Transport and the Urban EnvironmentTransport and the Urban Environment

Topic 4 – Urban Transportation, Land Use and the Environment

A – Urban Land Use and TransportationA – Urban Land Use and TransportationB – Environmental Impacts of the Transportation / B – Environmental Impacts of the Transportation / Land Use SystemLand Use SystemC – Case StudiesC – Case Studies

Urban Land Use and Transportation

1. The Transportation / Land Use System1. The Transportation / Land Use System 2. Transportation and Urban Form2. Transportation and Urban Form 3. Transportation and Urban Structure3. Transportation and Urban Structure

A

Land Use and Transportation

Urban areas are transportation / land use systemsUrban areas are transportation / land use systems Complex entities with a multitude of functions.Complex entities with a multitude of functions. System where locations and spatial accumulation form land System where locations and spatial accumulation form land

uses.uses. Urban land use:Urban land use:

Expresses the attributes of the urban space.Expresses the attributes of the urban space. Attempt to interpret spatial elements and their Attempt to interpret spatial elements and their

interrelations.interrelations. This system is highly complex and includes several This system is highly complex and includes several

relationships.relationships. Each of them is part of a sub-system including the transport Each of them is part of a sub-system including the transport

system, spatial interactions and land use.system, spatial interactions and land use.

A-1

Land Use and Transportation

Conceptual OverviewConceptual Overview The relationships between transportation and land use have The relationships between transportation and land use have

been investigated for a long time and subject to numerous been investigated for a long time and subject to numerous approaches.approaches.

Von Thunen regional land use model.Von Thunen regional land use model. Burgess concentric land use model.Burgess concentric land use model. Sector and nuclei land use patterns.Sector and nuclei land use patterns. Land rent theory.Land rent theory.

A-1

Formal and Functional Land UseA-1

Formal Land UseFunctional Land Use

Bungalows

ParkFactoriesShopping center

Apartments

Low density residential

LeisureIndustrialCommercial

High density residential

The Transport / Land Use SystemA-1

Spatial Interactions Land UseTransport System

• Traffic assignment models

• Transport capacity

• Economic base theory

• Location theory• Traffic generation

and attraction models

• Spatial interaction models

• Distance decay parameters• Modal split

Infrastructures (supply)

Friction of Space Spatial Accumulation (demand)

Von Thunen’s Regional Land Use Model

Isolated State Modified Conditions

Livestock farming

Three-field system

Crop framing, fallowand pasture

Crop farming withoutfallow

Firewood and lumberproduction

Market gardening andmilk production

Navigable river

Central city

A-1

IV - Working class zoneV - Residential zoneVI - Commuter zone

I - Loop (downtown)II - Factory zoneIII - Zone of transition

LOOP

Little

Sicily

Apartment Houses

BungalowSection

Single Fam

ily Dwelli

ngs

Residential District

Ghetto

Two PlanArea

Second Im

migrant

Settlem

ent

Model Chicago, 1920s

Blac

k Be

lt

The Burgess Urban Land Use Model A-1

Sector and Nuclei Urban Land Use Representations

2

3

4

4

5

3

3

1

3

3

3

1 CBD2 Wholesale and light manufacturing3 Low-class residential4 Middle-class residential5 High-class residential

12

3

4 53

3

6

7

89

6 Heavy manufacturing7 Sub business district8 Residential suburb9 Industrial suburb

Sector Nuclei

A-1

Theory of Land Rent

Rent

Distance from downtown

RetailIndustry/commercial

Apartments Single houses

Rent

a

b

cd

a Retailingb Industry/commercialc Apartmentsd Single houses

City limits

1

2 3

abc

d

A-1

Transportation and Urban Form

Urban formUrban form The form of a city greatly influences and is influenced by The form of a city greatly influences and is influenced by

travel patterns, origins and destinations.travel patterns, origins and destinations. The dense urban cores of many European, Japanese and The dense urban cores of many European, Japanese and

Chinese cities enable residents to make 30 to 60 percent of Chinese cities enable residents to make 30 to 60 percent of all trips by walking and cycling.all trips by walking and cycling.

The dispersed urban form of Australian and American cities The dispersed urban form of Australian and American cities encourages reliance on the car.encourages reliance on the car.

There is a wide variety of urban forms and urban There is a wide variety of urban forms and urban transportation systems.transportation systems.

Impact of the private carImpact of the private car An increasing number of cities worldwide seem to be An increasing number of cities worldwide seem to be

developing at a scale that increases reliance on the privately developing at a scale that increases reliance on the privately owned automobile.owned automobile.

Dispersion is taking place in many different types of cities.Dispersion is taking place in many different types of cities.

A-2

Road Highway Activity center

Type I - Completely Motorized NetworkA-2

RoadHighway

Activity centerTransit line

Type II - Weak CenterA-2

Road Highway Activity centerTransit line

Type III - Strong CenterA-2

RoadHighway

Activity centerTransit line

Type IV - Traffic LimitationA-2

Transportation and Urban Form

Major changesMajor changes The central business district (CBD):The central business district (CBD):

Once the primary destination of commuters.Once the primary destination of commuters. Serviced by public transportation.Serviced by public transportation. Rendered obsolete by changing manufacturing, retailing Rendered obsolete by changing manufacturing, retailing

and management practices.and management practices. ActivitiesActivities

Traditional manufacturing depended on centralized Traditional manufacturing depended on centralized workplaces and transportation schemes.workplaces and transportation schemes.

Advanced technology has rendered modern industry Advanced technology has rendered modern industry more flexible.more flexible.

As a result, job opportunities have shifted to the suburbs As a result, job opportunities have shifted to the suburbs and the activity system of cities has been considerably and the activity system of cities has been considerably modified.modified.

A-2

Evolution of the Activity System of a City

FinancialInsuranceWarehousing

FinancialRetailingWholesaling

IndustrialTransportationWarehousing

FinancialRetailing

TransportationWholesaling

A

IndustrialWarehousingWholesalingTransportation

B CCore activities Central activities Peripheral activities

A-2

Transportation and Urban Form

Evolution of transportation and urban formEvolution of transportation and urban form Generally led to a change in most urban forms.Generally led to a change in most urban forms. Dispersed urban land development patterns:Dispersed urban land development patterns:

Dominant in North America.Dominant in North America. Land is abundantLand is abundant Transportation costs are low.Transportation costs are low. Economy dominated by service and technology Economy dominated by service and technology

industries.industries. Travel has become relatively inexpensive compared with Travel has become relatively inexpensive compared with

land costs.land costs. Households have an incentive to buy lower-priced housing Households have an incentive to buy lower-priced housing

at the urban periphery. at the urban periphery. Similar patterns can be found in many European cities, but Similar patterns can be found in many European cities, but

the change is occurring at a slightly slower pace.the change is occurring at a slightly slower pace.

A-2

Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form Decentralization of activitiesDecentralization of activities

Commuter journeys, many of which now occur from suburb to Commuter journeys, many of which now occur from suburb to suburb, are shortened.suburb, are shortened.

Usage of privately owned car rather than public transportation.Usage of privately owned car rather than public transportation. Most transit and road systems were developed to facilitate suburb-Most transit and road systems were developed to facilitate suburb-

to-city, rather than suburb-to-suburb, commuting.to-city, rather than suburb-to-suburb, commuting. Suburban highways are often as congested as urban highways.Suburban highways are often as congested as urban highways.

ConsequencesConsequences The cost of building and operating urban transportation systems The cost of building and operating urban transportation systems

(highways, roads, transit, etc.) is becoming prohibitive.(highways, roads, transit, etc.) is becoming prohibitive. Dispersed residential pattern makes transit systems less Dispersed residential pattern makes transit systems less

convenient for commuting.convenient for commuting. In the developing world, unplanned and uncoordinated land use In the developing world, unplanned and uncoordinated land use

development has led to rapid expansion of the urban periphery.development has led to rapid expansion of the urban periphery. Poorer residents, mainly living in shantytowns, do not have access Poorer residents, mainly living in shantytowns, do not have access

to affordable and convenient public transportation.to affordable and convenient public transportation.

A-2

Evolution of Transportation and Urban Form, Technological Impacts

I - Walking-horsecar era (1800-1890)

II - Streetcar era (1890-1920)III - Automobile era (1920-1945)IV - Freeway era (1945-)

III III IV

A-2

Transportation and Urban Structure

Strong variationsStrong variations In the pre-automobile era, about 10% of the land of a city In the pre-automobile era, about 10% of the land of a city

was devoted to transportation.was devoted to transportation. On average, 30% of the urban surface is devoted to roads On average, 30% of the urban surface is devoted to roads

while another 20% is required for off-street parking.while another 20% is required for off-street parking. United States:United States:

155,000 square kilometers of the American territory are 155,000 square kilometers of the American territory are reserved for car use.reserved for car use.

Urban transportation often accounts between 30 to 60% Urban transportation often accounts between 30 to 60% of the surface with infrastructures such as roads, of the surface with infrastructures such as roads, highways and parking spaces.highways and parking spaces.

About 10% of all arable land.About 10% of all arable land. More land is used by cars than land devoted to housing.More land is used by cars than land devoted to housing.

For Western Europe roads account for between 15% and For Western Europe roads account for between 15% and 20% of the urban surface and for Third World cities, this 20% of the urban surface and for Third World cities, this figure is about 10%. figure is about 10%.

A-3

Space Consumption by Different Urban Transport Modes

0 10 20 30 40 50 60

Pedestrian

Cyclist

Fully occupied car

Car with 1 person

Full bus

1/3 full bus

Full light rail/metro

1/3 full ligh rail/metro

Space required per person (in sqr m)Speed (km/hr)

A-3

Transportation and Urban Structure

SuburbanizationSuburbanization Diffusion of ubiquitous and cheap road transportation in Diffusion of ubiquitous and cheap road transportation in

urban areas after the Second World War.urban areas after the Second World War. Favored the emergence of a new and distinct urban Favored the emergence of a new and distinct urban

environment.environment. Available and cheap road transport.Available and cheap road transport. Low land costs and available land (large houses).Low land costs and available land (large houses). Environment (clean and quiet).Environment (clean and quiet). Safety.Safety. Car-oriented services (shopping malls).Car-oriented services (shopping malls).

A-3

RetailOfficeIndustrialResidentialHighwayRailway

Core

Suburban Development along an Highway Interchange A-3

Transportation and the Urban Structure

Changes in urban structuresChanges in urban structures Fast urbanization processes.Fast urbanization processes.

Greater number of people living in cities.Greater number of people living in cities. Increased numbers of trips in urban areas.Increased numbers of trips in urban areas.

Expanding the transportation supply.Expanding the transportation supply. New highways and/or transit lines.New highways and/or transit lines. Building more roads to accommodate an ever-growing Building more roads to accommodate an ever-growing

number of vehiclesnumber of vehicles Creating new urban structures.Creating new urban structures.

Ring roadsRing roads Facing the expansion of urban areas and the increasing Facing the expansion of urban areas and the increasing

importance of inter-urban movements several ring roads importance of inter-urban movements several ring roads were built around major cities.were built around major cities.

Important attribute of the spatial structures of cities, notably Important attribute of the spatial structures of cities, notably in North America.in North America.

A-3

The Rationale of a Ring Road

SecondaryCenter

CityCenter

Avoiding the congestedcentral area

Structuring suburbandevelopment

A-3

Environmental Impacts of the Transportation / Land Use System 1. Urban Transport Issues1. Urban Transport Issues 2. Land Requirement and Consumption2. Land Requirement and Consumption 3. Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction3. Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction

B

Urban Transport Issues

Importance of the issueImportance of the issue Cities are places having a high level of accumulation and Cities are places having a high level of accumulation and

concentration of economic activities.concentration of economic activities. Complex spatial structures to be supported by transport Complex spatial structures to be supported by transport

systems.systems. The most important transport problems are often related to The most important transport problems are often related to

urban areas.urban areas. Urban productivity depends in part on the efficiency of its Urban productivity depends in part on the efficiency of its

transport system, notably to move labor and merchandises transport system, notably to move labor and merchandises between several origins and destinations.between several origins and destinations.

Urban transportation is concerned about movements of Urban transportation is concerned about movements of people, goods and information within urban areas.people, goods and information within urban areas.

Cities are important generators and attractors of Cities are important generators and attractors of movements.movements.

B-1

Urban Transport Issues SegregationSegregation

Differentiation between land uses is a generator of Differentiation between land uses is a generator of movements as people and freight move from several origins movements as people and freight move from several origins and destinations.and destinations.

The more complex the land use patterns in a city the more The more complex the land use patterns in a city the more complex movements will be.complex movements will be.

Efficient and affordable transportation will enhance the Efficient and affordable transportation will enhance the segregation of land uses.segregation of land uses.

AgglomerationAgglomeration Since cities benefit from agglomeration economies, they Since cities benefit from agglomeration economies, they

also decrease transport costs.also decrease transport costs. Activities are located nearby each-others so they are Activities are located nearby each-others so they are

accessible.accessible. Agglomeration of movements in a limited area creates traffic, Agglomeration of movements in a limited area creates traffic,

which renders movements more expensive.which renders movements more expensive. Can reach a point where the advantages of agglomeration Can reach a point where the advantages of agglomeration

are overthrown by congestion.are overthrown by congestion.

B-1

Urban Transport Issues

Space ConsumptionSpace Consumption The main goal of transportation is obviously to overcome the The main goal of transportation is obviously to overcome the

friction of space.friction of space. Transportation is also a major consumer of space.Transportation is also a major consumer of space. Space is the most expansive in urban areas, transport Space is the most expansive in urban areas, transport

consumes a lot of space in those areas.consumes a lot of space in those areas. Private car:Private car:

Requires space to move around (roads).Requires space to move around (roads). Also spends 98% of its existence stationary in a parking Also spends 98% of its existence stationary in a parking

space.space. A significant amount of urban space must thus be A significant amount of urban space must thus be

allocated to accommodate the private car. allocated to accommodate the private car. The structure of urban land use has an important impact The structure of urban land use has an important impact

over transport demand and over the capacity of over transport demand and over the capacity of transportation systems to answer such needs.transportation systems to answer such needs.

B-1

Land Requirement and Consumption IssueIssue

The land requirement of human activities, particularly in The land requirement of human activities, particularly in urban areas, has considerably grown.urban areas, has considerably grown.

30 to 60% of urban areas are taken by road transportation 30 to 60% of urban areas are taken by road transportation infrastructure alone (road and parking lots).infrastructure alone (road and parking lots).

In extreme cases of dependency on road transportation In extreme cases of dependency on road transportation such as Los Angeles, it reaches 70%.such as Los Angeles, it reaches 70%.

City sizeCity size The notion of cities was replaced by the notion of The notion of cities was replaced by the notion of

metropolitan areas and urban regions along corridors.metropolitan areas and urban regions along corridors. Reclamation of vast amounts of land from rural activities Reclamation of vast amounts of land from rural activities

towards urban use.towards urban use. Duplication and generalization of infrastructureDuplication and generalization of infrastructure

Resulted in supplementary land requirements.Resulted in supplementary land requirements. The general aim was to convey a high level of accessibility The general aim was to convey a high level of accessibility

to answer mobility demand of vast areas.to answer mobility demand of vast areas.

B-2

Land Requirement and Consumption

DensityDensity The geographical growth of cities has not been proportional The geographical growth of cities has not been proportional

to the growth of population.to the growth of population. Lower densities and higher waste of space.Lower densities and higher waste of space. Such phenomena have not occurred in the same fashion Such phenomena have not occurred in the same fashion

and in the same proportion over the world.and in the same proportion over the world. Typically the case for North American cities.Typically the case for North American cities. An increase in the quantity of energy consumed and waste An increase in the quantity of energy consumed and waste

generated has been the outcome.generated has been the outcome. The urban land use and its transport system have expanded The urban land use and its transport system have expanded

environmental impacts of cities.environmental impacts of cities. The bulk of transport and the environment issues are linked The bulk of transport and the environment issues are linked

with urban areas.with urban areas.

B-2

Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction Spatial formSpatial form

The spatial aspect of the city in terms of its extent. The spatial aspect of the city in terms of its extent. Spatial patternSpatial pattern

The organization of the land use in terms of location. The organization of the land use in terms of location. Spatial interactionSpatial interaction

The intensity of movements between spatial entities. The intensity of movements between spatial entities. Spatial location of activities (residence, work, shopping, Spatial location of activities (residence, work, shopping,

production and consumption).production and consumption). Indications on the required travel demand and average Indications on the required travel demand and average

distances between activities.distances between activities. Specialized land use functions and a spatial segregation Specialized land use functions and a spatial segregation

between economic activities, interactions are increasing in between economic activities, interactions are increasing in proportion.proportion.

The outward expansion of cities has given a relative uniform The outward expansion of cities has given a relative uniform distribution of land use densities, notably in cities with a distribution of land use densities, notably in cities with a previously low level of density.previously low level of density.

B-3

Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction and the Environmental Impacts of Transportation

Form

Patte

rnIn

tera

ctio

n

B-3

Morphology, Urban Transportation and OR

Traffic assignment

g2(qij)

ijij

ij

dfq

qg

:min

Optimization

Tran

spor

t Cos

tsg1(qij)

g3(qij)

Transport strategies

Spatial strategies

B-3

Spatial Form, Pattern and Interaction Residence / work separationResidence / work separation

Becoming acute as well as the average commuting distance.Becoming acute as well as the average commuting distance. The average commuting time has climbed from 21.7 minutes in The average commuting time has climbed from 21.7 minutes in

1980 to 22.4 minutes in 1990.1980 to 22.4 minutes in 1990. Different urban concentrations are linked to different levels of Different urban concentrations are linked to different levels of

energy consumption and environmental impacts.energy consumption and environmental impacts. Difficult to provide transportation services at an efficient cost.Difficult to provide transportation services at an efficient cost.

Land use changesLand use changes A slow process.A slow process. Annual rates lower than 2% makes it difficult to establish sound Annual rates lower than 2% makes it difficult to establish sound

transportation / land use strategies that could have effective transportation / land use strategies that could have effective impacts in a short period.impacts in a short period.

It took 30 to 50 years to North American, Australian and to some It took 30 to 50 years to North American, Australian and to some extent European cities to reach their current patterns.extent European cities to reach their current patterns.

May take the same amount of time to reach a new "equilibrium".May take the same amount of time to reach a new "equilibrium". The environmental impacts of transportation and land use are likely The environmental impacts of transportation and land use are likely

to stay prevalent in the urban context for several decades.to stay prevalent in the urban context for several decades.

B-3

Integration of Urban Transportation Modes

Inner-citypedestrian area

Parking areaMain transit line

Secondary ring road

Primary ring road

Highway

Suburbandevelopment

corridor

Passenger terminal

B-3

Case Studies

1. The Chinese Context1. The Chinese Context 2. Urban Land Use Changes in China2. Urban Land Use Changes in China 3. Urban Transportation in Shanghai3. Urban Transportation in Shanghai 4. Urban Transportation and Air Pollution in Shanghai4. Urban Transportation and Air Pollution in Shanghai 5. Policies and Challenges5. Policies and Challenges

C

Crude Oil Production and Consumption, United States, 1981-1998 (in 1,000 of barrels per day)

02,0004,0006,0008,000

10,00012,00014,00016,00018,00020,000

ProductionConsumption

C-1

Crude Oil Production and Consumption, China, 1981-1998 (in 1,000 of barrels per day)

0500

1,0001,5002,0002,5003,0003,5004,0004,500

1981

1983

1985

1987

1989

1991

1993

1995

1997

ProductionConsumption

C-1

Pre 1980s Chinese City

“Center of power”

Commercial /Institutional

CompactTransit-oriented

Labor intensiveindustrial

High densityagricultural

Main arterial

Transportation Land Use

Rail

C-2

Pre 1980s Chinese City Spatial structureSpatial structure

Work unit as basic Work unit as basic organizational structure.organizational structure.

Compact and limited mobility Compact and limited mobility needs.needs.

Walking and cycling are Walking and cycling are dominant.dominant.

Several nucleus.Several nucleus. Locally oriented development.Locally oriented development. Limited centrality.Limited centrality.

Resource andcommercialhinterland

Agriculturalhinterland

NationalEconomy

C-2

Post 1980s Chinese City

“Center of power”

CompactTransit-oriented

Labor intensiveindustrial

Compactmotorized

Administrative /commercial

New industrial activitiesDevelopment zones

Terminals / logistical

High densityagricultural

Commercial /Institutional

Main arterial

Transportation Land Use

Rail

Freeway

Mass transit

C-2

Post 1980s Chinese City Spatial structureSpatial structure

Mixture of local and Mixture of local and international actors.international actors.

Creation of a motorized Creation of a motorized space.space.

““Spatial stamping”.Spatial stamping”. Morphological “creative Morphological “creative

destruction”.destruction”. Emerging centrality / Emerging centrality /

polynuclearism.polynuclearism.

Resource andcommercialhinterland

Agriculturalhinterland

NationalEconomy

GlobalEconomy

Migration

C-2

Office Space Supply and Demand, Beijing 1984-2000

0

200

400

600

800

1000

120019

8419

8519

86 1987

1988

1989

1990 1991

1992

1993

1994

1995

1996 1997

1998

1999

2000

0

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40SupplyTake upVacancy rate

C-2

Mode Used for All Trip Purposes, Shanghai 1995

45%

33%

15%

2%3%2%

PedestrianBicyclePublic TransitTaxiMotorbikePrivate Bus

C-3

Main Modes Used for Commuting in the United States, 1995

88%

5%4% 3%

CarTransitWalkWork at home

C-3

Evolution of Non-Pedestrian Modal Use, Shanghai 1981-1995

6856

22

3040

68

2 4 10

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

1981 1985 1995

OtherBicycleTransit

C-3

Non-Pedestrian Modal Use, Shanghai 1995

0%

20%

40%

60%

80%

100%

Total Center Pudong Suburb

OtherBicycleMotorbikeTaxiPrivate busTransit

C-3

Performance of the Taxi Industry, Shanghai, 1991-1998

0

50,000

100,000

150,000

200,000

250,000

300,000

350,000

400,000

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

Total km travelled(1,000s)Km travelled withpassengers (1,000s)

C-3

Evolution of the Bus Fleet and Ridership, Shanghai, 1978-1998

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1978

1979

1980

1981198

2198

3198

4198

5198

6198

7198

8198

9199

0199

1199

2199

3199

4199

5199

6199

7199

80

2000

4000

6000

8000

10000

12000

14000

16000

18000Bus trips (billions)Number of buses

C-3

Trips by Transportation Mode, Shanghai, 1991-1998 (in billions)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

1991 1992 1993 1994 1995 1996 1997 1998

SubwayTaxiPrivate BusBus

C-3

Emissions per km for Various Vehicles to Transport 140 Passengers (in grams)

0 500 1000 1500

Bus

Car

Motorcycle

HCNOxCO

C-4

Vehicle Emission of Pollutants, Shanghai 1990-2000 (in 10,000 tons per year)

0

10

20

30

40

50

60

70

80

1990 1992 1994 1995 2000

HCNOxCO

C-4

Contribution of Vehicles to Pollution Emissions, Shanghai, 1994-2005

0102030405060708090

100

1994 1995 2000 2005

CONOxHC

C-4

Emissions of Air Pollutants (grams per km) for a Passenger Car in the United States and China, 1997

1.8

13.66

0.93

3.04

21.50

0.91

0 5 10 15 20 25

Hydrocarbons

Carbon Monoxide

Nitrogren Oxides

ChinaUSA

C-4

Emissions of Air Pollutants (grams per km) for a Light Truck in the United States and China, 1997

2.29

18.00

1.17

17.50

20.30

5.13

0 5 10 15 20 25

Hydrocarbons

Carbon Monoxide

Nitrogren Oxides

ChinaUSA

C-4

Daily Concentrations of Pollutants at Main Street Intersections, Shanghai 1994

0.31

5.13

0.7

2.1

0.3

3.4

85

26.8

87

0

1

2

3

4

5

6

NOx (0.10) CO (4.00) HC (0.16*)0102030405060708090100

Average level (mg/m3) Average ratio above standard % Above Standard

C-4

Policies and Challenges

The North American ContextThe North American Context Abundance of land.Abundance of land. Low transportation costs.Low transportation costs. Economy dominated by service and technological industries.Economy dominated by service and technological industries. Multiplicity of jurisdictions.Multiplicity of jurisdictions.

Current issues and policies in North AmericaCurrent issues and policies in North America Fuel taxes, clean fuels (hydrogen) and non-polluting Fuel taxes, clean fuels (hydrogen) and non-polluting

technologies.technologies. Promotion of energy-efficient transportation modes and of Promotion of energy-efficient transportation modes and of

non-motorized modes.non-motorized modes. Demand control (licensing and restrictions).Demand control (licensing and restrictions). Traffic management (separation between transit and car).Traffic management (separation between transit and car). Integration of transport modes and land uses.Integration of transport modes and land uses.

C-5

Density and Car Use in North American Cities, 1991

R2 = 0.694

5

10

15

20

25

30

35

40

5,000 7,000 9,000 11,000 13,000 15,000Car use per capita (km)

Urba

n den

sity (

pers

./ha)

Houston

Montreal

Toronto

ChicagoNew York

Los Angeles

C-5

Policies and Challenges

ShanghaiShanghai Fast growth of the fleetFast growth of the fleet 900,000 vehicles in 2000.900,000 vehicles in 2000. Motorized vehicles (buses, trucks and cars).Motorized vehicles (buses, trucks and cars). 10,000 cars in 2000.10,000 cars in 2000.

Expecting to have 100,000 cars by 2005.Expecting to have 100,000 cars by 2005. Strong lobbying by GM and Volkswagen.Strong lobbying by GM and Volkswagen.

Cycles and motorcycles.Cycles and motorcycles. 700,000 motorcycles in 2000.700,000 motorcycles in 2000. No new licenses permitted.No new licenses permitted.

Retirement of old vehicles.Retirement of old vehicles. Infrastructure provisionInfrastructure provision

Amount of roads per capita has doubled.Amount of roads per capita has doubled. Not keeping up with the demand.Not keeping up with the demand.

C-5

Urban Transportation Environmental Challenges Vehicle emission control and regulationsVehicle emission control and regulations

About 50% of vehicles do not meet Chinese standards.About 50% of vehicles do not meet Chinese standards. Chinese standards are 25 years behind Western standards.Chinese standards are 25 years behind Western standards.

Fuel policyFuel policy About 99% of vehicles are using leaded fuel.About 99% of vehicles are using leaded fuel. 600,000 tons of lead emitted each year.600,000 tons of lead emitted each year. Pricing incentives.Pricing incentives.

Engine technologyEngine technology Improving air/fuel ratio in engines.Improving air/fuel ratio in engines. Electronic fuel injection system and catalytic converters.Electronic fuel injection system and catalytic converters. Shift to diesel for heavy trucks.Shift to diesel for heavy trucks. Compressed natural gas for buses (60% less emissions).Compressed natural gas for buses (60% less emissions).

C-5

Urban Transportation Environmental Challenges Public transitPublic transit

Drop of speed of surface public transportation.Drop of speed of surface public transportation. Shift to cycling.Shift to cycling.

Traffic managementTraffic management Congestion.Congestion. Rules and safety.Rules and safety. About 50% of the time will be spent idle.About 50% of the time will be spent idle.

Traffic separationTraffic separation Increase vehicle speed (about 10 km/hr faster).Increase vehicle speed (about 10 km/hr faster). 10 to 20% less pollutant emissions.10 to 20% less pollutant emissions. Reduce level of exposure, especially for bicycles.Reduce level of exposure, especially for bicycles.

C-5

Urban Transportation Environmental Challenges ExposureExposure

Very high level of exposure.Very high level of exposure. Land use factors.Land use factors. Activity factors.Activity factors.

C-5