Topic 2: Resource Management and Sustainable Production

Materials play a key role in the design, manufacture and use of all products. The historical development of materials should not only be considered in view of the

scientific advances made during the development of a particular material, but also how various developments in unrelated fields later converge and lead to the

development of new manufacturing techniques and materials. These developments should be looked at for their technological impact as well as their social impact on

the design and consumer industries.

Materials are so important in the development of civilization that we associate Ages with them. In the origin of human life on Earth, the Stone Age, people used only

natural materials, like stone, clay, skins, and wood. When people found copper and how to make it harder by alloying, the Bronze Age started about 3000 BC. The use

of iron and steel, a stronger material that gave advantage in wars started at about 1200 BC. The next big step was the discovery of a cheap process to make steel

around 1850, which enabled the railroads and the building of the modern infrastructure of the industrial world.

Life on Earth began and survived millions of years because of favorable climate conditions. Climate can be

viewed as the renewable resource with Sun's energy as a energy component and oceans as water reservoirs

(material components). Energy of the Sun supports circling of water on the Earth, therefore making life on

Earth possible. Where there is no water, there is no quality life, like for instance in deserts. Earth's climate

changes have reached the level of climate crisis. Solution how to get out of this crisis is very simple: return to

less harmful energy sources. However, lobbies that support use of fossil fuels are too strong in energy market

and at this moment there is no signs of slowing down in the usage of "dirty" energy sources. Such approach

could very easy endanger the future climate conditions, making the life of ecology sensible plants and animals

almost impossible, and since all species live in natural balance that would affect all life on earth.

To avoid this grim prediction of Earth's future, some countries started stimulating energy saving programs and

transition to "clean" energy sources. Globally, there is no major improvement because amount of energy

gained from these clean energy sources is negligible to amount of energy that is gained from fossil fuels.

World energy consumption between year 1850 and 2000 compared to world population increase.

World energy consumption between year 1850 and 2000 compared to world population increase in

same period.

Energy consumption is increasing much faster than population.

This picture shows the world energy consumption from year 1850 to year 2000. We can see that energy

consumption in the first half of the 20th century has doubled, and after this period, in the second half of the

20th century world came to a considerably higher energy consumption.

Renewable & Nonrenewable Energy

Consumption of energy is ten times bigger than it was in beginning of the 20th century. Major energy sources of 20th century were nonrenewable energy sources.

These are:

Coal

Oil

Natural gas

Nuclear energy

Coal, oil and natural gas are also called fossil fuels. Two main problems of non­renewable energy sources are limited quantity and environment pollution. Combustion of

fossil fuels emits large quantities of CO2 which is a greenhouse gas. This is probably the main reason of global temperature increase in last decades. Nuclear power

plants are not dangerous for the atmosphere, but substances created as the result of nuclear reaction remain radioactive for years, and should be stored in special

chambers. Renewable energy sources do not suffer of similar problems.

Coal and petroleum are arguable the two most important non­renewable resources. It can take millions of years and extremely rare conditions for these fossil fuels to be

produced in nature. Fossil fuels, however, are easily turned into power and heat with society’s current level of technology, so they are harvested well beyond their

sustainable yield.

Watch Powering the Planet

Renewable sources: A natural resource that can replenish with the passage of time or does not abate at all

A renewable resource is an organic natural resource that can

replenish in due time compared to the usage, either through

biological reproduction or other naturally recurring processes.

Renewable resources are a part of Earth's natural environment and

the largest components of its ecosphere. A positive life cycle

assessment is a key indicator of a resource's sustainability. The

term does not refer, however, to metals, minerals and fossil fuels.

Renewable resources are any type of resource that can be regenerated at a rate that is at least equal to the speed with which humanity can consume that resource.

While considered capable of replenishment over time, resources of this type usually require some degree of planned and responsible cultivation and harvesting in order

to insure the resources are available for future generations.

Most significant renewable energy sources are:

Wind energy

Solar energy

Bioenergy

Hydro energy

Renewable energy sources do not pollute environment in the same amount as non­renewable do, but they are also not completely clean. This primarily affects to the

energy gained from biomass which has the same effect as fossil fuels, and that is CO2 emissions when combusting, but carbon circle is at least closed in that case.

Biggest problems of renewable energy sources (water energy excluded) are cost and small amount of gained energy. Renewable energy sources have huge potential,

but at this moment our current technology development does not allow us to rely strictly upon them.

Resources and Reserves

Non­renewable sources: A natural resource that does not

replenish at a sustainable rate; a source that will run out if

the rate of extraction is maintained

Resource reserves: A natural resource that has been

identified in terms of quantity and quality

Renewability: Relates to a resource that can be

replenished over time or is inexhaustible, for example,

hardwood resources considered non­renewable could be

renewed if all extraction of the resource ceased and the

hardwood resources were allowed to re­grow

An example of the economic and political importance of

material and land/sea resources is the extraction of oil.

.

Students should consider the impact of resource security for nations and international treaties

Conflict and resources

Environmental factors are rarely, if ever, the sole cause of violent conflict.

However, it is clear that the exploitation of natural resources and related

environmental stresses can become significant drivers of violence.

The United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) suggests that in the last 60 years, at least 40 per cent of all intrastate conflicts have a link to natural resources, and that this link doubles the risk of a conflict relapse in the first five years. Since 1990, at least 18 violent conflicts have been fuelled by the exploitation of natural resources, whether ‘high­value’ resources like timber, diamonds, gold, minerals and oil, or scarce ones like fertile land and water. Climate change is also seen as a ‘threat multiplier’, exacerbating threats caused by persistent poverty or weak resource management. The Security Council recognized the possible security implications of climate change.

Often, multinational companies licensed to extract resources have limited

consideration for the local population. Governments need to balance the

economic benefits and political impact of resource extraction.

Watch What wars will be fought in the Future?

Waste­mitigation strategies Designing out waste and designing for closed­loop recycling will be more important as

resources become scarcer and waste becomes more expensive. Therefore, developing

products for product recovery and dematerialization will become an essential element of

innovation.

Dematerialization Dematerialization is defined by the United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) as

"the reduction of total material and energy throughput of any product and service, and thus

the limitation of its environmental impact. This includes reduction of raw materials at the

production stage, of energy and material inputs at the use stage, and of waste at the

disposal stage” ­ basically, using less material.

Dematerialization improves product efficiency by saving, reusing or recycling materials

and products. It impacts on every stage of the product life cycle: in material extraction;

eco­design; cleaner production; environmentally conscious consumption patterns;

recycling of waste. It may mean smaller, lighter products and packaging; the replacement

of physical products by virtual products (email instead of paper, web pages instead of brochures); home working, and so on.

The concept of a circular economy requires designers to consider the subsequent use of materials, components and the embedded energy in a product. This can only

be achieved by innovative design and consideration of further cycles of development. Designers must ask themselves the question, “How can this product be made to

be made again?”

Circular Economy

There are three central strands to this concept:

cradle­to­cradle design thinking

design for disassembly

design inspired by nature that favours diversity and in

which there is no waste (biomimicry)

Innovative design techniques might include the use of smart

memory screws, adhesives and circuit boards that can be

dissolved, the use of clips rather than adhesives or screws, and

biological materials that can be safely returned to the biosphere

with no toxic dyes or other materials.

Equally important are the systems in which the product moves:

How will the materials or components be recovered and made use

of again?

One way forward is to develop different business models where

users buy performance through leasing rather than purchasing.

This offers interesting job opportunities in creating reverse supply

chains as well as engaging design challenges and opportunities.

Energy utilization, storage and distribution

The embodied energy in a product accounts for all of the energy required to produce it. It is a

valuable concept for calculating the effectiveness of an energy­producing or energy­saving

device.

Embodied energy aims to find the sum total of the energy necessary for an entire product

life­cycle. Determining what constitutes this life­cycle includes assessing the relevance and

extent of energy into raw material extraction, transport, manufacture, assembly, installation,

disassembly, deconstruction and/or decomposition as well as human and secondary resources.

Different methodologies produce different understandings of the scale and scope of

application and the type of energy embodied.

There are many methods of distributing energy including the use of national/international grid systems. The distribution of charging point networks for electric vehicles

should also be considered.

Electric power transmission is the bulk transfer of electrical

energy, from generating power plants to electrical substations

located near demand centers. This is distinct from the local

wiring between high­voltage substations and customers, which

is typically referred to as electric power distribution.

Transmission lines, when interconnected with each other,

become transmission networks. The combined transmission

and distribution network is known as the "power grid" in North

America, or just "the grid". In the United Kingdom, the network

is known as the "National Grid".

North American and European power distribution systems

differ in that North American systems tend to have a greater

number of low­voltage step­down transformers located close to

customers' premises. For example, in the US a pole­mounted transformer in a suburban setting may supply 7­11 houses, whereas in the UK a typical urban or suburban

low­voltage substation would normally be rated between 315 kVA and 1 MVA and supply a whole neighborhood. This is because the higher domestic voltage used in

Europe (230 V vs 120 V) may be carried over a greater distance with acceptable power loss. An advantage of the North American system is that failure or maintenance

on a single transformer will only affect a few customers. Advantages of the UK system are that the transformers are fewer in number, larger and more efficient, and due

to the diversity of many loads there is reduced waste due to there being less need for spare capacity in the transformers. In North American city areas with many

customers per unit area, network distribution may be used, with multiple transformers interconnected with low voltage distribution buses over several city blocks.

Batteries have had a great impact on the portability of electronic products and, as new technologies are developed, they can become more efficient and smaller.

Battery research is advancing at a growing pace, an indication that the Super Battery has not yet been discovered but might just be around the corner. While today’s

batteries satisfy most portable applications, improvements will be needed to become a serious contender for the electric powertrain. All batteries have one thing in

common: they run for a while, need charging, progressively fade with each cycle and eventually need replacement.

Comparing the Battery with other Power Sources

The battery surpasses other power sources on readiness and efficiency but lacks on longevity and cost.

Energy storage

Batteries store energy well and for a considerable length of time. Primary batteries (non­rechargeable) hold more energy than secondary (rechargeable), and the self­discharge is

lower. Alkaline cells are good for 10 years with minimal losses. Lead­, nickel­ and lithium­based batteries need periodic recharges to compensate for lost power.

Specific energy (Capacity)

A battery may hold adequate energy for portable use, but this does not transfer equally well for large mobile and stationary systems. For example, a 100kg (220lb) battery produces

about 10kWh of energy — an IC engine of the same weight generates 100kW.

Responsiveness

Batteries have a huge advantage over other power sources in being ready to deliver on short notice — think of the quick action of the camera flash! There is no warm­up, as is the

case with the internal combustion (IC) engine; the power from the battery flows within a fraction of a second. In comparison, a jet engine takes several seconds to gain power, a fuel

cell requires a few minutes, and the cold steam engine of a locomotive needs hours to build up steam.

Power bandwidth

Rechargeable batteries have a wide power bandwidth, a quality that is shared with the diesel engine. In comparison, the bandwidth of the fuel cell is narrow and works best within a

specific load. Jet engines also have a limited power bandwidth. They have poor low­end torque and operate most efficiently at a defined revolution­per­minute (RPM).

Environment

The battery runs clean and stays reasonably cool. Sealed cells have no exhaust, are quiet and do not vibrate. This is in sharp contrast with the IC engine and larger fuel cells that

require noisy compressors and cooling fans. The IC engine also needs air and exhausts toxic gases.

Efficiency

The battery is highly efficient. Below 70 percent charge, the charge efficiency is close to 100 percent and the discharge losses are only a few percent. In comparison, the energy

efficiency of the fuel cell is 20 to 60 percent, and the thermal engines is 25 to 30 percent. (At optimal air intake speed and temperature, the GE90­115 on the Boeing 777 jetliner is 37

percent efficient.)

Installation

The sealed battery operates in any position and offers good shock and vibration tolerance. This benefit does not transfer to the flooded batteries that must be installed in the upright

position. Most IC engines must also be positioned in the upright position and mounted on shock­ absorbing dampers to reduce vibration. Thermal engines also need air and an

exhaust.

Operating cost

Lithium­ and nickel­based batteries are best suited for portable devices; lead acid batteries are economical for wheeled mobility and stationary applications. Cost and weight make

batteries impractical for electric powertrains in larger vehicles. The price of a 1,000­watt battery (1kW) is roughly $1,000 and it has a life span of about 2,500 hours. Adding the

replacement cost of $0.40/h and an average of $0.10/kWh for charging, the cost per kWh comes to about $0.50. The IC engine costs less to build per watt and lasts for about 4,000

hours. This brings the cost per 1kWh to about $0.34. [BU­1101, Battery Against Fossil Fuel]

Maintenance

With the exception of watering of flooded lead batteries and discharging NiCds to prevent “memory,” rechargeable batteries require low maintenance. Service includes cleaning of

corrosion buildup on the outside terminals and applying periodic performance checks.

Service life

The rechargeable battery has a relatively short service life and ages even if not in use. In consumer products, the 3­ to 5­year lifespan is satisfactory. This is not acceptable for larger

batteries in industry, and makers of the hybrid and electric vehicles guarantee their batteries for 8 to 10 years. The fuel cell delivers 2,000 to 5,000 hours of service and, depending on

temperature, large stationary batteries are good for 5 to 20 years.

Temperature extremes

Cold temperatures slow the electrochemical reaction and batteries do not perform well below freezing. The fuel cell shares the same problem, but the internal combustion engine does

well once warmed up. Charging must always be done above freezing. Operating at a high temperature provides a performance boost but this causes rapid aging due to added stress.

[BU0502, Discharging at High and Low Temperatures]

Charge time

Here, the battery has an undisputed disadvantage. Lithium­ and nickel­based systems take 1 to 3 hours to charge; lead acid typically takes 14 hours. In comparison, filling up a vehicle

only takes a few minutes. Although some electric vehicles can be charged to 80 percent in less than one hour on a high­power outlet, users of electric vehicles will need to make

adjustments.

Disposal

Nickel­cadmium and lead acid batteries contain hazardous material and cannot be disposed of in landfills. Nickel­metal­hydrate and lithium systems are environmentally friendly and

can be disposed of with regular household items in small quantities. Authorities recommend that all batteries be recycled.

Students should consider the relative cost, efficiency, environmental impact and reliability of different types of batteries.

http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/the_cost_of_portable_power

http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/painting_the_battery_green_by_giving_it_a_second_life

http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/how_to_make_batteries_more_reliable_and_longer_lasting_1

http://batteryuniversity.com/learn/article/bu_1006_cost_of_mobile_power

Life Cycle Assessment The environmental impact can be assessed using an environmental impact assessment matrix and life cycle analysis (LCA).

In the current global scenario, businesses have come to be defined as entities having to satisfy all the “stakeholders”—and not just their shareholders. Rising energy

prices, together with government­imposed restrictions on carbon production, are increasingly impacting on the cost of doing business, making many current business

practices economically unviable. This, coupled with the need to achieve sustainable growth in an increasingly competitive environment, has encouraged modern

businesses to adopt radically new business models. It has become imperative for all businesses to act in an environmentally responsible manner. Companies are

competing in an increasingly “green” market, and must avoid the financial penalties that are being levied against carbon production.

Life Cycle Assessment is potentially the most important method for assessing the overall environmental impact of products, processes or services. It is also sometimes

referred to as Life Cycle Analysis or LCA.

Life Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a tool that can be used to assess the environmental impacts of a product, process or service from design to disposal i.e. across its

entire life­cycle, a so called cradle to grave approach. The impacts on the environment may be beneficial or adverse. These impacts are sometimes referred to as the

"environmental footprint" of a product or service.

LCA involves the collection and evaluation of quantitative data on the inputs and outputs of material, energy and waste flows LCA considers environmental impacts in a

number of categories, such as resource use, climate change effect, water pollution, waste production, etc. that are associated with a product over its entire life cycle so

that the environmental impacts can be determined.

Describe how life cycle analysis provides a framework within which clean production technologies and green design can be evaluated holistically for a specific product.

A Life­Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic study of environmental impacts that arise throughout a product’s life ­ from the winning and processing of raw materials,

through component production and product manufacture, to use and ultimate disposal.

Conducting any LCA requires an examination of the “extended product system” – the network of activities that transforms raw resources into products, transports them

to market and enables their use, then finally removes and treats items that are no longer wanted. Such systems exist for services just as they do for manufactured

goods, so LCA can be applied to services as well as to physical products. These extended product systems can be examined in different degrees of detail, too, so

different levels of Life­Cycle Assessment can be conducted, from highly approximate to reasonably accurate. Both qualitative and quantitative methods exist, and these

two approaches are often complementary.

LCA Method

Almost all of the LCA methods are characterized by the following steps:

1. Definition describes the product path, assumptions, inclusions, exclusions and functional impact unit.

2. Inventory identifies and measures each input of material, processing and use.

3. Assessment characterises items across the range of relatively scaled environmental impact factors.

4. Interpretation provides opportunity for redesign by allocating environmental impact production.

Qualitative LCA

Qualitative LCAs are often based on a “Matrix” structure (shown later,) with the cells in the matrix used either to record information (such as amounts of

materials or emissions) or scored responses to a pre­determined set of questions.

Quantitative LCA

Quantitative studies start with a formal definition of the goal and the scope of the LCA – factors which determine the exact “extended product system” to

be examined.

A second data­collection stage allows a “Life­Cycle Inventory (LCI)” to be constructed: this is a catalogue of inputs to and outputs from the system defined in the first

stage of the work. As far as possible, these inputs and outputs will be followed outwards through the system to its interface with the natural environment, rather than

coming from other human activities (electricity inputs, for example, are followed back through generation to the primary fuels).

In the third stage of a quantitative LCA, the environmental effects arising from this catalogue of emissions and consumed resources is modelled. This stage is known as

Life­Cycle Impact Assessment.

Life Cycle Key Stages

Pre­production ­ Material Extraction

Production ­ Manufacture

Distribution ­ Transportation

Use

Disposal

The life cycle of a product starts with raw material extraction (pre­production), continues with the fabrication of the relevant semi­finished products, includes finishing and

assembling of the final product (production). The distribution of the product and its use and maintenance (utilisation). The cycle concludes with the end­of­life operations

(disposal). This last stage includes recycling of materials and, after adequate treatment, final disposal of waste.

Major environmental considerations in life cycle analysis.

Water

Soil pollution and degradation

Air contamination

Noise

Energy consumption

Consumption of natural resources,

Pollution

Effect on ecosystems.

Life Cycle Impact Assessment Matrix

Inputs Outputs

Materials Energy Toxic Emissions Waste

This column is intended for notes on environmental problems concerning the input and output of material. This column should include figures about the application of materials which are non­renewable or create emissions during production (such as copper, lead and zinc), incompatible materials and inefficient use of non­reuse of materials and components in all five stages of the product life cycle.

In this column energy consumption during all stages of the life cycle is listed. Include energy consumption for the product itself, and of transportation, operating, maintenance and recovery as well. Inputs of materials with extremely high energy content are listed in the first cell of this column. Exhaust gases produced as a result of energy use are included in this column.

The column is dedicated to the identification of toxic emissions to land, water and the air in the five life cycle stages.

The column is dedicated to the identification of waste products in the five life cycle stages.

Pre­Production / Raw Material Acquisition

Production / Factory Production

Distribution ­ Transportation of Product

Use or Utilisation by User

End of Life or Disposal

Clean technology Manufacturers may respond to current or impending legislation or pressure created by the local community and media. The reasons for cleaning up manufacturing

include:

promoting positive impacts

ensuring neutral impact or minimizing negative impacts through conserving natural resources

reducing pollution and use of energy

reducing waste of energy and resources.

The role and scale of legislation are dependent upon the type of manufacturing and the varied perspectives in different countries.

Students should consider how legislation provides an impetus to manufacturers to clean up manufacturing processes and also how manufacturers react to

legislation.

The threat of climate change has added a new dimension to the design and implementation of public­private partnership (PPP) projects in various sectors, including

power, transportation, water, sanitation, waste and health. Proactive policy approaches and innovative legal, contractual and commercial frameworks are spearheading

a new generation of PPP projects based on clean technologies designed to meet this challenge.

Kyoto Protocol._ The Kyoto Protocol is an international agreement linked to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. The major feature of the

Kyoto Protocol was that it sets binding targets for 37 industrialized countries and the European community for reducing greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions. These

reductions amount to an average of five per cent against 1990 levels over the five­year period 2008­2012.

Copenhagen Accords ._The fifteenth session, took note of the Copenhagen Accord of 18 December 2009 by way of decision 2/CP.15. The text of the Copenhagen

Accord can be found here.

Cancun Agreements._ These agreements were reached December 11th, in Cancun, Mexico, at the 2010 United Nations Climate Change Conference. More on the Main

Objectives of the Cancun Agreements...

Durban Platform._ The 17th Conference of the Parties of the UN Framework Convention on Climate Change held in Durban in December 2011 further advanced on

certain components of the Cancun Agreements, it also resulted in a second five­year commitment period for the Kyoto Protocol and, thirdly, it launched the Durban

Platform " ­ a process to develop a protocol, another legal instrument or an agreed outcome with legal force under the Convention". This new agreement will be

“applicable to all parties”. Negotiations on the future agreement are to conclude by 2015 and the new agreement is to take effect on 2020.

Students should consider the use of international targets for reducing pollution and waste and the difficulties of getting nations to agree to the targets. On many

occasions, agreeing targets proves difficult as many nations are at different stages in their development. Is it ethical to prevent a developing country from producing

high carbon emissions through industrial development when developed countries have been the main generators of carbon emissions through their own industrial

revolutions and economic development?

Students will need to consider how this legislation is monitored and policed and how it can be promoted for manufacturers.

Often, manufacturing processes are improved in terms of efficiency and amount of embodied energy over time. This incremental development of a manufacturing

process can require major refits and the addition of new elements to a manufacturing process. Radical solutions can make a great and sudden impact; however, they

can require the replacement of a whole system. Students need to consider approaches for cleaning up manufacturing and the advantages and disadvantages of

incremental and radical solutions. They will also need to discuss end­of­pipe technologies and systems­level solutions.

Green design Green design refers to the development of products to have a reduced impact on the environment.

Green Design springs from a movement aimed at conserving the world’s natural resources and preventing the effects of industry and pollution destroying the delicate

balance of the world’s ecology. Designers are being encouraged to consider the long­term implications of their designs and materials specifications, perhaps by

avoiding non­biodegradable plastic or by using recycled products. Human activities have taken the planet to the edge of a massive wave of species extinctions, further

threatening our own well­being. 2005 Millennium Ecosystem Assessment

During the next century, as population doubles and resources available per person drop by one­half to three­fourths, humankind will have to drastically alter fundamental

ways of thinking and operating in order to survive. The number one challenge that will face today's children as they enter adulthood will be how to reconcile the impact of

their daily lives with the limitations of our global ecosystems.

Most legislation for minimizing or reducing environmental impact of products is based on a green design approach. It is effective because it usually involves incremental

changes to a design and as such is relatively easy to implement, for example, legislation relating to the use of catalytic converters for cars. The timescale for

implementing green design is relatively short (typically 2–5 years) and therefore cost­effective.

The Green Aware Segmentation Profiles include not just behavior but also attitudes, opinions,

lifestyles and media usage. Based on the distinctive mindset of consumers towards the

environment, they can help marketers better understand four distinct consumer segments:

Behavioral Green Segment: This group of people thinks and acts green. They have negative

attitudes towards products that pollute and incorporate green practices on a regular basis.

Think Green Segment: This group of people thinks green, but does not necessarily act green.

Potential Green Segment: This group neither behaves nor thinks along particularly

environmentally conscious lines and remains on the fence about key green issues.

True Brown Segment: They are not environmentally conscious, and may in fact have negative

attitudes about environmental issues.The environmental impact of the production, use and

disposal of a product can be modified by the designer through careful consideration at the design stage.

Green Consumer There has been rapid growth of the Green Consumer, who registers his/her

ecological commitment through buying products, which are supposed to be

planet friendly. Green companies include the British based Body Shop

International and the Belgian based Ecover who offer household cleaning

agents.

Green consuming has certainly not occurred at the expense of global

concerns. Friends of the Earth, for example, have grown from its humble

American beginnings, and now have organisations around the world. It has

launched truly global campaigns on whaling, acid rain pesticides, tropical

rainforests, marine pollution, and nuclear non­proliferation. The

environmental action group Greenpeace, which started in Canada in 1971,

is similarly international with more than one million members in seventeen

countries. The growth of such organisations demonstrate the increase in

green consuming, initially amongst what has been dismissively referred to

as the “brown rice and sandals brigade.”

Greener Products LG Example

Sustainable products provide social and economic benefits while protecting public health, welfare and the environment throughout their life cycle—from the extraction of

raw materials to final disposal.

Most strategies for green design involve focusing on one or two environmental objectives when designing or re­designing a product, for example, the use of recyclable

materials.

Drivers for green design include consumer pressure and legislation, among others. Environmental legislation has encouraged the design of greener products that tackle

specific environmental issues, for example, eliminating the use of certain materials or energy efficiency.

Take­Back legislation ­ EU WEEE Directive

WEEE stands for Waste of Electronic and Electrical Equipment. First regulated in Europe, it has spread globally. EIATRACK covers existing and newly emerging WEEE

legislation and regulatory changes.

The WEEE Directive is the European Community directive 2002/96/EC on waste electrical and electronic equipment (WEEE) which, together with the RoHS Directive

2002/95/EC, became European Law in February 2003, setting collection, recycling and recovery targets for all types of electrical goods.

The directive imposes the responsibility for the disposal of waste electrical and electronic equipment on the manufacturers of such equipment. Those companies should

establish an infrastructure for collecting WEEE, in such a way that 'Users of electrical and electronic equipment from private households should have the possibility of

returning WEEE at least free of charge'. Also, the companies are compelled to use the collected waste in an ecologically­friendly manner, either by ecological disposal

or by reuse/refurbishment of the collected WEEE.

LG TAKE­BACK & RECYCLING GLOBAL NETWORK

Design objectives

Design objectives for green products relate to three broad environmental categories: materials, energy and pollution/waste. These objectives include:

increasing efficiency in the use of materials, energy and other resources

minimizing damage or pollution from the chosen materials

reducing to a minimum any long­term harm caused by use of the product

ensuring that the planned life of the product is most appropriate in environmental terms and that the product functions efficiently for its full life

taking full account of the effects of the end disposal of the product

ensuring that the packaging and instructions encourage efficient and environmentally friendly use

minimizing nuisances such as noise or smell

analysing and minimizing potential safety hazards

minimizing the number of different materials used in a product

labelling of materials so they can be identified for recycling.

When evaluating product sustainability, students need to consider:

raw materials used

packaging

incorporation of toxic chemicals

energy in production and use

end­of­life disposal issues

production methods

atmospheric pollutants.

Prevention principle: The avoidance or minimization of waste production Waste minimizations involves a number of processes, mechanisms and stakeholders in the production, marketing, packaging, selling and consumption of goods that

produce waste at all stages of the consumption cycle. By implication, it will require a conscious, comprehensive and intentional decision and effort by all stakeholders to

ensure that waste and the secondary effects of poor waste management can be

reduced through waste minimization to increase landfill site lifecycles and the

environment. This may involve additional mechanisms and processes that

include the following:

Improving product and packaging designs to reduce resource

consumption;

Changing marketing and sales approaches to influence consumer

perceptions and behaviour;

“Extended Producer Responsibilities” (EPR) of producers of products,

which may require producers to accept their used products back for

recycling.

Changing procurement policies and practices in large organizations that

should encourage environmentally­aware production and manufacturing;

Encouraging waste separation, streaming and diversion practices;

Creating infrastructure to enable waste to be diverted from landfill sites;

Developing infrastructure for processing waste for reuse/recycling;

Developing markets for recycled materials and products;

Precautionary principle: The anticipation of potential problems

The precautionary principle or precautionary approach to risk management states that if an action or policy has a suspected risk of causing harm to the

public or to the environment, in the absence of scientific consensus that the action or policy is not harmful, the burden of proof that it is not harmful falls on

those taking an action.

The principle is used by policy makers to justify discretionary decisions in situations where there is the possibility of harm from making a certain decision

(e.g. taking a particular course of action) when extensive scientific knowledge on the matter is lacking.

The principle implies that there is a social responsibility to protect the public from exposure to harm, when scientific investigation has found a plausible risk.

These protections can be relaxed only if further scientific findings emerge that provide sound evidence that no harm will result.

Eco­design Eco­design is a more comprehensive approach than green design

because it attempts to focus on all three broad environmental

categories:

materials

energy

pollution/waste.

This makes eco­design more complex and difficult to do.

When considering timescales for implementing eco­design, students should

also understand the factors that can influence it.The environmental impact of

the production, use and disposal of a product can be modified by the

designer through careful consideration at the design stage.

Students need to consider two philosophies related to eco­design.

Cradle to grave design considers the environmental effects of a product

all of the way from manufacture to use to disposal.

Cradle to cradle design is a key principle of the circular economy.

Cradle to Cradle ® (C2C) is a holistic approach to design popularized by Professor Michael Braungart and William McDonough. Braungart and McDonough

offer Cradle to Cradle ® certification to products that measure up to the standards they set. According to their website (www.c2ccertified.org): “The target is to

develop and design products that are truly suited to a biological or technical metabolism, thereby preventing the recycling of products which were never

designed to be recycled in the first place.”

Students need to be able to assess the environmental impact of a given product over its life cycle through LCA. Students should consider the following five stages.

Pre­production

Production

Distribution, including packaging

Utilization

Disposal

Environmental considerations include water, soil pollution and degradation, air contamination, noise, energy consumption, consumption of natural resources, pollution

and effect on ecosystems.

Inputs Outputs

Materials Energy Toxic Emissions Waste

This column is intended for notes on environmental problems concerning the input and output of material.

In this column energy consumption during all stages of the life cycle is listed. Include energy consumption for the product itself, and of transportation, operating, maintenance and recovery as well.

The column is dedicated to the identification of toxic emissions to land, water and the air in the five life cycle stages.

The column is dedicated to the identification of waste products in the five life cycle stages.

Pre­Production / Raw Material Acquisition

Production / Factory Production

Distribution ­ Transportation of Product

Use or Utilisation by User

End of Life or Disposal

Another valuable tool for designers of eco­products and systems is the use of an environmental impact assessment matrix. A simple example of this matrix follows.

Environmental impact assessment matrix

Environmental area: Air pollution

Activity Risk impact rating (circle one number in each row)

Pre­production: Transport of all materials to factory 5 4 3 2 1 0

Production: Manufacturing process waste output 5 4 3 2 1 0

Distribution: Transport of product to retailers 5 4 3 2 1 0

Distribution: Manufacturing of packaging 5 4 3 2 1 0

Utilization: Use of product during working life 5 4 3 2 1 0

Disposal: Disassembly and recycling of materials 5 4 3 2 1 0

Environmental impact assessment matrices can be infinitely more complex, focusing on one particular stage of LCA at a time and breaking processes down into

individual steps, often focusing on an output in terms of resources used, wasted and by­products generated and released.

The roles and responsibilities of the designer, manufacturer and user at each stage of the product life cycle can be explored through LCA.

LCA identifies conflicts that have to be resolved through prioritization. It is not widely used in practice because it is difficult, costly and time­consuming. It is targeted at

particular product categories—products with high environmental impacts in the global marketplace, for example, washing machines and refrigerators. However, in the

re­innovation of the design of a product or its manufacture, specific aspects may be changed after considering the design objectives for green products, such as

selecting less toxic materials or using more sustainable sources. A product may be distributed differently or its packaging may be redesigned.

The complex nature of LCA means that it is not possible for a lone designer to undertake it and a team with different specialism is required. LCA is complex,

time­consuming and expensive, so the majority of eco­designs are based on less detailed qualitative assessments of likely impacts of a product over its life cycle. The

simplest example is the use of a checklist to guide the design team during a product’s design development stages.

For example:

minimize the use of packaging

optimize energy efficiency in use

design for disassembly

minimize parts/components

use recyclable materials.

Students should be familiar with the UNEP Ecodesign Manual and be able to identify its major considerations.

Geographical scale Types of environmental problem

Local Noise, Smell, Air pollution, Soil and water pollution

Regional Soil and water over­fertilization and pollution, Drought, Waste disposal, Air pollution

Fluvial Pollution of rivers, Regional waters and watersheds

Continental Ozone levels, Acidification, Winter smog, Heavy metals

Global Climatic change, Sea level rise, Impact on the ozone layer

Design for Sustainability Design for Sustainability (D4S), also referred to as sustainable product design, is a globally recognized method for companies to improve profit margins, product quality,

market opportunities, environmental performance, and social benefits. Companies can achieve this win­win situation for shareholders, consumers, and the public by

improving efficiencies in the products and services they design, produce and deliver.

D4S Techniques Basic D4S techniques include interventions similar to those used in cleaner production audits, such as increasing energy efficiency, using recycled materials, designing

for recyclability, reducing toxic materials, extending product life, and providing services in new ways. Life cycle analysis and supply chain management are more precise

tools for evaluating material flows and environmental impacts in a product's life cycle, and can help designers identify additional improvements. In many developed

economies, D4S efforts have also been linked to wider concepts such as product­service mixes, cleaner production, systems innovation and life cycle­based efforts.

The emphasis of the guidelines will vary depending on the type of product to be designed and the target market.

Internal drivers for eco­design External drivers for eco­design

Managers’ sense of responsibility Government

The need for increased product quality Market demand

The need for a better product and company image Social environment

The need to reduce costs Competitors

The need for innovative power Trade organisations

The need to increase personnel motivation Suppliers

External drivers and social change

Increasing supply chain pressure (discussed as part of sub­topic 2.1 and 2.2)

Public opinion (discussed as part of sub­topic 2.5)

Energy costs • Waste charges (discussed as part of sub­topic 2.4 and 2.5)

Take­back legislation (detail required as part of sub­topic 8.2)

The obligation to provide environment­related information (detail required as part of sub­topic 8.1) • Norms and standards • Eco­labelling schemes (detail required as

part of HL sub­topic 8.2)

Subsidies (discussed as part of sub­topic 2.4)

Environmental competition

Environmental requirements in consumer tests

Environmental requirements for design awards

Increasing cooperation with suppliers Eco­design and other environmental approaches Eco­design means that the environment helps to define the direction of design

decisions.

Students need to be aware of the following terms in relation to eco­design principles: • Sustainable development (Awareness of what sustainable development is

required, however this is dealt in detail in HL Sub­topic 8.1)

Cleaner production (Topic 2.4)

Life cycle analysis (Topic 2.6)

Converging Technologies

Students will need to consider the advantages and disadvantages of converging technologies. A typical example of converging technology is the smart phone.

Students could consider the smart-phone as a converging technology in terms of the materials required to create it, its energy consumption, disassembly, recyclability and the portability of the devices it incorporates.

Convergence is increasingly prevalent in the IT world; in this context the term refers to the combination of two or more different technologies in a single device. Taking pictures with a cell phone and surfing the Web on a television are two of the most common examples of this trend.

Technological convergence is the process by which existing technologies merge into new forms that bring together different types of media and applications. New

devices and technology usually handle one medium or accomplish some basic tasks; through technological convergence, devices can interact with a wider array of

media types. For example, a new type of media storage often require new players that only play that format. As the technology advances, however, new models might

include additional features like the ability to interface with more devices or play other types of media.

In the past, each entertainment medium had to be played on a specific device. Video displayed on a television through some type of video player, music came through a

tape deck or Compact Disc (CD) player, and video games were played through a console of some sort. Technological convergence has resulted in devices that not only

interact with the media they are primarily designed to handle, but also with a number of other formats.

For example, modern video game developers may create consoles primarily for playing games, but they also design them to play back video and music and to connect

to the Internet. Similarly, new media players are capable of not only playing video or audio from a physical medium, but can also stream data over the Internet, display

photographs on a disc, and view websites online. Where multiple pieces of home entertainment equipment were once necessary, a single device may provide all of the

functionality required.

Telecommunications Advances Different forms of communication media previously used their own technologies. Voice conversations used a telephone, video communication briefly used high­end

video phones, and e­mail required a computer. Technological convergence has resulted in computers and handheld devices like mobile smartphones and tablets that

can provide all of this functionality with a single electronic piece of equipment.

Changes in Hardware Such technological convergence also leads to devices that are designed specifically to replace a number of different items. Mobile phones, for example, have moved far

beyond their beginnings as simple voice communication devices and now offer the functionality of personal music players, digital cameras, and text messenger systems.

New devices, such as tablet computers, have been developed simply as a format for convergence, with a single item functioning in the place of numerous earlier

electronics.

Importance of the Internet The Internet is perhaps the most widespread example of technological convergence. Virtually all entertainment technologies, from radio and television to books and

games, can be viewed and played online. Many computers with Internet access offer greater functionality than primary devices like media players or eReaders for digital

books. All of these different types of media have become digitized and made more readily available than ever before.

Advantages and Criticisms While technological convergence gives consumers the convenience of having many devices all in one, saving on both size and cost, there is an initial tradeoff in quality.

When companies introduce new multi­technology formats, the various technologies it is comprised of are usually at a slightly lower standard than on independent

devices. Usually within a year or two, however, this disparate quality is reduced and dedicated devices may become obsolete. Some technology does remain

specialized, however; digital cameras, for example, often remain preferable to phone cameras in terms of image quality and features, especially for professional

photographers.