to measure the flow rate and determine the coefficient of discharge and head of variation for...
DESCRIPTION
hydraulic experimentTRANSCRIPT
TABLE OF CONTENT
NO
.
PAGES
1 SUMMARY 1
2 OBJECTIVE 2
3 THEORY 2 - 4
4 EQUIPMENTS 4 - 5
5 PROCEDURES 5
6 DATA AND OBSERVATIONS 6 - 8
7 DISCUSSION 9 - 10
8 CONCLUSION 10
9 REFERENCES 10
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SUMMARY:
This experiment is conducted to determine the coefficient discharge (Cd) for different notches where
Hydraulics Bench was used. Flow Over a Notch was used together with Hydraulics Bench to measure the flow rate
against height of liquid over a Rectangular Notch or a V-Notch. Three types of notches were used in this experiment,
namely the Rectangular Notch, V-Notch 60˚ and V-Notch 90˚. All notches are 100mm in depth.
In the beginning, water was let flow in the Hydraulics Bench until it overflowed through the notch. Then, the
flow control valve was closed. When the flow was in a steady state, the water surface was made sure at the level with
the opening of the notch. The water level, Ho was measured and recorded by using the hook and point gauge. After
that, the flow control valve was opened and water with flow rate of 15L/min was allowed to flow and the water level
in the channel was recorded after the flow rate has reached a steady state. At the same time, the flow rate of water was
determined by recording the period for the water in the water meter to reach 4litre. The experiment was repeated for
flow rate of 30, 45, 60 L/min. After that, type of notch was changed and the whole experiment was carried out by
using 3 types of notches as mentioned above.
Lastly, calculation was done to determine the coefficient of discharge, Cd for different notches. Graph of
Discharge (Q) versus Height of Notch (H) and graph of log Discharge (Log Q) versus log Height of Notch (Log H)
were plotted. In sum, the experiment was conducted successfully.
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GENERAL DESCRIPTION:
Flow over a Notch is equipment for use together with Hydraulics Bench to measure flow rate against height of liquid
(water) over a rectangular notch or a V-notch. It allows water to be routed through a structure of known dimensions,
permitting flow rates to be measured as a function of depth of flow through the structure. Thus, this is the simplest and
most accurate method of measuring water flow in an opened channel. In its simplest form, a weir consists of a
bulkhead of steel with an opening of fixed dimensions cut in its top edge. The opening is called the weir notch; its
bottom edge is weir crest and the depth of flow over the crest (measured at a specific distance upstream from the
bulkhead) is called the head (H). Besides, the hydraulic bench we used has been divided into three sections: the first
section corresponds to a plenum chamber, in order to obtain a laminar for flow; the second corresponds to a shallower
channel section, where the notch is located; the third corresponds to the water outlet tank.
As a brief introduction, the main component of the equipment are stainless steel V-notch (60˚and 90˚) with the depth
of 100m, stainless steel rectangular notch 50mm or 30 mm wide and 100mm deep, and also stainless steel vernier
hook and point gauge with range of 0-150mm and 0.05mm reading. Through the experiment, we can measure the flow
rate of different type of notch and calculate the coefficient of discharge for a variety of different shape notches. After
all the data have been recorded and calculated, we are now able to plot the graph of discharge (Q) versus Height of
Notch (H) and also the graph of log Discharge (Log Q) versus log Height of Notch (Log H).
OBJECTIVE:
To measure the flow rate and determine the coefficient of discharge and head of variation for variety kinds of notches.
THEORY:
Flow of water between 2 points over a notch follows Bernoulli’s equation.
Point 1 = A point at a distance upstream from the notch (usually 4 times the height from the notch bottom)
Point 2 = A point above of the notch.
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Assume there is no energy loss between point 1 and 2
V 1 2 / 2 g + P 1 / γ + Z 1 = V 2 2 / 2 g + P 2 / + Z 2 (EQN 1)
V = velocity of water, m / sP = pressure, N / m 2
Z = height of water above lowest point of the depth, m
γ = specific gravity, N / m 3
g = acceleration due to gravity, 9.81 m / s 2
h = height of water above point 2, mH = height of water above lowest point of the notch, m
Since the Hydraulics Bench channel is much wider than the notch width, we can assume V 1 is very slow, thus V 1 = 0.
Total head at point 1 = Ht = 0 + P 1 / γ + Z 1 (EQN 2)
Where Ht =H = Height of water above notch lowest point
Hence V 2 2 / 2 g + P 1 / γ + Z 2 = Ht = H (EQN 3)
At point 2, P 2 = atmospheric pressure = 0
H = V 2 2 / 2 g + Z 2 (EQN 4)V 2
2 / 2 g = H - Z 2 = h
V 2 = √ ( 2 g h ) (EQN 5)
Consider dh = A thin of slap water at the point of measurement.
RECTANGULAR NOTCH:
b = width of notch
dQ = 2 √ ( 2 g h ) ( H – h ) tan θ
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Q = ∫o H √ ( 2 g h ) b d h
Q = ( 2 / 3 ) √ ( 2 g ) b H 3 / 2 (EQN 6)
V – NOTCH:
Width of the thin slap is 2 ( H – h ) tan θ
dQ = 2 √ ( 2 g h ) ( H – h ) tan θ dH, 2 θ = V –notch angle
Q = 2 ∫o H √ ( 2 g h ) ( H – h ) tan θ dH
Q = ( 8 / 15 ) √ ( 2 g ) H 5 / 2 tan θ (EQN 7)
In actual flow, the cross section of water after passing the notch will be slightly reduced due to vena contracta. Thus the actual flow will be slightly below that of theory.
Rectangular notch, Q = C D ( 2 / 3 ) √ ( 2 g ) b H 3 / 2 (EQN 8)
V – notch ( 90 o ), Q = C D ( 8 / 15 ) √ ( 2 g ) H 5 / 2 tan 45 o (EQN 9a)
V – notch ( 60 o ), Q = C D ( 8 / 15 ) √ ( 2 g ) H 5 / 2 tan 30 o (EQN 9b)
Where C D = Coefficient of discharge
In practice, calculations may be made through logarithm
For rectangular notch, log Q = log K 1 + ( 2 / 3 ) log HFor V – notch, log Q = log K 2 + ( 5 / 2 ) log H(K 1 and K 2 = constant)
EQUIPMENT / DESCRIPTION OF EXPERIMENTAL APPARATUS:
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Description of equipment:
The hydraulic Bench supplies water to the wide end of the tank. Water flows through the channel and over
the notch, where the deep tank exit allows students to clearly observe the discharge. Students measure the
free water surface by using an adjustable depth gauge attached to a beam across the channel. The tank outlet
fits over the weighing tank of the hydraulic bench.
Specification of equipment:
1.1 Stainless steel V-notches: 90 and 60. Depth of notches are 100mm
1.2 Stainless steel rectangular notch 50mm or 30mm wide and 100mm deep
1.3 Stainless steel vernier hook and point gauge with range of 0-150mm and 0.05mm reading.
PROCEDURES:
1. The pump (hydraulic bench) is turned on and the flow control valve is slowly opened until water
flowing over the notch. Then the pump is stopped. It is waited until the flow has stopped and then the
water level in the channel (H0 ) is recorded by level gauge at the side of the channel or hook and
point gauge, which is more accurate.
2. The discharge valve of the measuring tank is opened.
3. The pump is started again and the flow control valve opened until the flow rate in the flow meter is
around 15L/min. The flow is allowed to continue for at least 1 min to obtain a steady state, then the
level in the flow channel is recorded by hook and point gauge (H1 ).
4. The measuring tank discharge valve is closed and the clock is started when the level reaches “0” and
the clock is stopped when water reaches required level (volume =4L).
5. Step 3 to 4 are repeated at flow rate of about 30, 45, 60 L/min or until water level in the open channel
is near the maximum.
6. The notch is changed to other type or size and step 3 to 5 are repeated.
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Note:
Types of the notches:
Rectangular notch weir 5cm wide
V- notch 60°
V- notch 90°
DATA AND OBSERVATIONS:
Flow rate in flow
meter (L/min)
Volume of
Measuring Tank
(L)
Time (sec)
Flow Rate,
Q (L/min
)
Level above
the Notch
H1 (cm)
H (cm)
Log Q (L/min
)
Log H (cm)
Cd
Rectangular notch
Weir 5cm wide
10 441.8
45.74 10
1.260
0.759 0.100 0.458
15 429.5
68.12 10
1.259
0.910 0.100 0.649
20 421.3
511.24 10
1.254
1.051 0.098 0.904
25 4 16 15.00 101.25
21.176 0.098 1.209
V-notch 90
10 4 57.4 4.18 7.41.34
60.621 0.129 1.403
15 435.0
66.85 7.4
1.348
0.836 0.130 2.291
20 429.1
58.23 7.4
1.348
0.915 0.130 2.752
25 4 29 8.28 7.41.35
00.918 0.130 2.759
V-notch 60
10 453.3
14.50 9.8
1.060
0.653 0.025 4.753
15 4 22.5 10.67 9.81.06
01.028 0.025
11.271
20 421.8
710.97 9.8
1.058
1.040 0.02411.64
3
25 418.3
113.11 9.8
1.059
1.118 0.02513.88
1
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GRAPHS:
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 805
1015202530354045
Graph of Q vs H
rectangular notchV-notch 90V-notch 60
H (cm)
Q (L
/min
)
For graph Q vs. H we are going to get most likely a curve line graph as above. As we can see, the flow rate,
Q for each notch is the same initially for the rectangular notch and V-notch 90. While the height, H is
increasing start from rectangular notch, then v-notch 90 and last v-notch 60.
0.4 0.45 0.5 0.55 0.6 0.65 0.7 0.75 0.8 0.85 0.91.25
1.3
1.35
1.4
1.45
1.5
1.55
1.6
1.65
Graph Of Log Q vs Log H
rectangular notchV-notch 90V-notch 60
Log H
Log
Q
For graph Log Q vs. Log H we are going to get most likely a straight line graph as above.
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CALCULATIONS:
For Rectangular notch:
We use the flow rate of 15L/min in flow meter as the example:
Flow rate, Q = 4Lt x 60 41.84 s
= 5.74 L/min
Coefficient of discharge Cd =
32
Q
√2 g bH 3/2 = 0.458
For V-Notch 90o:
We use the flow rate of 15L/min in flow meter as an example:
Flow rate, Q = 4Lt x 60 57.40s
= 4.18 L/min
Coefficient of discharge Cd =
Q×15
8√2 g tan 45ο H5 /2 = 1.403
For V-Notch 60o:
We use the flow rate of 15L/min in flow meter as an example:
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Flow rate, Q= 4Lt x 60 53.31s
= 4.50 L/min
Coefficient of discharge Cd =
Q×15
8√2 g tan 30ο H5/2 = 4.753
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DISCUSSION:
This experiment was conducted to determine the coefficient discharge (Cd) for different notches. The types of
notches used in the experiment were the Rectangular Notch, V-Notch 60˚ and V-Notch 90˚. All notches are 100mm in
depth. Two graphs were plotted based on the results of the experiment. The first graph was Graph of Q versus H.
Based on the graph, it was found that the flow rate of the water is directly proportional to the height of the water above
the notch. When the flow rate of the water increases, the height of the notch also increases. This implies for all the
three types of notches. Among all the notches, the rectangular notch has the highest flow rate at the same height.
Other than that, the values of the coefficient of discharge,Cd was calculated for all the notches at every height.
The value for the coefficient of discharge,Cd varies every height. Based on the theory, the expected value for the
coefficient discharge is expected to be around 0.6. Based on the experiment, the value for the coefficient of
discharge,Cd was either more or less than 0.6. This result could be due to mistakes and errors occurred in the
experiment.
Few errors might have occurred while conducting the experiment. The results of the experiment are inaccurate
due to the mistakes and errors that occurred during the experiment. These mistakes and the errors could be due to
human error, errors in the equipment and environment effects. One of the human errors was parallax error. When the
readings are being taken, the eye sight of the observer should be parallel with the readings in the equipment. When it
is not, the observer tends to take wrong readings. Hence, the results of the experiment are affected. The unsteadiness
of the water flow through the notches could be one of the errors of the experiment. When the water flow was not in the
steady state, we tend to obtain inaccurate value for the H1. This will cause a big difference in the theoretical and the
experimental values. Thus, this was the reason for a huge difference in the c d value for V-Notch 90˚ because the h1
value is so much smaller compared to readings for other flow rate in flow meter.
Besides that, it was difficult to make sure that the hook can accurately touch the surface of the water, as it is
not easy to detect with human eyes. Moreover, improper screwing of the screws which have caused water leakage also
might have led to the errors of the experiment. Other than that, water reflection was another reason for the inaccurate
results of the experiment. When the readings are being taken, there might be an occurrence of reflection between the
water surface and the readings. Thus, inaccurate readings are taken by the observer.
We need to take few precaution steps in order to avoid mistakes and errors in experiment. One of them is to
make sure that the equipment is in very good condition. The equipment’s must be supervised for any leakage and
should be in good condition in order to obtain accurate results. Besides that, the eye sight of the observer should be
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parallel with the reading of the apparatus in order to avoid the parallax error. Other than that, the water flow should be
in a steady condition before the readings are being taken. The hydraulic bench should be located on a level floor as it
may be affect if the bench top is not levelled. Lastly, the height gauge should be set to the datum reading by placing
the point on the crest of the weir. These entire precaution steps should be taken in the experiment conducted in future
in order to obtain accurate results.
CONCLUSION:
In conclusion, we are able to achieve the objective of this experiment where the flow rate and the coefficient of
discharge and head of variation for variety kinds of notches were determined. Based on the data observation, graph of
flow rate vs. height of notch and the graph of Log Q vs. Log H were plotted. It was found that the flow rate is
proportional to the height of the notch. The coefficient of discharge, Cd was calculated for all the three types of the
notches. The rectangular weir is more suitable for the area with high flow rate while V-shape weirs are only applicable
for area with limited flow rate. The values that are obtained are slightly more than the expected theoretical value
which should be around 0.6. This might be due to the mistakes and the errors that occurred in the experiment. Thus,
precaution steps should be taken in order to improve the accuracy of the results of the experiment.
REFERENCES:
1) Lab Manual for Hydrology & Hydraulic Engineering I Laboratory, 4th edition.
2) Hydrology & Hydraulic Engineering I Notes by Prof.Dr.Ir.Lariyah Mohd.Sidek
3) Applied Fluid Mechanics by Robert L.Mott
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