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What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language.

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TOPIC: What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language? References: Harvard Pages: 56 Words: 14000


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What are the challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an International Language?

[Writer Name] [Institute Name]


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Abstract English is one of the most popular languages and in over a century the way English

has been perceived around the globe has changed and will continue changing with its

aggressive expansion of use (Llurda, 2004). Widdowson (1994) also pointed out

language researchers and even language teachers are becoming more accepting of the

fact that the new English adopters are using English as a 2nd spoken language and not

as native of mother tongue and yet they are adopting a notion natives speakers are no

more the exclusive owners of the language. The research aims to understand the

challenges for Non-Native Speaker teachers who are teaching English as an

international language to cope with the evolving nature of the English and the

demanding students. Also the research aims at taking a closer look at the literature in

the evolution of English as an international language and its impact on teachers. The

findings of the research are as follows;

1) The research found that the nature of English lanague is too dynamic and thus

this would need special effort and knowledge sharing for the teachers to keep

up-to-date.

2) The second most important challenges is the pronunciation problem. The

pronunciation problem leads to students having to relearn or in many cases

even cause confusions in communications. This has led to student being

frustrated and there is increasing pressure on teachers to be able to overcome

these problems.

3) The non-native english teachers who were interviewed clearly demonstrated

very low self esteem. This was due to the lack of being able to keep up with

the changing standards.


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Table of Contents

ABSTRACT 3

CHAPTER 1 6

INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND 6

1.1 INTRODUCTION 6 1.2 BACKGROUND OF THE STUDY 6 1.3 STATEMENT OF PROBLEM 7 1.4 RESEARCH RATIONALE AND RESEARCH QUESTION 9 1.4 RESEARCH AIM AND OBJECTIVE 9 1.5 RESEARCH STRUCTURE 10

CHAPTER 2 12

LITERATURE REVIEW 12

2.1 INTRODUCTION 12 2.2 ENGLISH AS AN INTERNATIONAL LANGUAGE 12 2.3 THE IMPACT OF EIL ON LANGUAGE TEACHING 14 2.4 THE ROLE OF NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS IN EIL TEACHING 17 2.5 ADVANTAGES OF NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS IN EIL TEACHING 18 2.6 PROBLEM OF PRONUNCIATION FOR NON-NATIVE-SPEAKER TEACHERS IN EIL TEACHING 20 2.7 CONCLUSION 23

CHAPTER 3 25

METHODOLOGY 25

3.1 INTRODUCTION 25 3.2 RESEARCH QUESTIONS 25 3.3 RESEARCH PHILOSOPHIES, AND RESEARCH APPROACH 25 3.4 RESEARCH APPROACH AND RESEARCH STRATEGY 27 3.5 QUESTIONNAIRE DEVELOPMENT AND SAMPLING 28 3.6 PILOT 30 3.7 DATA COLLECTION 30 PRIMARY DATA COLLECTION 30 3.8 CONTENT ANALYSIS 32 3.9 RELIABILITY, VALIDITY AND ETHICAL CONSIDERATION 33 3.10 SAMPLE 34 3.11 CONCLUSION 35

CHAPTER 4 36

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION 36

4.1 INTRODUCTION 36 4.2 RESULTS 36 4.3 LIMITED RESOURCES 39 4.4 LINGUISTIC DEFICIT 41 4.5 LOW SELF-ESTEEM 44 4.6 POSITIVES 45

CHAPTER 5 47


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CONCLUSION, RECOMMENDATIONS AND LIMITATIONS 47

5.1 INTRODUCTION 47 5.2 CONCLUSION 47 5.3 RECOMMENDATIONS 48 5.4 LIMITATIONS 49

BIBLIOGRAPHY 50


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Chapter 1

Introduction and Background

1.1 Introduction The aim of this chapter is to introduce readers to the topic under investigation. The

chapter achieves the same by presenting a detailed background of the topic under

review. The background is then followed by the research question, which aims at

understanding a pragmatic challenge that will be faced in the area. This section is then

followed by the aims and objectives of the research thus making clear the rationale

behind the research. The final section of this chapter will present the structure of the

paper.

1.2 Backgroundof the study In the present era there are several reasons why English has been recognized an

international language, in this regard, knowledge of this language is approximately a

requirement for professional success. It is International language as an extensive use

in language as a foreign language or as second language, i. e as an international

communication language it is exemplifies the description with English as the mostly

speaking language in the international community. In a recent study author (2005)

comments that the term "international language" can explain in several prospective.

Besides its original meaning of artificial language, an International language may

have been formerly a regional language at a time class becomes the most widely

spoken or global communication vehicle.

English is one of the most popular languages and in over a century the way English

has been perceived around the globe has changed and will continue changing with its

aggressive expansion of use (Llurda, 2004). Widdowson (1994) also pointed out

language researchers and even language teachers are becoming more accepting of the

fact that the new English adopters are using English as a 2nd spoken language and not

as native of mother tongue and yet they are adopting a notion natives speakers are no

more the exclusive owners of the language. This notion of shared ownership is thus

followed by the expectation to have a say in matters that will affects the language.


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Two words that have gained popularity, which are an indication of the evolving

nature of English on a global stage, are the term World English in the literature and

English as an International Language (EIL) (Eoyang 1999).

Llurda (2004) claims that there are very strong positive economic effects of the liberal

approach of English which has allowed incorporating its vocabulary and sty updated,

an approach which was recently also adopted by Japanese. To the claims and

counterclaims of English being Lingua Franca Edwards (2001) “[l]anguages of ‘wider

communication’ have no special linguistic capabilities to recommend them; they are

simply the varieties of those who have power and prestige” (p11). Seidlhofer (2001)

on the other hand is a strong supporter of labelling English and calling it Lingua

Franca but extending on the Idea Modiano (1999) suggest that the focus should be on

English as a language of communication and hence concentrates on the idea of EIL.

There is much disagreement regarding English being a Lingua franca with claims on

each side but that topic is beyond the scope of this research, yet it’s an indication of

increasing popularity of English on global platform. The rationale for this research is

thus explained in the next section.

1.3 Statement of Problem There are many challenges for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an

International Language. One of the major challenges for them is pronunciation. The

sound is the smallest element of language. However, in the current language sounds

always act in combination with each other. A listener hears no separate sounds, but a

sound stream. The basic idea of an alphabetic script is a sign for each sound.

Unfortunately, there is no language with a sound character relation of one to one, that

is to say that there is a letter for each sound and each letter designates a tone.

Numerous compromises, complications and traditions make the spelling rules of

language complicated or even impossible to make a conclusive system. Language

Scientists distinguish between phonology and phonetics. The phonology is concerned

with the meaning of distinctive sounds, called phonemes. Each language has its own

phonological system, i.e., its own system of meaning of distinctive sounds. Phonology

is not concerned with the concrete realizations and all variants of each phoneme.

Every man can get used to different accents, as a listener that is so that actually fall

outside the known him phoneme boundaries.


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In natural language learning what applies in the beginning is the sound, which is

recognized as a phoneme, thereby hears at one point a letter. Reading aloud is an art

that not everyone mastered as well. It has to do with reading, in the sense that you can

only read if you understand what you read correctly. The sound, or linguistic said the

phoneme, may be the smallest element of language, a sound seldom comes alone. As

mentioned above, the current language is characterized by the fact that sounds always

occur in words. Within those words and sounds between words influence each other.

A common symptom is assimilation.

It is important for students to confront spontaneous spoken language early. There is a

tendency when listening material to use. In the basement of texts read Important and

understandable reasons are the desire to dispense the variety of languages. Desire to

clear articulation and not too high a rate of speech but the transition to real

spontaneous spoken language should be. The standard of pronunciation defined one

does not need to hear from which region the speaker is (no dialectal features). English

is the clearest case of a language that is very much used as a lingua franca, so by non -

native speakers. Thus, there are many variations: English with a French accent, with a

German accent, with a Spanish accent, with a Dutch accent etc. It is important to

confront a range of diverse accents and articulations in the target language, of course,

after a cautious start with the more standard (or at least neutral) variants.

The perfect native pronunciation is not feasible for most students - quite apart from

the question of what that perfect native pronunciation actually is. There are teachers

that a Swiss ruling by the German - for example, a pupil or student with family or

other relationships in Switzerland - or French with a Walloon accent find no or less

acceptable. It was not so long ago that an American accent is not found in English or

was not even accepted. Even though it is usually unattainable perfection, in education

even after the initial worthwhile period, some students will be able to pick up the

teacher uses the target language as the official language and listening texts. But a

large group may benefit from specific feedback, even in higher classes, if only

because they are consciously or unconsciously conform to no particular accent -free

German / English / French / ... that they hear from their peers.

Especially pronunciation field arises the phenomenon that students have inhibitions to

' cheat ', i.e. to leave their mother -language accent apart. Behind it is a fear of being


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"abnormal" to behave similar to a fear to dress in a way that deviates from the ' norm'

is too strong for their feelings as valid among their peers. One of the possible tactics

to get over to help them is to present figures with whom they can and want to identify.

Words or phrases of a pop star, movie star or sympathetic found peer example of an

interview are probably echoed a bit more lifelike than that of the lecturer or speaker at

an educational medium.

1.4 Research Rationale and Research Question The background of English presented the evolution of the language on the global

platform that indicates the aggressive adoption of it across the globe. This

transformation of English now presents challenges for language teachers and

professions linked to it. These professions need to adapt to the changing standards of

EIL environment and also to its learners. The whole idea might be a subtle change for

native teachers as English though changing is still native to them and adapting is far

easier and hence the focus of this research is Non-Native English speaking teachers.

Thus the research question is as follows:

How the Pronounciation of Non-native speaker teachers affect teaching English as

an International Language?

The research question forms the basis for research aim, which in turns is the stepping

stone to the research objectives which are highlighted in the next section.

1.4 Research aim and Objective From the research question it is clear that the research aims to understand the

challenges for Non-Native Speaker teachers who are teaching English as an

international language to cope with the evolving nature of the English and the

demanding students. Also the research aims at taking a closer look at the literature in

the evolution of English as an international language and its impact on teachers.

Hence to achieve the aim of the research the objectives should be in line with the

aims. The objectives for the current research are broken down as follows:

1) To conduct a thorough literature review of the area of English as an

International Language

2) To understand the problem of pronunciation facing Non-Native English

teachers teaching English as an International Language


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3) To explore the changing demands of students studying English as an

International Language

First objective will be covered in chapter 2 of Literature Review, which will also help

readers understand the context in which this research is conducted. The next two

objectives will be a part of the research and the outcome of the research will satisfy

these two objectives. The next section now focuses on the structure of this paper.

1.5 Research Structure

This research paper primarily is divided into three different parts. The first part

presents the introduction and background. It also presented the research rationale

followed by the research question, its aims and objectives. The second part is the

literature relevant to the topic. The last section will then focus on research strategy. A

brief introduction to chapter two and chapter three are presented below.

Chapter 2: Literature Review

This Chapter reviews articles on English as an International Language taking into

consideration the major effects of going changes on English language teaching. The

Chapter first discusses the concept of English as an International language. It then

proceeds to a discussion of the consequences of rapid expansion of English language,

and its implications for teaching process. Further the role of non-native-speaker

teachers in EIL teaching is discussed, and in particular what challenges face non-

native-speaker teachers in the future. The Chapter ends with a conclusion.

Chapter 3: Research Methodology

The aim of this chapter is to present the research strategy for the research. Choosing

correct research method is very vital for the success of the research. This chapter will

first present brief introduction into the two major research philosophies. It then

proceeds to present the two research methodologies associated with the research

philosophies. The next section then presents a brief insight into research design and

how nature of research will impact the research. The next section will then present the

selected methodology and its justification. The final section will then present the

reliability and Validity in the chose method. Apart from this section will also


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highlight the ethical considerations that are planned in the research.

Chapter 4: Findings and discussion

The aim of this chapter is to present the findings and discussion for the current

research. This Chapter incorporates the key findings of the research, which have been

derived from the data collected during the interviews, and the discussion of the same.

The Chapter consists of four major sections. The first section presents the general

demographic data of the research and highlights the major themes, which have been

derived from the data. The last three sections are dedicated to presenting and

discussion of the highlighted themes. The themes are also discussed in the light of

existing literature, and previous findings. Modiano (1999) argues that expertise in

speaking English is not inherited by birth but by the ability to use the language

correctly, and both native and non-native speakers can possess such ability.

Chapter 5: Conclusions, Recommendations and Limitations

The main aim of this chapter is to present the conclusion of this research based on the

finindings and discussion and critical analysis of the literature. The research aims and

objectives were as follows:

The research aims to understand the challenges for Non-Native Speaker teachers who

are teaching English as an international language to cope with the evolving nature of

the English and the demanding students.

The chapter is broken down into three parts from here. The first part is conclusions

which is followed by recommendations and the last part will highlight the limitations

of the research.


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Chapter 2

Literature review

2.1 Introduction

This Chapter reviews an existing literature on English as an International Language

taking into consideration the major effects of going changes on English language

teaching. The Chapter first discusses the concept of English as an International

language. It then proceeds to a discussion of the consequences of rapid expansion of

English language, and its implications for teaching process. Further the role of non-

native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching is discussed. Moreover the Chapter looks into

the advantages of non-native-speaking teachers, and proceeds with the review of the

challenges, which ambush non-native-speaker teachers in the future. The Chapter

ends with a conclusion.

2.2 English as an International Language

The importance of this language is growing day by day as more and more people want

or need to communicate in English the role modern English plays today in life not

only native speakers, but also those for whom English is a L2, is difficult to

underestimate. Nowadays linguists more and more inclined to define English as a

global language (Crystal 1997) since there are more people currently who practice it

as L2 than as a mother tongue (Llurda, 2004). For example, according to Crystal

(2003, pp.67-69) the number of English speakers around the world was 1500 million,

and only 400 million out of them were native English speakers. In fact, students use

English much more frequently with other non-native speakers, as they have far

outnumbered native-speakers (Ozturk & Atay, 2010).

ETS commissioned a study, which was conducted by Major et al. (2002) in which the

authors compared the results on spoken English tests in which the test subjects were

primarily from four different natives i.e. English, Japanese, Spanish and Chinese.

Also the test themselves had different version in which each version has passages

prepared by English speaking teachers from these three non-natives. (Llurda, 2004)

points out that more importantly such a study was conducted and this means shifting

paradigms in the literature world and an acknowledgement that the number of non-


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native English speakers is growing and the need to take into consideration their voices

and opinions when taking any decisions regarding mainstream English language, it’s

teaching and also its testing.

As such English stopped to be exclusively owned by the native-speakers but became a

communal language, which is also used by non-native speakers (Widdowson, 1994).

With the increased expansion of English globally English language has been

frequently used in the context of World English, English as an International Language

(EIL) and English as a Lingua Franca (ELF) (Llurda, 2004). However till date there

has been no consensus found among the scholars regarding the appropriation

correctness of these terms (Eoyang 1999; Modiano 1999; Seidlhofer 2001). Eoyang

(1999) also argues that definition “World Language” can be applied if a language is

universal, and widely comprehensive, whereas “English is far from being a universal

language” (ibid.), nor is it considered to be particularly widely comprehensible;

therefore Eoyang argues that it is the comprehensively that allows it to be called

World Language. Seidlhofer (2001), in line with Modiano (1999) on the contrary

display a greater keenness for the marking English a lingua franca, and contemplate

on the idea of EIL.

In 2002 Brutt-Griffler conducted an investigation aiming to understand where the

development of World English is rooted, and forwarded the idea of language macro

acquisition. In particular she proposed that broad expansion of English Language is a

result of a process of language acquisition by numerous speech groups in the world.

In contrast to Phillipson (1992) who gave the whole credit of English language

penetration to the colonial powers Brutt-Griffler explains the spread of English from

the perspective of the key participants of the process. She denies them to be simply

inert recipients of an expatriate language but considers them to be a dynamic mediator

of language adoption (Brutt-Griffler, 2002). Brutt-Griffler (2002) explains the reasons

of English becoming the favoured language at international level as the willingness of

the colonial communities to learn the language as part of the battle for freedom.

Paradoxically macro acquisition, according to Brutt-Griffler (2002), did not caused

the language extinction but to bilingualism (Llurda, 2004).

In spite of all existing controversy the term EIL is gradually establishes itself as the

applicable to the majority of the present uses of English worldwide, especially in the


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conditions when non-native speakers networking in English with both native speakers

and other non-native speakers (Llurda, 2004). Though it is still long way to go for

English to become an EIL as such, a comprehensible, and concise language choice, -

some attempts have been already undertaken (Jenkins, 2000; Seidlhofer 2001). For

example, during the discussing the possibility of establishing a progressive common

lingua franca for European Union, the concept of Euro-English has already occurred

(James 2000; Jenkins et al. 2001). Euro-English was proposed as an option to be used

exclusively for international communication within the EU and would be different

from English as it is used in the UK and other English-speaking countries (Llurda,

2004). This suggestion is developing with no any official language planning in place,

making English a de facto most universally used lingua franca within the EU

(Ammon 1994; Ammon and McConnell 2002; Phillipson 2003).

2.3 The Impact of EIL on Language Teaching

The consequences of rapid expansion of English language, and its conversion from

being the mother tong just for few countries into the international language brought a

considerable amount of changes in the field of language teaching.

Currently people are learning English not only with the aim to pass exams and tests,

but also with the expectations to be employed in the world, and work within diverse

social groups (Hinkel, 2012). Therefor teachers have to take into the consideration the

future perspective of their students, and in particular they have now to adapt to new

requirements of the learners.

As a result of novel learning objectives the legacy of native English teachers as a

model for language teaching has been questioned. For example Cook (1999) suggests

that native speaker is no longer remains a model for language teaching since they

became an integrated part of a larger language speakers community. Modiano (1999)

argues that expertise in speaking English is not inherited by birth but by the ability to

use the language correctly, and both native and non-native speakers can possess such

ability.

There have been a considerable amount of proposals done to integrate the new

interpretations of EIL into language teaching process, and particularly accentuate the

necessity to draw on the earlier comprehension of the language learner through


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utilizing their knowledge of their own language and culture. For example, McKay

(2000, 2003) proposes dedicating time and attentiveness during the lecture to the

students’ own culture so that to empower them and allow sharing their own culture

with other English speakers.

However, taking into consideration increased global mobilization, and that young

professionals concern with their educational and professional opportunities

considerably increased proficiency in the culture of language speakers are likely to

provide them with the competitive advantage which several years ago might seem

preposterous (Hinkel, 2012). As such, in addition to the linguistic elements of a

foreign language, modern teachers have to focus on practical cultural aspects and set

new objective of teaching social and interactional norms (Hinkel, 2012).

Similarly, Dendrinos (2001) argues that English lessons for native speakers, and

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) must give students an opportunity to move

easily from their L1 to the L2 and vice versa. She believes that since the learners of

EIL will not use English as their only one communication language, during the

lessons they should be given an opportunity to practice interpreting and reporting

skills, and not to focus on a monolingual communicative scenarios. This is in line

with Widdowson’s hypothesis that language legitimacy is more than pure

reproduction of native-speaker utilization, as “the language that is authentic for

native speaker users cannot possibly be authentic for learners” (Widdowson 1998,

p.711).

Kachru (1992) stated “what is needed is a shift of two types: a paradigm shift in

research and teaching, and an understanding of the sociolinguistic reality of the uses

and users of English” (p. 362). Even the general idea of communicative proficiency

has been questioned in the conditions of the latest situation of EIL (Alptekin 2002).

Teaching second language takes place in different contexts and realities are not

always the same. There are some contexts in which the second language teaching is

not accepted by students or by parents, others where there are sufficient teaching

materials for teach this language, others where it should be second language is taught

as first, etc.:

“Only by producing instructional materials that emphasize diversity both within and


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across cultures can one perhaps avoid presenting English meanings in fragmented

and trivialized ways, where communicative functions are conceived as simple speech

acts realized through specific structures, and where situational content generally

portrays an idealized image of the English-speaking culture. It is perhaps time to rid

the ELT field of its educational vision and practices based on a utopian notion of

communicative competence involving idealized native speaker norms in both

language and culture” (p. 60).

The basic objectives, proposed by Seelye have been revised and studied by different

researchers; basically they remained to be the centre of the attention of most

pedagogy in language, culture, and cross-cultural communication (Hinkel, 2012).

English courses are those in specialty which the content and objectives of the course

are determined by the needs specific to a particular group of students. From the 60s,

the growing need for many students to learn English with specific goals did emerge

with such force teaching English. The original goals of teaching culture as an

integrated part of foreign language learning were proposed by Ned Seelye (1988).

Although As far as basic principles are concerned, there is no reason to suppose that

the process of student learning English specialty is different from that required in

general English courses. The goals specify the key abilities, which learners have to

develop (Table 1).

Table 1: Key Abilities Learners of Foreign Languages have to Develop1

1.

Understanding that, in all societies, people display culturally-conditioned behaviours

2. Comprehension that, in all languages, social variables such as age, sex, social role, and social status define how people communicate

3. Awareness that, in all societies, people exhibit stylized language usage and behaviour in typical situations

4. Awareness of the cultural meanings given to words and phrases in foreign language

5. Ability to assess and improve generalizations and stereotypes regarding the

1 Source (Hinkel, 2012).


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foreign language culture grounded on real-life evidence and experience

6. Skills for investigating different culture, in particular how to find, systematize, and assess new information about the new culture

7. Intellectual curiosity about the foreign culture, vision, respect, and other positive attitudes toward the media culture

2.4 The role of non-native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching

The consequences of rapid expansion of English language bought considerable

changes in the field of language teaching and language testing (Llurda, 2004). For

example in the study conducted by Major et al. (2002) which compared the grades on

the Test of Spoken English attained by speakers of four different languages: English,

Japanese, Chinese, and Spanish using four different types of the test revealed that

study with different native languages might have produced dissimilar results. The

research also suggests that the speech of non-native English speakers might have

phonological features that either benefit or cause difficulty for listeners. In spite of the

fat that the results of the Major et al. (2002) cannot be decisive, the latent effects of

this study are reflective.

The role of non-native speakers in language teaching has been received a considerable

amount of attention from scholars (e.g Medgyes, 1994, Braine 1999, Phillipson, 1992,

Rajagopalan, 1999). Specifically, Medgyes (1994) and Braine (1999) claim that non-

native speakers play a significant positive role in teaching English as a second

language. Llurda (2004) believes that with the aggregating establishment of English

as the international lingua franca, non-native speakers will be in best mediators to

chief their students through EIL. Teachers of EIL should integrate teaching materials

and activities with both local and international content that are well-known and

appropriate to language learners (Alptekin 2002). In addition non-native speakers

have gone through the experience of becoming bilingual and communicating using

different languages. As such, non-native-speaker teachers intrinsically possess better

expertise to guide the language-learning process. Nonetheless, an old native-speaker

framework remains to be a powerful stereotype that only British or American norms

have to be kept on and native speakers are considered the perfect teachers.


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A study conducted by Llurda and Huguet (2003) in Catalonia revealed that Catalan

teachers still focus more on teaching British culture, rather than any other European

countries during the English lessons. Similarly University departments in Russia are

dedicating more attention to British and American cultures and literatures than to

other English speaking countries. At the same time it has been argued that English

language classes in different countries do not have to focus on the entirely original

English speaking culture. In particular McKay (2000) argues that students may need

to use English so that to tell about their own culture, literature, and traditions to

foreigners, and therefore they need to be taught to do so.

2.5 Advantages of non-native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching

Medgyes (1994) in his research identifyied six major points of advantage Non-Native-

Speaker Teachers have against Native-speakers one (Table 2).

Table 2: Advantages of Non-Native-Speaker Teachers2

1

Provide a better learner model

2 Teach learning-learning strategies more effectively

3 Supply more information about the English language

4 Better anticipate and prevent language difficulties

5 More sensitive towards the students

6 Benefit from their ability to use the student’s mother tongue.

Let’s now have a closer look at each of them.

1. According to Medgyes (1994), a language teacher sets two types of models in

front of the students: a language model and a learner model. Further Medgyes

(1994) claims that non-native speaking teachers are able to set a better learners

model, while native-speaking teachers are better at setting a language model.

2Source (Medgyes, 1994: p.436)


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2. Wenden and Rubin (1987) define learning stratagies as particular actions

which are used to simplify the learning and recollection of one or several

elements of competence (cited in Medgyes, 1994). Medges (1994) believes

that simplification of a process does not only mean finding an easier learning

method, but to find a method that will be faster, mor pleasurable, more self-

directed, more effective, and able to be transferred to different situations. As

such Medgyes (1994) suggests that non-native speaking teachers are more

strategy conscious, and thus they are more succsessful in finding a more

appropriate learning strategy for the learners.

3. A language teacher’s expertise comprises thre major elements: language

proficiency, language awareness, and pedagogic skills (Medgyes, 1994). Due

to the fact that non-native-spealing teachers went through the learnong phase

themselves they possess better knowledge about the English language, and

while native-speaking teachers have better feeling of what is correct and what

is not correct in the way the language is used, non-native speaking teachers

has better knowledge of the potential difficulties in language learning.

4. Based on the previous position Medgyes (1994) further suggests that non-

native-speaking teachers have a deeper insight in what language difficulties

are. It is easier for them to spot the trublesome places where a student can

possibly trip, and thus to avoid grammatical problems.

5. The next point which Medgyes (1994) highlights as non-native-speaking

teachers advantage s their sensitive attitude towards the students. Thus

Medgyes (1994) identifies several areas where non-native-speaking teachers

displayed the higher level of sensitivity than their native-speaking colleagues.

In particular non-native-speaking teachers are considered to be more

responsive towards the student’s real needs based on their cultural, personal

and background needs Learners must, sooner or later find themselves in

situations where they are forced to use proper English as an official speech in

a conference, or academic research. These situations require the correct

direction as well as shape. These two linguistic components are interdependent

relationship. Second of all, non-native-speaking teachers are likely to set more

realistic objectives in front of the students, rather than their native-speaking

colleagues. Third of all, non-native-speaking teachers are stricter, and are

ready to assign more homework for the students if needed.


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6. Finaly, Medgyes (1994) points out the ability to use a student’s mother tongue

as the advantage of non-native-speaking teachers, which their native-speaking

colleagues do not possess. After 1990 when the use of mother-tongue during

the English lessons was legitimized. Native language has been accepted as a

powerful teaching and learning tool (Medgyes, 1994), thus providing non-

native-speaking teachers with additional advantage against their counterparts.

Nonetheless in spite all listed and obvious advantages listed above non-native-

speaking teachers have to face challenges teaching English as a foreign language,

which are discussed in the next section.

2.6 Problem of Pronunciation for non-native-speaker teachers in EIL teaching Due to the escalating demands in English learning the majority of the teachers who

teach English as a foreign language are non-native speakers (Moussu & Llurda,

2008). In particular Canagarajah (2005) argues that 80% of the English teachers in the

world are non-native speakers.

Up to the date in most of the countries English language teachers are perceived as

“ambassadors” of “English culture”, when they not only teach students a foreign

language but also familiarize them with the country’s social peculiarities, ideologies,

culture and traditions. The teachers are more focused on a romanticized form of

British culture, values, and society, deeply rooted in old stereotypes. Indeed many

Non-native speaker (NNS) teachers seem not be aware of the novel language

perceptions and still stuck in the old native-speaker governed framework in which

only British or American standards have to be followed (Ozturk & Atay, 2010).

The challenge of non-native-speaker teachers is so-called problem of linguistic

deficits in the area of vocabulary, oral fluency and pronunciation (Ozturk & Atay,

2010: p. 135). Even in spite of the qualities possessed by the non-native-speaker

teachers (Medgyes, 1994), which give them a competitive edge over the native-

speakers who do not help narrowing the gap between the native and nonnative

professionals. Medgyes (1994) believes that the linguistic deficits are one of the

reasons native-speaking teachers and non-native speaking teachers have different

approach towards the error correction issue. In particular, native-speaking teachers

perceive language, as a mean to obtain some communication goal, whereas for non-

native-speaking teachers English is primarily a school subject, which has to be learnt,


21

and therefore they pursue more “heavy-handed” approach.

In the history of foreign language teaching the importance given to pronunciation has

varied greatly from the method of grammar and translation. The native accent was

during this time the target. After the abandonment of audio-lingual method,

pronunciation experienced periods of forgetfulness. Still, the important thing now is

to communicate in English Language, so the target has become intelligibility and not

the native accent, considering this as an unrealistic and unnecessary goal for most

learners of English Language (Jenkins, 2000; 2002). As a result, foreign accent

tolerated not normally hinder communication or a direct relationship (Derwing &

Munro, 2005). All this has led authors such as Levis (2005) asserts that the history of

pronunciation has been a story "in extremes". The truth is that, at present, the teaching

of pronunciation suffers basically two things, i.e. excessive dependence of the written

language and the fact that the "Cinderella" of teaching communicative foreign

language.

On the one hand, it is true that the teaching of English Language has undergone major

changes in the last thirty years. Studies in linguistics, psycholinguistics, pragma-

linguistics, discourse analysis, etc. have brought a number of ideas that have

prompted an educational renewal was reflected in the development of the

communicative approach, the first to establish learning objectives aimed at oral and

written communication skills. In this communicative approach and on the recent task-

based approach, is given a priori as important to oral skills as written. However,

despite the improvements that has involved the application and the good long-term

results that continue to be used in written language as a support in teaching oral

language. Thus, the results obtained in teaching based on the communicative

approach are being better at reading and writing skills.

In the years pronunciation begins to appear in English manuals in attempts of teaching

pronunciation through the communicative approach, while still relying in varying

extent in written texts and, in some cases, continue to use the phonetic alphabet

(Taylor, 1993; Seidlhofer, 2001). However, teaching pronunciation remains

unattended in English Language and do not receive adequate treatment. The job is

usually made of communicative approach neglects the phonetic dimension of

communication. Furthermore, this emphasizes that although there is some interest in


22

the pronunciation of segments, it does not take into account their integration in

speech. For it is the intonation of first phonetic phenomenon that is the listener and

disregard supposed a contradiction with the communicative goals of education?

Teachers do not know how to integrate the teaching of pronunciation in the

communicative approach or the most recent task-based approach. On one hand, lack

of material, is one of the issues since integration of pronunciation has not been

proposed in many manuals. Furthermore, existing manuals barely pay attention to the

teaching of pronunciation and when they do not untie phonetic pronunciation

correction and based on the known "Listen and repeat", that is, in hearing and

imitation. The levels of pronunciation that has to describe the students in earlier

grades six but a section on pronunciation targets is not included.

The relationship between spelling and sound presented the phonological function of

stress, the stress patterns of the words and the relationship between sentence modality

and intonation pattern. Thus, their integration in the communicative class is

impossible as teaching pronunciation is often presented as an annex or appendix with

no relation to the development, content and focus of the classes. So, very limited work

is done to prevent the use of behavioural methods and resources that have already

been overcome in other areas of education.

Due to the marginalized status of pronunciation that many English as a Secondary

Language (ESL) teachers have no formal training to teach it, as it is clear from the

studies of Burges and Spencer (2000 ) and Breitkreutz et al (2002). MacDonald

(2002) cites several studies in Australia and notes that many teachers do not teach

pronunciation because they lack confidence, skills and knowledge. Derwing & Munro

(2005) note that, accordingly, in most cases, students even receive any instruction or

focuses directly on traits regardless of influence on intelligibility. Also, many

materials have been designed pronunciation regardless of the findings in research on

pronunciation. The lack of inconsistency and multiple deficiencies in the activities of

good English pronunciation manuals used to help students of English as foreign

language.

To avoid these negative results Derwing & Munro (2005) point out the important

instructors have opportunities to learn about pedagogy of pronunciation and that this

preparation is justified by the findings in the research, like other aspects of language,


23

which do receive greater care courses and preparation materials for teachers.

Ultimately they conclude that teachers should be prepared to critically evaluate

materials and curriculum based on empirical research, in order to meet the wishes of

many students who see teaching pronunciation a priority (Derwing, 2003). But the

marginalization of the study of pronunciation is given in the field of applied

linguistics. Since Levis (1999) noted that the present international research is almost

completely divorced from modern language teaching and is rarely re-elected in

teaching materials. Derwing & Munro (2005) argue that many studies are also

engaged in the pronunciation of the English Language than other aspects of language

such as grammar or vocabulary, despite the increased interest by teachers in

pronunciation. Thus, according to these authors, it cannot resolve many of the

difficulties faced by the instructors.

As a result of this situation, instructional materials and practices of teachers are still

influenced by common sense and intuition, not having some direction (Derwing &

Munro, 2005; Levis, 2005) and even many teachers are reluctant to teach

pronunciation. For them, the problem would be resolved if the applied researchers

studying linguistic responsibility will be taken and interpret technical research for

educational specialists and incorporated relevant findings in teacher training materials

and books of student text. The results of research in basic and applied phonetics

should be accounted in the design of the pronunciation exercises methods and

complementary materials. Consequently, after everything said, it can be said that the

pronunciation is clearly being the unfinished business of communicative foreign

language teaching.

.

2.7 Conclusion

This chapter presented an overview of the existing literature on English as an

International Language, and in particular what will be the implication for non-native-

speaking teachers due to rapid language globalization. Indeed the rapid technological,

social, and economic changes brought out new perspective to the meaning of the

English language as international mean of communication. Due to such rapid


24

expansion of its popularity the prevailing majority of the teachers who teach English

as foreign students are non-native-speakers. Although non-native-speaking teachers

do possess some particular advantages against their native-speaking colleagues, the

challenges they have to face have to be acknowledged. The Chapter also reviewed

the circumstances of language rapid expansion, and foreign cultures penetration, as

well as the implications for teaching process.

Teaching English when responding to a case of integrative motivation, we have a

situation of English as a second language. This term is used to designate the teaching /

learning of English as the language plays a role important communicative within a

country but it is not the mother tongue or first tongue. We speak here of English as a

medium of communication in educational or judicial systems of those countries, the

language of media (newspapers, radio, television), the language of the official

institutions and as the language of commerce and industry in general. This is the case

of immigrants or minorities in a country whose official language is not considered

within the country.

In addition to the above factors, some teaching methods are considered inappropriate

and unsuccessful are also behind the poor level of the students in English. May

mention the communicative approach applied in other region for many years. This

approach did not succeed in achieving the goals of expected learning due to some

serious constraints that have hindered its implementation. One of the fundamental

principles of the communicative approach is to focus on meaning at the expense of

form. This has resulted in consequences undesirable and made the desired goal more

difficult to achieve. Most students are unable to express themselves correctly whether

orally or in writing. They also have difficulties understanding of authentic texts;

baggage grammar and vocabulary is very limited. These weaknesses are related to the

approach which states that communicative grammar should not be taught explicitly,

because it can be acquired implicitly as one uses the language communicatively.


25

Chapter 3

Methodology

3.1 Introduction

The aim of this chapter is to present the research strategy for the research. This

chapter will first present brief introduction into the two major research methods. It

then proceeds to present the two research methodologies in detail. The next section

then presents a brief insight into research design and how nature of research will

impact the research. The next section will then present the selected methodology and

its justification. The final section will then present the reliability and Validity in the

chose method. Apart from this section will also highlight the ethical considerations

that are planned in the research.

3.2 Research Questions Problem of Pronunciation for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as

an International Language?

Vindicating the role of non-native speakers in language teaching

What is the internal diversity among non-native speakers?

Hence, the present research is grounded on logical relationships and not pure beliefs

(Ghauri and Grønhaug 2005), and the major purpose of the research is to understand

the challenges that non-native teachers are facing in teaching English as an

International Language.

Another important aspect of the research is increasing existing knowledge, which

demands from a researcher to have a clear understanding of the research philosophies,

as they are directly related to new knowledge development.

3.3 Research Philosophies, and Research Approach

Research philosophy (Figure 1) carries essential assumptions regarding the way a

researcher visions the world (Saunders et al., 2010). These assumptions lie in the

heart of the research strategy and the methods, which have been chosen as part of the


26

strategy. The choice of research philosophy depends on a question a researcher is

looking to answer. Saunders et al (2010) suggests that in reality a research question

hardly falls precisely into only one philosophical area, and encourage researchers to

be more flexible when selecting a research approach and methods.

Figure 13

In order to answer the research question the researcher has based the present study on

epistemology philosophy, which concerns with the question “what constitutes

acceptable knowledge in a field of study?” (Saunders et al, 2010, p.112). Moreover,

between two available philosophies within the epistemology domain, - positivism and

interpretivism, the author has embraced the interpretivist philosophy. Creswell (2009)

: The research “onion”

Coming back to the questions of the present research:

Problem of Pronunciation for Non-native speaker teachers teaching English as an

International Language?

?

3Source: Mark Saunders, Philip Lewis and Adrian Thornhill 2008


27

describes grounded theory as “a strategy of inquiry in which the researcher derives a

general, abstract theory of a process, action, or interaction grounded in the views of

participants”.

Positivism is rooted in the tradition of natural science. Positivists prefer “working

with an observable social reality and that the end product of such research can be law-

like generalizations similar to those produced by the physical and natural scientists”

(Remenyi et al. 1998, p.32). These phenomenons, investigated by the positivists

investigate, as a rule leads to the collection of reliable data. To collect this data

positivists adopt adequate research strategies, which are likely to employ existing

theory to develop hypotheses. These hypotheses are then tested, and confirmed, in

whole or part, or refuted, leading to the further development of theory, which then

may be tested by further research.

Unlike positivism, interpretivism seeks to find out the differences between humans, as

social actors. Positivists have argued that physical sciences cannot be used to theorize

the complex social world of business and hence is similar approach will not be helpful

(Tolman, 1992). Interpretivism also argues that humans will play different role in

different context. These arguments justified how objective approach cannot be taken

on complex social beings like humans. Interpretivism encourages a researcher to

understand differences between individuals as social actors, and focuses on

conducting a research among people rather than objects.

Since the main objects of investigation of the current research are people, and the

author aims to understand what challenges non-native English teachers can facewhile

the current research has taken interpretive stand.

3.4 Research Approach and Research Strategy

The current study is an exploratory study in nature as it aims to find out “what is

happening; to seek new insights; to ask questions and to assess phenomena in a new

light” (Robson, 2002, p.59). There were two major stages through which the author

has collected the data for the research:

By searching the literature

Interviewing specialists in the field.


28

In spite of the fact the research is exploratory in nature, and took an interpretivism

stand, the author has decided to use an inductive approach to conduct the study The

Inductive Method emerged as a natural resource to complement the above procedure.

It happens to be the opposite of what using the Deductive Method; goes from the

particular to the general, suggesting it through individual cases in which the general

principle that governs them is discovered. It is based on experience, observation, in

fact. Their acceptance is that instead of starting from a final conclusion, the researcher

offered the factors underlying generalizations and takes him to induce, is active for

excellence.

The exploratory nature of the study suggested using a grounded theory strategy to

conduct an investigation. The method of grounded theory is the constant comparison,

connoting, as Sandoval, on-going review and compare the captured data in order to

build theory actually says. The method of this trend helps the anthropologist develop

and compare new mental categories and enter notions of space and time, opposition

and contradiction, which may be foreign to traditional thinking. Goulding (2002)

argues that grounded theory strategy is specifically effective for the studies, which

goal is to foresee and justify behaviours. Moreover, unlike positivistic strategies,

grounded theory allows developing and building theory, instead of testing it. In case

of grounded theory the process of data collection begins before the development of an

original theoretical framework (Saunders et al., 2010). Glaser and Strauss (1967) also

argue that grounded theory is the best strategy for a study adhering to the inductive

approach. As such the objectives of this study, which are to understand the challenges

facing Non-Native English teachers teaching English as an International Language,

and to explore the changing demands of students studying English as an International

Language are apt to fit rudimentary objectives of grounded theory as a research

strategy.

3.5 Questionnaire Development and Sampling

The questionnaire for the current research has been developed in four main stages,

which are presented in figure 2.


29

Figure 2: Stages of Questionnaire Development

When developing the questionnaire the researcher tried to avoid using vague or

negative questions, which could be misinterpreted. Moreover, he author did not

include leading or value-laden questions, which implied a required answer, or might

lead informants to give misinforming answers. The author also avoided offensive or

insensitive questions, which could have caused participants’ embarrassment. Finally

the author did not ask for information, which could disclose confidential information

about the informant’s private data. The questionnaires have been developed of two

types: for interviewing teachers, and for interviewing students. The full example of

the questionnaire used in the study is presented in the Appendix 1.

The key participants have been selected by means of a judgmental sampling method,

in particular using purposive sampling technique Sampling is a key element in the

research methodology as it involves selecting a group of items that will be used to

conduct a study. The key informants for the current study were non-native English

teachers, and students learning English as a foreign language This sampling technique

is appropriate when the population is already divided into groups that more accurately

reflects the characteristics of the population and allows comparisons between strata

formed. Conducting semi-structured interviews enabled the author to obtain a deeper

insight into the participant’s attitudes and experiences regarding the challenges for

non-native-speaking teachers might face nowadays when teaching English as a

foreign language. The technique is as follows: the population is divided into groups or

clusters, and then randomly selects some of these groups, arguing that each is

representative of the population and then a random sample of each is taken groups

that have been selected. Purposive sampling enabled the researcher to employ his own

judgment during the selection process of the most suitable cases in order to answer

the research question and to meet research aims and objectives (Saunders et al.,


30

2010).

3.6 Pilot

So that to test the designed questionnaire for fitness to use and confirm that the design

meets the aims and objectives of the investigation, and allows answering the research

questions a pilot interview was performed. The pilot interview discovered that

questionnaire needed some improvements in terms of adding some questions, and

correcting the content and the structure of the questionnaire in order to get rid of any

ambiguity in questions. Simple random sampling is used when all elements of the

population are known. Each element of the population has an equal chance of being

chosen to be part of the sample. An enumerative list of items is made. From here a

series of elements comprising the sample is obtained. The process involves working

with a table of random digits or a random generated numbers in a spread sheet and

selecting matching the random number and the order of the list, or using a computer

to select an amount of random elements of a general list that is population.

3.7 Data Collection

The process of data collection for the purpose of the research can be divided into two

main phases: primary data collection, and secondary data collection. Let’s now

discuss each of the phases.

Primary data collection The primary data was collected using a qualitative approach via in-depth semi-

structured interviews. Qualitative methods have both advantages and disadvantages,

which have to be acknowledged when conducting a study (Table X).

Table 3: Advantages and Disadvantages of the Qualitative methods of Data Collection

Advantages Disadvantages

Enable a better understanding of an individual’s behaviour, feelings and views

Extremely time consuming thus only a minor sample size can be used in comparison to quantitative methods, which is likely to cause the inaccurateness of the results


31

Let novel theories and ideas to be developed

Problematic to determine the results after the comparison of the variables as numerous responses vary

Provide tailored results to the subjects, and enables gaining a more objective opinion

Generalization is difficult

Source: (Bryman and Bell, 2011)

The author has interviewed non-native English teachers, about their experiences of

teaching English as foreign language. The interviews have been conducted with the

teachers teaching English in secondary schools, high schools, and universities in

China, and students who are learning English as a foreign language. The author used a

self-selection sampling to select the participants. The letters of invitation to

participate in the research were sent through or emails to 43 teachers, 15 positive

responses were collected. Therefore following by Guest et al. (2006) suggestion that

if a researcher aims to understand commonalities within a fairly homogenous group,

12 in-depth interviews should suffice, the author interviewed those 15 positively

responded individuals. Each interview lasted from 10 to 15 minutes. The length of the

questionnaire depends on several factors, but primarily on two factors. The first factor

is the amount of information you wish to have the interviewee and how many

questions are necessary to obtain such information. The second is the mode of

administration of the questionnaire. In the first case we must adhere to the objectives

of the investigation, but whether it is deep or very ambitious research, this will

influence the way determinedly chosen application questionnaire. A self-administered

questionnaire or telephone must have, as we shall see in more detail, an extension as

limited as possible (just a few minutes). A questionnaire administered face to face, on

the contrary, may extend its duration to 10 to 15 minutes. In any case the extension of

a questionnaire should not measure by the number of questions you have, but by the

average duration of the interview.

The average duration of the interview can calculate by what is known as Pretest. The

Pretest involves the application of the questionnaire on a small sample population

before beginning fieldwork. The pretest helps us, among other things, to determine

the length of the interview and test the relevance and correctness of the statements

and answers that make up the questionnaire can be corrected before starting to apply


32

the lcuestionario on the entire population. The students who are learning English as a

foreign language have been approached by the author personally and asked to

participate in the study. Out of ten approached six agreed to participate in the study.

All the interviews were recorded on a tape recorder and later transcribed.

3.8 Content analysis

In order to assess the interviews the responses from the participants we subjected to

content analysis technique. Content analysis allows a researcher to categorize verbal

or behavioural data, and help to classify, and summarize the data. Content analysis is

a widely used research tool, which is employed to outline the presence of definite

words or concepts within a text. Researchers scrutinize these words, their values and

associations with other concepts, and decode the messages those words communicate.

A step model of analysis is presented in Figure 3

Content Analysis Step Model 4

Figure 3: Content Analysis Step Model

4Adopted from Zhang & Wildemuth., 2009


33

3.9 Reliability, Validity and ethical consideration

The consistency of data collection, in other words the validity and reliability of the

data, has been always of great concern among the academia. However the

development of qualitative research methods made researches to rethink the meaning

of reliability and validity. The validity, in general terms, refers to the degree to which

an instrument actually measures the variable being measured. For example, a valid

instrument for measuring intelligence should not measure intelligence and memory. A

test of knowledge of history should measure this and no knowledge of historical

literature. Contrary to quantitative research, where the consistency of the means of

data collection is highly important, qualitative research does not search for consistent

results. Therefore the concept of validity and reliability need to be adapted to

qualitative studies as transferability and dependability (Lincoln & Guba, 1985). The

content validity refers to the degree to which an instrument reflects a specific domain

of content of what is measured. The degree to which the measurement represents the

measured concept.

Conducting qualitative research researchers often known as the setting in which the

study is conducted. This gives readers an idea, and an opportunity to decide whether

their findings are applicable if used in other settings. This can be attributed to

Transferability of research. The concept of Dependability is concerned with the

readers and the offerings to the reader in the context of accuracy of the information

provided as to be able to make informed decisions. This generally is done by

providing an in depth account of the whole process and the interview including the

analysis. The process of validating a construct is linked with the theory. It is not

possible to conduct construct validation, unless there is a theoretical framework that

supports the variable relative to other variables. Of course, it is not necessary a highly

developed theory, but investigations have shown that the concepts are related.

Ethical considerations are of prime importance for any research. Most researchers

undertake the research with intentions to help but yet researchers have to be careful as

the process involves humans and their personal data in one form or the other. No

participant should face stress, trouble or any kind of problems due to participation and

thus ethical consideration lays out guidelines to ensure this does not happen. Ethical


34

considerations are generally around a couple of known issues which have been listed

below in four categories:

Participant should not be harmed in any way; Participant should be informed and a consent to be taken

Participants privacy should be utmost priority

No deception should be involved.

(Alan Bryman, Emma Bell, 2007, p. 128)

In order to prevent distraction of any listed above a study has to be conducted with the

compliance of three key ethical doctrines:

• Autonomy

• Beneficence

• Justice

Protecting the participants’ identities and conducting the research with compliance of

anonymity and confidentiality achieved the beneficence doctrine. In addition the

participants were well informed that all data obtained during the survey would be

used only for the purpose of current study.

3.10 Sample For the purpose of current research the data have been collected using in-depth semi-

structured interviews with the school/college/university teachers and students

currently attending English course in the UK. Overall 18 people have been

interviewed: 12 teachers and six students. Each interview lasted about 15 to 20

minutes.

The average age of the students interviewed was 23-24 years. All participants were

attending English language courses in UK. Of those asked two attended private

schools and colleges, and the rest learned English in public institutions.


35

3.11 Conclusion This chapter describes the research methodology, which has been adhered for the

purpose of current research. Research can be classified as transactional, longitudinal

or trend by the criterion of time. In terms of the objectives of an investigation can be

classified as exploratory, descriptive, correlational or experimental. Research methods

are varied so for example the art of documentary research is useful to describe,

explain, compare, etc. certain issues based on reading and review of various materials

and documents while survey research to analyse stocks based on the study of a

representative sample.

The Chapter begins with the common conceptualization of research philosophies,

explaining the author’s philosophical stand towards the approach, and the choice of

the research strategy. Further on in the Chapter the sampling method and the process

of questionnaire development have been explained.

The next Chapter presents the main findings and the Discussion of the findings.


36

Chapter 4

Results and Discussion

4.1 Introduction The aim of this chapter is to present the findings and discussion for the current

research. This Chapter incorporates the key findings of the research, which have been

derived from the data collected during the interviews, and the discussion of the same.

The objective of this research is briefly revisited which is

The three sections are dedicated to presenting and discussion of the highlighted

themes. The themes are also discussed in the light of existing literature, and previous

findings. The use of mother tongue as a teaching technique foreign language is

controversial. The controversy lies mainly in the benefits and the disadvantages of

this method. Among the benefits, one could argue that makes it easy to both the

teacher and the learner. There are words that are still ambiguous whatever

explanations. These words, however, become clear when the students' mother tongue

is employed.

4.2 Results Out of 12 teachers who participated in the research three were high school teachers in

China, seven taught the language in colleges, and two were University professors.

33% of the informants had five to ten years of working experience, 25% have been

teaching English between ten to 15 years, 17% jointed the profession less than five

years ago, the same amount of those who asked had 15 to 20 years of experience, and

8% have been in the profession for more than 20 years (Figure 4).


37

Figure 4: Work Experience

The age ranges of the students to whom informants teach English vary from 6 years

old to 19 years old. Two of those participated in the research worked in private

schools, and the rest 10 were teaching English in public schools, and colleges (Figure

5).

Figure 5:

Figure 5: Public VS Private


38

32% of the informants agreed that journals and books are their primary sources of

knowledge update, 29% named the internet, 18% attend special language courses,

13% use networking with local and native-speaking colleagues, and only 8% can

afford travelling to English speaking countries to keep up with the changes, which are

happening in the language (Figure 6).

Figure 6: Sources of Knowledge Update

Out of those asked 67% rated their proficiency in English as “High”, 25% as “Very

High”, and 8% believed that they have a medium proficiency in English. However,

when asked to rate the same in comparison with their native-speaking counterparts,

none of the participants rated their skills as “Very High”, 58% rated themselves as

“High” skilled, and 42% as “Medium” (Figure 7).


39

Figure 7: Levels of Language Proficiency

None of the students-informants had native-speaking teacher while learning English

in China, and 100% of those asked would choose native-speaking teacher, if they

have such an opportunity. Among the reasons for such a choice the students named:

Reasons Per cent

Higher level of proficiency 100

More plausible, and innovative teaching

methods

83

They don’t have an accent 50

4.3 Limited Resources This section will discuss the most recurring theme of Limited resources. One of the

main findings of this research indicates that most participants have pointed out to the


40

limited resources in teaching English as an international language when they

themselves are non-native speakers. In the literature it was pointed out that at present

English has touched such level of internationalization when both native-speaking

communities should learn local changes in the language in the same way as non-

native speaking population. The participants pointed out that there was a serious gap

when it came to the requirement of Pronunciation because of a lack of resources. The

quotes of participants are as follows.

P 1: “I mostly use secondary resources such as books, journals, TV news, internet to

keep myself updated with what is going on in the cultural, and linguistic

sphere….However…these resources are not sufficient nowadays for a teacher of

English to remain the primary source of the knowledge for the student, to remain the

model, if I can say so, mostly because they lack the information about pronunciation

which is one of the primary difficulties of non-native English speaking teachers”

P 2:“In spite of all the fact the nowadays it is much easier to gain the access to the

information, I believe that it was never so problematic for the teachers to keep their

knowledge up to date ….I believe one of the major reasons that even the students can

retrieve the same information, and sometimes even more information from the same

sources ”

P 3 : “I see the main problem for the teachers in the lack of exposure to the natural

language settings, like pronunciation. My point is it is imperative for the teachers

nowadays to have an opportunity to go abroad and interact with their native-speaking

colleagues, to take up some language courses…only this way teachers nowadays can

retain their status as learning models”.

P 4: “I think that teachers are indeed lack of resources to keep themselves updated

regarding what changes are going in the language… It might seem an easy thing, you

know, one can say just open Internet… but in fact teachers need more reliable

resources, and what is more important, they need to update not only their theoretical,

but also practical knowledge, and for this matter networking with native speakers is

imperative. I went to special training in UK last year, and frankly it was first time I

realized all the imperfections I had… take only pronunciation, which I had to improve

and still do”.


41

This is in line with the assumption made in the literature based on the literature

review where non-native-speaker teachers will face a greater challenge to keep up

with the upcoming changes, and if they fail to do so they are likely to face an

increased pressure from the students, and their parents/guardians. The quotes provide

a direct insight into the same of how non-native speakers are facing increased

pressure due to dynamicity of the language, which needs frequent updating of their

skills to teach English as an international language. Hence one of the biggest

challenges for non-native speaking English teachers to teach English as an

international language is their access to limited resources.

None of the participants who were interviewed mentioned that their ability of being

able to speak the local language had any benefits to overcome any challenges as

mentioned in literature. As McKay (2000, 2003) proposed dedicating time and

attentiveness during the lecture to the students’ own culture so that to empower them

and allow to share their own culture with other English speakers. There was no

evidence found in the interviews where any participant suggested this as being

strength or a useful resource.

Hinkel (2012) points out that in addition to the linguistic elements of a foreign

language, modern teachers have to focus on practical cultural aspects and set new

objective of teaching social and interactional norms. The quotes are as follows.

P 1: “I have a lot of students who come here not just to learn English but to absorb

everything that comes with English. These students are learning English for business

purposes and realize that there culturally difference which one should be careful of.

They do like to utilize every example to learn English in a culturally appropriate way”

As per the literature a language teacher sets two types of models in front of the

students: a language model and a learner model. Further Medgyes (1994) claims that

non-native speaking teachers are able to set a better learners model, while native-

speaking teachers are better at setting a language model (Medgyes, 1994).

4.4 Linguistic Deficit This section refers to the linguistic defect, especially among the teachers, which can

be credited to them` being non-native speakers. Non-native speaking English teachers

as mentioned in the earlier section face a serious lack of resources to keep up with the


42

ever-dynamic language of English. This leads to a gap in what is current and what the

teachers know and this is referred to as Linguistic Deficit. Linguistic deficit will cover

deficits in grammar, current use of speech and idioms and phrase whose meanings are

contextual rather than literal. There is also a gap of pronunciations, which teachers

felt was one of the most important factors.

P 4 “You know there were so many times I felt awkward because my English

pronunciation was not right, during my staying in UK, and at the same time I

appreciated my native-speaking colleagues, when they helped me to improve. And

then I also realized that we don’t know, and it even never occurred to us that some

words, even very simple – let’s say like asking the apology, -we never knew which to

use and at what situation, and often were driven by standards of native tongue not

realizing the inappropriateness of it” (Dendrinos, 2001).

In the literature Dendrinos (2001) argues that English lessons for native speakers, and

English as a Foreign Language (EFL) must give students an opportunity to move

easily from their L1 to the L2 and vice versa. She believes that since the learners of

EIL will not use English as their one communication language, during the lessons

they should be given an opportunity to practice the interpreting and reporting skills,

and not to focus on a monolingual communicative scenarios. Such an issue is a

challenge which can impede the teaching ability of non-native English teachers.

Further insight into this is provided by the next quote where the participants

benchmarks non-native speakers of English much below those of native speakers

indicating a lower confidence and self-esteem (will be discussed in next section).

P 7: “Of course my colleagues, and I totally understand that we cannot compete with

the native-speaking teachers in terms of the proficiency in language, we are much

poorer speakers than native-speaking, and our major trouble is pronunciation,

developing as wide vocabulary as natives have, and to use idioms correctly. As a

result our students suffer the same problems”.

The problems of teachers also reflect into students learning capabilities. The quotes

regarding the same are as below.

S1 “I think learning English in China with a Chinese teacher was a complete lots of

time for me. When I came to England and went for the English course I have realized


43

that half of the grammar rules we’ve been taught at home, and spent so much time and

effort are not even used here. And then pronunciation I have to face a problem of

relearning”

S2 “When I learned English in China the whole part of phraseological units has been

missed from our syllabus, and when I came to UK I realized that English people use

them a lot in their everyday life. I had a lot of confusion in the beginning because I

couldn’t understand the right meaning of the words. And then the problem with

pronunciation was terrible; I was very upset when people just couldn’t get what I was

saying, and in China I was one of the best students in English class. ”

Medgyes (1994) and Braine (1999) claims that non-native speakers play a significant

positive role in teaching English as a second language. Llurda (2004) believes that

with the aggregating establishment of English as the international lingua franca, non-

native speakers will be in best mediators to chief their students through EIL. From

above quotes it’s very much clear that these claims cannot be substantiated rather

refuted. The presence of Linguistic Deficit with non-native English speakers only

increased the confusion students will face when they are using English practically

(NNS). The rework that students will have to do indicate that it’s a threat to student’s

future as well as leaves a huge gap to be culturally misunderstood.

This study agrees with Alptekin (2002) who claims that teachers of EIL should

integrate teaching materials and activities with both local and international content

that are well-known and appropriate to language learners. Kramsch (1997) claims that

non- native-speaker teachers are empowered by bilingualism, which allows them to

move fluently from their native language to the foreign one, and as such to maneuver

efficiently across demands of the learning. There is no evidence to support this claim

but there is enough evidence to point out that bilingualism is only useful to make the

environment comfortable for student but it having any significant impact of teaching

skills is completely absent. Also Kramsch (1997) claims that in addition non-native

speakers have gone through the experience of becoming bilingual and communicating

using different languages. This claim was also backed by Llurda (2004), who has

reported that non-native-speaker teachers have a sufficient level of language expertise

to and even have some advantages over native speakers, particularly over those who

speak no other language but English. As such, non-native-speaker teachers


44

intrinsically possess better expertise to guide the language-learning process. The very

fact that the teachers who were interviewed benchmarked themselves below native

English speaking teachers shows that they do not credit bilingual ability over a native

English speaking teaching ability.

Thus despite this gap this research finds that for non-native English teachers an old

native-speaker framework remains to be a powerful stereotype that only British or

American norms have to be kept on and native speakers are considered the perfect

teachers.

4.5 Low Self-Esteem The previous section gave a glimpse into the low self-esteem of the non-english

speaking teachers.

P5 “I mean I totally realize that if a student or employer has to choose between non-

native and native-speaking teachers the choice would be done for the favour of the

last. Probably it is fair enough taking into consideration their higher level of

proficiency as well as perfect pronunciation”

P3 “I have no doubts that any of my Chinese colleagues will have to lose in front of

native-speaking teacher. Several years ago I applied for a position in private school,

and in spite of my high qualification here, the role was given to a native-

speakingbecause he has much better pronunciation. Today both students and parents

if given a choice would chose native speaking teachers against local one ”

P8 “If you ask me to rate my proficiency in English I would rate it high, but high is

not very high. Most of my colleagues agree that unfortunately we do not possess

sufficient conversational skills, and have problems with pronunciation. Yes in the

class we are the models for our students, but I know on my own experience that if now

I will have to have a chat with a native speaker I will be stuck, and I will need some

time for adaptation”

P6 “You know what I want to tell you? In this entire race to find a native-speaking

teachers for their children parents don’t understand and realize, that even native-

speakers might make mistakes. Do you know that sometimes non-native speakers


45

knows grammar better than even natives? Or do they know that often our students

know grammar better than British kids? No they don’t know, or they don’t want to

know, because they concerned only with their kids to know conversational language.

But this is not what education is. Our goal as teachers not only to teach them

conversational language, but to introduce them to English culture, and literature, and

if they are not happy with this this is question for the authorities who create school

syllabus”.

The low self-esteem of these teachers can be credited to the Linguistic Deficit they

face due to the dynamic nature of the language they teach. This dynamic nature of

language demands the constant updating of the existing knowledge. Also there are

certain factors like prononciation which needs the teachers to retrain not just their

English skills but also they also have to retain their phonetic skills. This is impeded

by the presence of the resources that are available to them. Thus is is like a chain of

events but only in this case it’s a series of challenges these non-native speaking

teachers face.

4.6 Positives While there are drawbacks there some positives for non-native English speaking

teachers. In literature Wenden and Rubin (1987) define learning stratagies as

particular actions which are used to simplify the learning and recollection of one or

several elements of competence (cited in Medgyes, 1994). Medgyes (1994) believes

that simplification of a process does not only mean finding an easier learning method,

but to find a method that will be faster, more pleasurable, more self-directed, more

effective, and able to be transferred to different situations. As such Medgyes (1994)

suggests that non-native speaking teachers are more strategy conscious, and thus they

are more succsessful in finding a more appropriate learning strategy for the learners.

The student participants did mention that there learning process was well structured

and designed for their needs.

The next chapter will present the conclusion, recommendations and limitations.


46


47

Chapter 5

Conclusion, Recommendations and Limitations

5.1 Introduction The main aim of this chapter is to present the conclusion of this research based on the

finindings and discussion and critical analysis of the literature. The chapter is broken

down into three parts from here. The first part is conclusions which is followed by

recommendations and the last part will highlight the limitations of the research.

5.2 Conclusion This section will present the conclusions of the research. The conclusion of the

research will point out three main points, which are the three themes discussed in the

above chapter i.e. Resources Lacking, Linguistic Deficit and Low Self Esteem.

4) The research found that the nature of English lanague is too dynamic and thus

this would need special effort and knowledge sharing for the teachers to keep

up-to-date. This poses a particular challenge for non-native english teachers.

The current scenario observed that non-native english teachers did not have

the resources to keep up with the changes and this led to an below par

performance by these teachers. There is little evidence that the bilingual nature

of teacher can help students but the evidence limits itself to the area of making

the environment conducive. This research could not conclude if strategies

prepared for language learning of native english speaking are better or worse

when compared to those of non native english speaking teachers. The research

also concluded that resource limitations is the most important challenge that

non-native english speaking teachers are facing in the current scaenario and

this particular challenges lead the way for other problems and challenges.

5) The second most important challenges is the Lingiustic deficit. This research

finds evidence that this is one problem that threatens the teachers like none

other. The linguistic deficit like bad pronunciation leads to students having to

relearn or in many cases even cause confusions in communications. This has

led to students being frustrated and there is increasing pressure on teachers to

be able to overcome these problems. This also affects the more of both

teachers and students alike. Due to this particular problems non-native english


48

speaking teachers tend to benchmark native english speaking teachers above

themselves. This leads to the third challenge for the non-native english

speaking teachers is that of self-esteem which is discussed next.

6) The non-native english teachers who were interviewed clearly demonstrated

very low self esteem. This was due to the lack of being able to keep up with

the changing standards. This was further pressured by the increasing pressure

from parents and students to be able to keep up with the dynamic international

standards in english. The lower self esteem led to lower performance and thus

students also showed some dissatisfaction with their teachers. Like pointed out

earlier the most important challenges is to overcome the resource lack. The

next section will provide the recommendations.

5.3 Recommendations The aim of this section is to provide the recommendation for the current research

based on the findings.

• Non-native speaking teachers in China do not have sufficient resources to

advance their skills, and keep their knowledge up to date. Therefore it is

necessary to provide them with the opportunity to interact with their native-

speaking colleagues, and regularly advance their proficiency. The opportunity

to travel frequently abroad, and take up professional training courses in

English speaking countries would be one of the most desirable solutions,

since it will also allow the teachers to familiarize themselves with the Anglo

culture practically, and not only theoretically. However it might be to

expensive solution, and thus on-line professional training courses, and social

networking could be a good substitute for travelling.

• Non-native speaking teachers should become aware of their own

pronunciation deficit, and by creating professional unions work towards

improving their skills. Interacting with each other, sharing problems and new

information among the members would help them to advance. Moreover,

distant interacting with the university colleagues from UK, USA, Canada,

Australia can also facilitate them to work on such issues as wrong

pronunciation, and vocabulary deficit.


49

5.4 Limitations Any practical research will have limitation and this particular research is no exception

either. This research was qualitative in nature and in any qualitative research the

number of participants is not fixed. In ideal case scenario the interviews should be

done till saturation occurs i.e. a point where no new information surface the the

findings start repeating itself. In case of current research the saturation level was not

achieved and the primary reason for that being the limitation on time and resources

available for the research. The process of qualitative interviews, trancsripting and

analysis is a long one further limiting the number of smaples. The next limitation is

students and teachers both were interviewed but the focus was on non-native english

teachers teaching english. Due to this limited focus there was no benchmark for

comparison of the findings from this research against those with native english

teachers and their equivalent students. Due to this a lot in literature which compares

the two cannot be verified or refuted. Also the research took a completely qualitative

approach where as a mixed approach could have provided a lot more valuable data.

To cross reference the findings. The future research in this area can address these

shortcoming and provide a more deeper perspective on the topic.

This claim could not be substantiated as no native speaking teacher was interviewed

but the participants do acknowledge that being a local language teacher students are

much more comfortable but that’s it. There is no indication of better learning models

or language models. To study this angle it will be necessary to interview students and

not teachers. The interview samples of students in current scenario do not satisfy the

necessary norms as current students are sharing experiences of non-native english

speaking teachers but there is no benchmark data collected for an equivalent student

under a native english speaking teachers. The next section will focus on findings on

Linguistic Deficit and discuss the findings against the literature.


50

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