Topic 4Topic 4

What is a language?What is a language?

Since ancient history, the Chinese language has always Since ancient history, the Chinese language has always consisted of a wide variety of dialects, hence prestige consisted of a wide variety of dialects, hence prestige dialects and lingua franca have always been needed. In dialects and lingua franca have always been needed. In early 17th century, efforts were made to standardise the early 17th century, efforts were made to standardise the pronunciation, but the success was limited. In early 20th pronunciation, but the success was limited. In early 20th century, the Beijing dialect was voted for the general century, the Beijing dialect was voted for the general foundation of the new national language. It became the foundation of the new national language. It became the major source of standard national pronunciation. It is now major source of standard national pronunciation. It is now the official language of mainland China. However in Hong the official language of mainland China. However in Hong Kong, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language Kong, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language of education and both formal and informal speech remains of education and both formal and informal speech remains the local Standard Cantonese, but standard Putonghua is the local Standard Cantonese, but standard Putonghua is becoming increasingly influential. becoming increasingly influential.

Since ancient history, the Chinese Since ancient history, the Chinese languagelanguage has always has always consisted of a wide variety ofconsisted of a wide variety of dialects dialects, hence prestige , hence prestige dialects and dialects and lingua francalingua franca have always been needed. In have always been needed. In early 17th century, efforts were made to early 17th century, efforts were made to standardisestandardise the the pronunciation, but the success was limited. In early 20th pronunciation, but the success was limited. In early 20th century, the Beijing dialect was voted for the general century, the Beijing dialect was voted for the general foundation of the new foundation of the new national languagenational language. It became the . It became the major source of standard national pronunciation. It is now major source of standard national pronunciation. It is now the the official languageofficial language of mainland China. However in Hong of mainland China. However in Hong Kong, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language Kong, due to historical and linguistic reasons, the language of education and both formal and informal speech remains of education and both formal and informal speech remains the local the local standard Cantonesestandard Cantonese, but standard Putonghua is , but standard Putonghua is becoming increasingly influential. becoming increasingly influential.

TopicsTopics

Language, dialect and accent;Language, dialect and accent; Standard languages & Standard languages &

standardisation;standardisation; Official languages;Official languages; Vernacular languages;Vernacular languages; Lingua francas;Lingua francas; Implications for education.Implications for education.

Languages and dialects Languages and dialects

Cantonese/Shanghainese/PutonghuaCantonese/Shanghainese/Putonghua Norwegian/DanishNorwegian/Danish Max Weinreich: “a language is a dialect with an Max Weinreich: “a language is a dialect with an

army and a navy”army and a navy” Language/dialect distinction is Language/dialect distinction is

political/sociological as much as linguisticpolitical/sociological as much as linguistic E.g. 1E.g. 1 Formal Yugoslavia: Serbo-CroatianFormal Yugoslavia: Serbo-Croatian

Croatia: CroatianCroatia: Croatian

Yugoslavia: SerbianYugoslavia: Serbian E.g. 2 E.g. 2 China: langages => dialectsChina: langages => dialects

Languages and dialectsLanguages and dialects

A A languagelanguage is a collection of dialects. is a collection of dialects.

A A dialectdialect is a particular variety of a is a particular variety of a language that differs noticeably from language that differs noticeably from the variety or varieties of the same the variety or varieties of the same language spoken by another group or language spoken by another group or groups of people.groups of people.

Dialects and accentsDialects and accents

DialectsDialects are variations in pronunciation, are variations in pronunciation, vocabulary, grammarvocabulary, grammar

AccentsAccents are variations in pronunciation are variations in pronunciation onlyonly

A final note on accent. A final note on accent. WE ALL HAVE ONE!WE ALL HAVE ONE! There is no such thing as a person who There is no such thing as a person who speaks without an accent. This is not an speaks without an accent. This is not an exercise in political correctness, by the exercise in political correctness, by the way. It is a fact.way. It is a fact.

A dialect continuumA dialect continuum

D1 D2 D3

D4 D5 D6 D7 D8 D9

Standard languages & Standard languages & standardisationstandardisation

Standard language or standard dialect?Standard language or standard dialect? Why have a “standard” language?Why have a “standard” language? What leads to standardisation of language What leads to standardisation of language

use in a community?use in a community?• Prestige, Prestige, • CodificationCodification• High functionsHigh functions

Characteristics of the development of a Characteristics of the development of a standard languagestandard language• Accepted written variety (e.g. spelling)Accepted written variety (e.g. spelling)• Development of accepted vocabularyDevelopment of accepted vocabulary

Standard vs vernacular languagesStandard vs vernacular languages

Languages evolve to meet communicative need. Languages evolve to meet communicative need. Any language can perform any communicative Any language can perform any communicative function;function;

No language (or dialect or accent) is “superior” to No language (or dialect or accent) is “superior” to any other (but all varieties are any other (but all varieties are inappropriateinappropriate at at times);times);

Emergence of a standard variety is a historical Emergence of a standard variety is a historical accident.accident.

What is standard is dictated by What is standard is dictated by attitudesattitudes in the in the society towards particular groups of people who society towards particular groups of people who speak in particular ways.speak in particular ways.

The right viewThe right view Languages have various dialects.Languages have various dialects.

What is considered standard is associated with What is considered standard is associated with prestigeprestige, a , a non-linguistic factor.non-linguistic factor.

From a linguistic standpoint, what is considered standard From a linguistic standpoint, what is considered standard has nothing to do with correctness or superiority.has nothing to do with correctness or superiority.

From a linguistic standpoint, all dialects are equally correct, From a linguistic standpoint, all dialects are equally correct, equally expressive, equally logical and so forth. That is, the equally expressive, equally logical and so forth. That is, the term non-standard dialect means just that, term non-standard dialect means just that, not the standard not the standard dialect.dialect. It does not mean inferior or sub-standard. It does not mean inferior or sub-standard.

Standard : unchanging??Standard : unchanging??

RP ; the Queen’s English; BBC EnglishRP ; the Queen’s English; BBC English

English: multiple negation; misuse of English: multiple negation; misuse of pronounspronouns

E.g. John and me went bowling last Friday night.E.g. John and me went bowling last Friday night.

Mary gave the books to John and I.Mary gave the books to John and I.

Words have disappeared in Standard Words have disappeared in Standard MandarinMandarin

What is standard is not a matter of What is standard is not a matter of “better’ from a linguistic point of “better’ from a linguistic point of view. view. What is standard is dictated What is standard is dictated by attitudes in the society by attitudes in the society towards particular groups of towards particular groups of people who speak in particular people who speak in particular ways.ways.

National and official languagesNational and official languages

The Affective-referential dimension/ The Affective-referential dimension/ The ideological-instrumental The ideological-instrumental dimensiondimension

A A national languagenational language is the language is the language of a political, cultural and social unit.of a political, cultural and social unit.

An An official languageofficial language is a language for is a language for government business.government business.

Establishing an official national language in Establishing an official national language in Mainland ChinaMainland China

17th century17th century Orthoepy Academies (Zhengyin Shuyuan): to Orthoepy Academies (Zhengyin Shuyuan): to

make pronunciation conform to the Beijing make pronunciation conform to the Beijing standardstandard

19131913 Commission on the Unification of pronunciation: Commission on the Unification of pronunciation:

Beijing dialect became the major source of Beijing dialect became the major source of standard national pronunciation. It was voted for standard national pronunciation. It was voted for the general foundation of the new national the general foundation of the new national language `guoyu” (national speech). It is also the language `guoyu” (national speech). It is also the official language of Mainland Chinaofficial language of Mainland China

19551955 standard mandarin was renamed standard mandarin was renamed

putonghua or “common speech”. It putonghua or “common speech”. It became the medium of instruction in became the medium of instruction in all schools nationwide.all schools nationwide.

Official languagesOfficial languages

201 201 living living languages listed for China.languages listed for China. 1 National or official language1 National or official language: :

Mandarin Chinese. 1,262,358,000 Mandarin Chinese. 1,262,358,000 (UN, 1998).(UN, 1998).

55 official minority nationalities55 official minority nationalities; ; total total 91,200,314 or 6.5% of the population 91,200,314 or 6.5% of the population (1990).(1990).

www.ethnologue.comwww.ethnologue.com

Other official languagesOther official languages

Hong Kong: Chinese, English Hong Kong: Chinese, English UK: ??UK: ?? US: ??US: ?? UN: ??UN: ?? Official vs. national languagesOfficial vs. national languages

Vernacular languagesVernacular languages

TypicallyTypically NOT standardised; NOT standardised; TypicallyTypically used at home; used at home; TypicallyTypically functionally restricted (Low functionally restricted (Low

functions): the home, friends, sometimes functions): the home, friends, sometimes initial literacy;initial literacy;

TypicallyTypically the first language someone the first language someone learns;learns;

TypicallyTypically contrasted with an official or High contrasted with an official or High languagelanguage in that society; in that society;

””..

Lingua francasLingua francas

Used for pragmatic reasons, e.g. Used for pragmatic reasons, e.g. trade;trade;

May be an official or vernacular May be an official or vernacular language of some speakers; language of some speakers;

May become an official or national May become an official or national language, e.g. Swahili;language, e.g. Swahili;

Putonghua as a lingua franca?Putonghua as a lingua franca?

Implications for educationImplications for education

The Basic Law has very little to say The Basic Law has very little to say about language policy (Yau, 1992), about language policy (Yau, 1992), but what it does say retains but what it does say retains ambiguity: ambiguity: “In addition to Chinese “In addition to Chinese language, the English language may language, the English language may also be used…”also be used…”

Implications for educationImplications for education

What language varieties should we teach?What language varieties should we teach? Valuing minority varietiesValuing minority varieties Teaching standardised/official varietiesTeaching standardised/official varieties Language is a Language is a highly highly political issue. Great care political issue. Great care

is needed, based on understanding, when is needed, based on understanding, when discussing language in societydiscussing language in society

E.g. E.g. http://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAhttp://ourworld.compuserve.com/homepages/JWCRAWFORD/home.htmWFORD/home.htm

Implications for educationImplications for education Cantonese should not treated or regarded as an Cantonese should not treated or regarded as an

obstruction in the pathway of PTH;obstruction in the pathway of PTH;

School children should be taught that in the School children should be taught that in the process of learning PTH they need not give up or process of learning PTH they need not give up or forget their home dialects and languages; forget their home dialects and languages;

Teachers should emphasize to their students that Teachers should emphasize to their students that knowing two or more varieties of Chinese (and knowing two or more varieties of Chinese (and other languages) is an invaluable asset that will other languages) is an invaluable asset that will pay dividends throughout the speaker’s life.pay dividends throughout the speaker’s life.

Terminology:Terminology:

Dialect, accent;Dialect, accent; Standard language, official language, Standard language, official language,

national language;national language; Vernacular;Vernacular; Lingua franca.Lingua franca.

Note how the same word can have different – but Note how the same word can have different – but related – meanings. You need to be careful of related – meanings. You need to be careful of your own use of words.your own use of words.