceeding with the equity analysis, this section provides a summary profile of long-distance

travelers within the State of California. Implications for HSR are highlighted and key findings about

traveler characteristics are later compared to findings in the accessibility analysis.

Distribution by Ethnicity

Shares of Ethnic Groups among Long-Distance vs. General Populations

Figure 2 compares the ethnic distributions of long-distance travelers in California (2001) and the 2010

population as a whole. Non-Hispanic whites are proportionally over-represented among long-distance

travelers in California making almost four out of every 5 long-distance trips although they constitute two

of every five Californian. All other ethnic groups are proportionally underrepresented when compared

to their shares of the California population. The next largest group comprises Hispanics who make

approximately one-half of every five long-distance trips even though they constitute nearly two of every

five Californian. Similarly the share of long-distance trips by African Americans, Asian/Pacific islanders

and persons of mixed race are lower than their shares of the State’s population. HSR is inherently a

long-distance travel mode. If one assumes therefore that the ethnic distribution of long-distance

travelers in California is likely to be similar to the ethnic distribution of HSR riders, then this extreme

overrepresentation of non-Hispanic whites among long-distance travelers and underrepresentation of

other ethnic groups would suggest that California’s investment in HSR is likely to serve non-Hispanic

whites disproportionally compared to the rest of the population.

Shares of Long-Distance Modes among Ethnic Groups

Figure 3 provides further insight into the modes various ethnic groups choose for long-distance travel. It

shows that the automobile is the primary mode used for long-distance travel among all ethnic groups,

accounting for between half and two-thirds of all long-distance trips. Beyond the automobile, the chart

indicates that non-Hispanic whites are proportionately partial to the plane while Asians are

proportionately partial to the train. African Americans, persons of mixed race and Hispanics are

proportionately partial to the intercity bus. Consistent with the predominance of non-Hispanic whites in

long-distance travel, the ethnic group dominates all long-distance modes in absolute numbers. Thus if

the choice patterns persist, high-speed rail will likely be used by fewer minority groups than the majority

group.


November 15, 2013

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Figure 2: Comparative Distributions of Ethnic Compositions

Figure 3: Long-Distance Mode Choice by Ethnic Groups

79%

9%

3% 1% 1% 1% 5%

39% 38%

6%

14%

0% 3%

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

White/NotHispanic

Hispanic AfricanAmerican

Asian/PacificIslander

NativeAmerican

Mixed Other

Ethnicity

Comparative Distributions of Ethnic Groups

California Long-Distance Travelers All Californians

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

White/NotHispanic

Hispanic AfricanAmerican

Asian/PacificIslander

NativeAmerican

Mixed Other race

Auto Bus Train Plane Other


November 15, 2013

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Mode Choice by Trip Distance

The overwhelming majority (92%) of long-distance trips in California are made with the private

automobile. Air travel accounts for 2.7% while inter-city bus accounts for a mere 1.4%. Close

examination of modes by trip distance provides further insight. Not surprisingly, the auto dominates

trips that are less than 600 miles long. For longer trips, the airplane dominates with as much share as all

other modes combined. Table 1 reveals that every mode except the airplane is most frequently used for

trips that are within 300 miles long. These findings suggest that HSR would be most competitive with the

surface modes (auto, bus, train and others such as taxis, shuttles, and limousines). Since the proposed

HSR extends for less than 600 miles between its farthest stations, its greatest potential is to provide

faster surface transportation than all surface modes. Given the spacing between stations, there is

opportunity for it to draw mostly from trips made with the auto.

Table 1: Distribution of Long-Distance Trips by Mode and Distance

Under 300

miles 300 to 599

miles 600 or more

miles Modal Total

Auto 85.2% 6.8% 0.0% 91.9%

Bus 0.7% 0.3% 0.4% 1.4%

Train 0.4% 0.0% 0.2% 0.6%

Plane 0.4% 0.5% 1.7% 2.7%

Other 1.8% 0.6% 1.1% 3.5%

Distance Total 88.5% 8.2% 3.3% 100.0%

Distribution by Age

Figure 4 shows comparative age distribution of long-distance travelers vs. the general population of

California. Unlike the distribution of the general population, which is cylindrical in shape until it tapers

off over the senior age groups, the age distribution of long-distance travelers is normally shaped. Long-

distance travelers in California tend to be middle-aged adults between ages 35 and 60. They constitute

34 percent of the population, but make 51 percent of the long-distance trips in California. The senior

population also makes proportionately high long-distance trips. The predominance of auto use is again

reflected across age groups. Consistent with the frequency distribution by age, middle-age travelers

dominate in the use of all modes. These findings suggest that HSR will most likely be used

disproportionately by middle-age adults and seniors.


November 15, 2013

10

Figure 4: Comparative Age Distribution of Long-Distance Travelers vs. General Population

Distribution by Income

Figure 5 compares the income distribution of long-distance travelers in California and the population as

a whole and shows that the distribution among long-distance travelers is fairly normally shaped. Yet

there are disproportionately more long-distance travelers in the lower-income and middle-income

groups than those in the upper income groups. For example, 23% of long-distance travelers had incomes

between $50,000 and $74,999, compared to 17% of California as a whole. There are proportionately

fewer long-distance travelers in the lowest income group (under $10,000 per year) and at the highest

income levels (over $100,000 per year) than California as a whole.

Those who earn less than $25,000 per year use the automobile for 89% of trips, but also ride the

bus proportionately more than those in the upper income groups. The share of long-distance travel by

the airplane tends to increase with income while the auto dominates across all income groups. If HSR

draws mainly from auto trips then it could serve all income groups across the board but could be

selected less often by those in the lower income brackets if fare price were to be an issue for them.

0.0%

2.0%

4.0%

6.0%

8.0%

10.0%

12.0%

0-4 5-9 10-14 15-19 20-24 25-29 30-34 35-39 40-44 45-49 50-54 55-59 60-64 65-69 70-74 75-79 80-84 85+

Age Cohort

Long-Distance Travelers 2010 Population Census


November 15, 2013

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Figure 5: Comparative Income Distribution of Long-Distance Travelers vs. General Population

Distribution by Trip Purpose

Figure 6 shows the distribution of long-distance trips by primary trip purposes. Work is the most

frequently cited trip purpose with 16 percent of all the long-distance trips. The next largest group is a

little more than half as much (9%) as the work trip and includes travel for social, family, and religious

purposes. Shopping trips (with 8%) follow closely; transfer to other modes (6%) and

recreational/entertainment (5%) are the next two most frequently cited purposes. Medical and school

trips are the least frequent with 2 percent each.

Those transferring to other transportation modes made the smallest percentage of trips by the

automobile at 68 percent. This confirms the domination of the auto for all trip purposes. Those making

trips for medical purposes made 97 percent of trips by the auto, the highest of any trip purpose

category. The bus was used for 10% of all school trips, possibly reflecting long-distance field trips. 18

percent of those who took a long-distance trip to transfer to another mode went by plane. The findings

suggest that HSR will most likely serve work, social, and shopping trip purposes and can also link with

other modes of travel if good connections to other modes are built into the system.

0%

5%

10%

15%

20%

25%

Income Group

Long-distance travelers 2010 Census


November 15, 2013

12

Figure 6: Distribution of Long-Distance Trips by Purpose

ACCESSIBILITY AND EQUITY ANALYSIS

Spatial Distribution of Trip Origins and Destinations Figure 7 is a map of the distribution of origins and destinations of long-distance trips across the State of

California. Since the data was collected over an entire week, the origin and destination locations are

very similar. The map shows that long-distance trips are concentrated in the major metropolitan areas

of San Francisco and Sacramento in the north and Los Angeles and San Diego in the south. Other

noticeable concentrations follow the proposed corridor of the HSR across the Central Valley

communities. Proposed station locations track the heaviest concentrations of populations and the

origins and destinations of long-distance trips. However, Figure 8 shows wide variability in the

distribution of long-distance trip origins from the nearest proposed stations. The proposed HSR station

in Sacramento would be the nearest station for more than 600,000 long-distance trip origins. This is

larger than the next three highest stations combined (Bakersfield, San Francisco, and Sylmar), which are

nearest stations to approximately 150,000 long-distance trip origins each.

0%

2%

4%

6%

8%

10%

12%

14%

16%

18%

Trip purpose


November 15, 2013

13

Figure 7: Spatial Distribution of Long-Distance Trip Origins and Destinations

Distances to HSR Stations This section examines the average distances between proposed HSR station locations and long-distance

trip origins and destinations. The discussion is framed for four characteristics of equity concern.

Distance to Nearest Stations by Ethnic Group

Figure 9 shows the distribution of access distances to nearest HSR stations. There is a clear variation

among ethnic groups. Native Americans would be worst off in terms of access followed by non-Hispanic

whites. Other minority groups like African Americans, Asians and Hispanics would be much better off

than the population of long-distance trip-makers. This finding is contrary to the assertion that minority

groups would be worse off although such groups may be disproportionately represented at certain

levels of the income spectrum where accessibility may not remain favorable. One conclusion is that HSR

stations are located closer to minority groups than majority groups.


November 15, 2013

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Figure 8: Nearest Long-Distance Trip Origins by HSR Station

0 100,000 200,000 300,000 400,000 500,000 600,000 700,000

Anaheim

Bakersfield North Station

Bakersfield South Station

Burbank

City of Industry

Escondido

Fresno

Gilroy Station Alt 1

Gilroy Station Alt 2

Los Angeles

Merced

Modesto

Murrieta

Norwalk

Oakland

Ontario Airport

Palmdale (Existing Transportation Center)

Palmdale Alt 2

Redwood City Palo Alto

Sacramento

San Francisco

San Jose

SFO Airport

Stockton

Sylmar

UC Riverside

University City

Visalia Tulare Hanford East Alt

Visalia Tulare Hanford West Alt

Number of Trip Origins

Nea

rest

Sta

tio

n


November 15, 2013

15

Figure 9: Comparative Access Distances by Ethnic Group

Distance to Nearest Stations by Income

Figure 10 shows the distribution of access distances to nearest HSR stations by income group. It reveals

consistent decrease in average access distance with increase in income. Those with annual household

incomes below $50,000 have longer than average access distances. It is worth noting that access by

long-distance travelers in the lowest income bracket is on average two times the distance by those in

the highest income bracket. This finding is consistent with assertions that HSR would benefit the wealthy

more than those who are less well-off. There appears to be a contradiction between this finding about

income groups and the finding about ethnic groups. A crosstab is therefore prepared to determine the

distribution of ethnic groups by income.

Figure 11 confirms that the majority (82%) of those who make long-distance trips in California

are non-Hispanic whites. The figure also reveals therefore that whites make up the overwhelming

majority of long-distance travelers in the lower income groups who, as we found, have the longest

access distances from HSR stations. Within ethnic groups, the minority groups are disproportionately

27

39

31

46

79

25

48

45

25

31

28

41

74

22

47

44

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90

African American

Asian/Pacific Islander

Hispanic

Mixed

Native American

Other

White/Not Hispanic

All Ethnic Groups

Access Distance (Miles)

Average Distance to Destination from Nearest Station Average Distance from Origin to Nearest Station


November 15, 2013

16

represented in the lower income groups. Thus the finding supports the assertion that HSR would benefit

the rich more than the poor in terms of access irrespective of ethnic composition.

Figure 10: Comparative Access Distances by Income Group

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

<$10,000

$10,000-$24,999

$25,000-$34,999

$35,000-$49,999

$50,000-$74,999

$75,000-$99,999

$100,000-$149,999

$150,000+

All Income Groups


Ho

use

ho

ld In

com

e



November 15, 2013

17

Figure 11: Comparative Distributions of Ethnic Groups by Income

<$10,000

$25,000-$34,999

$50,000-$74,999

$100,000-$149,999

0%

10%

20%

30%

40%

50%

60%

70%

80%

90%

100%

An

nu

al H

ou

seh

old

Inco

me

Per

cen

t w

ith

in In

com

e G

rou

p

Ethnic Group

<$10,000 $10,000-$24,999 $25,000-$34,999 $35,000-$49,999

$50,000-$74,999 $75,000-$99,999 $100,000-$149,999 $150,000+


November 15, 2013

18

Distance to Nearest Stations by Age

Figure 12 shows the distribution of access distances to nearest HSR stations by age group. There is little

clearly discernible pattern in terms of access by age as distances only vary slightly from the average for

the population as a whole. The chart suggests that seniors would have slightly longer access distances

than the average for the population of long-distance travelers.

Figure 12: Comparative Access Distances Age Group

Distance to Nearest Stations by Trip Purpose

Figure 13 shows the distribution of access distances to nearest HSR stations by trip purpose. It is clear

that access distances are shortest for occupational trips like work and school, while distances are longer

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

5 to 9

10 to 14

15 to 19

20 to 24

25 to 29

30 to 34

35 to 39

40 to 44

45 to 49

50 to 54

55 to 59

60 to 64

65 to 69

70 to 74

75 to 79

80 to 84

85+

All Age Groups


Age

Gro

up



November 15, 2013

19

for discretionary trips. This finding is consistent with the assertion that HSR might be used

disproportionately by those making business trips. Travelers on business trips are likely to travel shorter

access distances than others.

Figure 13: Comparative Access Distances Trip Purpose

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION

Summary The analysis of relative accessibility of demographic groups to HSR has confirmed certain arguments

made by critics against the HSR proposal and are consistent with the characteristics of long-distance

travel in California. Findings are summarized in the following subsections.

Criticisms

The key points of equity-related contention by critics of HSR include the following:

High-speed rail would be publicly subsidized yet inherently more beneficial to economic elites

than to average citizens (O’Toole, 2009)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70

Transfer to other mode

School

Work

Recreation/ entertainment

Social/ family/ religious

Shopping/ dining

Other

Medical

All Trip Purposes


Trip

Pu

rpo

se



November 15, 2013

20

A largely Anglo, middle and upper income customer base will use HSR. Low income people and

many people of color would likely not be able to afford the fares (Brenman, 2011).

Local residents would bear the brunt of the negative effects of the project while others will reap

the benefits (Williams, 2013).

The motivation to achieve mobility or efficiency above other considerations can also lead to

situations in which richer cities are likely to gain while disadvantaged cities would end up in

comparatively worse situations (Monzón et al, 2013).

Long-Distance Travel Behavior vs. Equity Analysis

Many of the criticisms derive from the profile and travel choices of long-distance trip-makers in

California. The following paragraphs summarize travel characteristics and respective findings from the

equity analysis.

Spatial Distribution – Long-distance trips are concentrated in the major metropolitan areas of San

Francisco and Sacramento to the north and Los Angeles and San Diego to the south. Other noticeable

concentrations follow the proposed corridor of the HSR along the Central Valley communities. This is

true for the State’s population as a whole and for those who make long-distance trips.

Ethnicity – Non-Hispanic whites are proportionally over-represented among long-distance travelers in

California making almost four out of every 5 long-distance trips although they constitute two of every

five Californian. The analysis reveals, however, that HSR stations are located closer to minority long-

distance trip-makers on average than majority trip-makers.

Travel Mode – The automobile is the primary mode used for long-distance travel among all ethnic

groups, accounting for between half and two-thirds of all long-distance trips. Given the spacing between

HSR stations, its greatest potential is to provide faster surface transportation than all surface modes and

draw mostly from trips made with the auto.

Trip Length – While the auto dominates trips that are less than 600 miles long, the airplane dominates

longer trips with as much share as all other modes combined. Every mode except the airplane is most

frequently used for trips that are within 300 miles long, which suggests that HSR would be most

competitive with the surface modes (auto, bus, train and others such as taxis, shuttles, and limousines).

Age – Long-distance travelers in California tend to be middle-aged adults between ages 35 and 60. They

constitute 34 percent of the population, but make 51 percent of the long-distance trips in California. The

senior population also makes proportionately high long-distance trips. The equity analysis reveals that

seniors would have slightly longer access distances than the average for the population of long-distance

travelers.

Income – There are disproportionately more long-distance travelers in the lower-income and middle-

income groups than those in the upper income groups. HSR would benefit the wealthy more than those

who are less well-off. HSR would benefit the rich more than the poor in terms of access irrespective of

ethnic composition. Within ethnic groups, however, the minority groups are disproportionately

represented in the lower income brackets.


November 15, 2013

21

Trip Purpose – Work is the most frequently cited trip purpose with 16 percent of all the long-distance

trips. Access distances are shortest for occupational trips like work and school, while distances are

longer for discretionary trips. This finding is consistent with the assertion that HSR might be used

disproportionately by those making business trips.

Discussion Study findings do not discount the efficacy of HSR to society. A previous study summarizes the rationale

for implementing a high-speed rail system in California. It identified reasons that relate to the growth of

the State’s population vis-à-vis congestion on the highways and at the airports within the State, as well

as competitiveness in energy consumption and air pollution (Nuworsoo and Deakin, 2009).

There are arguments for reducing air pollution and energy consumption if large proportions of

long-distance trips were to switch from the private automobile, which dominates such travel, to any of

the large capacity, shared modes like buses, trains and airplanes. For instance, the Bureau of

Transportation Statistics (BTS) shows that the energy Intensity (that is, energy consumption per

passenger mile) is two to four times as high for the private automobile as it is for the large capacity

surface modes like rail and intercity bus (BTS, 2006). Similarly, a more detailed study of the total energy

use, which includes such components as construction, operating, and maintenance of vehicles and

infrastructure as well as fuel production, shows similar ratios for energy intensity and greenhouse gas

emissions (Chester and Horvath, 2009). High-speed rail is one of such high capacity modes and likely to

help reduce both energy consumption and greenhouse gas emissions.

There are also arguments about the cost competitiveness of HSR relative to other alternatives. A

mid-1990s study of the proposed California high-speed rail system analyzed its cost competitiveness

relative to highway and air transportation (Levinson et al, 1996), and found it to be the least costly in

terms of social costs alone, but not in terms of total costs. The study concluded that California HSR

would be most effective if treated as an alternative to highway use and a complement to air

transportation. A subsequent study (Brand et al, 2001) assessed that the benefits of the California high-

speed rail system would outweigh its costs by a factor of two. The study considered both user and non-

user benefits in the calculations.

The question remains: what can be done to address potential equity issues that may arise in

terms of accessibility and use of HSR? The issues relate to: (a) the individual choice to engage or not

engage in long-distance travel, not necessarily a person’s ethnic group; (b) income distribution which

historically favors majority groups over minority groups; and (c) trip purpose which favors occupational

travel which in turn reflects on income. In urban public transportation, society has attempted to address

equity in offering lower fares for the youth and seniors and discounted, periodic passes for habitual

riders who tend to belong disproportionately to lower income brackets. Similar types of treatments can

help promote equity in the use of high-speed rail.


November 15, 2013

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Conclusion This equity analysis of California HSR produced mixed findings. It is likely to have benign equity impacts

in terms of spatial distribution of stations on ethnic groups and on various age groups within the

population. It is likely to favor the majority ethnic group over minority ethnic groups in terms of income

and trip purpose. Specific conclusions are outlined as follows:

HSR is inherently a long-distance travel mode. If one assumes therefore that the ethnic

distribution of long-distance travelers in California is likely to be similar to the ethnic distribution

of HSR riders, then the extreme overrepresentation of non-Hispanic whites among long-distance

travelers and underrepresentation of other ethnic groups would suggest that California’s

investment in HSR is likely to serve non-Hispanic whites disproportionally compared to the rest

of the population. Thus if the choice patterns persist, high-speed rail will likely be used by fewer

minority groups than the majority group.

HSR will most likely be used disproportionately by middle-age adults and seniors.

Given the spacing between stations, there is opportunity for HSR to draw mostly from trips

made with the auto. If HSR draws mainly from auto trips then it could serve all income groups

across the board but could be selected less often by those in the lower income brackets if fare

price were to be an issue for them.

Findings support the assertion that HSR would benefit the rich more than the poor in terms of

access irrespective of ethnic composition.

HSR will most likely serve work, social, and shopping trip purposes and can also link with other

modes of travel if good connections to other modes are built into the system. Findings are also

consistent with the assertion that HSR might be used disproportionately by those making

business trips. Travelers on business trips are likely to travel shorter access distances than

others.


November 15, 2013

23

REFERENCES American Public Transportation Association. (2012). An inventory of the criticisms of High-speed Rail. With suggested responses and counter-points. Retrieved from: http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/HSR-Defense.pdf Bierce, E, Kurth, D, and West, R. (2012). Long-distance Travel – An Update from a 2011 Web- Based Travel Survey for the California High-speed Rail Authority. Transportation Research Board. Retrieved from: http://trid.trb.org/view/1243063 Brand, Daniel, Mark R. Kiefer, Thomas E. Parody, and Shomik R. Mehndiratta, (2001) Application of Benefit-Cost Analysis to the Proposed California High-Speed Rail System, Transportation Research Record: Journal of the Transportation Research Board, No.1742, TRB, National Research Council, Washington, D.C., Brenman, Marc. (2011). High-speed Rail and Social Equity. Legal services of Northern California, Race Equity Project. Bureau of Transportation Statistics. (2006). National Transportation Statistics, Table K-6 California Department of Transportation. (2002) 2001 California Household Travel Survey [Data file, code book, and user’s manual]. Available through request at California Department of Transportation website: http://dot.ca.gov/hq/tsip/otfa/tab/chts_travelsurvey.html. California High-speed Rail Authority. California high-speed train project, ridership and revenue forecasts. Prepared by Parsons Brinckerhoff, Cambridge Systematics and SYSTRA. Retrieved from: http://www.hsr.ca.gov/docs/about/ridership/ridership_revenue_source_doc5.pdf Chester, M.V. and Horvath, A. (2009). Environmental assessment of passenger transportation should include infrastructure and supply chains. Environmental Research Letters, 4 (2009) 024008 (8pp). http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/4/2/024008/pdf/1748-9326_4_2_024008.pdf.

Ehlers, Emily. Goldberg, Jerry. Metcalf, Gabriel. Reilly, Michael. Sedway, Paul and Teitz, Mike. (2011). Beyond the Tracks: The Potential of High-speed Rail to Reshape California’s Growth. San Francisco Planning and Urban Research (SPUR). Friedman, Lee S. (2002). The Microeconomics of Public Policy Analysis, Princeton University Press, Princeton, N.J. Grengs, J., Levine, J., & Shen, Q. (2010). Intermetropolitan Comparison of Transportation Accessibility: Sorting Out Mobility and Proximity in San Francisco and Washington D.C. Journal of Planning Education and Research, 427-443. Levinson, D., D. Gillen, A. Kanafani, and J.-M. Mathieu. The Full Cost of Intercity Transportation—A Comparison of High Speed Rail, Air and Highway Transportation in California. University of California at Berkeley, June 1996. Monzón, Andrés; Ortega, Emilio; López, Elena (2013). Efficiency and spatial equity impacts of

http://www.apta.com/resources/reportsandpublications/Documents/HSR-Defense.pdf

http://trid.trb.org/view/1243063

http://dot.ca.gov/hq/tsip/otfa/tab/chts_travelsurvey.html

http://www.hsr.ca.gov/docs/about/ridership/ridership_revenue_source_doc5.pdf

http://iopscience.iop.org/1748-9326/4/2/024008/pdf/1748-9326_4_2_024008.pdf


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High-speed rail extensions in urban areas. Cities, 18-30. Nuworsoo, Cornelius and Elizabeth Deakin, (2009) Transforming High-speed Rail Stations to Major Activity Hubs: Lessons for California, Paper presented, 88th Annual Meeting of the Transportation Research Board, January, 2009. http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1045&context=crp_fac O’toole, Randal. (2009). High-speed spending. The Cato Institute. Retrieved from: http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/high-speed-spending Rosenberg, Mike. (February 28, 2013). California High-speed Rail Finally Wins Peninsula Lawsuit. San Jose Mercury News. Retrieved from: http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_22688893/california-high-speed-rail-finally-wins-peninsula-lawsuit. Schwieterman, J. P., & Scheidt, J. L. (2007). High-speed Rail in the United States: Proposed Routes and Rights-of-Way. Journal of Transportation Law, Logistics and Policy, 435-444. Sharp, J., Bose, J., Giesbrecht, L., Memmott, J., Khan, M., & Roberto, E. (2001). A Picture of Long Distance Travel Behavior of Americans Through Analysis of the 2001 National Household Travel Survey. Washington D.C.: Bureau of Transportation Statistics. Tavlian, Alex. (2011). November, 14th. Kings County Sues High-speed Rail Authority. Fresno Bee. Retrieved from: http://www.fresnobee.com/2011/11/14/2614819/kings-co-sues-high-speed-rail.html US Census Bureau; 2012 Demographic and housing estimates, California; American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates; Table DP05; Retrieved Oct. 27, 2013 <http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS _12_1YR_DP05&prodType=table> US Census Bureau; 2012 selected economic characteristics, California; American Community Survey 1-Year Estimates; Table DP03; Retrieved Oct. 27, 2013 <http://factfinder2.census.gov/faces/tableservices/jsf/pages/productview.xhtml?pid=ACS_12_1YR_DP05&prodTyp=table> US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2006). NPTS Brief. Retrieved from: http://nhts.ornl.gov/briefs/Long%20Distance%20Travel.pdf US Department of Transportation, Federal Highway Administration. (2009)Summary of Travel Trends, 2009 Household Travel Survey. Retrieved from: http://nhts.ornl.gov/2009/pub/stt.pdf Williams, Juliet. (2013). California High-speed Rail Project Angers Locals. Retrieved from: http://www.realclearpolitics.com/articles/2013/10/21/california_high_speed_rail_project_angers_locals_120397.html

http://digitalcommons.calpoly.edu/cgi/viewcontent.cgi?article=1045&context=crp_fac

http://www.cato.org/publications/commentary/high-speed-spending

http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_22688893/california-high-speed-rail-finally-wins-peninsula-lawsuit

http://www.mercurynews.com/ci_22688893/california-high-speed-rail-finally-wins-peninsula-lawsuit

http://www.fresnobee.com/2011/11/14/2614819/kings-co-sues-high-speed-rail.html

http://nhts.ornl.gov/briefs/Long%20Distance%20Travel.pdf

http://nhts.ornl.gov/2009/pub/stt.pdf

Sample of Work from Kahului Airport Master Plan

The following graphics are examples of alternatives for ground transportation, terminal development, and land acquisition for Kahului Airport, Maui, Hawaii. This is a sample of a larger study that is being undertaken to guide the development at the airport for the next 20 years. These graphics were presented to the State of Hawaii Dept. of Transportation and public meetings for comment. This work was generated under supervision of project management staff at R.M. Towill Corporation, who is the Hawaii-based consulting company for this project.

Nick BleichPatrick GilsterMarisa LeeElissa McDadeThomas ParkSara Sanders

2 33

Table of contentsAlternatives Analysis Preferred Alternative Airfield Layout PlanApron and Terminal Area Plan Pavement and Drainage DesignSources Appendix

Alternatives Analysis1

1 - 1112 - 1718 - 2627 - 313 2 - 3 6 3 7 - 3 8 3 9 - 4 0

4 5

As the first step in the process of developing a site for the next major California airport, a feasibility study was performed for existing and potential airport locations throughout California. The sites considered were airports that can accommodate expansion or military bases that are targeted for closure in the upcoming years. The sites were analyzed for their compatibility with the existing surface transportation network,

as well as possible connection to the California High Speed Rail (CHSR).

Alternative airport sites considered during this analysis were:

• Stockton Metropolitan Airport• Norton Air Force Base• Meadows Field Airport (Bakersfield)• Merced Regional Airport• Palm Springs International Airport• Mojave Air and Space Port• Twenty-nine Palms Airport• Palmdale Regional Airport

A site selection analysis coupled with air traffic forecasts provided the initial elements of this feasibility study. The following factors were considered:

• Existing facilities reducing costs and construction times• Proximity to other transportation systems• Proximity to air travel demand sources• Meteorological factors• Land availability factors• Environmental impact and noise factors• Air Traffic Control/Management factors• Topographical factors

Stockton Metropolitan Airport

SettingThe Stockton Metropolitan Airport is located approximately six miles northeast of downtown Stockton, as illustrated in Figure 1.1. This airport site is also within a short drive from Sacramento, the Bay Area, and Modesto. It is also less than two miles east of U.S. Interstate 5 and less than two miles west of State Route 99. Five of seven proposed alignments for the CHSR plan for a terminal are in downtown Stockton. In order to accommodate the connection of the airport with the CHSR, this alternative would require the inclusion of an airport connector rail, bus, or shuttle service.

Key Observations• The airport site is 1,549 acres at an elevation of 30 feet.• The two existing runways provide 99.9 percent coverage for a 16 knot

(18 mph) crosswind and 100 percent coverage for a 20 knot (23 mph) crosswind in all-weather situations, which meets the FAA recommendation of 95 percent wind coverage.

• The mean maximum temperature for the hottest month, July, is 93.1F.• The mean maximum precipitation observed for the year 2012 - 2013 was

less than one inch for the wettest month, January.• The present length of Runway 11R-29L is 4,458 feet and 75 feet wide.

The design aircraft for this runway was the Cessna Citation V, which has a wingspan of 52.2 feet, an undercarriage width of 20 feet, a maximum take-off weight of 16,100 pounds, and an approach speed of 114 knots (131 mph). This runway has a planned expansion to 6,000 feet long, 100 feet wide (Stockton Metropolitan Airport, 2008).

• The present length of Runway 11L-29R is 8,650 feet long and 150 feet wide. The design aircraft for this runway was the Boeing 767, which has a wingspan of 156.1 feet, an undercarriage width of 36 feet, a maximum take-off weight of 360,000 pounds, and an approach speed of 140 knots (161 mph).

• According to the 2008 Airport Layout Plan, Runway 11L-29R has category 1 ILS instrumentation. Runway 11R-29L continues to use visual approach.

• The Los Angeles metropolitan area is 335 miles southeast of the Stockton Metropolitan Airport.

ConstraintsThe Stockton Metropolitan Airport would require high capital costs in order to create an airport to support the function of this study. Airside operations are constrained from expansion to the east of the airport. Runway 11L-29R currently borders State Route 99 to the east. Expansion in this direction would require a bridge over a state highway or the realignment of a state highway. Airside expansion to the west of the airport would require the acquisition of commercial land, buildings, the realignment of, and over-crossing of Arch Airport Road and South Airport Way. Until this segment of the CHSR alignment is confirmed, planning for expansion of this airport to support the function of this study would be risky and ill-advised.

Figure 1: Highspeed Rail Connection to the Analyzed Airports Figure 1.1: Stockton Airport Map

6 7

Norton Air Force BaseSettingThe Norton Air Force Base is located less than two miles from downtown San Bernardino. It is about 60 miles east of Los Angeles making the location convenient for the large population base. The former air force base is now the San Bernardino International Airport (SBD). Currently, there are not commercial passenger carriers within the airport facility; it has primarily been used by private aircrafts and cargo carriers. The facility has been recently updated to a new two-story, 24,000 square foot concourse to serve five passenger loading gates to accommodate future commercial passenger carriers. The Los Angeles area is connected to the airport through the use of Interstate 10; however, the location of the airport will not be directly linked to the proposed high speed rail route making it less accessible to residents and guests outside of the Los Angeles region. Figure 1.3 is an aerial photo of the airport.

Key Observations• The region averages approximately 16.4 inches of precipitation annually.

Typically, the City of San Bernardino experiences sunshine approximately 70 percent of the year.

• The monthly average wind speed is 6.3 miles per hour. Based on historical wind data, Runway 6-24 exceeds 95 percent coverage for all crosswind components. Therefore, the runway system at the airport is properly oriented to prevailing wind flows and aircraft operational safety is maximized (San Bernardino International Airport Authority, 2010).

• The airport is 1,329 acres and has one runway with the dimensions of 10,001 feet in length by 200 feet wide.

• Runway 6-24 has a pavement strength of 97,000 pounds single wheel loading (SWL).

• Runway 6 is served by an instrument landing system (ILS) approach, which provides both course guidance and vertical descent information to pilots. The ILS system consists of a localizer and glide slope antenna.

• The ILS approach to Runway 6 provides the lowest minimums available at the airport. The ILS can allow for landings when the cloud ceilings areas low as 498 feet above ground level (AGL) and visibility is restricted to 1-3/4 mile (San Bernardino International Airport Authority, 2010).

• San Bernardino International Airport is situated at 1,159 feet MSL.

ConstraintsThe above figure depicts the limited space for the airport to expand. However, an addition of a second runway parallel to the existing runway was proposed in the 2010 Master Plan. Currently, SBD does not have any commercial passenger airlines. If demand increases, the proposed parallel runway would benefit the airport and region; however, there are over 12 airports in the region reducing the demand for this expansion. Also, the location of the airport is not adjacent to the proposed high-speed rail project. This lack of connectivity ultimately led to the elimination of San Bernardino International Airport as a potential major airport in California.

Merced Regional AirportSettingThe Merced Regional Airport is located under two miles south of downtown Merced. The CHSR is planned to have a terminal in downtown Merced. In order to accommodate the connection of the airport with the High Speed Rail, there should be a planned shuttle service or bus rapid transit (BRT) route which services the airport and the South Merced Industrial District. Specific goals of the Airport Master Plan encourage residential uses be located away from the airport. This would encourage residential growth on the north side of State Route 99 and north of the downtown toward the UC Merced where two large scale planning areas have already been established. Merced offers a central location in the San Joaquin Valley with access from San Francisco, Sacramento, and Los Angeles. Also, the area is in close proximity to three phased sections of the CHSR, which branch off to the Bay Area, Sacramento and the northern Central Valley.

Key Observations• The existing runway provides 99.52 percent coverage for a 10.5 knot (12 mph) crosswind and

99.78 for a 13 knot (15 mph) crosswind which meets the FAA recommendation of 95 percent wind coverage.

• The present length of Runway 12-30 is 5,903 feet which is estimated to satisfy requirements for aircraft more than 60,000 pounds with haul lengths of 1,000 miles. This is a reasonable capability. A runway length of approximately 6,450 feet would enhance runway capability and reduce limitations in terms of aircraft loads and range. Extension of the runway was considered to address these issues.

• The glide slope signal of the ILS for Runway 30 is subject to distortion when aircraft over-fly power lines along Dickenson Ferry Road. It is recommended that the FAA evaluate the power lines to determine if they are the cause of signal distortion. If it is determined that the power lines are the cause of distortion, then they should be placed underground.

• The existing Visual Approach Slope Indicator for Runway 12 should be replaced with a Precision Approach Path Indicator system in the future when operating and maintenance costs warrant.

• Runway 30 qualifies for the installation of a Precision Approach Path Indicator System during the ten year planning period. The FAA is planning to install a 4-light PAPI system on the runway.

• Reactivation of the control tower as a contract tower is recommended due to increased airline activity mixed with heavy general aviation flight training. The reactivation of the control tower should be pursued by the City with FAA and will promote safe and efficient airport operations.

• The existing terminal facilities are inadequate and there is a need for renovated and larger terminal facilities. Considering the condition of the existing terminal building, it is recommended that a new 11,000 square foot passenger terminal be included in the master plan. Aircraft parking for two regional jet aircraft should be provided. Additionally, approximately 5,400 square feet of space should also be planned to provide general aviation terminal facilities.

ConstraintsThe Merced Regional Airport would require high capital costs in order to create an airport to support the function of this study. However, there would be little limitations in expansion due to the surrounding, ample agriculture fields which could be purchased to expand the airport or reserve land for future expansion. The northern, Central Valley location could provide access to High Speed Rail users from the Bay Area or Sacramento regions, but would take longer to access by the larger population base of southern California. This might be necessary if the San Francisco Airport will need to be closed due future sea level rise issues and another large airport will be necessitated in northern California.

Figure 1.2: Merced Airport Map Figure 1.3: Norton Air Force Base Map

8 9

Meadows Field Airport (Bakersfield)

SettingThis airport is approximately 3.5 miles from the proposed California High Speed Rail station located in downtown Bakersfield (a development known as Mill Creek). The airport is about a two hour drive from Los Angeles and about a 4 hour drive to San Francisco. It is located about 14 miles east of Interstate Highway 5. It is the largest airport in Kern County and is included in the FAA’s National Plan for Integrated Airport Systems. There are two parallel runways with the longest being 10,857 feet in length. Figure 1.5 shows an aerial view of the airport.

Key Observations• The airport is located on approximately 1,400 acres of land.• There is an average of 273 sunny days a year with an average low of 38

degrees F and average maximum temperature of 99 degrees F. Annual precipitation is 6.2 inches.

• The primary runway is in a northwest/southeast direction and is 10,857 ft long and 150 ft wide.

• The secondary runway is parallel to the primary runway and is 7,700 ft long and 100 ft wide.

• Runway 30R (a direction on the primary runway) has the only instrument approaches. There are five in total.

• Regional jet air traffic is forecasted to grow significantly through the 2025 planning period, but it is not expected that jets larger than 120 passenger seats will utilize the airport in the planning period.

• ConstraintsAlthough the airport has some room to expand, residential neighborhoods encircle the airport on the west, south, and east directions. Significant expansion of the airport would be challenged by incompatible land uses, including residential and commercial areas. Although the airport is located geographically in an ideal location between Los Angeles and San Francisco, it is only near the initial operating segment of the proposed CHSR alignment. This is in contrast to Merced, which is located to multiple CHSR routes and existing rail infrastructure such as Amtrak. However, the airport was considered a secondary preferred alternative due to the existing parallel runway lengths, which would be able to handle air traffic from other regions.

Palmdale Regional Airport / USAF Plant 42

SettingThe Palmdale Regional Airport / USAF Plant 42 is a joint operations airfield located approximately three miles from downtown Palmdale. Palmdale is a 75 minute drive from downtown Los Angeles with no traffic, but could take significantly longer if there is traffic. It is located over five hours away from San Francisco and the Bay Area by car. One high speed rail alignment has the tracks passing adjacent to the airfield, while others have the train passing through Palmdale proper. Palmdale has a proud aerospace tradition and would welcome a large airport, but currently there are no commercial carriers which service the airfield. Before commercial service left Palmdale a 9,000 sq. ft. terminal building with one gate was constructed to service the airlines. Eighty percent of the traffic is military flights, but even this number has been decreasing over the past few years. Figure 1.4 shows the current layout of the airfield, the main runway and the crosswind runway are easily seen.

Key Observations• Two 12,000 ft. long runways, both exceeding 150 ft. in width. Both can

handle a fully loaded Boeing 747, double dual tandem landing gear at 778,000 lbs. It is Designed to withstand an 8.3 magnitude earthquake.

• Only one runway equipped with ILS.• Currently the airport sits on 5,300 acres of land, but LA World Airports

owns 17,500 acres more of undeveloped land set aside for future airport developments.

• There are currently no noise restrictions at the airfield.• The weather in Palmdale is decent most of the year. On average the town

experiences 340 sunny days a year with an average wind speed of 10 mph. The area receives approximately 8 in. of precipitation per year, half of which is snow in the winter months.

•

ConstraintsEven though the Palmdale Regional Airport / USAF Plant 42 has an abundant amount of space for future expansion into a mega airport, the location itself is a hindrance to a future development. With a drive time of over five hours from the Bay Area it is not a feasible location for an airport to serve the overflow passengers and flights from an already at capacity San Francisco International Airport. Add in the possibility of sea level rise which would place all three of the Bay Area’s airports in danger. The Los Angeles metro area is currently serviced by many airports and Los Angeles International Airport has the ability to handle more passengers and flights with its current configuration.

Figure 1.4: Palmdale Airport Map Figure 1.5: Bakersfield Airport Map

10 11

Mojave Air and Space Port

SettingThe Mojave Air and Space Port, also known as the Civilian Aerospace Test Center, is located in Kern County, CA at an elevation of 2,791 feet. Mojave has a desert climate with average annual rainfall of 5.9 inches and 22 days of precipitation per year. It is in close proximity to California State Routes 58, 14, and Interstate 5.

Key Observations• Airport is surrounded by open space and mountains to the north.• Airport is relatively close to Burbank, Ontario, Los Angeles, Bakersfield,

and Santa Barbara, all of which are home to existing airports.• Airport has three runways, at lengths of 12,500 feet, 7,050 feet, and 3,943

feet. They are made of asphalt and are in excellent and good condition.• The Mojave Air and Space Port is the first facility to be licensed for

horizontal launches of reusable spacecraft in the U.S., and was certified as a spaceport by the FAA in 2004.

• It is used as a general-use public airport, as well as for flight testing, space industry development, and aircraft heavy maintenance and storage.

•

ConstraintsDue to its mix of uses with potential conflicts, as well as its remote location and lack of connection to existing and planned ground transportation, this airport is not an ideal candidate for expansion.

Palm Springs International Airport

SettingThis airport is in close proximity to Interstate 10 and California State Route 111. Palm Springs has a hot, dry climate, with over 300 days of sunshine and approximately 4.83 inches of rain annually.

Key Observations• Airport covers 940 acres of land.• Airport has two runways, both in northwest to southeast orientations.• Airport is very seasonal with most flights during the winter.• Noise is heavily addressed in the Palm Springs Airport Master Plan, likely

due to the fact that it is surrounded by civilian land uses such as schools, recreation areas and residential.

• With noise an existing concern for adjacent land uses, it is unlikely those residents would be willing to approve an expanded airport that would generate more noise.

• There is open space in close proximity to the east that is long and narrow in geographic shape and is parallel to existing runways. As a last resort, feasibility of satellite runway could be explored.

•

ConstraintsThe Palm Springs International Airport is surrounded by build-out and therefore is not an ideal airport for expansion. It is surrounded by residential development to the west, north and south, and Agua Caliente Elementary School, Palm Springs Air Museum and Escena Golf Club to the east. Noise is also a constraining concern.

Figure 1.6: Palm Springs Airport Map Figure 1.7: Mojave Airport Map

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Preferred AlternativeMerced Regional AirportThe Merced Regional Airport is identified as the preferred site for the proposed creation of a new high capacity airport within the state of California. Merced offers many primary benefits over the other airports in the alternatives analysis in terms of its central location and available land. In terms of airspace, it is especially attractive because there are limited natural and man-made obstructions due to the relatively moderate topography and rural character of the region. The Merced Regional Airport is located outside of residential areas of the city and the addition of new, larger runways would not significantly affect the rest of the city. The airport is located on the southern side a major freeway past industrial and office zones as well as the railway. The City of Merced already has high speed rail facility plans and transit corridors that connect the outer lying areas of Merced with the freeway and airport. With the potential for sea level rise to affect the two major Bay Area airports located directly on the water, it will be necessary for another major airport to service the northern California population.

Existing FacilitiesThe existing terminal facilities are inadequate and there is a need for renovated and larger terminal facilities to accommodate current airport operations and capacity. Considering the condition of the existing terminal building, it is recommended that a new 11,000 square foot passenger terminal be included in the master plan to meet the existing need. However, a much larger facility should be evaluated to meet the proposed capacity of the new airport. Additionally, the current master plan provides for approximately 5,400 square feet of space, which should be provided for general aviation terminal facilities.

Transportation Systems ConnectivityThe proposed airport facility in Merced would be located in the current airports vicinity. The City of Merced has plans to connect the entirety of the City with a loop system of roadways. The loop concept came from the Highway 99 Major Investment Study which began in 1993 and was adopted by the Merced County Association of Governments (MCAG) in 1997. It was derived from the idea that State Route 99 through Merced/Atwater could only fit 6 lanes on the existing footprint, although 8 lanes would be needed in the future. However, with a full loop-road, 6 lanes would suffice. The Campus Parkway segment of the loop idea came from the City of Merced’s “Eastern Beltway” study which will connect the freeway with the University of California Merced. The Atwater-Merced Expressway segment originated from plans for a functional north-south state highway to replace the existing State Route 59 alignment. The components of the loop were drawn where they seemed most reasonable.

The Merced Loop System, Figure 2, shown above would provide ample means of access by automobile to the proposed airport. Multiple roadways would be provided to allow people driving to the airport from outside Merced to utilize the airport without becoming a burden on existing local roads. This is especially beneficial to preventing congestion in the downtown or residential areas of the city.

2 Figure 2: Merced Loop System

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The City of Merced is also strategically placed to be a major destination along the CHSR. The proposed system will connect San Francisco to Los Angeles, with a large portion of the system running through the Central Valley, with a station in Merced. Since UC Merced and the proposed airport would be significant attractions for potential riders of the CHSR, demand for transportation linkages between the High Speed Rail station, UC Merced, and the airport will need to continue to develop. Thus, the redesign of the airport facilities will need to include infrastructure that accommodates transit and supporting modes of transportation which will link to the proposed High Speed Rail station to the airport. The image below, Figure 1.11, shows the High Speed Rail route and how Merced is planned to be incorporated.

The Merced High Speed Rail station would be located in downtown Merced. The proposed downtown station would be located 1.36 miles from the airport. The master plan for the station also includes a transit center which could have a direct Bus Rapid Transit connection with the proposed airport. A rendering, Figure 2.2, of the proposed station is provided by the Greater Merced High Speed Rail Committee.

Proximity to Air Travel Demand SourcesIncreased capacity at the expanded Merced airport site will accommodate overflow capacity needs from the Los Angeles International Airport and the San Francisco International Airport. It will also relieve demand created from population centers in the Bay Area, San Joaquin Valley and Los Angeles area. Merced is centrally located from major population centers: 117 miles southeast of the San Francisco Bay Area, 116 miles east of San Jose, 119 miles northeast of Monterey, 114 miles south of Sacramento, 60 miles northwest of Fresno, and 275 miles northwest of the Los Angeles area.

Meteorological FactorsClimate observations taken from the most recent Merced Regional Airport Master Plan were from the years 1999 to 2004. The airport reference temperature, which is recorded as the mean maximum temperature of the hottest month, is 97 degrees F. The average total annual precipitation is 12.3 inches and was calculated from weather data from 1948 to 2004. The current wind rose on the existing Airport Layout Plan was configured based on the 46,652 weather observations from that time period. The current runway configuration provides 99.52 percent coverage for a 10.5 knot crosswind, 99.78 percent coverage for a 13 knot crosswind and 99.96 percent coverage for a 16 knot crosswind. This meets the FAA Advisory Circular guidelines. Based on historical NOAA National Climatic Data Center data, instrument flight rule conditions (IFR) occur 10.9 percent of the time. Cloud ceilings must be below 1000 ft. and/or visibility is less than 3 miles. IFR conditions typically occur during the months of November to January.

In addition to meteorological information from the 2006 Master Plan, climate data was analyzed from NOAA’s National Climatic Data Center for the years 2004 to 2013. However, there were significantly less observations from the dataset used, which were annual reports divided into monthly observations. Also, wind conditions for this time period were not analyzed or readily available and therefore only temperature and precipitation was updated. The mean maximum monthly temperature for the hottest month (assumed to still be July) over the nine year period did not change from approximately 97 degrees F. The average total annual precipitation increased decreased by approximately 0.1 inch to 12.2 inches. Despite generally consistently sunny weather, fog is the greatest threat to visibility from air streams originating from the coast.

Land AvailabilityThe current site of the Merced Regional Airport can be easily expanded to facilitate a full international airport. Figure 2.3 is a representation of what the airport layout initially looked but the following chapters detail the final design. The green represents two sets of independent runways, each pair of runways are 1000 feet apart and the pairs are 4000 feet apart. The pink represents possible locations for terminal placement, the outlines are 800 feet from the edge of the runways. All of the available adjacent land for expansion is currently agricultural land. The land will require a lot of construction preparation work, as the site sits mostly on loam clay deposits (United States Geological Survey). Loam clay typically has a California Bearing Ratio (CBR) between 6 and 8. A low CBR leads to a thicker runway. The availability of land makes this site a good choice for airport expansion.

Figure 2.1: High Speed Rail Routes

Figure 2.2: Merced High Speed Station Figure 2.3: Initial Airport Design

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Environmental Impacts and Noise FactorsExpansion of an airport intensifies its normal environmental impacts due to the construction process and the increased flights, aircraft, and building footprint. The airport authority would have to agree to implement certain environmental mitigation projects if the expansion proposal were accepted. Environmental impacts may include:

• Noise• Water quality (as it pertains to de-icing operations and fuel storage) Air quality issues• Oil spill prevention and planning• Air pollution

This project would produce an increase in the amount of air traffic and the number of aircraft on the site. This would increase the noise pollution in surrounding areas, particularly with an impact on the neighborhoods to the north and east of the airport. Expanding the airport could pose a threat to the water quality and air quality and their effect on the surrounding agricultural lands to the south and west. Increased presence of and maintenance on aircraft would increase the need for fuel storage and the chance of fuel and oil spills as well as other pollution. This activity would need to be planned for and prevented. Merced’s relatively temperate climate lessens the need for de-icing which would otherwise pose a further threat to environmental conditions. These environmental factors, as well as the impact of the construction process, would need to be further examined and mitigation efforts proposed.

Air Traffic Control/Management FactorsThe existing system of airways, navigational aids, and neighboring airports are inventoried in the current Master Plan for a radius of 25 miles. There are twenty neighboring airports including Merced Regional Airport along with a low altitude airspace that crosses the airport of interest (<18,000 ft mean sea level). Class A and B airspace as defined by the FAA is controlled airspace under the direct jurisdiction of the airport’s air traffic control tower (ATCT). In terms of controlled airspace, the nearest Class C airspace (the area surrounding the airport under direction of an air traffic control tower, serviced by radar approach control, and can support minimum levels of air traffic per FAA standards) is 40 nautical miles southeast of Merced Regional Airport. Class D consists of area 2,500 ft. above the airport and with 4.3 nautical miles. The nearest Class D airspace is Castle Airport, located 25 nautical miles northwest of Merced. There are two types of Class E airspace in the area, one starts at the ground, and the other starts 700 ft above ground level. Class E airspace originating from the ground surrounds Merced Regional Airport and continues 4.3 nautical miles from the airport. Class E airspace associated with the instrument approach to Modesto City-County Airport is within 25 miles of the airport. Class E airspace is controlled airspace, but has the least restrictions of all the airspace classes. In general the airport has adequate capability in terms of instrument approaches, and Merced Regional Airport has six published approaches. There are no special use airspace areas, including military flight restrictions. However, there are several protected airspace areas that are mapped over National Park Service and other federally protected conservation lands that are within 25 nautical miles of the airport.

Topographical FactorsThe airport is located in a relatively flat agricultural area with no obvious vertical obstructions within 20 nautical miles in all directions. Figure 2.4 below displays 10 ft. contour intervals.

Forecast analysis

Capacity Values for Overflow Assumption (50% will be diverted to new airport)

Forecast MethodologyA forecast was developed for Merced Regional Airport based on commercial operations and passenger enplanements at the national level for Merced, and 7 airports within approximately 100 miles of Merced. However, this was with the exception of SFO and LAX. It is assumed that the proposed airport site would absorb 50% of the overflow from LAX and SFO regardless of their distance from the proposed site because they are the largest hubs in the state. Specifically, the current operational and enplanement capacity for LAX and SFO were used to estimate the overflow into the new airport. The other 6 airports were assumed to contribute 80% of their forecasted traffic to the proposed airport. The basis for these 2 assumptions was that the proposed site is envisioned to become the major hub for the State and ultimately replace LAX and SFO as hubs. It is also important to note that a simple (constant share) model was used and assumed that each airport would have a constant proportion of the total national air traffic (in terms of passenger enplanements and commercial air traffic). Forecasts were developed for the years 2020 and 2040 for both commercial operations and passenger enplanements for all 8 airports and the proposed site. Finally, the 2020 and 2040 forecasts value were adjusted for the assumptions stated above and the results are present below.

Final Forecast Results for Merced Regional AirportWith the final forecast figures from above, it will be possible to create a future terminal, or series of terminals, to accommodate the necessary enplanements. The final forecast shows that the Merced Regional Airport will need major upgrades in order to provide for these projections. The Merced Municipal Airport Master Plan already states that the airport needs major upgrades and that there are plans to do so. Therefore, it would not be unreasonable to accommodate a larger facility in an area where the government officials and the public already support an expansion of the airport. The ideal location of the current airport near enough to downtown Merced, but protected enough as to not disturb residents, makes Merced the preferred alternative to handle the increase air traffic with links to the California High Speed Rail system.

Figure 2.4

FORECAST Preliminary CALCULATIONS

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AirfiField Layout Plan

Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community

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Downtown Merced

Proposed Airfield Layout

The proposed location of the airport in Merced provides an ideal setting for the airport to be accessed by the California High Speed Rail project to connect both northern and southern Californians, while servicing the ever increasing population of the central valley. For this reason, the Merced International Airport has been designed to show full build-out potential of the airport, and the phasing plan or timeline for construction are not proposed as part of this report. The Merced International Airport is envisioned to be the premier international airport on the west coast, and is designed to allow larger aircrafts to easily navigate the facility while preserving space to allow the airport to adapt to future technological innovations in the aviation industry. With this in mind, the Airfield Layout Plan presented in this chapter details the necessary infrastructure components for the airside operations. The map details the locations of the following infrastructure

components:

• Runways• Terminal areas• Taxiway system• Location of the air traffic control tower• Imaginary obstruction surfaces

In order to utilize the most accurate and accepted standards prescribed for each of the infrastructure components, multiple U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) Advisory Circulars were used to ensure the airport could accommodate the necessary airplanes and operational capacity.

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20 21Source: Esri, DigitalGlobe, GeoEye, i-cubed, USDA, USGS, AEX, Getmapping, Aerogrid, IGN, IGP, swisstopo, and the GIS User Community

0 1 2 3 40.5Miles

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Downtown Merced

Proposed Airfield LayoutThis map shows the proposed airfield geometry, imaginary surfaces per FAA standards, and existing physical and topographic features of Merced overlaid on a global aerial image provided by ESRI.

Operational StrategyThe major airside operations for the Merced Regional Airport have been designed around local wind direction issues, temperature, and capacity needs. In order to accommodate the new Airbus A380 and to provide ample room for future airplanes with possibly larger design features, the Airfield Layout Plan’s general operational strategy facilitates a balance between capacity and functionality. The project team assumed all higher ends of all design values because it was deemed appropriate to design for the maximum in order to avoid future potential retrofitting costs. Also, because we are not working with land surveyed plans, it was safer to use measurements of higher values to account for possible discrepancies when reading off of existing maps. Wind Direction The influence of wind on aircraft operations greatly depends on the average speed and direction. Wind plays a large role on takeoff and landing operations. If wind patterns change, it may be necessary to provide multiple runways to account for these crosswinds and allow planes to takeoff or land in alternate locations. However, this is not the case in Merced because there are little changes in the wind direction and there is 99% coverage at 20 knots. Aircraft arrivals must occur southeast to northwest and departures must occur north to south.

TemperatureMerced has summer temperatures that are greater than the average design parameters. Therefore, it was necessary to utilize design guidelines in the FAA Advisory Circulars to account for this.

This map shows the proposed runways, taxiways, imaginary/obstruction surfaces per FAA standards, service roads, terminal footprint, and air traffic control tower location. It is important to note that the terminal footprint and air traffic control tower dimensions are conceptual approximations in this iteration and will be further refined.

Terminal AreaThe terminal design features a main terminal for processing departing passengers, connecting with ground transportation, and providing baggage claim and pick up for arriving passengers. Satellite terminals provide support to airside operations and allow for easier ground movement of larger aircrafts. In-depth terminal design and operations are discussed in the following chapter.

Control Tower The Control Tower is proposed to be located over the second satellite terminal. This design is derived from the Control Tower currently in operation at the Denver International Airport (DEN). The second satellite terminal provides an ideal location for the Control Tower to be able to adequately see both sets of runways and ground operations. By placing the Control Tower over the second satellite no extra land will be needed for the facility. Roof surfaces of the terminal will need to be constructed using non-reflective surfaces and/or non-reflective solar panels. For night operations, hooded lighting will need to be used to minimize light obstruction. If smog or fog reduces visibility on only one set of runways it would be possible for operations to shift to other set of runways.

FULL DESIGNLocation

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Airffiield Dimensions

This map depicts the key dimensions of the airfield including the runway width, runway length, taxiway width, and parallel runway centerline (C/L) separations. The separation for the outer two runway centerlines exceed the minimum 4300’ required for independent operations for departures.

Runway OperationsThe Merced International Airport utilizes the ample amount of greenfield, or agricultural, sites surrounding it to provide space for two sets of parallel, independent runways. With the general terminal area and satellite terminals located between the two sets of runways, the two inner runways will be used for departures. The interior departure runways also feature ample queuing space. However, this will only be needed when the capacity of the airport necessitates over 30 operations per hour on each runway. The interior parallel runways are separated more than the 4,300 feet required to allow for simultaneous departures.

This map focuses on the imaginary/obstruction surfaces as required by the FAA. Each surface type is color-coded in a legend. These surfaces are intended to ensure safe

operations over the airfield.

Imaginary/Obstruction Surfaces

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This map focuses on the taxiway network. Key features include high speed taxiways, aircraft queuing areas at the ends of the departure runways, and connections to the terminal

and parallel runways.

Taxiway Operations The taxiway system was designed to efficiently and safely allow planes to navigate on the ground between the terminals and the runways. Using the Dallas/Fort Worth International Airport (DFW) taxiway system and parallel runway operations as a similar design concept, the project team created a similar layout that allows two Airbus A-380s to pass in opposite directions on all sections of the taxiway system. The taxiway systems has also been designed to prevent any queuing delay due to the ground movement of aircrafts. This prevents aircrafts from stacking up in the air during final approaches. With the incorporation of two high speed exits per arrival runway, aircrafts are able to leave the runway quicker and increase the airports landing capacity.

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Apron and Terminal Area Plan4

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AirFifield Lighting and Markings

One runway, 30 Right 12 Left, is designed to meet FAA requirements as a precision approach runway. The FAA advisory circular 150/5430-1L, Standards for Airport Marking, was used and all standards were met for the runway markings. No shoulder markings were applied as the runway is wide enough for the very large airplanes. The taxiway holding positions are outside of the runway safety area. The approach and runway lighting for 30 Right 12 Left was designed using the FAA advisory circular 150/5340-30G to meet all standards for a precision approach runway.

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The map below depicts the functionality of the airport design focusing on the main structures; including the cargo terminals, the satellite terminals, the main terminal, and parking facilities.

The main terminal design is three levels. The ground level accommodates a general area for ticketing and check-in, baggage claim, and baggage handling. The second level accommodates office space, security screening, a sterile area concessions “mall” and escalators/elevators to the subway system for the passenger aircraft modules. The third level is a subterranean level that accommodates boarding platforms for the passenger aircraft modules. The planned 4 modules also accommodate passenger waiting lounges and concessions.

Apron and Terminal AreaTerminal Support AreasThese areas include functions that are directly related to the support of the air passenger terminal, but are not included in Airport/Airline Support areas. Permitted uses include rental car lots and servicing facilities, remote public parking, and commercial vehicle staging lots and terminals.

Terminal and ModulesThe layout of the terminal planned for incremental expansion to the northwest, increasing the number of terminal modules from two to an ultimate four passenger aircraft modules. Total terminal space required for peak period system capacity, as shown in Table 4, is 7,006,500 square feet.

Peak period system capacity is estimated using the passenger peak period, 1 - 2pm, for LAX in 2009. Number of passengers was calculated adding total passengers at 1pm and total passengers at 1:30pm from Figure 4 below. These figures were then multiplied by the individual space required coefficient per terminal component, as illustrated in Figure 4.1 below.

Component

1000 sq. ft per 100 peak hr passengers 259.5

Total Sq Ft per component

Ticket Lobby 1 259.5 259,500 Baggage Claim 1 259.5 259,500 Departure Lounge 2 519 519,000 Waiting Rooms 1.5 389.25 389,250 Immigration 1 259.5 259,500 Customs 3 778.5 778,500 Amenities 2 519 519,000 Airline Operation 5 1297.5 1,297,500 Total Gross AreaDomestic 25 3892.5 3,892,500 International 30 3114 3,114,000

Total 7,006,500

Based on maximum LAX Peak Hour Rolling 60-‐Minute Passenger volume at 1pm and 1:30pm

1pm 13,200 1:30pm 12,750 Total Peak hour 25,950 Per 100 Peak Hr Passengers 259.50

Peak hour

Table 4: Square Feet Calculations

Figure 4: 2009 Passenger Peak Period

Figure 4.1: Typical Terminal Building Space

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Inter and Intra-terminal Passenger MovementAn underground subway system is planned for transporting passengers from the main terminal to the modules, with express connections to individual modules every 20 minutes. With incremental improvements to train headways via changes to the train control system, the purchase of additional vehicles, peak period system capacity is approximately 13,000 passengers per hour in each direction. The 13,000 passengers per hour figure equates to the approximate demand associated with the ultimate expansion of the modules, depending on the volume of inter-module connecting passengers.

Each module will address passenger movement with the installation of automated walkways to take passengers from one side of the terminal to the other.

The international terminal will have it’s own dedicated subway system to bring passengers to the third module which will be designated for international traffic. Only international traffic will fly in and out of the third module. This third module will contain passport control upon exit of the subway to ensure that the passengers are traveling internationally. Customs will also be located within the module. The international module will be self-contained to improve security and keep track of passengers.

Ground Access SystemIt is anticipated that the California High Speed Rail will be the primary access system into the airport area, linked to the terminal by a Bus Rapid Transit route.

Automobile traffic will likely enter via Highway 99 en route from the Bay Area and the Los Angeles Area. Presently, almost all of Highway 99 is freeway, and there are plans to complete this section to Interstate Highway standards. It would then compare to Interstate 5 for Los Angeles - Sacramento traffic. Additionally, a 6-lane expressway would be proposed extending from Highway 99 to the airport terminal in the area south of the existing East Mission Avenue and also in the area of the existing Franklin Road. A loop road system is currently proposed in this vicinity but would need to be realigned south of the roads listed above. These routes bypass downtown Merced and route the majority of auto traffic around the City and straight from the Highway into the airport terminal. An airport access road will consist of an approximately 3 mile-long road leading to the airport property and inner access road loop as well as a series of inner loops so that cars may circle around the terminal curbside while waiting for arriving passengers and dropping off departing passengers. The airport access road would connect to the proposed Loop Road that would encircle the City. The main inner loop will in the form of a roundabout which could accommodate large design vehicles such as transit buses, shuttles, and single-unit trucks. This inner loop will allow shuttles and private vehicles to circle while waiting for passengers as well as facilitate flows to various uses such as parking and the CONRAC. The first figure in the appendix shows the airside and landside circulation and conceptual design. Figure 4.3 shows an example of a large on-airport roundabout.

All four modules accommodate approximately 117 gates. Based upon Airbus gate design specs, these modules were designed to facilitate parking of the following number and aircraft types:

• 30 - A380 (can accommodate any jumbo aircraft)• 64 - A330 (can accommodate aircraft with a wingspan under 200 ft.)• 23 - A320 (can accommodate Boeing-737 and smaller)

The number of gates was estimated based on the Terminal Surface Area Guidance from FAA Figure 4.2 and the current number of gates available at the Los Angeles International Airport (LAX).

Figure 4.2: FAA Terminal Gate Guidelines

Apron AreaEach module has a row of gates on either side of the module. The apron area is designed with dedicated bi-directional taxi lane for each row of gates. Aircraft movement on these taxi lanes will be controlled by aircraft control.

Directional movement of the taxiways and apron areas are illustrated in Chapter 3 page 24 and 25.

CurbsideThe curbside drop-off and pick-up area will be divided into several lengths to maximize curb space. These parallel curbs will serve different purposes and will be connected with controlled crosswalks. The most inner curb will serve private vehicles and taxi, which will likely be fast to move in and out of queuing positions for quick passenger pick-up and drop-ff. The outer curbs will serve shuttle and public transit, where passengers can wait under a shelter built along the raised curb. Separating the two different traffic flows minimizes congestion. Oakland International Airport curbside (shown in FIgure 4.4) was used as an example.

Car rental facilities Adequate space for rental car expansion is available within the airport approach loop. The connection with California High Speed Rail decreased the forecasted demand for rental cars at this location. Rental car facility will be of a consolidated design, served by a consolidated busing operation or landside automated people mover, and combined into a single facility. However, the Dallas-Fort Worth CONRAC design was used as a model for approximation. Therefore, approximately 1.4 million square feet of footprint was allocated although it is not expected that this airport would require a facility that large.

ParkingTerminal Parking is located in structures on the east side of the terminal building. These structures will also fit within the airport approach loop in order to conserve space and create a smaller footprint.

Additional FacilitiesThere is also adequate space for fixed-base operator support facilities, an on-airport hotel, and other supporting industries in addition to parking and rental car facilities.

Figure 4.3: Example of a Large On-Airport Roundabout

Figure 4.4: Oakland Airport Curbside

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Pavement and Drainage Design5 Drainage Design Objectives

The goal of the drainage design is to drain the airport facility in a manner that is economical and in consideration of the importance of the particular facility and environmental impacts. The Rational Method is used in computa-tions for design with the assumption that the entire airport site is our drainage basin for analysis.. Surface runoff from the selected design storm will be managed to avoid damage to facilities, saturation of subsoil, or significant interruption of normal traffic. Since this airport has natural creeks to the north of the proposed facilities, there is a concern that the presence of standing water on the airport site will attract birds from the creek and nearby farm lands. To minimize this issue, the drainage design will employ a no-ponding strategy.

The Federal Aviation Administration recommends that airports plan for 5-year storm events for runway and taxi-way pavements, including shoulders. The damage caused by storms greater than the 5-year storm event may not warrant the more expensive drainage system. Areas other than airfields, such as roadways, administrative, industrial, and housing areas, the design will be based on 10-year storm events. This is due to the fact that po-tential damage could be more serious (Surface Drainage Design, 2006).

The FAA recommends that the Rational Method be used for drainage areas less than 200 acres, and that the SCS TR-55 method be used for drainage areas up to 2,000 acres. The drainage area for the Merced International Airport is 1626.5 acres, which would require use of the SCS TR-55 method, however due to constraints and lim-itations on time, resources and expertise, the design team selected to use the Rational Method for calculations.

As illustrated in Figure 5, The National Oceanic Administration (NOAA) estimates point precipitation frequencies for the Merced area, for weather station 04-5532, to be 0.580 inches/hour for a 5 year storm.Standard procedure is to use a peak flow based on an assumed constant rainfall intensity, even though actual rainfall intensity varies during storm events. Standard procedure is to use a peak flow based on an assumed constant rainfall intensity, even though actual rainfall intensity varies during storm events.

Figure 5: PDS Based Depth Duration Frequency Curves

Determining Runoff - Rational MethodOne of the most commonly used equations for the calculation of peak flow from small areas is the Rational Formula, given as the following equation:

Q=CIAQ= runoff from given drainage basin, ft3/sC= dimensionless runoff coefficient representing the characteristics of the watershedI= rainfall intensity for time of concentration of runoff, in/hourA= drainage area, acres

Assumptions, for slopes from 1 to 2 percent: 1. All airside paved areas total 1626.5 acres and have a runoff coefficient of 0.95. 2. Unimproved grass areas total 765.2 acres and have a coefficient of 0.25.

Figure 5.1: Rational Method Calculations

Drainage Design

34 35

The terrain at the airport site naturally slopes from northeast to southwest. Working with those natural contours, drainage basins would be located to the southwest of the runways. Drainage design will collect all from runoff from impervious surfaces and channel it to the outflow for the airport. The design will use with pumps to move the water away from the drainage areas to a gravel sedimentation basin for filtration before discharge into a cistern. The cistern will be for irrigation of the land side at the airport facilities.

The map depicts the terrain and natural contours around the Merced Airport.

Pavement DesignIn order to calculate the necessary pavement thickness, the following design parameters were used:

Design Aircraft: Boeing 747-400Max Takeoff Weight: 875,000 lbFlexural Strength: 700 psi (lb/in2)Soil Quality: PoorModulus Subgrade Reaction: k=50 lb/in3

The annual operations predicted for Merced International Airport is 414,813 enplanements in 2020. If we assume a rough 50/50 split of arrivals and departures, it is plausible to assume 207,406 departures. The total annual operations in 2040 are estimated to be 632,310. Therefore, it is also plausible to again assume a 50/50 split of arrivals and departures, giving 316,155 annual departures.

By using the FAA Rigid Pavement Design Spreadsheet and Manual it is possible to calculate the absolute maximum pavement design thickness necessary for the Merced International Airport to operate the design aircraft only for all projected departures. The spreadsheet allows for a mix of aircrafts to be represented, but for the purposes of this report the design aircraft was the only aircraft considered. The model spreadsheet also featured additional variables that were not represented in class, including the impact of improvements to the pavements during frost conditions. The resultant thickness of the Portland Cement Concrete (PCC) needed to support the design parameters is 24 inches. As required by the FAA, an additional minimum of four inches for a stabilized subbase is included below the 24 inches of PCC. The output of the spreadsheet is shown Figure 5.1 below.

Merced Internation Airport AIP Number AC Method

Merced, CA 3/18/2014

Merced Group Transportation Consultants MGTC EmployeeINPUT VALUES

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n 2 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

n 0 0 0 0.00 0 0 0 0

Equivalent Annual Departures of the 747-SP 201,091

Figure 5.1: Output Spreadsheet

Pavement Design

3736

The range in Figure 5.2 below provides the maximum thickness necessary to support airport operations for 2020 through 2040. With a large increase in departures by 2040, the pavement will need to be upgraded from the base 2020 year provided in the FAA Rigid Pavement Design Tool. However, if a mix of aircrafts is included an increase in thickness may not be necessitated because the increase in thickness is only a few tenths of an inch.

Possible Alternative Aircraft InfluencesAircrafts such as the Boeing B-777 or Airbus A-380 have altered the layout and design of the landing systems that each company uses in their aircrafts. With changes in technology and an advanced understanding of the impacts that the aircrafts have on the pavement, the landing systems have been designed to better spread the force of their weight across the pavement. This creates less pressure on the runway and helps to lengthen the design life of runways. Therefore, you would not necessarily need to increase the runway thickness over the design aircraft of the Boeing 747-400.

24.1

1 24.1

5 24.1

9

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2120

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2190

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2676

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2745

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316,

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25

PC

C T

HIC

KN

ESS

(in)

ANNUAL DEPARTURES

Required thickness for 747-SP at 875000 lbs k on top of all subbase = 86 psi PCC Flexural Strength = 700

Figure 5.2: Maximum ThicknessSources

6

38 39

Appendix7

Airport Pavement Design and Evaluation (AC No: 150/5320-6E) (2009). Retrieved from:http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/Advisory_Circular/150_5320_6e.pdf

Bakersfield, California final technical report. Retrieved from website: http://www.meadowsfield.com/pdf/bfl.pdf

City of Merced, CA, (2007). Merced Municipal Airport Master Plan. Retrieved from: http://flymercedairport.com/masterplan.shtml

City of Mojave. http://www.visitmojave.com.

City of Palm Springs. http://www.ci.twentynine-palms.ca.us.

City of Twentynine Palms. http://www.ci.twentynine-palms.ca.us.

FAA. 2014. AC 150/5340-1L - Standards for Airport Markings – Document Information. [online] Available at: http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/documen-tID/1022266 [Accessed: 19 Mar 2014].

FAA. 2014. AC 150/5345-46D - Specification for Runway and Taxiway Light Fixtures – Document Information. [online] Available at: http://www.faa.gov/regulations_policies/advisory_circulars/index.cfm/go/document.information/documentID/74226 [Accessed: 21 Mar 2014].

Federal Aviation Administration, (2011). NexGen airport performance. http://www.faa.gov/nextgen/snapshots/airport/?locationId=36

Federal Aviation Administration, (2011). Terminal area forecast summary fiscal years

FHWA. 2014. Geometric Design. [online] Available at: http://www.fhwa.dot.gov/publications/research/safety/00067/000676.pdf [Accessed: 19 Mar 2014].

Kern County Board of Supervisors, (2006). Airport master plan for meadows field airport

Mojave Air And Space Port. 2014. Innovation Flies. [online] Available at: http://mojaveairport.com [Accessed: 21 Mar 2014].

NOAA, (2013). Annual summaries-merced airport. Retrieved from website: http://www.ncdc.noaa.gov/cdo-web/datasets/ANNUAL/stations/COOP:045532/detail

Ricondo & Associates. 2012. LAX Specific Plan Amendment Report. [online] Available at: http://www.lawa.org/uploadedfiles/spas/pdf/SPAS%20REPORT/LAX%20SPAS%20Report%20App%20F-1%20Pax%20Fore-cast%20DDFS%20Dev%20Final.pdf [Accessed: 19 Mar 2014].

RITA. (2012). Transtats. Retrieved from http://www.transtats.bts.gov/airports.asp

San Bernardino International Airport Authority. 2010. AIRPORT LAYOUT PLAN NARRATIVE REPORT. [online] Available at: http://www.sbdairport.com/our_organization/documents/AirportDocuments/ALP%20Narra-tive%20Report.pdf [Accessed: 5 Feb 2014].

San Joaquin County, CA, (2008). Stockton metropolitan airport layout plan. Retrieved from http://www.sjgov.org/airport/alp.aspx

Surface Drainage Design (No. UFC 3-320-01). (2006). Retrieved from http://www.faa.gov/documentLibrary/media/advisory_circular/150-5320-5C/150_5320_5c.pdf

Sussman, B. 2014. Consolidated Rental Car Facilities at Airports. [online] Available at: http://www.ite.org/Membersonly/annualmeeting/2000/AB00H5401.pdf [Accessed: 19 Mar 2014].

United States Geological Survey. Merced Area, California (CA648) Soil Map. (2013). Retrieved from: http://websoilsurvey.sc.egov.usda.gov/App/WebSoilSurvey.aspx

US Department of Commerce, N. (n.d.). PFDS: Contiguous US. Retrieved March 20, 2014, from http://hdsc.nws.noaa.gov/hdsc/pfds/pfds_map_cont.html?bkmrk=ca

USGS, (2013). USGS Contours for San Jose, California (20120115 1x1 degree) [GIS shapefile and metadata]. Retrieved from: http://viewer.nationalmap.gov/viewer/

Western Regional Climate Center. 2014. Western Regional Climate Center - Climate Summary Page Request Error. [online] Available at: http://www.wrcc.dri.edu/cgi-bin/cliMAIN.pl?ca5756. [Accessed: 19 Mar 2014]

40

This table was programmed to create output of critical dimensions such as runway and blast pad widths as well as the imaginary surfaces. The inputs were the aircraft approach category and airplane design group. The Airbus A-380 was assumed to be the design aircraft and therefore its associated approach category and design group were used. Visibility minimums of less than ¾ of a mile were assumed in order to be the most conservative and address potential issues such as climate change, incompatible

land uses, as well as maximize safety.

FACILITIY SOURCE

Runways (4)

Advisory Circular: Airport Design, Advisory Circular: Runway Length Requirements for Airport Design, and Airbus A380 Aircraft Characteristics Airport and Maintenance Planning

Terminal Area Advisory Circular: Airport DesignTaxiways Advisory Circular: Airport Design - Chapter 4

High Speed Exits Advisory Circular: Airport Design - Chapter 4Location of Air Traffic

Control Tower

Air Traffic Control Tower and Terminal Radar Approach Control Facility Design Guidelines

Imaginary Obstruction Surfaces Advisory Circular: Airport Design

NOTES AND ASSUMPTIONS

No crosswind. Dual independent parallel runways. Landing and takeoff are north to south. Assumption: we used the chart with the high temperature length design guidelines because the average summer temperature in Merced is greater than normal design temperature. We assumed all higher ends of all

design values because we wanted to design for the maximum to avoid future potential retrofitting costs. Because we are not working with land surveyed plans, it was safer to assume higher values to account for

possible discrepancies in our measurements.

CEQA Work Sample

The following document is one of the chapters I authored from the City of Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update Draft Environmental Impact Report.

4.8 HAZARDS AND HAZARDOUS MATERIALS This section discusses potential significant impacts associated with the adoption and implementation of the proposed Plan related to hazards and hazardous materials. Sources of hazards and hazardous materials include natural and manmade hazards that could affect public health and safety in the Plan Area. Examples of these sources include wildfires, floods, earthquakes, and industrial sites. The existing conditions, regulatory framework, and government agency responsibilities are also discussed.

4.8.1 ENVIRONMENTAL SETTING

4.8.1.1. REGULATORY FRAMEWORK This section describes federal, State and local regulations and response plans relevant to hazards and hazardous materials in the Plan area.

Federal Agencies, Programs, and Regulations This section includes an overview of the federal agencies which oversee hazards and hazardous materials concerns, as well as relevant programs and regulations.

Environmental Protection Agency The United States Environmental Protection Agency’s (EPA) laws and regulations ensure the safe manufacturing, handling, disposal, and transport of hazardous materials. The California EPA enforces federal regulations such as the Resource Recovery and Conservation Act and Toxic Substances Control Act in Lake County.

The Federal Emergency Management Agency (FEMA) FEMA is a subordinate agency under the U.S. Department of Homeland Security. FEMA assists with disaster relief and administers the Flood Insurance Map Act of 1968. FEMA created the National Flood Insurance Program in 1968, which established the use of flood zones known as Special Flood Hazard Areas. These flood hazard zones, published in Flood Insurance Rate Maps by FEMA, restrict development in areas with a 1 percent or greater chance of annual flooding, otherwise known as the 100-year flood plain. Restricting development in these areas, especially in close proximity to Clear Lake, reduces the need for expansive, publicly funded flood control systems. U.S. Department of Transportation Federal Aviation Administration The transportation of chemicals and hazardous materials is regulated by the United States Department of Transportation (DOT), which dictates the types of containers, labeling, and other measures to be used in the transport of such material on interstate highways. The Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) is an operating group within the U.S. D.O.T., and is specifically concerned with hazards to aviation. Specifically, Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) Part 77, addresses obstructions to navigable airspace. Ensuring

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228 City of Clearlake 2040 General Plan Draft EIR

compatible land uses with airports is a large role of the FAA. The City of Clearlake once had an operational municipal airport, but it has been decommissioned. Therefore, FAR Part 77 does not apply.

Occupational Safety and Health Administration The Occupational Safety and Health Administration (OSHA) oversees administration of the Occupational Safety and Health Act, which requires specialized training for hazardous materials handlers, disclosure of information to employees who may be exposed to hazardous materials, and acquisition of material safety data sheets (MSDS) from materials producers. Material safety data sheets describe the risks, appropriate handling, and procedures related to particular hazardous materials. Employee training must include response and remediation procedures for hazardous materials accidents in Clearlake.

Federal Regulations The following federal regulations address hazards and hazardous materials concerns.

Title 29, Code of Federal Regulations Title 29 is concerned with labor laws and gives authority to OSHA.

Title 40, Code of Federal Regulations Title 40 address environmental protection and gives authority to the EPA. It also has a specific chapter (Chapter VI) which addresses the chemical safety and hazard investigation board.

Title 49, Code of Federal Regulations The Title 49 addresses the transportation, packaging, and storage of hazardous materials and authorizes penalties for violations.

Hazardous Materials Transportation Act of 1975 The Federal Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (49 USC Section 1801 et seq.) aims to ensure the safe transport of hazardous materials via water, rail, highway, air or pipeline transport. Subtitle C addresses hazardous waste generation, storage, treatment, and disposal. Subtitle I requires monitoring and containment systems for underground storage tanks that hold hazardous materials.

The Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act In 1990, Congress enacted the Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act (HMTUSA) to condense conflicting state, local, and federal regulations. Like the Hazardous Materials Transportation Act, the HMTUSA requires the Secretary of Transportation to promulgate regulations for the safe transport of hazardous material in intrastate, interstate, and foreign commerce. The Secretary also retains authority to designate materials as hazardous when they pose unreasonable risks to health, safety, or property. The statute includes provisions to encourage uniformity among different state and local highway routing regulations, to develop criteria for the issuance of federal

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permits to motor carriers of hazardous materials, and to regulate the transport of radioactive materials.

Resources Conservation and Recovery Act The Resources Conservation and Recovery Act (1976) can be understood as a ‘cradle-to-grave’ regulation on hazardous materials and substances. RCRA establishes a federal regulatory program, administered by the U.S. EPA, which regulates the creation, storage, use, transport, and disposal of hazardous materials.

The Federal Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act of 1986 This act requires agencies and facilities to provide public notification of all known hazardous materials on-site and to notify the public of any accidental releases of hazardous materials.

The Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) CERCLA, better known as Superfund, was enacted in 1980. Using funds generated from a tax on chemical and petroleum industries, the U.S. EPA identified contaminated sites for cleanup. The act also provides the federal government with the authority to respond to emergencies without prior notification of entering a site. CERCLA established requirements related to cleaning up abandoned and uncontrolled hazardous waste sites, which includes identifying a responsible party to fund the cleanup. The EPA identifies potential cleanup sites on the National Priorities List (NPL).

State Regulations

California Health and Safety Code The State Health and Safety Code (2011) regulates the transport, treatment, and disposal of hazardous wastes. Specific Regulations are found in the following sections, Division 10, Chapter 8, Uniform Controlled Substances Act, Division 20, Chapter 6.5 Hazardous Waste Control, Chapter 6.67 Aboveground Storage of Petroleum, Chapter 6.67 Aboveground Storage of Petroleum, Chapter 6.7 Underground storage of hazardous substances, and Chapter 6.75 Petroleum underground storage tank cleanup.

California Health and Safety Code Chapter 6.95 and 19, California Code of Regulations Section 2729, set out the minimum requirements for business emergency plans and chemical inventory reporting. These regulations require businesses to provide emergency response plans and procedures, training program information, and a hazardous material chemical inventory disclosing the locations of hazardous materials storage and where such materials are handled or used. A business which uses hazardous materials or a mixture that contains such materials must create and implement a business plan if the hazardous material is handled in certain quantities.

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California Code of Regulations Hazardous materials are defined by Title 22 of the California Code of Regulations and are governed by the Federal Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (42 USC Section 1801 et seq.) and the Resource Conservation and Recovery Act (42 USC Sections 6901 et seq.).

California Public Resources Code California Public Resources Code (PRC) Sections 4201-4204 were enacted in 1985. These sections require that the California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (Cal Fire) classify all State Responsibility Area lands into fire hazard severity zones. The purpose of this requirement was to identify measures to retard the rate of wildfire spread and to reduce the potential intensity of wildfires that could destroy resources, life and property. The fire hazard severity ratings are based on fuel loading, slope, fire weather and other relevant factors.

California Environmental Protection Agency The California Environmental Protection Agency (CalEPA) is one of the primary agencies which regulates hazardous materials, and is empowered by the U.S. EPA to enforce and implement federal hazardous materials laws and regulations. The Department of Toxic Substance Control (DTSC), a department of the CalEPA, protects California and its residents from exposure to hazardous waste, primarily under the authority of the federal Resource Conservation Recovery Act (RCRA) of 1976 and the California Health and Safety Code. DTSC requirements include the need for documented programs and response plans, such as Hazardous Materials Business Plans (HMBPs). DTSC programs include dealing with clean-ups of improper hazardous waste accidents, management, testing of samples taken from sites, enforcement of regulations regarding use, storage, and disposal of hazardous materials, and promotion of pollution prevention. In addition, DTSC’s School Property Evaluation and Cleanup Division is responsible for evaluating, investigating, and remediating proposed school sites. The Division’s goal is to ensure that proposed school properties are safe for students and staff. School sites that will receive State funding for acquisition or construction are required to go through an environmental review and cleanup process under DTSC’s direction.

California Division of Occupational Safety and Health (Cal OSHA) Cal OSHA is the state-level agency responsible for ensuring workplace safety and is an equivalent to the federal agency OSHA. Cal OSHA’s primary responsibility is for the adoption and enforcement of standards regarding workplace safety and associated practices. If a site becomes contaminated, a Site Safety Plan must be documented and executed to protect the health of workers. Site Safety Plans establish policies, practices, and procedures to prevent the exposure of workers and the general public to hazardous materials originating from the contaminated area. Specifically, California Health and Safety Code Chapter 6.95 and 19 California Code of Regulations Section 2729 set out these minimum requirements.

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California Building Code (2013) The state of California provides a minimum standard for building design through the California Building Code, Code of Regulations, Title 24, Part 2, Volumes 1 and 2 (International Code Council, 2013). The CBC is based on the 1997 Uniform Building Code, but has been modified for California conditions and has been recently updated in 2013. It is generally adopted on a jurisdiction-by-jurisdiction basis, subject to further modification based on local conditions. Commercial and residential buildings are inspected by local city and county building officials for compliance with the CBC. Examples of fire safety requirements under the CBC include: the installation of sprinklers in all high-rise buildings, the establishment of fire resistance standards for fire doors, building materials, types of construction, and the removal of debris within a defined distance from occupied structures in wildfire hazard zones.

California Emergency Management Agency (CAL EMA) The California Emergency Management Agency (CAL EMA) was established as part of the Governor’s Office on January 1, 2009. The duties, powers, and responsibilities of the former Governor’s Office of Emergency Services were merged with those of the Governor’s Office of Homeland Security. Cal EMA is responsible for the coordination of state agency’s overall response to major disasters, and the support of local governments. The agency is responsible for assuring the state is prepared to respond to all hazards, whether natural or man-made, as well as the recovery from said hazards.

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) The California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection (CAL FIRE) manages and protects natural resources in the state as well as provide various emergency services in 36 out of 58 counties in the State. CAL FIRE has mapped fire hazard potential throughout California. CAL FIRE ranks fire threat based on the presence of flammable materials and the probability of an area burning. The ranking categories include: no fire threat, moderate, high, and very high fire threat. CAL FIRE produced the 2012 Strategic Plan, which contains goals, objectives, and policies to prepare for and mitigate the effects of fire on California’s natural and built environments (Cal Fire, 2012).

California Fire Code (2013) California Code of Regulations, Title 24, also known as the California Building Standards Code, contains the California Fire Code (CFC), included as Part 9 of that title (California Building Standards Commission, 2013). It is updated every three years and includes provisions and standards for emergency planning, preparedness, fire services, fire protection systems, hazardous materials, fire flow requirements, and fire hydrant locations and distribution. The City of Clearlake is served by the Lake County Fire Protection District and Cal Fire.

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The California Department of Transportation The California Department of Transportation (Caltrans) manages more than 50,000 miles of California's highway and freeway lanes, provides inter-city rail infrastructure, permits more than 400 public-use airports and special-use hospital heliports, and works with local agencies. Caltrans is also the first responder for hazardous material accidents that occur in its rights-of-way.

State Water Resources Control Board The Lake County Water Resources Department coordinates its programs with the State Water Resources Control Board, neighboring jurisdictions, and state and federal agencies such as the Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board. The Watershed Protection District, a subordinate department, conducts management planning with regards to groundwater.

Materials-Specific Federal and State Programs and Regulations Asbestos-Containing Materials (ACM) Regulations State-level agencies, in cooperation with the federal EPA and OSHA, regulate removal and transport procedures for asbestos-containing materials. The substance is now banned. Releases of asbestos from industrial, demolition, or construction activities are prohibited by these regulations and medical evaluation and monitoring is required for employees performing activities that could expose them to asbestos. Also, the laws include warnings that must be obeyed and mandatory practices to reduce the risk for asbestos release and exposure. Finally, federal, State, and local agencies must be notified prior to demolition or construction activities that have the potential to release asbestos.

Polychlorinated Biphenyls (PCBs) The U.S. EPA prohibited the use of PCBs in most new electrical equipment beginning in 1979, and started a phase-out for the majority of equipment containing PCBs. The inclusion of PCBs in electrical equipment, and the handling of those PCBs, are regulated by the Toxic Substances Control Act, 15 U.S.C. § 2601 et seq. (TSCA). Relevant regulations include labeling and periodic inspection requirements for certain types of PCB-containing equipment and outline highly specific safety procedures for their disposal. The State of California also regulates, as hazardous waste, electrical equipment and materials contaminated by PCBs exceeding a certain threshold. These regulations require that such materials be treated, transported, and disposed of appropriately. Regional water quality control boards may exercise discretion over the classification of associated wastes at lower concentrations for non-liquids.

Lead-Based Paint (LBP) Cal OSHA’s Lead in Construction Standard is contained in California Code of Regulations, Title 8, Section 1532.1 of the California Code of Regulations. The regulations address all of

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the following areas: permissible exposure limits (PELs); exposure assessment; compliance methods; respiratory protection; protective clothing and equipment; housekeeping; medical surveillance; medical removal protection (MRP); employee information, training, and certification; signage; record keeping; monitoring; and agency notification.

Additional State Statutes In 1992, Assembly Bill 337 was adopted, which mandated fire hazard assessments and zoning, and included related minimum fire safety standards for vegetative clearance and structural requirements, to be adopted at the local level for “Local Responsibility Areas” (LRA). The provisions of AB 337 were codified under the California Government Code, Sections 51175- 51189. AB 3819 increased the roofing requirements via Health and Safety Code Section 13132.7. AB 747 in 1995 and AB 423 in 1999 introduced additional roofing regulations. Requirements for roofing in California are found in Health and Safety Code Sections 13108.5 and 13132.7.

Local Regulations and Programs

Lake County Division of Environmental Health The Lake County Division of Environmental Health is the Certified Unified Program Agency for the entire county and manages hazardous waste and materials. The agency, in compliance with the California Health and Safety Code, permits and inspects hazardous waste generators, hazardous waste on-site treatment, hazardous materials handlers, above-ground storage tanks, and underground storage tanks. The agency requires and reviews hazardous material release response plans and inventories from businesses. Each business entity must have a certified plan for how to handle such waste and respond to emergencies.

Lake County Water Resources Department Groundwater resources are managed by Lake County Water Resources Department and their subordinate agency, the Lake County Watershed Protection District.

Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan The Lake County Board of Supervisors approved the Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan on August 22, 2006 by Resolution 2006-148 (Lake County Office of Emergency Services, 2005). The Plan was approved by FEMA-US Department of Homeland Security on September 21, 2006. It is important to note revisions were made to the existing 2006 Plan in 2012. Due to the fact that the City does not have a separate mitigation plan, it follows the direction of the Lake County Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan. The purpose of this document is to ensure an effective allocation of resources in the event of a natural or manmade disaster. A second goal is to utilize these resources to protect the people and property as much as possible.

According to the Lake County Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan, the Lake County Office of Emergency Services is deemed the responsible organizing entity. Emergency planning is

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conducted in coordination with the Lake County Emergency Operations Plan. Coordination between county and surrounding city governments is vital to expedite activities in the occurrence of an emergency. The County is in the process of developing a toolkit to aid in emergency preparedness. The Community Assessment for Public Health Emergency Preparedness will evaluate neighborhoods based on certain parameters.

4.8.1.2. EXISTING CONDITIONS Natural Hazards

Fire Dry weather conditions, heat, wind, and abundant dead vegetation make fire one of the highest priority natural hazards for Clearlake. Climate change will exacerbate these conditions, and climate models have predicted a significant increase in risk through 2085. Map 4.8-1, produced by CAL FIRE, shows where fire hazards are located. A large portion of land east of State Route 53 is designated as a “very high” fire hazard zone and area surrounding Clearlake is designated a “wild land urban interface” (WUI), where structures are considered vulnerable to fire damage. Poor quality roads and insufficient water supply or insufficient fire suppression facilities can make firefighting difficult in these areas. Map 4.8-2 shows the “very high” fire hazard severity zones within local responsibility areas. Map 4.8-3 shows increases in fire risk due to climate change by the year 2085. According to the California Energy Commission, the area in the vicinity of Clearlake is expected to experience between .1 and 2.6 percent increase in areas burned between 2010 and 2085.

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Map 4.8‐1 Fire Hazard Severity Zones

Source: California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, 2013

Map 4.8‐2 Fire Hazard Severity Zones in Local Responsibility Areas

Source: California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, 2013

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Map 4.8‐3 Increase in Fire Hazard Due to Climate Change, 2010‐2085

Source: California Energy Commission, 2011

Hazardous Sites and Materials As discussed in the Regulatory Framework section, the DTSC manages a Hazardous Waste and Substance Sites List. There are 23 sites on that list within Clearlake City limits, but only four are currently being remediated or monitored. The other 19 sites have been mitigated and/or had new uses permitted. Table 4.8-1 details the location, type of site, and current status of all sites on the Hazardous Waste and Substances List. Map 4.8-4 depicts the location of the sites identified by number in Table 4.8-1.

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Table 4.8-1 Hazardous Materials Sites ID # Site Name Address Status Category 1 Eastlake Landfill 16015 Davis Ave Open Disposal Site 2 Redwood Oil Company 5200 Old Highway 53 Open Other

3 Beacon #3693 (Former) 15010 Lakeshore Dr Open LUST

4 Dale's Shell & Automotive 15021 Lakeshore Dr Open LUST

5 Mobile #234 15010 Lakeshore Dr Permitted UST

6 SBC Pacific Bell #Tdv66 2510 Old State Highway 53 Permitted UST

7 SBC Pacific Bell #Tdv58 14892 Palmer Ave Permitted UST

8 Nott's Liquor 14772 Lakeshore Permitted UST

9 Time To Shop 14091 Lakeshore Dr Permitted UST

10 Price Rite 15413 Lakeshore Dr Permitted UST

11 Beacon Station #36963 Lakeshore Drive Closed Other

12 The Village Store 15265 Old Highway 53 Closed LUST

13 Tru-Lube (Austin's Resort) 14067 Lakeshore Dr Closed LUST

14 Food & Liquor #177 (Former) 14091 Lakeshore Dr Closed LUST

15 Clearlake Union 76 14090 Lakeshore Dr Closed LUST

16 Konocti School Bus Yard Center Dr S Closed LUST

17 Former Pearce Aero 7140 Old Highway 53 Closed LUST

18 Peavey Rentals (Former) 14765 Olympic Dr Closed LUST

19 Lakeshore Fire Department 14815 Olympic Dr Closed LUST

20 Shaw's Shady Acres 7805 Highway 53 Closed LUST

21 Sheriff's Substation 7000 Highway 53 Closed LUST

22 Chandler's Truck & Van Wash 14800 Olympic Dr Closed LUST

23 Burns Valley Elementary School 3620 Pine Street Closed LUST

24 Clearlake Community School 6945 Old Hwy 53 Certified DTSC Cleanup site

Notes: LUST – Leaking Underground Storage Tank, UST – Underground Storage Tank Source: State Water Resources Control Board, Geotracker, 2013

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Map 4.8‐4 Hazardous Waste and Substance Site Locations

Source: State Water Resources Control Board, Geotracker, 2013

A noteworthy hazardous site is the abandoned Sulphur Bank Mercury Mine (SBMM) located just Northwest in the north of the City limits, and listed as hazardous site number 11 in Table 4.8-1 (EPA, 2012). The mine was active from 1865 to 1957, and soils in the vicinity of the property are contaminated with large amounts of mercury and arsenic. Groundwater and surface water discharged from the site contain high levels of these heavy metals, leading to pollution of nearby wetlands. Bioaccumulation of these heavy metals occurs in the aquatic wildlife in Clear Lake and in Cache Creek vicinity. This creates excess exposure, in terms of federally recommended thresholds, to humans who consume fish from Clear Lake. Also, direct contact with contaminated soil and water may cause adverse health effects. The SBMM site has been active since 1984, was listed as a Federal Superfund Site, and placed on the National Priorities List in 1990. In 2007 and 2008, the EPA cleaned up contaminated soil affecting the residential properties of the Elem Indian Colony. In early 2013, the EPA began construction of a cap at the southern edge of the Oaks Arm of Clear Lake to cover the contaminated sediments which have eroded from the SBMM (US EPA, 2012). As a result of the increasing mercury concentration, the State has issued an advisory to limit the consumption of fish from Clear Lake. In addition, there are eight underground storage tanks in Clearlake, of which two are still leaking, according to the State Water Resources Control Board (2012).

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Airport Business Park Clearlake plans to redevelop Pearce Airport, which has been decommissioned, into a business park. However, the site must be investigated for hazardous materials before it is converted to commercial land use.

4.8.2 STANDARDS OF SIGNIFICANCE

4.8.2.1 CEQA THRESHOLDS According to Appendix G of the California Environmental Quality Act (CEQA) Guidelines, the proposed Plan would have a significant effect on the environment in terms of hazards and hazardous materials if it would:

1. Create a significant hazard to the public or the environment through the routine transport, use, or disposal of hazardous materials;

2. Create a significant hazard to the public or the environment through reasonably foreseeable upset and accident conditions involving the release of hazardous materials into the environment;

3. Emit hazardous emissions or handle hazardous or acutely hazardous materials, substances, or waste within one-quarter mile of an existing or proposed school;

4. Be located on a site which is included on a list of hazardous materials sites compiled pursuant to Government Code Section 65962.5 and, as a result, would it create a significant hazard to the public or the environment;

5. For a project located within an airport land use plan or, where such a plan has not been adopted, within two miles of a public airport or public use airport, would the project result in a safety hazard for people residing or working in the project area;

6. For a project within the vicinity of a private airstrip, would the project result in a safety hazard for people residing or working in the project area;

7. Impair implementation of or physically interfere with an adopted emergency response plan or emergency evacuation plan; or

8. Expose people or structures to a significant risk of loss, injury or death involving wildland fires, including where wildlands are adjacent to urbanized areas or where residences are intermixed with wildlands (Association of Environmental Professionals, 2012).

4.8.2.2 METHODOLOGY Preferred growth areas and existing inhabited areas identified in the proposed Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update were compared to the locations of hazardous material sites, airports, and fire hazard zones. The City of Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update Background Report, policies from the proposed Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update, Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan, and Fire Hazard Planning published by the State, were also used for the review. Computer analysis using Geographic Information System (GIS)

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software was used to measure the proximity of inhabited areas to the hazards discussed above.

4.8.3 IMPACT DISCUSSION This section discusses the Plan-specific and cumulative impacts related to hazards and hazardous materials. This discussion is organized by the above standards of significance.

HAZ-1 Build-out of the proposed Plan would result in less-than-significant impacts in regards to creating a significant hazard to the public or the environment through the routine transport, use, or disposal of hazardous materials.

According to the preferred growth scenario in the proposed Plan, light industrial is the only proposed or currently existing land use type that is likely to produce hazardous materials. Due to the expected low intensity of industrial production, it is unlikely significant amounts of hazardous materials will be produced, transported, or disposed of. Existing industrial land uses, such as gas stations, routinely have gasoline transported to their facilities. However, there are regulations and response procedures in place in the event of a spill. Heavy manufacturing and heavy industry are currently absent within city limits. In addition, proposed Plan contains the following programs and policies addressing the routine transport, use, or disposal of hazardous materials, which are expected to mitigate impacts to less than significant levels:

Policy SA 3.1.1 Maintain separation between residential areas and hazardous materials. Program SA 3.1.1.1 Develop residential uses in areas that have not experienced hazardous material contamination if other feasible locations are available. Policy SA 3.1.2 Require remediation of hazardous sites before prolonged human occupation. Program SA 3.1.2.1 Demand documentation of responsibilities for cleanup procedures with handlers of hazardous materials prior to the start of operations.

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Program SA 3.1.2.2 Demand a cleanup program that conforms to State and Federal regulations. Policy SA 3.1.3 Follow hazardous waste transport standards set by the U.S. Department of Transportation. Program SA 3.1.3.1 Define routes that allow vehicles to safely transport waste while reducing exposure to residents. Policy SA 3.1.4 Continue to facilitate land use and transportation decisions and other programs in accordance with the County's Hazardous Waste Management Plan. Program SA 3.1.4.1 Coordinate with regional and state agencies to develop consistent hazardous waste management programs. Policy SA 3.1.5 Inform citizens about hazardous sites. Program SA 3.1.5.1 Provide links to state and federal resources that describe the types of hazards and the location of hazardous sites. Program SA 3.1.5.2 Disseminate material that describes remediation measures. Applicable Regulations: Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Federal Hazardous Materials Transportation Act (49 USC Section 1801 et seq.) Hazardous Materials Transportation Uniform Safety Act California Health and Safety Code, 2011 Significance Before Mitigation: Less-than-significant.

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HAZ-2 Build-out of the proposed Plan would result in potentially significant impacts in regards to creating a significant hazard to the public or the environment through reasonably foreseeable upset and accident conditions involving the release of hazardous materials into the environment.

The preferred growth scenario in the proposed Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update does not propose any land uses that would create conditions for the accidental release of man-made hazardous materials. As previously discussed, existing and proposed industrial land uses are of light intensity and industrial uses such as gas stations have mitigation measures in place to monitor their potential for leaching gasoline into the groundwater system. However, in the short term, construction can lead to the release of hazardous materials, especially if older buildings are demolished. The proposed plan mentions significant redevelopment in urbanized areas such as the reuse of the decommissioned Pearce Airport. Hazardous materials such as asbestos and lead based paints from older structures could potentially be released during demolition. The proposed plan does not specifically address policies regarding the prevention of such hazardous materials release during construction, but Title 8, Section 1735 California Code of Regulations regulates demolition during construction.

Construction activities resulting from the proposed Plan could result in the release of naturally occurring geothermal gasses, including methane. These gasses represent a significant hazard, as they can cause explosions during construction, and gas poisoning if allowed to accumulate inside a structure.

Applicable Regulations Title 8, Section 1735 California Code of Regulations Federal Emergency Planning and Community Right to Know Act of 1986 Significance Before Mitigation: Potentially significant.

HAZ-3 Build-out of the proposed plan would result in less-than-significant impacts in regards to emitting hazardous emissions or handling hazardous or acutely hazardous materials, substances, or waste within one-quarter mile of an existing or proposed school.

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The four open hazardous sites, as identified in the City of Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update Background Report, and verified by State Water Resources Control Board’s database Geotracker are not within a quarter mile of any existing or currently proposed school. Figure 4.8-5 below depicts one-quarter mile buffers around the four open hazardous sites. The preferred growth areas for industrial development is also not within a quarter mile of any existing or currently proposed school. If additional schools are proposed in the future, care should be taken to avoid proximity to these areas and future hazardous sites.

Significance Before Mitigation: Less-than-significant.

Map 4.8‐5 Open Hazardous Sites in Relation to School Facilities

Source: State Water Resources Control Board, Geotracker, 2013; City of Clearlake2040 General Plan Background Report, 2012

HAZ-4 Build out of the proposed plan would result in potentially significant impacts in regards to being located on a site which is included on a list of hazardous materials sites compiled pursuant to Government Code Section 65962.5.

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A portion of the preferred growth area for commercial land uses overlaps an open hazardous site. Specifically, there is a leaking underground storage tank located on 15021 Lakeshore Drive, at an existing gas station. According to the State Water Resources Control Board’s database, Geotracker, a case was opened because of an unauthorized release of toxic substances from the underground storage tank. However, corrective action is underway and monitoring wells have been installed on site (State Water Resources Control Board, 2012). Therefore, despite the site’s hazardous materials status pursuant to Government Code Section 65962.5, there are mitigation measures already in place as described previously. As long as the monitoring wells indicate groundwater is not being contaminated, than the mitigations agreed upon with overseeing agency (Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board) should suffice.

Applicable Regulations Comprehensive Environmental Response, Compensation, and Liability Act (CERCLA) Government Code Section 65962.5 Resources Conservation and Recovery Act

Significance Before Mitigation: Potentially significant.

HAZ-5 Build-out of the proposed plan would result in no impact in regards to being located within an airport land use plan or, where such a plan has not been adopted, within two miles of a public airport or public use airport.

There are no airports within the city boundary. The nearest operating airports/airfield in the region are Mysterious Valley Airport, Antelope Valley Ranch, and Ukiah Municipal Airport. All of these facilities are more than 30 miles away from the City. The closest airport to Clearlake, Lampson Field, is approximately 20 miles away just south of Lakeport.

Applicable Regulations Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) Part 77 Significance Before Mitigation: No impact.

HAZ-6 Build-out of the proposed plan would result in no impact in regards to being located within the vicinity of a private airstrip.

There are no operational private airstrips within the city boundaries.

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Applicable Regulations Federal Aviation Regulations (FAR) Part 77 Significance Before Mitigation: No impact.

HAZ-7 Build-out of the proposed plan would result in less than significant impacts in regards to impairing the implementation of or physically interferes with an adopted emergency response plan or emergency evacuation plan.

The Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan for Lake County mentions the issue of limited access into and out of the County. According to the plan, roadways may be reduced to only one lane and direction during a landslide or washout event. In severe landslide or washout events, entire road corridors could be eroded away thereby interfering with emergency response service vehicles and/or evacuations of populated areas (Lake County, 2005). However, the following policies proposed in the Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update address improving paved road infrastructure as well as emergency access within the City:

Policy CI 1.1.21 Continually increase the percentage of paved roads in the City. Program CI 1.1.2.1 Prioritize public road improvements to create a grid of paved roads no more than a half‐mile apart. Program CI 1.1.2.2 Maintain road pavements in good, all‐weather condition. Program CI 1.1.2.3 Support increased connectivity of parallel local roads to State Route 53, allowing more local trips to take place on local streets, and reducing the need for local motorized and non--‐motorized traffic to utilize the state highway. Policy CI 1.1.3 Designate emergency access routes within a quarter mile of each residential or commercial establishment. Program CI 1.1.3.1

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Establish a grid network of all‐weather roads at half--‐mile intervals throughout the City. The following policies proposed in the Clearlake 2040 General Plan Update address actions in regards to emergency response and preparedness: Policy SA 4.3.1 Designate an existing administrative employee as the City’s Public Information Officer to respond to the public in the case of a natural disaster. Program SA 4.3.1.1 Develop a protocol to disseminate information to the public in a disaster scenario. Policy SA 4.4.1 Require adequate transportation access to new developments. Program SA 4.4.1.1 Maintain adequate emergency vehicle access with minimum road width requirements and passable at all times. Program SA 4.4.1.2 Inform the Clearlake Police Department and the County Sheriffs Department of the emergency evacuation routes as well as of any changes in these routes. Applicable Programs The Lake County Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Significance Before Mitigation: Less than impact.

HAZ-8 The build-out of the proposed plan would result in less than significant impacts in regards to exposing people or structures to a significant risk of loss, injury or death involving wildland fires, including where wildlands are adjacent to urbanized areas or where residences are intermixed with wildlands.

Although some preferred growth areas and existing land uses are in areas classified as “high” and “very high” fire risk according to Cal Fire, the following policies will mitigate such hazards:

Objective SA 1.1

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Building limitations in high-risk zones- Avoid construction of high occupancy or critical services buildings in high fire, flood, and seismic risk zones.

Policy SA 1.1.1 Review and revise the Zoning Ordinance as necessary to relocate high density zoning to areas outside high risk zones.

Program SA 1.1.1.1 Review and update the Zoning Ordinance as new hazard maps are created by County, State, and Federal agencies.

Objective SA 1.3 Reduce the risk of damage and destruction from wild land fires. Review all development proposals for fire risk and require mitigation measures to reduce the probability of fire.

Policy SA 1.3.1 The County Fire Protection District shall review all development proposals and recommend measures to reduce fire risk.

Program SA 1.3.1.1 Decline approval for proposed development not located within a five-minute response time of a fire station, unless acceptable mitigation measures are provided.

Program SA 1.3.1.2 Require that all new development be provided with sufficient fire flow facilities at the time of permit issuance.

Policy SA 1.3.2 Promote the use of defensible space in order to reduce the risk of structure fires.

Program SA 1.3.2.1 Collaborate with the Fire District to develop and implement an effective and environmentally sound weed abatement program and utilize the CDF defensible space standards and recommendations.

Table 4.8-2 displays the approximate area in acres of preferred growth areas that intersect areas classified by Cal Fire as having “high” or “very high” risk for wildland fire threat.

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Table 4.8-2 Preferred Growth Areas in “High” or “Very High” Risk for Wildland Fire Threat

Proposed Land use Acres intersecting Cal Fire's high risk fire threat

Acres intersecting Cal Fire's very high risk fire threat

Preferred Open Space 0.00 1.73 Preferred Single Family 6.72 16.73 Preferred Medium Density 1.08 1.77 Preferred High Density 0.00 0.00 Preferred New Commercial 26.45 11.58 Preferred New Mixed Use 0.00 0.00 Preferred Industrial 0.00 0.00 Total 34.25 31.81

Source: California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, 2013 Map 4.8-6 displays where the preferred growth areas are located in relation to areas classified as having “high” or “very high” risk for wildland fire threat. The preferred growth areas are largely outside of the “high” and “very high” risk areas. Map 4.8‐6 Fire Hazard Severity Zones in relation to Preferred Growth Areas

Source: California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection, 2013; City of Clearlake 2040 General Plan Background Report, 2012

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Any future development that occurs as a result of the proposed Plan will have to be compliant with the 2013 California Fire Code.

Applicable Regulations 2012 Strategic Plan 2013 California Building Code 2013 California Fire Code California Public Resources Code (PRC) Sections 4201-4204 Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan Significance Before Mitigation: Less than impact.

HAZ-9 Build-out of the proposed plan would result in less than significant cumulative impacts related to hazards and hazardous materials.

Growth within the city and the county is expected. The Lake County General Plan (2008) recommends focusing growth in urbanized areas in the form of policies such as Policy LU-7.1, Adaptive Reuse and Policy LU-1.1, Smart Growth. As previously discussed, the City of Clearlake’s proposed Plan also encourages similar policies in utilizing urbanized land for growth. Such policies would encourage infill, demolition, and/or reuse of existing structures. This could result in the potential release of hazardous materials of a significant level when construction at the City and County level are combined. However, Title 8, Section 1735, regulates demolition during construction.

Applicable Regulations Title 8, Section 1735

Significance Before Mitigation: Less than impact.

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4.8.4 SUMMARY OF SIGNIFICANT IMPACTS AND MITIGATION MEASURES

HAZ-1 Build-out of the proposed Plan would result in potentially significant impacts in regards to creating a significant hazard to the public through reasonably foreseeable accident conditions involving the release of hazardous geothermal gasses into the environment.

Mitigation Measure HAZ-1: In order mitigate the potential impacts of geothermal gas emissions, the City shall adopt an ordinance which requires testing for geothermal gasses before beginning commercial or home construction activities that require excavation. If gasses are found, special care should be given to avoid smoking and generation of sparks in and around work areas, and proper gas ventilation should be installed to prevent the accumulation of gasses.

Significance After Mitigation: Less-than-significant.

HAZ-2 A portion of the Preferred Growth Area overlaps with the site of a leaking underground storage tank on 15021 Lakeshore Drive. The potential contaminant of concern is gasoline, which threatens a nearby drinking water aquifer.

Mitigation Measure HAZ-2: The City shall ensure existing and proposed development that occupy the site containing the leaking underground storage tank on 15021 Lakeshore Drive continue to follow existing corrective actions as agreed upon with the Central Valley Regional Water Quality Control Board. The corrective actions include, but are not limited to preliminary site investigation, planning and implementation of remedial action, verification monitoring, or a combination of the above. In addition, groundwater monitoring is underway both semi-annually and annually to ensure water quality of surrounding groundwater resources (State Water Resources Control Board, 2012).

Significance After Mitigation: Less-than-significant.

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Hazards and Hazardous Materials References

Association of Environmental Professionals. (2014). California Environmental Quality Act

CEQA Statute and Guidelines. Appendix G. City of Clearlake, CA. (2012). General Plan Background Report. Prepared by California

Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo. City of Clearlake, CA. (2013). Draft 2040 General Plan. Prepared by California

Polytechnic State University, San Luis Obispo.

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. (2012). Lake County Fire Hazard Severity Zones. Retrieved from http://www.fire.ca.gov/fire_prevention/fhsz_maps_lake.php

California Department of Forestry and Fire Protection. (2013).Cal Fire Local Responsibility Area, Lake County. Retrieved from http://frap.fire.ca.gov/projects/sra_mapping/sra_2013.php

California Energy Commission. (2011). Cal-Adapt: Wildfire. Retrieved from http://cal-

adapt.org/

Department of Toxic Substances Control. (2012). EnviroStarDatabase. Retrieved from dtsc.ca.gov

Lake County. (2005). Natural Hazard Mitigation Plan. Retrieved from http://www.lakesheriff.com/Assets/Sheriff/OES/Docs/HMP.pdf

State Water Resources Control Board. (2012). Geotracker. Retrieved from

http://geotracker.waterboards.ca.gov/ United States Environmental Protection Agency. (2012). Sulfur Bank Mercury Mine.

Pacific Southwest, Region 9: Superfund. Retrieved from http://yosemite.epa.gov/r9/sfund/r9sfdocw.nsf/3dec8ba3252368428825742600743733/08592ed1469e8bd188257007005e9469!OpenDocument

THOMAS PARK Graphics Portfolio

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ΦHiguera Street Site Plan and Elevation p.1

Φ Dexter Lawn Site Analysis p.2

Φ Dexter Lawn Conceptual Sketch p.3

Φ Dexter Lawn Conceptual Site Plan p.4

Φ Dexter Lawn Cross Section p.5

Φ CAD Base for Dexter Site Plan p.6HAnd SKeTCHeS 2d COMPuTeR GRAPHiCS

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3d GRAPHiCS And GiS

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Φ San Luis Obispo, CA Downtown- Commercial Buildings Near Creeks Map p.13

Φ San Luis Obispo, CA Downtown- Hypothetical Project Area Map GIS and CAD Export p.14

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Alternative Landfill Site Screening within the UIC/No Pass Zone on the Island of Oahu, Hawaii

September 7, 2011

Attention to Reader: This document was prepared by Thomas Park, Planning Aide under the direction of Brian Takeda, AICP, Project Manager at R.M. Towill Corporation. This company is currently providing planning and engineering services to its client, the City and County of Honolulu of the State of Hawaii and its Department of Environmental Services- Refuse Division. The original audience for this presentation paper was an inter-agency consultation group and the Mayor’s Advisory Committee in charge of this special study for a new landfill site that would service the City and County of Honolulu. Certain parts of this document have been edited for confidential content at the request of the client and to be approved for academic and public audiences. However, this edited document tries to maintain as similar appearance to the one presented as possible. Section 1 Introduction

This task is to evaluate the list of potential sites for a new landfill on the island of Oahu.

The objective is to analyze obvious constraints that would eliminate potential sites and leave a final map that shows what options are left that are to be analyzed in more detail. A series of sequential maps will be presented. The constraints analyzed were as follows: State Land Use Conservation Districts, groundwater resources, Department of Health Underground Injection Control Line, Board of Water Supply No Pass Line, Federally owned Tax Map Key (TMK) parcels, TMK parcels smaller than 100 acres, Critical Habitats, Elepaio bird corridors, Natural Area Reserves, Impaired Water Bodies, parcels with airfields, and parcels within 10,000 ft of runway ends. Each map tries to keep a single theme leading up to the final map which has all the constraints combined. Currently, we have a list of specific sites to be considered as well as a map showing available TMK parcels that do not contain any of the constraints listed or combination thereof. It should be stressed that specific sites need to be identified with a specific TMK. This is currently an issue that needs to be resolved.

Section 2 Map Descriptions 2.1 Map 1 State Land Use

The first map shows the State Land Use Districts (SLUD) in relation to the alternative sites. There are 4 land use designations statewide, Agricultural, Conservation, Rural, and Urban. Placing a landfill in the Conservation Land Use District would mean degradation of ecologically pristine or recovering areas, and therefore not be permitted.

2.2 Map 2 Groundwater Resources

The second map displays information regarding groundwater resources. The City and

County of Honolulu Board of Water Supply (BWS) and the State Department of Health (DOH) regulate land uses in order to protect groundwater resources for drinking supply and general

environmental health. BWS has a “No Pass Line” which prohibits the development of a waste disposal site with the potential of contaminating groundwater resources used or expected to be used for public supplies. This line roughly follows the coastal areas and protects inland areas that contain aquifers. It is important to note that potential sites and land ocean side of the line will automatically be considered and/or further analyzed. However, for the purposes this analysis, land ocean side of the “No Pass Line” is not assessed in order to evaluate potential

inland sites. DOH has a similar regulation compared to the BWS No Pass Line, and developed the Underground Injection Control (UIC) Line. However, this line specifically controls septic systems and injection systems pertaining to raw sewage. The boundary separates non-potable groundwater wells that receive wastewater from underground sources of drinking water. UIC is governed by DOH Administrative Rules Title 11, Chapter 23. Section 4 of this rule gives the explicit criteria for classifying aquifers.

The groundwater resources themselves are also depicted on this map which comes from the Hawaii Source Water Assessment Program Report (SWAP). (Note: This part of the report has been removed. The referenced graphic, Map 2 has also been removed at the request of the client)

In summary, our second screening criteria were all constraints pertaining to groundwater resources, the BWS No Pass Line, DOH UIC Line, and groundwater resources.

2.3 Map 3 Land Ownership

The third map displays TMK parcel land ownership. Only land that was greater than or

equal to 100 acres were classified because this is roughly the minimum area a landfill would need. The basis of our site selection will be TMK parcel based. Currently, we have alternative site names identified that does not clearly align with a specific TMK. As we progress, it will be necessary to reconcile proposed site names with TMK parcel numbers and boundaries.

This information was gathered using Realquest Professional and the HOLIS websites. By cross referencing scanned TMK plat maps from Realquest Professional and the updated HOLIS database, errors could be minimized. A major concern is that TMK parcels can have new ownership, land transactions, and re-subdivision. All of this information cannot be portrayed real-time in any information source. Therefore, the ownership information presented is a best estimate. However, some parcels that were confirmed to be changed in terms of TMK number and/or boundary were identified in a table along with the land owner on the map.

In this exercise, all federally owned lands were identified and screened because it would be the most difficult land to acquire or purchase. City and County lands in contrast, would be relatively easiest regarding acquisition because the Department of Environmental Services, Refuse Division would be acquiring the land. 2.4 Map 4 Critical Habitats

The fourth map displays Critical Habitats of endangered species found on Oahu. There

are numerous endangered plant species such as the Hawaiian Māhoe and Haha flowering plants. The main animal species are the Elepaio and Picturewing Fly. All of these critical habitats were identified by the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service in order to identify habitat essential to species listed under the Federal Endangered Species Act. These areas are also in need of recovery;

require special management, and/or protection according to the metadata for the map files on the State GIS Program website.

The Elepaio was given special attention because of its ability to move back and forth between habitat locations. According to basic ecological principles, having contiguous habitats are better than fragmented smaller pieces. An ongoing environmental issue is that development along with ineffective resource management is leading to fragmented habitat. This causes populations of species to become isolated from one another and unable to travel safely and “rescue” other populations that are declining due to disease and predation. In theory, having contiguous habitats would allow species such as the Elepaio to move around and breed with other populations in order to keep all of these groups viable and growing. This concept inspired the idea to develop riparian corridors between habitats. In other words, in order to prevent further fragmentation of habitat there needs to be some sort of ‘corridor.’ In this map, streams with significant amounts of vegetation and connecting habitat areas were used as corridors. It is well known that Elepaio’s behavior and preference warrant vegetative cover rather than open spaces. These streams were protected by a 500m buffer to create the corridor.

Plant species, especially shrubs and grasses, usually have an easier time recovering their population compared to animal species. It can be assumed that the plant species can disperse to other locations by wind, water, animal fur, and other means therefore making them more adaptable to habitat fragmentation. Placing a landfill with a significant acreage of critical habitat and endangered species would be undesirable because of the conflict of policy objectives in accordance with the Federal Endangered Species Act. If the landfill were sited on areas containing such habitat or populations, regulatory permits such as an Incidental Take Permit under Section 10 of the Federal Endangered Species Act would need to be acquired. This would mean that habitat conservation plans and on going mitigation measures would need to be developed, adding great cost.

In summary, our 4th level of screening eliminates land with Critical Habitats of endangered and threatened species found on Oahu along with identified ‘Elepaio Corridors.’

2.5 Map 5 Natural Area Reserves

The fifth map portrays the Natural Area Reserve System (NARS) which was established

by the Hawaii State Legislature in order to further aid conservation efforts of ecologically important areas. These reserves are administered and actively managed by the Department of Land and Natural Resources, Division of Forestry and Wildlife (DOFAW). There are three NARS located on Oahu and nineteen statewide. Any site located within a NARS was screened. 2.6 Map 6 Impaired Water Bodies

The sixth map portrays Impaired Water Bodies as listed by the Department of Health,

Environmental Planning Office. This office publishes a bi-annual report known as the State of Hawaii Water Quality Monitoring and Assessment Report. The last update was in 2006 and the purposes are to meet federal requirements under the Federal Clean Water Act Section 303d and 305b. The Environmental Protection Agency is the approving agency of this report and ultimately responsible for federal consistency.

“Impaired Water Bodies” are streams, rivers, marine waters, and other coastal and inland water bodies that consistently have higher than the allotted Total Maximum Daily Load (TMDL)

of certain pollutants. Therefore, these waters do not meet water quality standards as determined by DOH and the EPA and need rehabilitation and/or protection. These pollutants include but are not limited to nutrients, Enterococcus, and chemicals from point and non-point sources of pollution. Acceptable margins of pollution levels in the form of TMDL differ between water bodies and are determined by research by the DOH, Environmental Planning Office. This map only shows surface water bodies that were listed as “Impaired” on the 2006 report and from EPA coordinate data from 2004; it does not portray the status of groundwater bodies. Data from both 2004 and 2006 reports were used to create the most complete and accurate map as possible, with the assumption that no waters were delisted on Oahu between the two reporting years. Lands containing a significant portion of impaired water bodies or deemed to have an impact on an adjacent water body were screened.

2.7 Map 7 Composite Final Map

The seventh map analyzes and portrays all the previous constraints to display available

TMK parcels and alternative sites. However, a new constraint, which warrants more discussion, is shown on this map. Airfields and areas within 10,000 ft of runway ends need to be addressed because the FAA would have to be consulted if a landfill is sited within 5 miles of an airfield. After all the data were ‘overlayed’, parcels were evaluated and finally screened based on the following criteria:

1. Completely within or covered by any of the listed constraints 2. Any of the constraints or combination thereof, covered roughly 25% or more of the

TMK parcel 3. Had 2 or more impaired water bodies, or tributaries (for streams) within the parcel

boundary 4. Became smaller than 100 acres after constraints were applied 5. Was within 10,000 ft of any runway end

All parcels meeting these criteria were listed as ‘unusable’ in the database table. However, one important exception to this is TMK parcels and sites that were constrained only by the BWS No Pass Line. These parcels that are ocean side of this line are automatically considered and although graphically screened, are not listed as unusable in the database.

All of the constraints except for impaired water bodies, airfields, and runway buffers were all given a solid tan color for sake of clarity. The constraints given discrete colors are meant to be prominent features because they warrant more discussion and level of detail. The issue of impaired water bodies depends on factors such as topography and proximity and needs to be further analyzed. Airfields and runways can be negatively affected if a landfill is too close, resulting in increased bird collisions with aircraft. The 10,000ft criterion therefore needs to be discussed further. Section 3 Conclusion

The goal of the exercise was to narrow down potential sites and land inside of the BWS

No Pass Line with the assumption that the ocean side parcels would automatically be considered and therefore would not require analysis for this part of the assessment. The alternative site identified as Kawailoa appears to be the only site free of any of the identified constraints. TMK parcels inland of the North Shore and in the Nanakuli area have the largest parcels available.

These areas would provide sufficient land for operations, access, and provide a buffer against all the currently identified constraints. It is recommended that these sites be the focus of further evaluation.

Section 4 References City and County of Honolulu Department of Planning and Permitting. 2001. Honolulu Land Information System- HOLIS. 2011. http://www.honoluludpp.org/gis/wihol_1.htm Core Logic. 2011. RealQuest Professional. 2011. http://www.realquest.com/jsp/rq.jsp?action=switch&page=main Department of Business, Economic Development, and Tourism. 2011. State GIS Program- Office of Planning- State of Hawaii. 2011. http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/gis/ Department of Health. 2006. Underground injection control program. 2011. http://hawaii.gov/health/environmental/water/sdwb/uic/uicprogrm.ht ml. Department of Land and Natural Resouces. 2011. Natural area reserve system.

2011. http://hawaii.gov/dlnr/dofaw/nars/about-nars

Environmental Protection Agency. 2011. Watershed Assessment, Tracking & Environmental Results: Hawaii Impaired Waters. 2011 http://iaspub.epa.gov/tmdl_waters10/attains_impaired_waters.control?p_state=HI Hawaii State Department of Health Environmental Planning Office. 2006 State of Hawaii Water Quality Monitoring and Assessment Report. 2011 http://hawaii.gov/health/environmental/env- planning/wqm/goals/wqm/wqrev.html/wqm.html/2006_Integrated_Report/2006_I ntroduction_IR.pdf Honolulu Board of Water Supply. 2004. Definitions. 2011. http://www.hbws.org/cssweb/display.cfm?sid=1415 Oyama, Glenn. Honolulu Board of Water Supply. Follow up Request August 15th, 2011. Robert B. Whittier et al. 2004. Hawaii Source Water Assessment Program Report. Water Resources Research Center University of Hawaii at Manoa. Prepared for State of Hawaii Department of Health Safe Drinking Water Branch. November 2004.

http://www.realquest.com/jsp/rq.jsp?action=switch&page=main

http://hawaii.gov/dbedt/gis/

http://iaspub.epa.gov/tmdl_waters10/attains_impaired_waters.control?p_state=HI

http://hawaii.gov/health/environmental/env-

http://www.hbws.org/cssweb/display.cfm?sid=1415

Operations and Safety Analyses for Local Area Intersections

Victoria Edington Thomas Park Kevin Wheat

November 25, 2013

Introduction Objective

Intersections are a crucial part of any city’s transportation system. As such, it is very important to be able to analyze an intersection’s effectiveness at accommodating those who use it. Geometry, traffic volumes, and timing are just some of the characteristics that can be assessed at a given intersection, whether it is uncontrolled, stop-controlled, or signalized.

Through study of two neighboring intersections in San Luis Obispo, we hope to demonstrate here some of the fundamental steps of intersection analysis. Our study sites are located at the intersections of South Street and Broad Street, which is signalized, and South Street and Meadow Street, which is a T-intersection controlled by a one-way stop. The close proximity of the two intersections, located approximately 500 feet apart, means that their interactions are an important aspect of how each of them operates.

Motivation

Figure 1: Location Map San Luis Obispo’s Fire Station No. 1 is located immediately adjacent to the intersection of South St. and

Broad St. Therefore, large vehicles with large turning radii must be accommodated by the geometry of the intersection to allow fire trucks in and out of the station at high speeds. However, because of the large curb return radii and the angles at which the two streets intersect, there is a potential problem when it comes to pedestrian crossings. Pedestrians must travel great distances when crossing the intersection, and so the signals must be timed correctly to allow enough time for most pedestrians to make it across. If they are not, they can be adjusted to make it safer for pedestrians to navigate this crucial intersection while still allowing large vehicles to turn safely.

The intersection at South St. and Meadow St. has a potential sight obstruction in the form of trees on the left and right side of Meadow St. This can make turning movements potentially dangerous if drivers must move up beyond the stop line to see on-coming through traffic. The high amount of traffic on South St., combined with the popularity of Meadow St. as a main exit of several neighborhoods, means that this a prime spot for studying capacity and level of service, as well as evaluating it for signal warrants based on

vehicular volumes. There is also evidence of pedestrians crossing South St. moving to and from Meadow Park, which makes it a potential candidate for a signal based on Warrant 4: Pedestrians. Analyzing all of these aspects of this intersection will allow a decision to be made about whether or not the one-way stop control is adequate for serving the users of the intersection.

Figure 2: Photos of Intersections Surrounding Land Uses

Adjacent to the intersection of South St. and Meadow St is Meadow Park, which means there are quite a few pedestrians walking in through the area. Many pedestrians were walking their dogs through the area. Aside from this park, near this intersection is a typical suburban neighborhood with somewhat heavy traffic volume. There is also a school within close proximity of the intersection that will lead to higher pedestrian volumes at certain hours of the day. At the intersection of Broad St and South St, it is very important to note the presence of San Luis Obispo Fire Station #1. This fire station has a huge impact on the intersection, leading to larger curb returns and longer crosswalks. The extent of the intersection based on these properties is due to accommodations that must be made for fire trucks, as previously described in the first paragraph of the Motivation section.

Sources of Arrival The intersection of Broad and Meadow is within 500 feet of the Broad and South intersection, where

almost all of Broad and Meadow Street’s westbound traffic originates. The majority of eastbound traffic originates from over a half mile away at the South and Higuera. Basically there are two signalized

intersections on both the west and east side of South and Meadow, which produce platoons of vehicles based on the signals at those intersections far away.

Most of Broad Street is unsignalized, with the exception of our intersection at South Street. Because of the lack of signals on Broad, there is a continuous flow of traffic leading up to our intersection. Broad Street has continuous traffic throughout the day. Arrivals from Santa Barbara Street (across from South) occur from local collectors.

All streets that interact with our intersections are arterials except for Meadow St. The arrivals from Meadow Street will primarily be people going to work in the morning and home in the afternoon Broad is a residential arterial, South is an arterial street, and Santa Barbara which runs Northeast from Broad is also an arterial. There is plenty of traffic arriving through all directions of our intersections.

Figure 3: Street Classification Map Source: San Luis Obispo General Plan (2007)

Expectations Our study intersections were selected with particular characteristics in mind, so as to focus on aspects of

each intersection that might need improvements, rather than simply concluding that each intersection was operating as efficiently as possible. As such, we began the study with some expectations already in place for what our final conclusions would be.

At the signalized intersection of South St. and Broad St., we decided to investigate the curb return radii and pedestrian crossing intervals. Our expectations were that the skewed angle of the intersection and the presence of San Luis Obispo Fire Station No. 1 would lead to curb radii that are too small for what the fire trucks require. Based solely on our observation of the aerial view in Google Earth, we also suspected that the pedestrian crossing intervals might be inadequate. The crosswalks are of uneven lengths, thanks to the skew of the intersection, and so pedestrians might require a longer time to cross one side of the intersection than the other, resulting in unequal pedestrian crossing intervals.

Our expectations at the stop-controlled intersection of South St. and Meadow St. were based partially on one group member’s previous experiences with the location. This previous experience meant that we were already aware of cars pulling forward at the stop sign to see around the obstructing trees. We were also aware of the existence of a shelter in the median for pedestrians, and had seen it used on more than one occasion. Its presence implied that there was sufficient pedestrian traffic crossing South St. that an

analysis for a pedestrian signal might be warranted. As this intersection is one where a local road, Meadow St., connects with a collector, South St., we expected that the peak hours for traffic would be at the beginning and end of the work day, when people are driving to and from their homes in the nearby neighborhoods. We therefore focused our efforts on studying the intersection during late afternoon and early morning on weekdays, so as to hopefully best approximate the peak conditions when gathering traffic counts and capacity data.

Accepted Practices Curb Return Radii and Vehicle Turning Radius

The curb return radii of an intersection are valuable, in that they oftentimes control the speed with which vehicles turn from one street to another. Large curb radii allow for larger vehicles to move faster around curves, while smaller radii force slower speeds and limit what vehicles can make the turn without encroaching upon other lanes.

The actual radius of the curb can be measured with a measuring wheel to find the chord length and height. Then the radius can be calculated using the formula below, where H is the chord height and W is the chord length.

𝑅𝑅 =𝐻𝐻2

+𝑊𝑊2

8𝐻𝐻It is often useful to know the effective turn radius of the path that vehicles actually travel around a

corner, measured along the centerline of the lane using a measuring wheel. It should be noted that this measurement should only be taken if it is safe to do so. Pedestrian crossing distances can also be measured with a measuring wheel, and are helpful because longer distances equate to a larger curb return radius.

Once these measurements are known, the existing radii can be compared AASHTO’s diagrams of design vehicles and their assumed turning radii. An example of one of these diagrams for a Single Unit (SU) Truck is included as Figure 4. By comparing the diagram of the intersection’s assumed design vehicle to the existing effective turn radii, it can be concluded whether or not the curb return radius is large enough to accommodate the correct vehicles.

Definition of Key Terms • Curb Return Radius: Curb returns are the curved portions of curbs at intersection corners and their

purpose is to guide vehicles in turning movements whileseparating pedestrian and vehicle traffic. Curb returns mustbe designed with a specific design and control vehicle inmind.

• Design Vehicle: AASHTO has defined 20 generic vehicletypes used for geometric design of roadways andintersection turns. Minimum and effective turning radii ofthese vehicles must be designed for. The vehicle type thatrepresents at least 95% of the expected vehicle mix isusually selected as the design vehicle. Passenger cars aretypical design vehicles for parking lots, while the Single-Unit (SU) Truck is typical for local streets.

• Control Vehicle: Control vehicles are similar to designvehicles, except that the geometry of the road does notnecessarily have to conform to their turning radii. Theyoften represent the minority of the vehicle mix and arelarger than the design vehicle, but still must beaccommodated for. For example, a transit stop located

Figure 4: Turning Radius Diagram

near a residential intersection may have a vehicle mix composed mainly of passenger cars, but a transit bus must be taken into account and the designer must plan for buses encroaching into other lanes of traffic when turning.

• Minimum Radius: The minimum radius for low-speed turn design (less than 10 mph) is defined as theminimum centerline radius plus half the width of the front of the vehicle. Each of the 20 designvehicles defined by AASHTO has a minimum radius, which can be seen on their respective turningradius diagrams.

• Effective Turn Radius: This is defined as the actual radius of the path the turning vehicle takes. Off-tracking of the rear inside wheel, the presence of on-street parking, and/or other obstructions on theturning path can influence the actual turning radius of the vehicle for a specific site. Thus, aneffective turn radius can and usually will differ from the minimum radius defined in AASHTO.

Pedestrian Signal Timing When designing the signals for an intersection, pedestrian concerns must also be taken into account.

Pedestrian signals must be timed so as to avoid conflicting traffic and yet provide adequate time for most pedestrians to cross the travel way. The MUTCD recognizes three intervals for pedestrian signals: WALKING MAN (steady), UPRAISED HAND (flashing), and UPRAISED HAND (steady). Pedestrians are allowed to enter the crosswalk during the first phase and continue crossing during the second, but must remain on the sidewalk when the hand is steady. The first two of these three phases must be carefully timed to allow pedestrians to cross safely at the assumed average walking speed, which is usually defined as 3.5-4.0 feet per second. An average walking speed of 3.0 feet per second is widely used for areas with older populations.

The Highway Capacity Manual provides guidelines for the minimum green-time required for pedestrians, based on values such as the length of the crosswalk, the average walking speed, and the width of the crosswalk. The necessary values can be measured in the field using a measuring wheel, and the equations for the analysis are summarized below.

For crosswalks greater than 10 feet in width, the minimum green-time is

𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 = 3.2 + �2.7 ∗𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑊𝑊𝐸𝐸

� + �𝐿𝐿𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝�

For crosswalks less than or equal to 10 feet in width, the minimum green-time is

𝐺𝐺𝑝𝑝 = 3.2 + �0.27 ∗ 𝑁𝑁𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝𝑝� + �𝐿𝐿𝑆𝑆𝑝𝑝�

Gp = minimum pedestrian crossing time in seconds 3.2 = a constant that assumes a pedestrian takes 3.2 seconds to observe the signal change and

begin crossing L = length of the crosswalk in feet Sp = average walking speed of pedestrians in feet per second Nped = number of pedestrians crossing per cycle in a single crosswalk WE = width of the crosswalk in feet

Once the minimum green-time has been found, however, there is some flexibility allowed to the signal designer as to what intervals of the vehicular signals it covers. Some intersections only allow pedestrians to cross during the green interval, while others extend into the yellow or even the all-red intervals. The existing timing for the signal can be measured in the field with a stopwatch and then compared to the theoretical values calculated based on the HCM equations and the crosswalk geometry. The main concern is to ensure that all pedestrians will be clear of the crosswalk once the conflicting vehicles are released on green. If the existing pedestrian signal timing is not long enough to allow this, adjustments can be made to allow pedestrians more time before the conflicting green begins. The MUTCD gives regulatory and suggested

guidance on signal design and defines the relationships between pedestrian intervals and vehicular phase intervals. Specifically, Figure 4E-2 from the 2009 MUTCD displays these relationships.

Definition of Key Terms • Pedestrian Change Interval: This is the time between the end of the walk interval and the beginning

of the buffer interval. It is the total length of time that the flashing UPRAISED HAND is displayed. • Buffer Interval: This is the time between the end of pedestrian change interval and the release of the

conflicting green vehicular movement. It is represented by the steady UPRAISED HAND, and has a minimum length of 3 seconds as defined by 2009 MUTCD 4E.06-04.

• Pedestrian Clearance Time: The MUTCD requires that the clearance time be sufficient for apedestrian that leaves the curb at the end of the walk interval to travel at the assumed average walking speed to the edge of the vehicular travel way. The calculated value must be greater than or equal to the sum of the pedestrian change interval and the buffer interval, as stated in 2009 MUTCD 4E.06-04.

Stop-Controlled Intersection Sight Distance Sight distance is a key factor of any stop-controlled intersection. Adequate sight distance is required to

allow stopped vehicles on the minor street to turn onto the major street without colliding with oncoming traffic. In general, intersection sight distance becomes an issue when there is an obstruction blocking the view of the minor approach vehicle from adequately seeing the major approach vehicle and vice versa.

AASHTO has defined methods for determining sight distance criteria based on the distances from vehicles in the intersection to the closest obstruction on the side of the roadway. The distances can be measured in the field by a measuring wheel or estimated by pacing. By analyzing the so-called “visibility triangles” created by these measurements, any potential collision points can be identified. The procedure for analyzing sight distance a two-way stop controlled intersection involves four major steps.

1) Determine the distance from Vehicle A on the stop-controlled approach to the potential collisionpoint. This is calculated as

𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴−𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 = 18 + 𝑑𝑑𝑐𝑐𝑐𝑐

dcl = distance from the curb line to the centerline of the major street approach travel lane being analyzed in feet

18 = a constant that assumes the distance from the waiting driver’s eye to the curb line is 18 feet – 8 feet from eye to front of vehicle, and 10 feet from front of vehicle to curb line

2) Determine the minimum required sight distance for Vehicle B, approaching the intersection on themajor and uncontrolled street. This is calculated as

𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵𝐵 = 1.47 ∗ 𝑆𝑆𝐵𝐵𝑚𝑚𝑚𝑚 ∗ 𝑡𝑡𝑔𝑔

Smaj = design speed of the major street in miles per hour (converted to feet per second by the conversion factor 1.47)

tg = average gap accepted by minor street drivers to enter the major road in seconds

3) Determine the actual distance of Vehicle B on the major street from the collision point when it firstbecomes visible to Vehicle A around the obstruction. This is calculated as

𝑑𝑑𝐵𝐵−𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 =𝑎𝑎 ∗ 𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴−𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑑𝑑𝐴𝐴−𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆𝑆 − 𝑏𝑏

dA-STOP = distance in feet from Vehicle A to the collision point, as determined in Step 1 a = distance in feet from driver position in Vehicle A to the obstruction, measured parallel

to the path of Vehicle B

b = distance in feet from driver position in Vehicle B to the obstruction, measured parallel to the path of Vehicle A

4) Compare the results from Steps 2 and 3. If the minimum sight distance is less than the actualdistance, then the existing configuration is adequate. If the minimum is greater than the existing condition, recommendations need to be made to mitigate the danger of insufficient sight distance. These recommendations can range from moving the STOP bar up to clear the obstruction, lowering the posted speed limits on the major street, and/or removing the obstruction when possible.

Definition of Key Terms • Stopping Sight Distance: The distance a vehicle travels in the time it takes the driver to see a reason

to stop, apply their foot to the brake, and bring the vehicle to a complete stop. This can be calculated for existing conditions such as stop signs and signals as well as for unexpected events, such as an obstruction in the road or a new vehicle entering the travel lane from a side street.

• Obstruction: When defined as part of intersection sight distance analysis, an obstruction can bedefined as any object on the edge of the road that impedes clear sight distance of oncoming vehicles. These can include buildings, trees, signs, and various other objects.

Signal Warrants Traffic signals are only effective at certain intersections, and so limits have been established to define

when a stop-controlled intersection should be signalized and when it should not. The 2009/2010 MUTCD includes criteria for nine different signal warrants, based on everything from high hourly traffic volumes, to inclusion in a coordinated signal system, to proximity to locations such as schools and railroad crossings.

Warrants 2 and 3 deal with high hourly volumes at any given intersection. Counts are taken of the vehicles approaching the intersection, both on the major and on the minor street. The actual values of interest are the total number of approaches on the major street, from both directions, and the number of approaches on the minor street, from whichever direction observed higher values. These values can then be plotted against one another and compared the decision curves as defined by the MUTCD. While data should be taken for several hours, the number of points that must plot above the decision curve vary depending on the warrant; Warrant 2 requires four hours to satisfy the minimum requirements, while Warrant 3 requires only one peak hour to satisfy.

One additional warrant that is of particular interest in this study is Warrant 4: Pedestrians, which calls for signalization at a stop-controlled intersection if there is adequate evidence of high volumes of pedestrians attempting to cross the major street. For this warrant, both four-hour and peak-hour volumes can be considered. Counts of both the pedestrians crossing the major street and the total volume of vehicles on the major street must be taken over several hours and then compared to the graphs generated in the MUTCD. If enough of the hours plot above the decision curve on the appropriate figure, there is enough evidence to support the addition of a signal to the intersection.

For all of the warrants discussed here, a 70% reduction is available for situations in which the site is located in a community of less than 10,000 people or has high major street approach speed of greater than 35 miles per hour.

Definition of Key Terms • Decision Curve: The 2009/2010 MUTCD includes graphs for Warrants 2, 3, 4, and 9 that plot traffic

volumes of interest against one another in an easy-to-read format. Each graph includes a decision curve, which marks the threshold for recommending signalization at a given intersection. If enough points can be plotted above the decision curve, signalization can be considered. It should be noted that fulfillment of a warrant is not always adequate rationale for installing a signal; other characteristics of the intersection must also be taken into account.

Vehicular Level of Service (LOS) Analysis When looking at a particular intersection, we want to determine the LOS for particular movements in

order to evaluate how easy it is for a driver to make each type of movement. A movement with low control delay is easier to perform because there are larger headways between vehicles to access. Low delays lead to safer driving conditions.

To calculate potential capacity, observed conflicting vehicular flows are observed as shown in Sheet 4. Then, the total conflicting flow rate for movement x can be computed using the equation below. It takes into account conflicting pedestrian movements and is used for intersections with two-major streets.

𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐,𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉2 + 0.5𝑉𝑉3 + 𝑉𝑉14 + 𝑉𝑉15

The critical headway for movement x is calculated using the equation shown below. The base critical headway, tc,base, is obtained from Table 1 as shown.

𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐,𝑥𝑥 = 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐,𝑏𝑏𝑚𝑚𝑏𝑏𝑝𝑝 + 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐,𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻𝑃𝑃𝐻𝐻𝐻𝐻 + 𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐,𝐺𝐺𝐺𝐺 − 𝑡𝑡3,𝐿𝐿𝑆𝑆

tc,base = base critical headway in seconds, from Table 1 below tc,HV = adjustment factor for heavy vehicles in seconds PHV = proportion of heavy vehicles for movement x, expressed as a decimal tc,G = adjustment factor for grade in seconds G = percent grade, expressed as a positive or negative integer t3,LT = adjustment factor for intersection geometry in seconds

Table 1: Base Critical Headway Values for Various Vehicle Movements

Taking into account critical gaps (headways), as well as conflicting vehicular flow rates, leads to the potential capacity computation using the equation below.

𝑐𝑐𝑝𝑝,𝑥𝑥 = 𝑉𝑉𝑐𝑐,𝑥𝑥 �𝑒𝑒−

𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐,𝑥𝑥𝑡𝑡𝑐𝑐,𝑥𝑥3600

1 − 𝑒𝑒−𝐻𝐻𝑐𝑐,𝑥𝑥𝑡𝑡𝑓𝑓,𝑥𝑥3600

�

Vc,x = conflicting flow rate for movement x in vehicles per hour tc,x = critical headway for minor movement x in seconds tf,x = follow-up headway for minor movement x in seconds

Calculate movement capacity using Highway Capacity Software, then calculate control delay (d) using the equation below. Then use Table 2 shown below that to determine the LOS of a particular movement based on the calculated delay time. A movement with level of service “A” would have a control delay less than 10 seconds per vehicle. Essentially, a movement with LOS A experiences the lowest possible delay and lowest degree of difficulty to perform the movement. Once you obtain a LOS, you can decide to make alterations to the intersection need to be made to reduce delay. This all depends whether the obtained LOS meets the minimum required LOS in a given jurisdiction.

𝑑𝑑 =3600𝑐𝑐𝐵𝐵,𝑥𝑥

+ 900𝑇𝑇

⎣⎢⎢⎢⎡

�𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝐵𝐵,𝑥𝑥

� − 1 + ��𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝐵𝐵,𝑥𝑥

− 1�2

+�3600𝑐𝑐𝐵𝐵,𝑥𝑥

� � 𝑣𝑣𝑥𝑥𝑐𝑐𝐵𝐵,𝑥𝑥�

450𝑇𝑇

⎦⎥⎥⎥⎤

+ 5

Table 2: Control Delays and Corresponding Vehicular Level of Service for Analyzed Movement

Definition of Key Terms • Capacity: The maximum number of vehicles that can make a particular movement within an allotted

time frame (in our case, one hour). • Conflicting Flow: Vehicles that obstruct a particular movement. For instance, for a right turn,

through traffic approaching from the left is an example of a conflicting flow. • Control Delay: The delay experienced by vehicles for a particular movement. When there is high

delay, high risk behavior often ensues. • Critical Headway: The minimum accepted gap between successive vehicles so that a person would

execute a particular movement through an intersection. • Follow-Up Headway: Measured for vehicles in queue for right turn only. It is the time from departure

of the car in front of them to the time of the second car’s departure. Follow up headways are measured when vehicles are in queue only.

• Level of Service (LOS): For a particular movement, it represents how easy it is to make a certainmovement. It is directly related to control delay. LOS A represents movements with little to no delay, and LOS F represents movements with large amounts of delay, difficult to perform.

Executed Methodology and Key Assumptions Curb Return Radii and Vehicle Turning Radius

The accepted practice for gathering measurements for curb return radii, described above, typically calls for the use of a measuring wheel. However, due to lack of access to a measuring wheel, our values were collected using pacing and a measuring tape. These methods are sufficient, but likely not as accurate.

One of the main assumptions that goes into curb return analysis is the selection of the design and control vehicles for the intersection. For our intersection, South St. and Broad St., we assumed that the design vehicle needs to be a fire truck because of the presence of Fire Station No. 1 immediately adjacent to it. However, fire trucks are not singled out by AASHTO as a specific design vehicle. Caltrans has some measures in place in the California Vehicle Code controlling the dimensions of fire apparatuses and other emergency vehicles, but they are not as detailed as AASHTO’s specifications for other types of vehicles. Therefore, we decided to use a Single-Unit Truck as the design vehicle and a WB-40 or -50 as the control vehicle, because South St./Santa Barbara Ave. and Broad St. are designated truck routes and the turning radii of either vehicle should be sufficient to allow for the movement of fire trucks through the intersection.

Pedestrian Signal Timing As mentioned above, we did not have a measuring wheel in the field while gathering our data. As such,

our dimensions of the crosswalks for our pedestrian signal analysis were measured using pacing and a measuring tape. We did use a stopwatch to time the signals. The rest of our analysis proceeded as described in the accepted practice section.

Our observation of the intersection showed that there is not an abundance of older people using the signal to cross. Therefore, we decided to assume 3.5 feet per second to be the average walking speed in our analysis. We also used the recommended value of 3.2 seconds for the pedestrian start-up time.

Stop-Controlled Intersection Sight Distance The dimensions for our visibility triangles were measured using pacing and a measuring tape, again due

to not having a measuring wheel. However, as these distances had to be measured over curbs and medians—generally uneven terrain—we felt it was allowable because measuring wheels are not as useful on such surfaces.

We gathered measurements for the lane widths at our intersection, but rather than use the precise values measured in the field, we chose to assume a round value for the lane widths to make the calculations simpler. We used AASHTO’s recommended value of 7.5 seconds for the value of the average accepted gap, tg. We also used the recommended assumption that the driver’s eyes will be 18 feet away from the curb line when stopped at the stop sign, despite our observation that most drivers pull up farther in order to see around the obstructing tree.

Signal Warrants When counting vehicles approaching the intersection, we did not differentiate which lane the vehicle

was in or in what direction it ended up leaving. We counted the total number of vehicles approaching from either direction on South St., including those that turned onto Meadow St., and called that our “Major Street Approaches – Total”. For “Minor Street Approaches – One-Way”, it was relatively simple, because we only had one approach to count to begin with. We counted all vehicles approaching on Meadow St., whether they turned left or right to merge onto South St. When counting pedestrians crossing the major street, we included not only those who crossed directly at the intersection, but also a short distance to either side of it.

As described in the Expectations section, we assumed that this intersection would see peak volumes around the beginning and end of the work day. As such, we did not bother with gathering data in the middle of the weekdays or on weekends, but focused on just counting traffic during possible peak times. If our assumption was wrong, we could have missed a greater peak hour than what we observed, but we feel that the times during which we gathered data were sufficient.

The posted speed limit on South St. is 40 miles per hour. Given this value, and the knowledge that some drivers will go faster than the posted speed no matter what, we felt comfortable using the 70% reduced values for the decision curves when plotting our observed traffic volumes.

Vehicular LOS Analysis We could not properly account for the upstream signal when attempting to calculate potential capacity.

When upstream signals are present, a new term is introduced within the potential capacity equation, based on the probability of platooning, etc. The equation for potential capacity shown in Accepted Practice is when no upstream signals are present. Because of these shortcomings in terms of hand calculations, we relied heavily on the Highway Capacity Software for our level of service analysis, which was able to take into account our upstream signal data.

Results and Recommendations Curb Return Radii and Vehicle Turning Radius

The curb return radius for a right-turn movement at the northeast corner of the intersection of Broad St. and Santa Barbara Ave. was analyzed for adequacy. The reason this intersection was of particular interest was because of the high speed and high volume traffic conditions. Both streets are classified as arterials according to the San Luis Obispo General Plan, but the existing curb return radius appears relatively small compared to other curb returns at the same intersection and similar intersections. Finally, Santa Barbara Ave. (which becomes South St. west of the intersection), and Broad St. are designated Truck Routes in the San Luis Obispo General Plan, further justifying the need for a larger curb return radius. Table 3 depicts the existing geometry of the curb return. As hypothesized, the existing radius is relatively small, at only approximately 13.7 feet.

It was estimated that 95% of the traffic stream was assumed to be a passenger cars, but these vehicles are only used for the design of parking lots. Therefore, the next largest vehicle according to AASHTO is the Single-Unit Truck. As previously mentioned the intersection is part of designated Truck Routes. Therefore, large articulated trucks such as AASHTO WB-50 should be accommodated as the control vehicle. It is important to note that a Class II bicycle lane is present on Broad Street and that there are two receiving lanes following the right turn from Santa Barbara Avenue. The presence of the bicycle lane increases the effective turning radius of a vehicle negotiating the turn, but the presence of two receiving lanes in the same direction reduce the risk of encroachment onto on-coming traffic. Therefore, it was recommended that the curb return radius be expanded to a minimum radius of 30 feet to accommodate for large trucks and to avoid off-tracking into the bicycle lane. See Table 4 for a summary.

However, if a curb return radius is too large, vehicles may be encouraged to negotiate turns at higher speeds, and therefore endangering pedestrians and cyclists as well as increasing crossing distance. If the curb return radius cannot be changed, then the Class II bicycle lane striping should be shifted north. In addition, a portion of the receiving lane(s) could have a Class III “Sharrow” to encourage bicyclists to “claim” the center of the right-most lane until the bicycle lane striping begins. This would reduce the risk of vehicles off-tracking during the negotiation of the right turn and potentially colliding with bicycles in the existing Class II bicycle lane. Sheet 1 displays the existing curb return radius and intersection layout with an aerial photo.

Table 3: Existing Curb Geometry

Location Curb Arc

Chord Length Curb Arc Height

Curb Return Radius Estimate

Broad St. and Santa Barbara Ave. 26.9 ft 11.2 ft 13.7 ft

Table 4: Design Evaluation

Design Vehicle

Control Vehicle

Minimum Turning Radius

(Design Vehicle)

Minimum Turning Radius

(Control Vehicle)

Effective Turning Radius (Path of

Right Rear Wheel)

Number of Receiving

Lanes

Recommended Minimum Curb Return Radius

SU Truck WB-50 42 ft 45 ft 30 ft 2 30 ft

Pedestrian Signal Timing Below our field results can be seen along with the minimum calculated green time based on HCM

standards. Using the equation shown in Accepted Practice for WE=10 feet, our calculated minimum required green time for pedestrians was 28.03 seconds. Our observed pedestrian green time was 26.68 seconds. At first glance it may seem like a problem that the observed pedestrian crossing time was less than the minimum required pedestrian green time. However, because of the large buffer interval (32.7 seconds), there is plenty of time for pedestrians to cross the remainder of the crosswalk, if necessary, before any conflicting movements begin. By the time the pedestrian change interval (countdown) ends, pedestrians should already be at least halfway through the crosswalk, and out of the way of right turning vehicles off Broad St. onto Santa Barbara Ave. It is also important to note that the observed WALK interval (4.69 seconds) was greater than the minimum calculated HCM requirement of 3.79 seconds for the WALK interval. Our Vehicular Phase Interval diagram can be seen on Sheet 3 for a better understanding of these intervals.

Table 5: Pedestrian Signal Intervals Crosswalk Crossing Santa Barbara St. along Broad St. Quantity Method of Practice

Avg Number of Pedestrians crossing per phase 2 Field verified Walk Interval (sec) 4.69 Field verified Pedestrian Change Interval (sec) *with countdown 21.99 Field verified Green Interval (sec) (for through traffic on Broad St.) 53.29 Field verified Yellow change interval (for through traffic on Broad St.) (sec) 3.65 Field verified All red (for through traffic on Broad St.) (sec) 2.22 Field verified Buffer Interval 32.7 Field verified Crosswalk width (feet) 10 Field verified Crosswalk length (feet) 85 Field verified

Average Walking Speed (feet per sec) 3.5 Recommended standard- 2009 MUTCD

Minimum Required Pedestrian Crossing Time (sec) (calculated) 28.03

HCM (Eq 21-15) for crosswalk widths < or = to 10 ft

Minimum Required Walk Interval (sec) 3.74 HCM calculation for crosswalk widths < or = than 10 ft

Observed Crossing Time (sec) 26.68 Field verified (WALK+ Pedestrian Change Interval)

The main quantity that stands out from this data is the buffer interval, which is unusually high. However, looking at 2009 MUTCD 4E.06-24, we see an explanation for why the buffer interval is so long. The standard states:

At intersections with pedestrian volumes that are so high that drivers have difficulty finding an opportunity to turn across the crosswalk, the duration of the green interval for a parallel concurrent vehicular movement is sometimes intentionally set to extend beyond the pedestrian clearance time to provide turning drivers additional green time to make their turns while the pedestrian signal head is displaying a steady UPRAISED HAND (symbolizing DONT WALK) signal indication after pedestrians have had time to complete their crossings.

For our analyzed pedestrian clearance interval, we see that a long buffer interval is necessary because of high approach speeds and vehicular volume, allowing extra time for vehicles to make their green right turn without worrying about pedestrians crossing. There would be a large queue at the intersection if this buffer

interval was not long enough to give cars who were waiting for pedestrians to cross enough time to make their right turn before another conflicting movement begins. Based on our results, there is plenty of green time available for pedestrians to make it across the crosswalk. As described, the buffer interval is long but it accommodates both pedestrians and vehicles somewhat equally, ensuring that both can proceed through the intersection in a safe manner. In conclusion, we do not recommend any changes be made to the pedestrian signals for this crosswalk. There is sufficient time to cross when the long buffer interval is taken into account.

Stop-Controlled Intersection Sight Distance The intersection of Meadow St. and South St. was analyzed for sight distance because there is a sight

obstruction in form of a tree on the southeast corner of the intersection. Specifically, vehicles making left turns from the minor street onto the major street have a difficulty seeing westbound traffic on South Street. The westbound through traffic and left-turn traffic on South Street are both conflicting movements with the left-turn originating from Meadow Street. Therefore, two sight distance triangles were analyzed. See Sheet 2 for intersection and sight distance dimensions. It is important to note that some assumptions were made in terms of the design speed for each movement. As discussed in the Accepted Practices section the design speed of the major street is needed to calculate the minimum sight distance required. In this case, the major street has two movements that is of concern in this analysis. The posted speed limit on South Street is 40 miles per hour. Therefore, the 85th percentile speed which is used as the design speed can be assumed to be 45 miles per hour. However, the left-turn speed was assumed to be slower than the through speed, thus the posted speed limit minus 5 miles per hour was chosen to be a conservative estimate.

Table 6 displays the results of the sight distance evaluation. In summary the minimum required sight distances for Vehicle A (for the left-turn originating from Meadow Street) to adequately see Vehicle B (the left-turn originating from South Street) and Vehicle C (the through movement on South Street) is greater than the actual sight distances available. Furthermore, the disparity is relatively very high. For vehicle B, the actual sight distance is deficient by approximately 110 feet. For vehicle C, the actual sight distance is deficient by approximately 235 feet. Therefore, left-turn movements from Meadow Street are at risk of colliding with westbound traffic on South Street because there is inadequate sight distance. It is recommended that the tree be removed since it relatively small and most likely inexpensive. Another option would be to move the stop bar up in order for the driver’s line of sight to clear the tree. However, there is a Class II bicycle lane on South Street, which could be encroached upon by vehicles waiting at the stop bar. Therefore, removing the tree would be the preferred option.

Table 6: Sight Distance Evaluation Required Sight Distance (dBmin) Veh. B Left-turn 330.75 ft Required Sight Distance (dCmin) Veh. C Thru 496.13 ft Relative to Vehicle B, Assumed dA-STOP (distance to collision point) 48.5 ft Relative to Vehicle C, Assumed dA-STOP (distance to collision point) 57.5 t From Right Vehicle B, visible at dB-STOP (actual sight distance available) 220.45 ft From Right Vehicle C, visible at dC-STOP (actual sight distance available) 261.36 ft

Signal Warrants We collected traffic counts over two hours on two different days at the intersection of South St. and

Meadow St. so that we would have sufficient data to be able to evaluate the intersection for vehicular and pedestrian volumes for both four-hour and peak-hour warrants.

Table 7 provides a summary of the counts we collected for vehicles and pedestrians approaching the intersection. Figures 5 through 8 display both the points we collected as well as the decision curves for each warrant, taken directly from the 2009 MUTCD. As mentioned previously, to 70% reduction curves were used in all four instances due to the high approach speed on South St.

As the diagrams show, the data we collected does not fulfill either of the pedestrian warrants, because the actual volume of pedestrians observed was much less than what we expected. The vehicular warrants, on the other hand, are both fulfilled just from the four hours of data we collected, with all four satisfying the four-hour warrant and three of the four satisfying the peak-hour warrant. While this seems to be a significant discovery, it should be noted that fulfillment of a warrant is not the sole criterion that goes into deciding to install a signal at an intersection. From our LOS analysis (described below), the level of service at the intersection is good enough, with a small amount of delay. Furthermore, this intersection’s close proximity to the intersection of South St. and Broad St. may be enough to prevent ever installing a signal here. In fact, during our observation, there was at least one time when the vehicles waiting at the signal at Broad St. backed up almost to Meadow St. While there may be enough vehicles passing through the intersection to warrant a signal, it is likely not to installed based on these other conditions.

Table 7: Hourly Traffic Counts at South St. and Meadow St.

Date Interval

Major Street Approaches - Total

(vph)

Minor Street Approaches - One-Way

(vph)

Pedestrians Crossing Major Street - Total

(pph) 11/14/2013 2:30 - 3:30pm 1086 70 13

3:30 - 4:30pm 1092 90 9 11/18/2013 7:00 - 8:00am 1269 102 11

8:00 - 9:00am 1241 77 15

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Figure 5: Four-Hour Vehicular Volume

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Figure 7: Four-Hour Pedestrian Volume

Figure 6: Peak-Hour Vehicular Volume

Figure 8: Peak-Hour Pedestrian Volume

Vehicular LOS Analysis Presented below (Figure 9) is a screenshot of our results from the HCS software. We inputted our observed

vehicular and pedestrian conflicting flow volumes and accounted for the upstream signal at Broad and South Street. We had a total of 1100 vehicular approaches for our observed hour, and the allocation of these approaches to intersection movements can be seen in Sheet 4, attached. For this vehicular LOS analysis, we are primarily concerned with the right hand turn off of Meadow Street onto South Street. As seen boxed in red, we obtained a level of service of B for this right turn, with a capacity of 588 vehicles per hour. We recommend that the intersection remain unchanged due to its current adequate level of service and low delay. The procedure for determining vehicular LOS by hand for a particular movement can be seen in detail within the Accepted Practice section of the report.

Figure 9: HCS Software Output for Vehicular LOS Analysis

COMMENTS:Curb Dimensions in Red

SHEET:1

DATE:NOV. 21, 2013

PREPARED BY:GROUPTHOMAS PARKKEVIN WHEATVICTORIA EDINGTON

CURB

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PREPARED FOR:CE 421 TERM PROJECT

Chord Length29.6'

BRO

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Arc Height11.2'

BRO

AD STR

EET

SA

NT

A B

AR

BA

RA

AV

EN

UE

SOUTH STREET

FIRE STATION

Arc Radius13.7'

COMMENTS:Street Dimensions in CyanSight Distance Dimensions inYellowStop Bars in RedStreet Names in Green

SHEET:2

DATE:NOV. 21, 2013


SIGH

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SCALE: 1" = 20'

0 10 20 40

N

Veh. ALeft-turn

25'

Veh. CThru

Veh. BLeft-turn

45 MPH

30 MPH

25 MPH

OBSTRUCTION(Tree)

NO EXISTING OBSTRUCTION(TREES THINNED/REMOVED)

NO EXISTING OBSTRUCTION NO EXISTING OBSTRUCTION

SOUTH STREETSOUTH STREET

ME

AD

OW

ST

RE

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DR

IVE

WA

Y

8' 6'14'14'

6'

12'

4'

8'

9'

9'18'

4'

43'52'

TotalTravelway & Thru Lane

Bicycle Lane

Raised Median

TotalTravelway

LANE

LANE

Bicycle Lane

Shoulder

TotalTravelway

TotalTravelway

Left-turnLane

Right-turnLane

COMMENTS:Dimensions in yellow used tocalculate minimum greentime for pedestrians

SHEET:3

DATE:NOV. 21, 2013


PEDE

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WALK4.69 S

FLASHING DONT WALK(CHANGE INTERVAL)

21.99 S

BUFFER INTERVAL(STEADY)

32.7 SSTEADY

SCALE: 1"=5 SECONDS

GREEN 53.29 S

YELLOW3.87 S

ALL-RED2.22 S

VEHICULAR PHASE INTERVAL FOR BROAD STREET

PEDESTRIAN INTERVAL FOR CROSSING SANTA BARBARA STREET

85' CW Length

10' CW Width

SCALE: 1" = 20'

0 10 20 40

NRED

COMMENTS:Stop Bars in RedAnalyzed Movement inYellowDirectional Volumes inCyanVPH= Vehicles per HourPPH=Pedestrians per HourCircle #'s represent ID's usedin LOS calculations in-text.

SHEET:4

DATE:NOV. 21, 2013


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556 VPH

53 VPH

SOUTH STREETSOUTH STREET

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WA

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37 VPH454 VPH

Right-Turn MovementAnalyzed for LOS

6 PPH

4 PPH

3

2

15

14

thomas park portfolio.compressed

Engineering

highspeed rail system

highspeed rail network

critics of highspeed

rail advocates

california hsr proposal

social equity of hsr

hsr viable

context of hsr