Tourism and War

This is the first volume to explore fully the complex relationship between warand tourism by considering its full range of dynamics; including political, psycho-logical, economic and ideological factors at different levels, in different politicaland geographical locations. Issues of peace and tourism are dealt with insofar asthey pertain to the effects of war on tourism that emerge after the cessation ofhostilities. The book therefore reveals how not only location, but also politicalstrategies, accidents of history, transportation linkages and economic expediencyall have played their role in the development and continuation of tourism before,during, and after wartime. It further shows how the effects of war are seldom ifever simply a negation or reversal of the effects of peace on tourism.

The volume draws on a range of examples, from medieval times to the present,to reveal the multi-faceted development of tourism amidst and because of con-flict in a wide variety of locations, including the Pacific, Europe, the Middle East,North America, Africa and South East Asia, showing the diverse ways in whichtourism and war interacts. In doing so it explores how some locations have beendeveloped as tourist attractions primarily because of war and conflict, e.g. as rest-ing and training places for troops, and others flourished because of the threat ofdanger from conflicts to more traditional tourist locations.

This thought provoking volume contributes to the understanding of the interre-lationships between war, peace and tourism in many different parts of the world atdifferent scales. It will be valuable reading for all those interested in this topic aswell as dark tourism, battlefield tourism and heritage tourism.

Richard Butler is Emeritus Professor at in the Strathclyde Business School ofStrathclyde University, Glasgow, Scotland.

Wantanee Suntikul is Assistant Professor in Tourism Planning and Developmentat the Institute for Tourism Studies in Macao, China.

Contemporary Geographies of Leisure,Tourism and MobilitySeries Editor: C. Michael Hall,Professor at the Department of Management,College of Business and Economics, University of Canterbury,Christchurch, New Zealand

The aim of this series is to explore and communicate the intersections andrelationships between leisure, tourism and human mobility within the socialsciences.

It will incorporate both traditional and new perspectives on leisure and tourismfrom contemporary geography, e.g. notions of identity, representation and culture,while also providing for perspectives from cognate areas such as anthropology,cultural studies, gastronomy and food studies, marketing, policy studies and polit-ical economy, regional and urban planning, and sociology, within the developmentof an integrated field of leisure and tourism studies.

Also, increasingly, tourism and leisure are regarded as steps in a continuum ofhuman mobility. Inclusion of mobility in the series offers the prospect to examinethe relationship between tourism and migration, the sojourner, educational travel,and second home and retirement travel phenomena.

The series comprises two strands:

Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism and Mobility aims to addressthe needs of students and academics, and the titles will be published in hardbackand paperback. Titles include:

1 The Moralisation of TourismSun, sand . . . and saving theworld?Jim Butcher

2 The Ethics of TourismDevelopmentMick Smith and Rosaleen Duffy

3 Tourism in the CaribbeanTrends, development, prospectsEdited by David Timothy Duval

4 Qualitative Research in TourismOntologies, epistemologies andmethodologiesEdited by Jenny Phillimore andLisa Goodson

5 The Media and the TouristImaginationConverging culturesEdited by David Crouch,Rhona Jackson andFelix Thompson

6 Tourism and GlobalEnvironmental ChangeEcological, social, economic andpolitical interrelationshipsEdited by Stefan Gssling andC. Michael Hall

7 Cultural Heritage of Tourism inthe Developing WorldEdited by Dallen J. Timothy andGyan Nyaupane

8 Understanding and ManagingTourism ImpactsAn integrated approachC. Michael Hall andAlan Lew

9 An Introduction to VisualResearch Methodsin TourismEdited by Tijana Rakic andDonna Chambers

10 Tourism and Climate ChangeImpacts, adaptation andmitigationC. Michael Hall, Stefan Gsslingand Daniel Scott

Routledge Studies in Contemporary Geographies of Leisure, Tourism andMobility is a forum for innovative new research intended for research studentsand academics, and the titles will be available in hardback only. Titles include:

1 Living with TourismNegotiating identities in a TurkishvillageHazel Tucker

2 Tourism, Diasporas and SpaceEdited by Tim Coles andDallen J. Timothy

3 Tourism and PostcolonialismContested discourses, identitiesand representationsEdited by C. Michael Hall andHazel Tucker

4 Tourism, Religion and SpiritualJourneysEdited by Dallen J. Timothy andDaniel H. Olsen

5 Chinas Outbound TourismWolfgang Georg Arlt

6 Tourism, Power and SpaceEdited by Andrew Church andTim Coles

7 Tourism, Ethnic Diversity andthe CityEdited by Jan Rath

8 Ecotourism, NGOs andDevelopmentA critical analysisJim Butcher

9 Tourism and the Consumptionof WildlifeHunting, shooting and sportfishingEdited by Brent Lovelock

10 Tourism, Creativity andDevelopmentEdited by Greg Richards andJulie Wilson

11 Tourism at the GrassrootsVillagers and visitors in theAsia-PacificEdited by John Connell andBarbara Rugendyke

12 Tourism and InnovationMichael Hall and Allan Williams

13 World Tourism CitiesDeveloping tourism off thebeaten trackEdited by Robert Maitland andPeter Newman

14 Tourism and National ParksInternational perspectives ondevelopment, histories andchangeEdited by Warwick Frost andC. Michael Hall

15 Tourism, Performance and theEverydayConsuming the OrientMichael Haldrup and JonasLarsen

16 Tourism and Change in PolarRegionsClimate, environments andexperiencesEdited by C. Michael Hall andJarkko Saarinen

17 Fieldwork in TourismMethods, issues and reflectionsEdited by C. Michael Hall

18 Tourism and IndiaA critical introductionKevin Hannam and AnyaDiekmann

19 Political Economy of TourismA critical perspectiveEdited by Jan Mosedale

20 Volunteer TourismTheoretical frameworks andpractical applicationsEdited by Angela Benson

21 The Study of TourismPast trends and future directionsRichard Sharpley

22 Childrens and FamiliesHoliday ExperienceNeil Carr

23 Tourism and National IdentityAn international perspectiveEdited by Elspeth Frew andLeanne White

24 Tourism and AgricultureNew geographies of consumption,production and ruralrestructuringEdited by Rebecca Torres andJanet Momsen

25 Tourism in ChinaPolicy and development since1949David Airey and King Chong

26 Real TourismPractice, care, and politics incontemporary travel cultureEdited by Claudio Minca andTim Oakes

27 Last Chance TourismAdapting tourism opportunities ina changing worldEdited byRaynald Harvey Lemelin,Jackie Dawson andEmma Stewart

28 Tourism and AnimalEthicsDavid A. Fennell

29 Actor Network Theory andTourismOntologies, methodologies andperformancesEdited by Ren van der Duim,Gunnar Thr Jhannesson andCarina Ren

30 Liminal LandscapesTravel, experience and spacesin-betweenEdited by Hazel Andrews andLes Roberts

31 Tourism in BrazilEnvironment, management andsegmentsEdited by Gui Lohmann andDianne Dredge

32 Slum TourismEdited by Fabian Frenzel,Malte Steinbrink andKo Koens

33 Medical TourismEdited by Michael Hall

34 Tourism and WarEdited by Richard Butler andWantanee Suntikul

35 Sexuality, Women andTourismCross border desires throughcontemporary travelSusan Frohlick

Forthcoming:

1 Gender and TourismSocial, cultural and spatialperspectivesCara Atchinson

2 Backpacker Tourism andEconomic Development in theLess Developed WorldMark Hampton

3 Adventure TourismSteve Taylor, Peter Varley,Tony Johnson

4 Dark Tourism and PlaceIdentityElspeth Frew and Leanne White

5 Scuba Diving TourismKay Dimmcock and Ghazali Musa

6 Travel, Tourism and GreenGrowthMin Jiang, Terry DeLacy andGeoffrey Lipman

Tourism and War

Edited by Richard Butler andWantanee Suntikul

First published 2013by Routledge2 Park Square, Milton Park, Abingdon, Oxon OX14 4RN

Simultaneously published in the USA and Canadaby Routledge711 Third Avenue, New York, NY 10017

Routledge is an imprint of the Taylor & Francis Group, an informa businessc 2013 Richard Butler and Wantanee Suntikul

The right of the editor to be identified as the author of the editorial material,and of the authors for their individual chapters, has been asserted in accordancewith sections 77 and 78 of the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988.

All rights reserved. No part of this book may be reprinted or reproducedor utilised in any form or by any electronic, mechanical or other means,now known or hereafter invented, including photocopying and recording,or in any information storage or retrieval system, without permission inwriting from the publishers.

Trademark notice: Product or corporate names may be trademarks orregistered trademarks, and are used only for identification and explanationwithout intent to infringe.

British Library Cataloguing in Publication DataA catalogue record for this book is available from the British Library

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication DataTourism and war/edited by Richard Butler and Wantanee Suntikul.

p. cm.Includes bibliographical references and index.1. TourismPolitical aspects.2. TourismPsychological aspects.3. War and society.I. Butler, Richard. II. Suntikul, Wantanee.

G155.A1T58914 2012306.4819dc23 2012005540ISBN: 978-0-415-67433-1 (hbk)ISBN: 978-0-203-10770-6 (ebk)Typeset in Times New Romanby Sunrise Setting Ltd

Contents

List of figures xiiList of plates xiiiList of tables xivList of contributors xvAcknowledgements xvii

Introduction

1 Tourism and war: an ill wind? 1RICHARD BUTLER AND WANTANEE SUNTIKUL

2 Tourism, war, and political instability: territorial and religiousperspectives 12DALLEN J. TIMOTHY

3 From the Vietnam War to thewar on terror: tourism and the martial fascination 26SCOTT LADERMAN

PART I

Historic links 37

4 The Crusades, the Knights Templar, and Hospitaller: acombination of religion, war, pilgrimage, and tourism enablers 39EUAN BEVERIDGE AND KEVIN OGORMAN

5 The English tourist and war, 15001800 49JOHN TOWNER

x Contents

6 War and tourism: the nineteenth and twentieth centuries 64JOHN K. WALTON

PART IITourism before and during war 75

7 Tourism shaped by war: the unusual evolution of tourism inthe far Northwest of North America 77K. S. COATES AND W. R. MORRISON

8 Thai tourism and the legacy of the Vietnam War 92WANTANEE SUNTIKUL

9 Tourism in a neutral country surrounded by war: the case ofSwitzerland 106HANSRUEDI MLLER AND ANNA AMACHER HOPPLER

PART IIITourism under threat of war 119

10 Living with war: the Korean truce 121TIMOTHY JEONGLYEOL LEE AND EUN-JUNG KANG

11 Developing tourism alongside threats of wars and atrocities:the case of Israel 132SHAUL KRAKOVER

12 Palestine: tourism under occupation 143RAMI ISAAC

PART IVTourism, war and the aftermath 159

13 An ironic paradox: the longitudinal view on impacts of the1990s homeland war on tourism in Croatia 161SANDA CORAK, VESNA MIKACIC, AND IRENA ATELJEVIC

14 Tourism in Northern Ireland: before violence, during and postviolence 176STEPHEN W. BOYD

15 Echoes of the Great Pacific Conflict: Australias regional wartourism dividend 193DAVID WEAVER

Contents xi

16 Soldiers, victims and neon lights: the American presence inpost-war Japanese tourism 205JERRY EADES AND MALCOLM COOPER

PART VTourism and war remembrance 219

17 From Hastings to the Ypres salient: battlefield tourism and theinterpretation of fields of conflict 221STEPHEN MILES

18 Civil war tourism: perspectives from Manassas NationalBattlefield Park 232MARGARET DANIELS, PETER DIEKE, AND MARIELLE BARROW

19 Revisiting the war landscape of Vietnam and tourism 245JOSEPH LEMA AND JEROME AGRUSA

20 War, heritage, tourism, and the centenary of the Great War inFlanders and Belgium 254DOMINIQUE VANNESTE AND KENNETH FOOTE

Conclusion

21 Reflections on the Great War centenary: from warscapes tomemoryscapes in 100 years 273MYRIAM JANSEN-VERBEKE AND WANDA GEORGE

22 Conclusion 288RICHARD BUTLER AND WANTANEE SUNTIKUL

Index 295

List of figures

5.1 A summary of the main wars in Europe 15001800 547.1 Northern development during World War Two 838.1 Seven Airbases constructed in Thailand for use by the US Air

Force during the US/Vietnam War 969.1 Development of overnight stays in Swiss hotels and spa houses

18901960 1089.2 Development of arrivals 19101960 1099.3 The available bed capacity 1109.4 Percentage occupancy rate 111

10.1 Map of the Korean DMZ 12411.1 Number of visitors to Israel, 19481980 13711.2 Number of visitors to Israel, 19802010 13812.1 Tourists overnight stay in Palestine (MOTA 2008) 14812.2 Division of the Governorate of Bethlehem 15412.3 Gilo 300 terminal, Bethlehem 15512.4 Internal structure of Gilo 300 terminal 15613.1 The effect of the war on tourist overnight stays in Croatia,

19892009 16713.2 The level of satisfaction with the main elements of tourist supply

in Croatia, 1994 and 2010 17214.1 Violence spectrum 17718.1 Map of Manassas National Battlefield Park 23418.2 Logo of Virginia Civil War Trails 24118.3 Logo of Civil War sesquicentennial 24120.1 The Western Front, 19141918, stretching across Belgium and

France 25520.2 Belgian and Flemish policy and government layers involved in

planning for the centenary based on interviews, reports andwebsites 259

20.3 Inventory of sites from the Great War in the Westhoek (Belgium)and their cultural and touristic valorization 261

20.4 Schematic of themes 262

List of plates

12.1 Entrance to Bethlehem 15012.2 The Wall around Rachels Tomb area 15112.3 The Wall annexing Rachels Tomb area to Jerusalem 15212.4 The Wall running through Bethlehem 15314.1 Construction of Titanic Visitor Attraction; picture taken nine

months prior to its planned opening in April 2012 18414.2a Mural in East Belfast depicting a distinct paramilitary

organisation involved in the Troubles 18714.2b Mural in East Belfast depicting that the struggle is one beyond

the conventional Troubles period 18814.3 End gable in East Belfast depicting a Titanic mural, selling the

story that it was built in Belfast 19018.1 Living history 23818.2 Reenactment 23818.3 Reenactment 23920.1 French Military Cemetery Kemmelberg. The design from the

Remembrance Park project (left) and the current situation (right) 26521.1 War heritage landscapes: trenches in Flanders Field 27621.2 Global memoryscapes 27721.3 Memorial site Last post ceremony Menin Gate Ypres

Flanders 27821.4 Great War tours since 1918 28221.5 The poppies souvenir industry 283

List of tables

11.1 Countries contributing most visitors to Israel, 2010 13511.2 Visitors to Israel by religion, purpose of trip, and repeat visitors,

2010 13613.1 Tourist accommodation facilities and tourist overnight stays in

Croatia by regions, 19751989 16413.2 Occupancy rate of the tourist accommodation facilities in

Croatia, 19892010 (in days) 16613.3 The effect of the war on tourist overnight stays in Croatia,

19892009 16813.4 Tourist accommodation facilities and tourist overnight stays in

Croatia, 19892010 16913.5 15 leading international tourist markets in Croatia, 19872010

(% share in bed-nights) 17013.6 The level of satisfaction with the main elements of tourist supply

in Croatia, 1994 and 2010 17314.1 Visitor numbers and expenditure between 1959 and 1969 17814.2 Visitor accommodation stock between 1972 and 1989 17814.3 Total visitor figures and revenue: select years between 1973 and

1989 17914.4 Visitors to Northern Ireland and revenue generated (19952007) 18315.1 Major campaigns, battles and other events involving Australians 19917.1 Visitor numbers: British and Western Front battlefield visitor

centres 2009/10 (except where stated) 22317.2 Interpretative tools at the four historic British battlefield sites 22517.3 Main characteristics of the Historic and Western Front

battlefield sites 22622.1 A continuum of war tourism attitudes towards war heritage 292

List of contributors

Jerome Agrusa Hawaii Pacific University, Honolulu, USAIrena Ateljevic Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, CroatiaMarielle Barrow George Mason University, Virginia, USA

Euan Beveridge University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

Stephen W. Boyd University of Ulster, Londonderry, UK

Richard Butler University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

Ken Coates University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Canada

Malcolm Cooper Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Beppu, Japan

Sanda Corak Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia

Margaret Daniels George Mason University, Virginia, USA

Peter Dieke George Mason University, Virginia, USA

Jerry Eades Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Beppu, JapanKenneth Foote University of Colorado at Boulder, Colorado, USA

Wanda George Mount St Vincent University, Halifax, Canada

Anna Amacher Hoppler University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland

Rami Isaac NHTV, University of Applied Sciences, Breda, The Netherlands

Myriam Jansen-Verbeke Katholic University of Leuven, Leuven, BelgiumEun-Jung Kang Jeju National University, South KoreaShaul Krakover Ben-Gurion University of the Negev, Israel

Scott Laderman University of Minnesota, Duluth, USA

Timothy Jeonglyeol Lee Ritsumeikan Asia Pacific University, Beppu, JapanJoseph Lema Drexel University, Philadelphia, USA

xvi List of contributorsVesna Mikacic Institute for Tourism, Zagreb, Croatia

Stephen Miles University of Glasgow, Dumfries, UK

W. R. Morrison University of Northern British Columbia, Prince George,Canada

Hansruedi Mller University of Berne, Berne, Switzerland

Kevin OGorman University of Strathclyde, Glasgow, UK

Wantanee Suntikul Institute for Tourism Studies, Macao, China

Dallen J. Timothy Arizona State University, Phoenix, USAJohn Towner Private Scholar, Bath, UKDominique Vanneste Katholic University of Leuven, Leuven, Belgium

John K. Walton University of the Basque Country UPV/EHU, Bilbao, Spain;Ikerbasque, the Basque Foundation for Science

David Weaver Griffith University, Queensland, Australia

Acknowledgements

We wish to acknowledge first the contributions of our fellow authors in this vol-ume. We very much appreciate their chapters and particularly their cooperation,understanding and patience at times with our request for details and modifications.Their breadth of viewpoint and detailed knowledge of their very different subjectmatter has provided us with a unique and wide ranging assessment of the subjectof the volume. Where we have made editorial adjustments we hope they find theseacceptable and do not feel that we have exceeded our roles. Errors and mistakesremain our responsibility.

We also wish to thank the staff at Routledge (Taylor & Francis) for theirpatience and support throughout the preparation and submission of the manuscript,and in particular Carol Barber for her continued encouragement and willingnessto tolerate some delays.

Finally we thank our families, who inevitably have had to put up with disap-pearances, frustrations and the usual range of emotions and problems that are partof completing an edited book. Their encouragement and assistance made the taskboth bearable and successful.

1 Tourism and warAn ill wind?Richard Butler and Wantanee Suntikul

Memories of the Battle (of Arnhem)Thanks to public interest the socio-economic value of the battle is enhanced annu-ally. Is it appropriate, however, to utilise a military debacle in which many lost theirlives, for tourist purposes? Or will this utilisation in conjunction with the increas-ing number of public visits aid in ensuring an everlasting memory?

Marisa van Rijs (NHTV Breda) recordedin The Airborne Museum Oosterbeek.

The quotation above is to be found in the Airborne Museum at Oosterbeek inHolland, the site of the British Airborne Brigades landings in 1944 in the battle forthe Bridge Too Far at Arnhem. It comes from a Breda University student studywhich is held in the publications room of the museum. It is a highly applicablecitation with which to begin this volume and raises a still unanswered questionover the relationship between the costs and sacrifices of war and the response ofthe public in terms of tourism to war-related locations.

IntroductionTourism is generally regarded as a phenomenon that needs peace in order to flour-ish. Over the last two decades or more tourism increasingly has been proposedas playing an important part in the promotion of understanding among differentnations and cultures and hence as a force for world peace (DAmore 1988; Jafari1989; Salazar 2006; Moufakkir and Kelly 2010). However, tourism has contin-ued to exist in times of war as well as peace, and it is possible to find locationswhere tourism has benefited in times of war just as other areas have suffered. Theexamination of specific aspects of war-related tourism at different levels in manypolitical and geographical locations has not been given due importance in the lit-erature to date. Indeed the literature on war and tourism is limited to a few articles(for example: Smith 1988; Seaton 1999; Henderson 2000, 2007; Lee 2006; Weaver2011; Winter 2009, 2011), one special issue of a journal (International Journal ofTourism Research 2006) and even fewer books (for example Lennon and Foley2000; Ryan 2007; Sharpley and Stone 2010).

2 R. Butler and W. Suntikul

This volume takes as its focus the complex and dynamic set of relationshipsbetween tourism and war, involving political, psychological, economic, ideologi-cal and spatial elements and demonstrates how not only location, but also politicalstrategies, accidents of history, transportation linkages, and economic expediencyhave played their role in the development and continuation of tourism in affectedlocations before, during, and after wartime. The examples discussed in the volumerange from medieval times to the present and reveal the multi-faceted developmentof tourism amidst, and because of, conflict in a wide variety of locations, includingthe Pacific, Europe, the Middle East, North America, and South East Asia.

War can be seen as both a hindrance or constraint and as a boon for tourism,depending on the location of a destination, while peace allows the expansion oftourism into areas previously restricted or too dangerous during periods of conflict.The heritage of war is a powerful attraction in its own right, not just for its curios-ity or vicarious excitement, but also for pilgrimage and heritage reasons. Ancientbattlefields and burial grounds evoke strong personal emotions among descendentsof those who fought and died at such places and also amongst those who survivedthose battles and wish to revisit such locations. Ryans Battlefield Tourism (2007)discusses such tourism to battlefields and the meanings and characteristics of thesites involved. On the other hand, places which developed because previous alter-native destinations were no longer accessible because of war may quickly becomeunattractive when those restrictions cease to exist and thus struggle to survive asdestinations in the present day.

War-related tourism dates back a considerable time. Local populations oftenwent to view points to watch battles at least as far back as the seventeenth century,and sometimes paid the price as casualties. Visits to scenes of war such as thebattlefield of Waterloo have been visited from shortly after the battle (1815) tothe present, even if little has been written on such practices. It was certainly wellpracticed before ORourke used the phrase as cited in Wikipedia.

The entire concept of war tourism was started by a collection of stories by P. J.ORourke in Holidays in Hell: In Which Our Intrepid Reporter Travels to theWorlds Worst Places. ORourke was the first person who showed that warcorrespondents are after all war tourists of sorts on a payed (sic) and plannedaccount.

(http://www.copperwiki.org/index.php/War_Tourism#References)

Despite the inaccuracy of this statement, however, it does suggest that the con-cept is not well known and this is supported by the fact that academic interest inthe relationship between tourism and war is relatively recent and not extensive, asnoted above.

This and subsequent chapters build on earlier literature to identify the rela-tionships between war and tourism and focus discussion on the identification ofspecific themes reflecting the nature of the situations that arise before, during andafter war. These include anticipation or phoney war, preparation for war, con-flict, occupation, neutrality, and aftermath, including remembrance and the nature

Tourism and war 3

of tourism in each of these situations. The volume concludes with a justification ofthe need for a closer examination of the complex relationship between war, peace,and tourism, a relationship which is constantly changing in the unstable areas ofthe globe, and which is often viewed through very inaccurate lenses.

Myths and inaccurate perceptionsIt is necessary to move away from the simplistic idea that war and tourism arealways in opposition, and that an outbreak of war automatically results in a declineor cessation of tourism. This is often far from the case and the effects of waron tourism are far more complex and both negative and positive. The idea oftourism a vital force for peace has been published and often accepted in thetourism literature for almost a quarter of a century since it first appeared in TourismManagement (DAmore 1988). Since then, tourism and peace have been linked asnot only mutually beneficial, but also mutually dependent to varying degrees. It iswidely accepted that peace is necessary for tourism to exist and flourish, and it isargued also that tourism can play a role in bringing about peace and the endingof hostilities. The case of the Korean Peninsula is the most often quoted exam-ple (Lee 2006; Rideaux et al. 2010), whereby tourism has frequently been arguedto be an important factor in thawing relations between the two Korean govern-ments and a way to increase communication and dialogue between them. Thishas been shown to be true only to a limited degree, for, despite a truce lastingalmost fifty years, and a number of tourism development proposals and actualdevelopment, true (formal) peace does not yet exist in this area and flows oftourists across the truce line have ceased again (Lee and Kang, this volume). Inthe Middle East, despite extensive tourism development in many countries (par-ticularly Egypt, the Emirates, Israel, Jordan, Lebanon, and most recently Libya,Tunisia, and Yemen) one could hardly describe the region as peaceful, even if for-mal warfare (depending on ones definition of the term) is not being conductedthere.

The countervailing position, that tourism can exist during war, is true to a degreealso, but tourism rarely exists in the same location at the same time as a war isbeing conducted. The world has seen, however, that despite hostilities such as theGulf Wars, the Afghanistan conflict, and the Arab Spring in North Africa, tourismat the global level has continued almost unabated. Wars, like natural disasters,tend to have local not global effects and these are rarely long term (Mansfield andPizam 2006). In the past decade the only times that international tourism at theglobal scale has ceased its otherwise continuous growth have been briefly after9/11 and more recently as a result of the global economic crisis. Even then, it canbe argued that tourism has not declined overall, with growth in domestic tourismreplacing short term slight declines in international tourism, the media createdstaycations substituting for vacations. Thus we may conclude that tourism atthe world scale, including both domestic and international forms of the activity, isvirtually impervious to anything mankind is capable of doing short of true globalwar or Armageddon.

4 R. Butler and W. Suntikul

How then should we look at tourism and war? We have already argued thatthe view that war and tourism cannot co-exist is too simplistic and factuallyincorrect, and so it is necessary to propose a different attitude and approach tounderstand what happens to tourism when war occurs. It should go without sayingthat war is anathema, evil, and to be avoided if at all possible, bringing great social,human, environmental, and moral and economic misery to many people. Despitethis, humankind (mostly mankind) has found justification for necessary warsthroughout history, from the Romans extending civilization to barbarians, to Chris-tians removing infidels from the Holy Land through the Crusades, to struggles toobtain independence and to preserve territorial existence once independence hasbeen gained, to fear of impending or ongoing aggression, and to liberate oppressedpeoples from tyrants. In recent years, from 1939 to the present, we have seen nec-essary wars against Nazism, against genocide in the Balkans, against dictatorialinvasion in Kuwait, to defeat terrorism in Afghanistan, and to alleviate antici-pated mass killing in Libya. Whatever our changing moralities and viewpoints, itis highly unlikely that wars will ever cease completely and thus we need to be ableto better understand their effects on and relationships with tourism.

One area that has involved aspects of war-related tourism is that of darktourism, partly one assumes, because war inevitably causes death, often on amassive scale, and it could be argued that visitors to sites associated with deathare participating in dark tourism (a view which several of the contributors to thisvolume imply). However, studies on dark tourism generally do not focus onthe relationships between war and tourism but primarily on the aftermath of warand conflict, along with the appeal of death sites and other examples of tragediesand brutality. Those works that deal with conflict, terrorism, crime, and tourism,for example Pizam and Mansfeld (1996), Mansfeld and Pizam (2006), Hall et al.(2003), tend to take a view more focused on conflict and its effects on tourism thanon war and its results, including the very rarely discussed positive effects of warin certain locations. Lennon and Foleys Thanatourism volume (2000) focusesheavily on the attraction of death and disaster as their title suggests, rather than warand its relationship with tourism. The same comment can be made in general aboutthe most recent book on this theme by Sharpley and Stone (2010), although thislast volume does deal with theories and concepts about the subject and also withtopics such as battlefield tourism, but it does not have the relationship betweenwar and tourism as one of its major themes.

The misconception that tourist visitation to war sites is an aspect of thana-tourism, or dark tourism, which implies a ghoulish fascination with death andevil, is often, perhaps mainly, far from accurate. Most visitors to war graves forexample, such as those in Northern France, do so out of a sense of pilgrimageand even obligation (Winter 2011), as well as personal loss, confirming one of thekey links to heritage tourism (Poria et al. 2004a). One might argue that Westerntourists visiting the killing fields in Cambodia might be more interested in wherepeople were killed based on the movie dealing with the massacres than in exhibit-ing any real sense of sympathy or grief, as might those who have no personal linksto those who died in the death camps of Eastern Europe during the Second World

Tourism and war 5

War, but one could equally argue that such sites are not war sites in a strictsense. Tourism to war-based artifacts, such as the large guns on Sentosa Island(Singapore) or Darwin (Australia), the trenches of Flanders, or the many castlesthroughout Europe are not necessarily related to death. Tourists may be drawnmore by the historical significance of the place or the architectural or scenic inter-est of the structures. In some cases the items in question, e.g. the guns noted above,were never actually used in conflict but still attract many thousands of people ayear. Museums such as the Imperial War Museum in London can hardly be said tobe ghoulish or promoting dark tourism, mostly if anything they are demonstratingthe costs of war in terms of human grief and suffering, as well as saluting gallantryand sacrifice.

The silver liningIt may seem highly inappropriate to argue that there is a positive side for tourism asa result of war, but such is clearly the case for a number of reasons. The first is thatthere is a mirror effect of war on tourism. While conflict, particularly war, almostalways prevents tourism in the areas in which hostilities are taking place, it quiteoften initiates and stimulates tourism to areas which are safe from conflict. Thus,at the end of the nineteenth century, Grand Tour travel for the British was effec-tively halted by the Napoleonic Wars, as traversing Europe to get to Italy proveddangerous if not impossible (Hibbert 1969; Towner 1996, and this volume). Therewas a corresponding growth in English seaside and spa resorts, particularly thosenot on the Channel coast. Once wars ended, the newly established or revitalizedresorts continued while new routes on the railways allowed more tourists than everto visit Italy, with the Grand Tour being less grand but more popular.

A second factor, alluded to above, is that war, or at least its aftermath, can cre-ate tourist attractions in the form of military, political, and physical heritage. Thecastles, fortifications, and weapons mentioned above become permanent touristmarkers and attract large numbers of visitors, e.g. to the battlefield at Waterloo,to those of the War of Independence in the USA such as Bunker Hill in Boston, orthe Civil War in America such as Gettysburg and Bull Run (Daniels et al. this vol-ume), and even further back in time, to Hastings, site of the Norman Invasion ofEngland in 1066 (Miles, this volume). Similarly, structures like Hadrians Wall andthe Great Wall of China, perhaps not war relics but built to prevent war or at leastinvasion, now attract tourists instead of hostile forces. Even sites of defeat such asThermopylae or Massada (Poria et al. 2004b) in Israel, take on the power of inspi-ration centuries later, also symbolized in the Dunkirk spirit so often endorsedby the British media in time of national crisis (often related to sports events). Sitessuch as the USS Arizona Monument in Pearl Harbor illustrate clearly the touristappeal of even tragedies and sites of aggression. Finally in this regard, facilitiesdeveloped for, or in anticipation of, war can also become both tourist attractionsand important elements in a regions infrastructure.

Third, in the aftermath of war, the resultant political change (Butler and Suntikul2010) can stimulate tourism as newly established political entities appreciate

6 R. Butler and W. Suntikul

tourism as a new source of national or regional income, in some cases buildingon publicity gained from the war (the bridge at Mostar for example) despite theimage and evidence of conflict that may remain (Corak 2006). In recent years,Vietnam probably presents the clearest case of a nation whose tourism industry isbenefiting from the horror and cost of war. There are American veterans returningto the locations they visited as combatants, along with many other foreign touristskeen to visit features, such as the Cu Chi Tunnels and the Hoa Lo Prison in Hanoi,of which they became aware through coverage of the conflict some thirty to fortyyears ago (Suntikul et al. 2010; and Lema and Agrusa this volume).

Related, but preceding tourism resulting from the aftermath of war, is the situ-ation in which tourism begins or grows while war is occurring in areas involvedwith, but separate from, the conflict itself. In particular, the staging areas for com-batants, along with those areas used for rest and recuperation (R&R), often buildon a captive market and begin to offer accommodation, food and beverage facili-ties, and other services, some less salubrious for the duration of the conflict, andthen redevelop those facilities for a more conventional and longer staying touristmarket in the post conflict era. Examples of this phenomenon can be seen at Pat-taya in Thailand (Suntikul, this volume), Honolulu and Hong Kong in the Pacificarena, and places like Wasaga Beach, the largest resort in Ontario on Lake Huron,which was extremely popular with Canadian servicemen at nearby Camp Bordenduring and after the Second World War (Wolfe 1952). In a similar vein to tourismin Vietnam after the war, it is likely that many ex-combatants, until recently oftenthe first of their generation to venture abroad, gain a taste for foreign cultures andsights which translates into subsequent overseas trips, not just in a nostalgic veinto sites of former experience. Such a case could perhaps be termed an example oftravel (in war) broadening the mind (in peace).

Finally, there is the creation of new countries out of conflict providing new loca-tions with potential tourist attraction. Not unrelated to this is the emergence of anumber of Eastern European countries as developing tourist destinations for West-ern visitors after the end of the Cold War and the opening up of former Communistcountries (Hall 2010). The maintenance of differences between neighboring statesand quasi-states after the end of hostilities can also be an attraction as seen bythe desire of visitors to Cyprus to visit the Republic of North Cyprus (Jacobsenet al. 2010), and those to Korea to visit the demilitarized zone and see across toNorth Korea (Lee and Kang, this volume), somewhat mirroring the many touriststo Berlin who gazed at and across the Berlin Wall before its demise (Suntikul2010).

Neither war nor peaceEven during global conflicts some places manage to avoid becoming involved asparticipants by being too far from the warring parties or by adopting neutrality.In the last global conflict, in Europe, Switzerland, a permanent neutral state formany decades, was joined by Sweden, Portugal, Spain (Walton, this volume), andthe Vatican in neutrality. While the Vatican did not receive many tourists because

Tourism and war 7

of or despite its neutrality, Spain and Portugal certainly benefited from increasedvisitation directly as a result of their neutrality. Details on tourism in Swedenduring World War Two are vague at best, one Swedish tourist researcher (personalcommunication 2010), in response to a query about research on this topic, madethe comment that:

I really cannot think of anyone who has worked on this in Sweden! WWII issort of a non-topic in Sweden, in my view because Sweden was involved inunfortunate dealings with the Germans, which is conflicting with the currentself-image of Swedes Swedes essentially see themselves as better peoplethan others, and anything that would conflict with that view cannot be partof a public debate. So while WWII is discussed almost on a weekly basis inGermany, you would see no debate ever in Sweden; which, of course, wouldbe worth a study in itself.

In the case of Portugal a recent magazine article (Mitra 2011: 85) noted that:

Exiled royals and aristocrats escaped the World Wars to savour the sunnyshores and the countrys neutral status, an era in which Estoril towns HotelPalacio and its adjoining casino were filled with international dignitaries,diplomats and spies. . . While the rest of the world was gripped in the tur-moil of the first half of the 20th century, by all accounts, Europes elite wasliving it up right here.

Neutrality does not always bring obvious benefits however, Switzerland becameisolated from 191419 and again in 193945 because of its geography, the onlyaccess to the country in the latter case being across Nazi-occupied Europe by landor air, which de facto prohibited travel there. As a result, the countrys tourismindustry suffered from a disappearance of almost all foreign visitors with sub-sequent adjustments to a totally domestic market for several years (Mller andHoppler, this volume).

Other locations, such as Casablanca in Morocco, gained from a quasi-neutralstance (e.g. being part of Vichy occupied France) with tourists able to accesstheir attractions by air and water without having to cross Europe. In the caseof Casablanca of course, Hollywood created a tourist marker through the movieof the same name (made in 1942), and a modern version of Ricks Caf is nowa major tourist attraction in that city (and shows the movie on small screensin various dining booths while a pianist plays As Time Goes By to enhancethe atmosphere). Whether this can be thought of as truly war-related tourism isquestionable.

ConclusionsThis introductory chapter has hopefully demonstrated that war and tourism arenot mutually exclusive, but this volume should not be interpreted as stating that

8 R. Butler and W. Suntikul

war is good for tourism, although it is clear that war can both initiate and stimulatetourism to specific sites and areas both during hostilities and after they have ended.It does not take long after conflict has ceased for tourism to begin, even in areasdevastated by war, although the causes of hostility may remain for many years, ifnot centuries. The Middle East is perhaps the best or worst example of this, withthe Crusades representing one of the best examples of the complex relationshipsbetween war and tourism, in that case intertwined with religion, and includingelements of conquest and occupation (Beveridge and OGorman, this volume).They laid the foundation for conflict in the Holy Lands for several centuries fol-lowing, a contemporary issue that is intertwined with diasporas returning to thehomeland (Krakover, this volume), occupation, separation, and even far distantconflicts stemming at least in part from events centuries before. A similar situationexisted in the island of Ireland until relatively recently (Boyd, this volume), andeven now simmers not far beneath the surface, in the form of religious-based con-flict complicated by colonialism, oppression, occupation, and terrorism, both thereand elsewhere. Clearly there are many other facets of the relationship betweentourism and war that are not covered in this volume, as noted in the final chap-ter. Cultural tourism is an increasing component of tourism overall and there canbe little doubt that tourism related to war and conflict is an element of both cul-tural and heritage tourism. Given many peoples interest in both their personalheritage (and descendants) and in historical artifacts generally, the relevance ofwar-related tourism is likely to remain important in the future. Given the humaninability throughout recorded history to remain at peace with one another, it is,perhaps unfortunately, likely to increase in significance in the future.

Following this chapter there are two other studies in this introductory section,one by Timothy which examines the causes of war and how the different natureof war affects tourism in various ways, and one by Laderman which examines theappeal of the martial and discusses why tourists visit war zones, and their reactionsand interpretations to sites. The subsequent chapters in this volume are organizedinto five parts, beginning with three chapters that trace the historical links betweenwar and tourism, starting with Beveridge and OGorman who provide an explo-ration in Chapter 4 of the role of the Crusades in creating a legacy relating to bothtravel in the Middle East and to potential conflict between religious factions. Thisis then followed by Towner, who examines the effect of war on English travel in thesixteenth and seventeenth centuries in Chapter 5, and then Walton, who exploresthe relationships of war and tourism in the nineteenth and early twentieth centuriesin Chapter 6. Following this historical context, the next part deals with tourismbefore, or in the early stages of, war. Chapter 7 examines the creation of infras-tructure such as the Alaska Highway (Coates and Morrison). Chapter 8 discussesstaging posts and rest and relaxation sites for troops in the Vietnam War (Suntikul),which have subsequently become important in contemporary tourism. The moregeneric issue of neutrality, and the effect of such a status during global conflicts,is discussed in the case of Switzerland by Mller and Hoppler in Chapter 9.

The third part deals with tourism in countries still under the threat of conflictin a variety of forms. Lee and Kang describe the singular aspects of tourism in

Tourism and war 9

and from South Korea that have developed as a result of the ongoing truce withNorth Korea, while Krakover discusses aspects of tourism in and to Israel, a coun-try which has experienced the threat and reality of violence since its establishmentover half a century ago. Finally, Isaac presents the view from Palestine of devel-oping tourism in a quasi state partially under the control of its neighbor. Part 4explores tourism in various countries after war has ended. Corak, Mikacic, andAteljevic explore the impact of the dissolution of Yugoslavia and subsequent warin the Balkans, noting some unexpected benefits, which have emerged in Croatiaat least. Boyd presents the situation in Northern Ireland, covering the period frombefore, during, and subsequent to the Troubles in that part of the United Kingdomand the steps being taken to adjust to peace. Weaver reviews the legacy of warin the South Pacific and elsewhere on Australia in terms of physical and culturalheritage and memory. Finally, Eades and Cooper discuss the influence of the postwar presence of American forces in Japan and the way they have shaped leisureand tourism in Japan.

The final part before the conclusions deals with the extensive topic of remem-brance in the context of war tourism. Miles reviews the relationship betweentourism and two very different sets of battlefields, ancient ones in Britain, andthose of the First World War in Belgium and France, while Daniels, Dieke, andBarrow present the example of the sesqui-centennial of the American Civil Warbattle of Manassas (First Battle of Bull Run), illustrating the range of issuesinvolved with hosting such an event. Lema and Agrusa deal with Vietnam andthe potential tourism from American veterans and other groups visiting that coun-try some three decades after the end of the conflict. Finally, Vanneste and Footelook to the forthcoming centennial events associated with the First World Warsites in Belgium and France, and the associated costs and benefits and politicaldifficulties of organizing a major war remembrance event involving internationalinterests and a range of viewpoints.

In the conclusions Verbeke and George discuss memoryscapes in the con-text of war, particularly the First World War, outlining aspects of current researchon this topic, including how perceptions and images of war tourism landscapeschange over time. The last chapter by the editors endeavors to identify key themesand issues which have emerged from the volume, as well as discussing aspects ofthe topic not dealt with, along with potential areas of future research.

ReferencesButler, R. and Suntikul W. (eds) (2010) Tourism and Political Change, Oxford: Goodfellow.Corak, S. (2006) The modification of the Tourism Area Life Cycle model for (re)inventing

a destination: the case of the Opatija Riviera, Croatia, in R. Butler, (ed.) The TourismArea Life Cycle, Volume 1 Applications and Modifications, Clevedon: Channelview,27186.

DAmore, L. J. (1988) Tourism: a vital force for peace, Tourism Management, 9(2):1514.

Hall, M. (2010) Political and Tourism: interdependency and implications in understandingthe change, in R. Butler, and W. Suntikul (eds) (2010) Tourism and Political Change,Oxford: Goodfellow, 2132.

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Hall, C. M., Timothy, D., and Duval, D. (2003) Safety and Security in Tourism, New York:The Haworth Hospitality Press.

Henderson, J. (2000) War as a tourist attraction: the case of Vietnam, InternationalJournal of Tourism Research, 2: 26980.

Henderson, J. (2007) Remembering the Second World War in Singapore: wartime heritageas a visitor attraction, Journal of Heritage Tourism 2: 3652.

Hibbert, C. (1969) The Grand Tour, London: Putnam.International Journal of Tourism Research (2006) Special Issue, War and tourism, 8(3):

153246.Jacobson, D., Musyck, B., Orphanides, S., and Webster, C. (2010) The open-

ing of the Ledra crossing in Nicosia: social and economic consequences, inR. Butler and W. Suntikul (eds) Tourism and Political Change, Oxford: Goodfellow,199207.

Jafari, J. (1989) Tourism and peace, Annals of Tourism Research, 16(3): 43943.Lee, Y.-S. (2006) The Korean War and tourism: legacy of the war and the development of

the tourism industry in South Korea, International Journal of Tourism Research, 8(3):15770.

Lennon, J. and Foley, M. (2000) Dark Tourism: the Attraction of Death and Disaster,London: Continuum.

Mansfeld, Y. and Pizam, A. (2006) Tourism, Security and Safety: From Theory to Practice,Oxford: Butterworth-Heinemann.

Mitra, G. (2011) Life on the edge, Sunday Times Travel, July: 8289.Moufakir, O. and Kelly, I. (2010) Tourism, Progress and Peace, CABI: Wallingford.Pizam, A. and Mansfeld, Y. (1996) Tourism, Crime and International Security Issues,

New York: John Wiley and Sons.Poria, Y., Butler, R. W., and Airey, D. (2004a) Links between tourists, heritage, and

reasons for visiting heritage sites, Journal of Travel Research, 43(1): 1928.Poria, Y., Butler, R. W., and Airey, D. (2004b) The meaning of heritage sites for tourists:

The case of Massada, Tourism Analysis, 9: 1522.Rideaux, B., Prideaux, J., and Kim, S. (2010) Does tourism have a role in promoting peace

on the Korean Peninsula? in R. W. Butler and W. Suntikul (eds) Tourism and PoliticalChange, Oxford: Goodfellow Publishers, 18998.

Ryan, C. (2007) Battlefield Tourism: History, Place and Interpretation, Oxford: Elsevier.Salazar, N. B. (2006) Building a culture of peace through tourism: reflexive and

analytical notes and queries, Universitas Humanstica, 62: 31933.Seaton, A. (1999) War and thanatourism: Waterloo 18151914, Annals of Tourism

Research 26(1): 13058.Sharpley, R. and Stone, P. R. (2010) The Darker Side of Travel: The Theory and Practice

of Dark Tourism, Channelview Publications: Clevedon.Smith, V. (1998) War and tourism: an American ethnography, Annals of Tourism

Research, 25(1): 20227.Suntikul, W. (2010) German Reunification and Tourism in Berlin, in R. Butler and

W. Suntikul (eds) Tourism and Political Change, Oxford: Goodfellow, 2132.Suntikul, W. Butler, R. W., and Airey, D. (2010) Vietnams heritage attractions in transi-

tion, in M. Hitchcock, V. King, and M. Parnwell (eds) Heritage Tourism in SoutheastAsia, Copenhagen: NIAS Press, 20220.

Towner, J. (1996) An Historical Geography of Recreation and Tourism in the Western world15401940, Chichester: John Wiley and Sons.

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Weaver, A. (2011) Tourism and the military: Pleasure and the War Economy, Annals ofTourism Research, 38(2): 67289.

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Winter, C. (2009) Tourism, social memory and the Great War, Annals of TourismResearch, 36(4): 60726.

Winter, C. (2011) First World War cemeteries: insights from visitor books, TourismGeographies, 13(3): 46279.

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2 Tourism, war, and political instabilityTerritorial and religious perspectivesDallen J. Timothy

IntroductionSince the modern-day ascent of mass tourism in the nineteenth century, and thelate twentieth-century advent of more specialized forms of tourism, the world hasundergone many significant geopolitical changes. Countries have come and gone,states have united in supranational alliances, free trade agreements pervade theglobal trade scene, and international relations have been liberalized in most cases.Many positive socio-economic and political outcomes have resulted from thesegeopolitical transformations, but one thing remains constant and unchanged bycontemporary trends: conflict and warfare between states and peoples. Tourism,one of the most pervasive socio-economic and political phenomena common theworld over, has been influenced positively and negatively by political changes(Butler and Suntikul 2010); yet territorial, religious, and other types of conflictsand wars continue to impact tourism in a variety of ways.

This chapter provides an overview of many of the salient issues surroundingthe relationships between tourism and war. It first examines the roots of war andpolitical malcontent throughout the world, especially as it pertains to territorialand religious conflicts, and highlights some of the most pertinent relationshipsbetween tourism and political conflict from the perspective of territoriality- andreligion-based warfare.

Territorial conflict, religious discord, and the roots of warConflicts abound the world over: political and religious tensions, corruption,coups detat, military occupations, crime, terrorism, and warfare. War is only oneextreme form of malevolence between countries, peoples, or ideologies, but it hassome of the longest-lasting implications for society in general, and tourism inparticular. Several observers, this author included, have suggested that the rootof conflict throughout the world is greed (Collier and Hoeffler 2000; Fearon andLaitin 2003; Timothy 2008). While some commentators suggest grievance is themain cause of war, lying at the core of grievance also is greed on the partof people in power who perpetuate conditions of oppression, poverty, famine,

Tourism, war, and political instability 13

and other injustices, or aggressors seeking control of peoples, territories, orresources.

Wars have been fought throughout history for a host of reasons and haveappeared in many forms. These include, but are not limited to, confrontationsagainst perceived injustices, campaigns to gain control of territory, efforts to con-trol natural resources, retaliation for aggression, claims to religious rights overterritories and beliefs, and struggles to subjugate rivals or ethnic minorities. Thedeadliest war in recorded history was the Second World War (193945), whichinvolved many countries and resulted in upwards of 70 million human fatalitiesthroughout the world (Black 2003; Keegan 1993). Today, the worlds armed forcesnumber over 70 million, supported by upwards of US$ 3 trillion in military spend-ing (Kobayashi 2009: 819). According to the most recent UN Refugee Agencyestimates (2010), some 43.3 million people were forcibly displaced from theirhomes at the end of 2009, with approximately 80 percent of these being from less-developed countries (Kobayashi 2009) and uprooted overwhelmingly by politicalconflict and/or persecution.

War is an ever-present part of the global geopolitical environment, and fewplaces on earth have remained unaffected by it in one form or another. In general,war involves conditions of armed conflict between countries, peoples, or ideolog-ical groups, characterized by intense violence and aggression. It always claimshuman life, destabilizes economies, disrupts socio-cultural life, and triggers envi-ronmental devastation. While the absence of war is commonly referred to as peace,depending on ones definition of the term, there are many elements of peace that gobeyond the rather simplistic notion of an absence of war to include variables suchas justice, harmony, goodwill, and opportunities for personal growth (Moufakkirand Kelly 2010).

War and tourismWithout belaboring the point, because this volumes editors discussed this in thefirst chapter, it is clear that the relationships between tourism and political conflictare manifold and multifaceted (Fyall et al. 2006). However, to set the contextfor the remainder of this chapter, some of these relationships will be restatedhere.

First, the negative implications of hostilities and war for tourism, particu-larly the rapid decline of tourist demand under conditions of war, have beenwell documented (Fleischer and Buccola 2006; Hitchcock and Darma Putra2005; Neumayer 2004; Vukonic 1997; Mller and Hoppler, this volume). Someobservers have suggested that war and tourism are incompatible, or that peacemust reign before tourism can thrive (Vukonic 1997). Second, however, recentresearch and expert observations from across the globe illustrate otherwise, sug-gesting the important role of war as a resource for tourism (Hannam 2006;Henderson 2000; Smith 1998). Active warfare can be a tourist attraction, as inthe current case of Afghanistan (see Laderman, this volume), where some special-ized tourism niches exist that provide opportunities for tour groups (typically from

14 D. J. Timothy

the European market) to visit battlefields and restricted areas, abandoned Al Qaidatraining camps and hideouts, destroyed villages, and other heritage sites (Adams2001; Lew et al. 2011). Many studies and much commentary have been done toexamine the remnants of war (e.g. battlefields, monuments, cemeteries) as impor-tant heritage attractions (Agrusa et al. 2006; Cooper 2006; Henderson 2000; ThiLe and Pearce 2011) (see also Daniels et al. and Miles, this volume). In addition,some tourists visit countries during conditions of war, but their primary purposehas little or nothing to do with the war, such as in Iraq where tourists visit areasthat are not directly affected by active combat (McGahey 2006).

A third relationship is when tourism is seen as a potential tool for creating morepeaceful relations between belligerent parties (Gelbman and Timothy 2010; Guoet al. 2006; Moufakkir and Kelly 2010; Prideaux et al. 2010) where at the micro-level, appropriate tourism development may serve as a means to ward off potentialconflict (Hall et al. 2003: 1) (see also Lee and Kang, this volume). Anothermore negative relationship is the wanton intentional destruction of natural andcultural heritage resources, or their unintentional annihilation as collateral dam-age during times of conflict (Metreveli and Timothy 2010; Timothy 2011). Fifth,tourism is also used often as a propaganda tool during times of political crises andupheavals to illustrate the benevolence and/or authority of the parties in power,or to reimage places tainted by conflict when the conflict is over (Cohen-Hattab2004; Lee 2006; Richter 1980; Rivera 2008). War and its history are often used tocommemorate national greatness and the heroification of important figures andmemorialization of events as social memories of war are perpetuated (West 2010;Winter 2009). Finally, tourism may also be a catalyst for conflict, hostage taking,and even armed skirmishes, in already contentious geopolitical situations, such asin border areas.

The rest of the chapter will examine some of the relationships noted above asthey pertain specifically to territorial and religious conflicts.

Territorial conflictsOne of the most salient causes of international conflict (and some domestic civilwars) in the past has been disagreements between states over territorial rights andsovereignty. Sovereignty can be described as absolute control over national terri-tory, and national space is jealously defended. Often, offensive positions are takenby states to gain new ground via the international legal concept of terra nullius,unoccupied territory, or land belonging to no one (Glassner and Fahrer 2004;Timothy 2010). European colonial successes between the sixteenth and twentiethcenturies are an example of this, as is the current contestation over Antarctica andparts of the Arctic. Such offenses are often met with defensive force by states withsimilar or overlapping claims. Another form of land acquisition, often utilized bynations in the past, is the process of conquest and annexation. The Soviet intru-sion into Japans Kuril Islands during the Second World War and their subsequentannexation into Soviet (now Russian) territory is one example, with Japan stillclaiming concurrent rights over the islands (Timothy 2010). At the core of these