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TRAINING COURSE MATERIAL
“TRANSITION FROM 2-D RT TO 3-D CRT AND IMRT”
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CONTENTS
1. Introduction 2. Radiation therapy principles: Clinical indications, outcome and applied radiobiology 3. Altered fractionation 4. Overall QA and review 5. Equipment selection, acceptance testing, commissioning and QA/QC 6. Evolution of RT from 2-D to 3-D CRT and IMRT 7. Treatment delivery hardware/software for 3-D CRT 8. Delivery techniques for IMRT 9. Evidence-based medicine and new technology 10. Patient set-up and immobilisation 11. Imaging for target volume and organ at risk determination 12. Definition of target volumes and organs at risk 13. Contouring and prescribing for specific clinical sites for 3-D CRT (and IMRT) 14. Geometric uncertainties 15. Treatment planning 2-D RT to 3-D CRT 16. Treatment planning 3-D CRT to IMRT 17. Plan evaluation for 3-D CRT and IMRT 18. Additional physics equipment QA for IMRT 19. Patient specific physics QA for IMRT 20. Treatment verification: imaging and dosimetry 21. Special treatment techniques
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1. Introduction
Worldwide distribution of cancer types in 2002, ranked by total number of cases (in thousands)
• M. J. van de Vijver, Y.D. He, L.J. van 't Veer, H. Dai, A.A.M. Hart, D.W. Voskuil, G.J. Schreiber, J. L. Peterse, C. Roberts, M.J. Marton, M. Parrish, D. Atsma, A. Witteveen, A. Glas, L. Delahaye, T. van der Velde, H. Bartelink, S. Rodenhuis, E. Rutgers, S.H. Friend, René Bernards. A gene-expression signature as a predictor of survival in breast cancer. N Engl J Med 347, 1999-2009, 2002.
• T. R. Möller, B. Brorsson, J. Ceberg, J.-E. Frödin, C. Lindholm, U. Nylén and R. Perfekt. A prospective survey of radiotherapy practice 2001 in Sweden. Acta Oncol 42, 387-410, 2003.
• A. Norlund. Costs of radiotherapy. Acta Oncol 42, 411-415, 2003
• IAEA-Publication-1296. Setting Up a Radiotherapy Programme: Clinical, Medical Physics, Radiation Protection and Safety Aspects. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2008. (www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PubDetails.asp?pubId=7694)
• ACR–ASTRO Practice Guideline for Radiation Oncology. Res.8-2009. (www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/guidelines/ro/radiation_oncology.aspx)
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• The American College of Radiation Oncology, Red Book, Guidelines for the ACRO Practice Accreditation Program, 2009.
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2. Radiation therapy principles: Clinical indications, outcome and applied radiobiology Clinical indications and outcome
• R-O. Mirimanoff, D. Moro, M. Bolla, G. Michel, C. Brambilla, B. Mermillod, R. Miralbell, P. Alberto. Alternating radiotherapy and chemotherapy for inoperable stage III non–small-cell lung cancer: long-term results of two phase II GOTHA trials. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 42, 487-494, 1998.
• M. Saunders, S. Dische, A. Barrett, A. Harvey, G. Griffiths, M. Parmar (on behalf of the CHART Steering committee). Continuous, hyperfractionated, accelerated radiotherapy (CHART) versus conventional radiotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer: mature data from the randomised multicentre trial. Radiother Oncol 52, 137-148, 1999.
• M. Roach, J. lu, M.V. Pilepich, S.O. Asbell, M. Mohiuddin, R. Terry, D. Grignon. Long-term survival after radiotherapy alone: radiation therapy oncology group prostate cancer trials. The Journal of Urology 161, 864-868, 1999.
• J. A. Green, J.M. Kirwan, J. F. Tierney, P. Symonds, L. Fresco, M. Collingwood, C.J. Williams. Survival and recurrence after concomitant chemotherapy and radiotherapy for cancer of the uterine cervix: a systematic review and meta-analysis. Lancet 358, 781-786, 2001.
• M. Clarke, R. Collins, S. Darby, C. Davies, P. Elphinstone, E. Evans, J. Godwin, R. Gray, C. Hicks, S. James, E. MacKinnon, P. McGale, T. McHugh, R. Peto, C. Taylor, Y. Wang. Early Breast Cancer Trialists' Collaborative Group (EBCTCG). Effects of radiotherapy and of differences in the extent of surgery for early breast cancer on local recurrence and 15-year survival: an overview of the randomised trials. Lancet 366, 2087-2106, 2005.
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• G.A. Viani, E.J. Stefano, S.L. Afonso. Higher-than-conventional radiation doses in localized prostate cancer treatment: a meta-analysis of randomized, controlled trials. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 74, 1405-1418, 2009.
• E. Bölke, C. Matusche. Radiation pneumonitis after radiotherapy for breast cancer. N Engl J Med 361, e65, 2009.
Other material
• C.A. Perez en L.W. Brady. Principles and Practice of Radiation Oncology, 5th edition, J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, USA, 2007.
• C.M. Washington and D.T. Leaver. Principles and Practice of Radiation Therapy. 3rd edition, Mosby,
St Louis, USA, 2009
• R. Hoppe, T.L. Phillips and M. Roach. Leibel and Phillips: Textbook of Radiation Oncology, 3rd
edition, W.B. Saunders, Philadelphia, USA, 2010.
• V. T. DeVita, T. S. Lawrence, S. Rosenberg, R. A. DePinho, R.A. Weinberg. Principles and Practice of Oncology, 9th edition, J.B. Lippincott Company, Philadelphia, USA, 2011.
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Applied radiobiology
• Chapter 14 Basic Radiobiology. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak,Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
• IAEA-Publication-TCS-42. Radiation Biology: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. IAEA,
Vienna, Austria, 2010. (www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TCS-42_web.pdf)
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Other material
• E.J. Hall. Radiobiology for the Radiologist, 6th edition, Lippincott, Philadelphia, 2005.
• Chapter 1.8 Biological aspects of IMRT planning and delivery. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld,
R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
• M. Joiner and A. van der Kogel. Basic Clinical Radiobiology, 4th edition, Oxford University Press, 2010.
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3. Altered fractionation
• Chapter 10, M. Joiner and A. van der Kogel. Basic Clinical Radiobiology, 4th edition, Oxford University
Press, 2010
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4. Overall QA and review
• G. Leunens, J. Verstraete, W. van den Bogaert, J. Van Dam J, A. Dutreix, E. van der Schueren. Human errors in data transfer during the preparation and delivery of radiation treatment affecting the final result: "Garbage in, garbage out." Radiother Oncol 23, 217-222, 1992.
• G.J. Kutcher, L. Coia, M. Gillin, W.F. Hanson, S. Leibel, R.J. Morton, J.R. Palta, J.A. Purdy, L.E. Reinstein, G.K. Svensson, M. Weller, L. Wingfield. Comprehensive QA for radiation oncology: report of AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee Task Group 40. Med Phys 21, 581-618, 1994.
• D. Thwaites, P. Scalliet, J. W. Leer, J. Overgaard. Quality assurance in radiotherapy. Radiother Oncol 35, 61-73, 1995.
• ESTRO Booklet No. 4. Practical Guidelines for the Implementation of a Quality System in Radiotherapy. ESTRO, Brussels, Belgium, 1998. (http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx)
Figure 3.2. Example of a chart for planning a quality project
• W.P.M. Mayles, R. Lake, A. McKenzie, E.M. Macaulay, H.M. Morgan, T.J. Jordan and S.K. Powley Physics Aspects of Quality Control in Radiotherapy. IPSM Report 81, 1999.
• AAPM Report 83. Task Group 66 Report: Quality assurance for computed-tomography simulators and the computed tomography-simulation process. Med Phys 30, 2762-2792, 2003. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_83.pdf)
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FIG. 2. CT-simulator room drawing showing wall lasers and the overhead sagittal laser
• Chapter 12 Quality assurance of external beam radiotherapy. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak,Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
• IAEA-Publication-1296. Setting Up a Radiotherapy Programme: Clinical, Medical Physics, Radiation Protection and Safety Aspects. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2008. (www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PubDetails.asp?pubId=7694) I
• AEA-Publication-1297. Comprehensive Audits of Radiotherapy Practices: A Tool for Quality Improvement. Quality Assurence Team for Radiation Oncology (QUATRO). IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2008. (www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/ PDF/Pub1297_web.pdf)
• AAPM Task Group 142 Report. Quality assurance of medical accelerators. Med Phys 36, 4198-4212, 2009.
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• Quality Asurance Guidance for Canadian Radiation Treatment Programs. Canadian Partnership for Quality Radiotherapy, 2011. (http://www.partnershipagainstcancer.ca/2011/04/18/continuing-to-ensure-safe-radiation-therapy-treatment-for-canadians/)
Other material
• Chapter 2 Clinical implementation of technology and quality assurance process. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
• ICRP Publication 86. Prevention of Accidental Exposures to Patients Undergoing Radiation Therapy. Annals of the ICRP 30(3), Pergamon Press, Oxford, 2000.
• Chapter 37 Rationale and management of the quality system. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
• Chapter 39 Quality assurance of the treatment planning process. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
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5. Equipment selection, acceptance testing, commissioning and QA/QC
• Standards for Quality Control at Canadian Radiation Treatment Centres. Equipment-specific CAPCA quality control documents from the Canadian Organization for Medical Physicists (COMP) (http://www.medphys.ca/content.php?doc=58): target=)
• AAPM Report 83. Task Group 66 Report: Quality assurance for computed-tomography simulators and the computed tomography-simulation process. Med Phys 30, 2762-2792, 2003. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_83.pdf)
FIG. 2. CT-simulator room drawing showing wall lasers and the overhead sagittal laser.
• Chapter 10 Acceptance tests and commissioning measurements. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak, Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
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• Chapter 12 Quality assurance of external beam radiotherapy. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak, Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
• AAPM Task Group 106 Report. Accelerator beam data commissioning equipment and procedures. Med Phys 35, 4186-4215, 2008. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_106.pdf)
FIG. 10. Surface and buildup dose for 10_10 cm2 field of a 6 MV beam with various detectors. The actual surface dose is also marked by the arrow.
• AAPM Task Group 142 Report. Quality assurance of medical accelerators. Med Phys 36, 4198-4212, 2009. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_142.pdf)
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Other material
• Chapter 11 Medical accelerators. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
• IPEM Report 94. Acceptance Testing and Commissioning of Linear Accelerators. IPEM, York, UK, 2007.
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6. Evolution of RT from 2-D to 3-D CRT and IMRT
• G. Ezzell, J.M. Galvin, D. Low, J.R. Palta, I. Rosen, M.B. Sharpe, P. Xia, Y. Xiao, L. Xing, C.X. Yu. Guidance document on delivery, treatment planning, and clinical implementation of IMRT: Report of the IMRT Subcommittee of the AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee. Med Phys 30, 2089-2115, 2003. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_82.pdf).
• J. M. Galvin, G. Ezzell, A. Eisbruch, C. Yu, B. Butler, Y. Xiao, I. Rosen, J. Rosenman, M. Sharpe, L. Xing, P. Xia, T. Lomax, D.A. Low, J. Palta. Implementing IMRT in clinical practice: a joint document of the American Society for Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology and the American Association of Physicists in Medicine. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 58, 1616-1634, 2004.
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• Chapter 15.7 Conformal radiotherapy. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak. Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
• ACR–ASTRO Practice Guideline for Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy (IMRT). Res.2-2007 (http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/guidelines/ro/imrt.aspx)
• IAEA-TECDOC-1588. Transition from 2-D Radiotherapy to 3-D Conformal and Intensity Modulated Radiotherapy. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2008. (http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/TE_1588_web.pdf)
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• AAPM Task Group 119 Report. IMRT commissioning: Multiple institution planning and dosimetry comparisons. Med Phys 36, 5359-5373, 2009. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_119.pdf)
Other material
• Chapter 6 Intensity-modulated radiation therapy. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists, Volume 2. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 2005.
• Chapter 1.1 Rationale of intensity modulated radiotherapy: a clinician’s point of view, and Chapter 1.2 The potentials and limitations of IMRT: a physicist’s point of view. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
• Chapter 43 Conformal and intensity-modulated therapy and Chapter 44 Intensity-modulated therapy: practical aspects. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
• IPEM Report 96. Guidance for the Clinical Implementation of Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy. IPEM, York, UK, 2007.
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7. Treatment delivery hardware and software for 3-D CRT
• R. Mohan. Field shaping for three-dimensional conformal radiation therapy and multileaf collimation. Semin Radiat Oncol 5, 86-99, 1995.
• Chapter 5 Treatment machines for external beam radiotherapy and Chapter 11 Treatment planning systems for external photon beam radiotherapy. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak,Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
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Other material
• Chapter 11 Medical accelerators. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
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8. Delivery techniques for IMRT
• C.X. Yu. Intensity-modulated arc therapy with dynamic multileaf collimation: An alternative to tomotherapy, Phys Med Biol 40, 1435–1449, 1995.
• C.X. Yu, X.A. Li, L. Ma, D.J. Chen, S. Naqvi, D. Shepard, M. Sarfaraz, T.W. Holmes, M. Suntharalingam, C.M. Mansfield. Clinical implementation of intensity-modulated arc therapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 53, 453–463, 2002.
• K. Otto. Volumetric modulated arc therapy: IMRT in a single arc. Med Phys 35, 310-317, 2008.
• A. Fogliata, A. Clivio, G. Nicolini, E. Vanetti, L. Cozzi. Intensity modulation with photons for benign intracranial tumours: a planning comparison of volumetric single arc, helical arc and fixed gantry techniques. Radiother Oncol 89, 254-262, 2008.
• D. Palma, E. Vollans, K. James, S. Nakano, V. Moiseenko, R. Shaffer, M. McKenzie, J. Morris, K. Otto. Volumetric modulated arc therapy for delivery of prostate radiotherapy: comparison with intensity-modulated radiotherapy and three-dimensional conformal radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 72, 996–1001, 2008.
Other material
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• Chapter 1.7 IMRT delivery techniques and Chapter 2.11 “4D” IMRT delivery. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
• Auj-E-Taqaddas. Investigation of VMAT algorithms and dosimetry. Authorhouse, Bloomington, IN, USA, 2011.
• Part I. IMRT and IGRT Techniques and Technology. In: IMRT.IGRT.SBRT Advances in the Treatment Planning and Delivery of Radiotherapy, 2nd edition. J.L. Meyer, Editor. Karcher, Basel, Switzerland, 2011.
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9. Evidence-based medicine and new technology
• M. Saunders, S. Dische, A. Barrett, A. Harvey, G. Griffiths, M. Parmar (on behalf of the CHART Steering committee). Continuous, hyperfractionated, accelerated radiotherapy (CHART) versus conventional radiotherapy in non-small cell lung cancer: mature data from the randomised multicentre trial. Radiother Oncol 52, 137-148, 1999.
• B. Djulbegovic, M. Lacevic, A. Cantor, K.K Fields, C.L. Bennett, J.R. Adams, N.M Kuderer, G.H. Lyman. The uncertainty principle and industry sponsored research. Lancet 356, 635-638, 2000.
• R. Jyothirmayi, F.H. Saran, R. Jalali, J. Perks, A.P. Warrington, D. Traish, S. Ashley, F. Hines, M. Brada. Stereotactic radiotherapy for solitary brain metastases. Clin Oncol (R Coll Radiol) 13, 228–34, 2001.
• D.W. Andrews, C.B. Scott, P.W. Sperduto, A.E. Flanders, L.E. Gaspar, M.C. Schell, M. Werner-Wasik, W. Demas, J. Ryu, J.-P. Bahary, L. Souhami, M. Rotman, M.P. Mehta, W.J. Curran Jr. Whole brain radiation therapy with or without stereotactic radiosurgery boost for patients with one to three brain metastases: phase III results of the RTOG 9508 randomised trial. Lancet 363, 1665-1672, 2004.
• S. M. Bentzen, G. Heeren, B. Cottier, B. Slotman, B. Glimelius, Y. Lievens, W. van den Bogaert. Towards evidence-based guidelines for radiotherapy infrastructure and staffing needs in Europe: the ESTRO QUARTS project. Radiother Oncol 75, 355–365, 2005.
Other material
• Handbook of Evidence-Based Radiation Oncology, second edition. Eric Hansen and Mack Roach III,
Editors. Springer, 2009.
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10. Patient set-up and immobilisation
• G.J. Kutcher, L. Coia, M. Gillin, W.F. Hanson, S. Leibel, R.J. Morton, J.R. Palta, J.A. Purdy, L.E.
Reinstein, G.K. Svensson, M. Weller, L. Wingfield. Comprehensive QA for radiation oncology: report of AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee Task Group 40. Med Phys 21, 581-618, 1994.
• Practical Radiation Technical Manual: Mouldroom Techniques for Teletherapy, IAEA – PRTM – 4, 1999.
• K.M. Langen, D.T Jones. Organ motion and its management. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 50, 265-
278, 2001.
• R.I. Berbeco, S. Nishioka, H. Shirato, G.T. Chen, S.B. Jiang. Residual motion of lung tumours in gated radiotherapy with external respiratory surrogates. Phys Med Biol 50, 3655-3667, 2005.
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• Chapter 7 Clinical treatment planning in external photon beam geometry. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak,Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
FIG. 7.3. Headrests used for patient positioning and immobilization in external beam radiotherapy
• RCR/ IPEM/SCR. On target: ensuring geometric accuracy in radiotherapy. The Royal College of Radiology, London, UK, 2008. (Needs permission?) (http://www.library.nhs.uk/GUIDELINESFINDER/ViewResource.aspx?resID=303654)
• Video IAEA: Basic Positioning and Immobilization in Radiotherapy. Training Course Series 41, IAEA, Vienna, 2010. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/arbr/publication.asp)
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Other material
• G.C. Bentel. Patient positioning and immobilization in radiation oncology. McGraw-Hill, 1999.
• ICRU-50. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 50:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting photon beam therapy. Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement, 1993.
• ICRU-62. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 62:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting photon beam therapy. Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement, 1999.
• ICRU-83. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 83:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting intensity-modulated photon-beam therapy (IMRT). Journal of the ICRU, Volume 10 No 1, Oxford University Press, 2010.
• Chapter 3 Patient immobilization, Chapter 4 Simulators, and Chapter 5 CT simulators. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
• Faiz M. Khan, Treatment Planning in Radiation Oncology, second edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.
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• Chapter 30 Patient data acquisition. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
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11. Imaging for target volume and organ at risk determination
• Chapter 3 Radiotherapy Imaging Devices. In: IPEM Report 81. Physics Aspects of Quality Control in Radiotherapy. W.P.M. Mayles, R. Lake, A. McKenzie, E.M. Macaulay, H.M. Morgan, T.J. Jordan and S.K. Powley, Editors. IPEM, York, UK, 1999.
Figure 3.5b. T0.10 Leeds test object – fluoroscopic image.
• AAPM Report 83. Task Group 66 Report. Quality assurance for computed-tomography simulators and the computed-tomography-simulation process. Med Phys 30, 2762-2792, 2003. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_83.pdf)
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FIG. 6. A quality assurance phantom for three-dimensional radiation treatment planning.
• Imaging in Radiotherapy. Report of the Consultant’s Meeting, IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2008. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/IAEA_Report_Imaging_in_RT_web_version.doc)
• Handbook on the Physics of Diagnostic Radiology, IAEA, Vienna, Austria (in preparation).
• K. Mah, C.B. Caldwell, Y.C. Ung, C.E. Danjoux, J.M. Balogh, S.N. Gangali, L.E. Ehrlich and R. Tirona. The impact of (18) FDG-PETon target and critical organs in CT-based treatment planning of patients with poorly defined non-small-cell lung carcinoma. A prospective study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 52, 339-350, 2002.
• R. Steenbakkers, J.C. Duppen, I. Fitton, K.E.I. Deurloo, L.J. Zijp, E.F.I. Comans, A.L.J. Uitterhoeve,
P.T.R. Rodrigus, G.W.P. Kramer, J. Bussink, K. de Jager, J.S.A. Belderbos, P.J.C.M. Novak, M. van Herk, C.R.N. Rasch. Reduction of observer variation using matched CT-PET for lung cancer delineation: a three-dimensional study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 64, 435-448, 2006.
• S. Abramyuk, S. Tokalov, K. Zöphel, A. Koch, K. Szluha Lazanyi, C. Gillham, T. Herrmann, N.
Abolmaali. Is pre-therapeutical FDG-PET/CT capable to detect high risk tumor subvolumes responsible for local failure in non-small cell lung cancer? Radiother Oncol 91, 399-404, 2009.
• S. Gaede, J. Olsthoorn, A.V. Louie, D. Palma, E. Yu , B Yaremko, B. Ahmad, J Chen, K. Bzdusek,
G. Rodrigue. An evaluation of an automated 4D-CT contour propagation tool to define an internal gross tumour volume for lung cancer. Radiother Oncol 101, 322-328, 2011.
Other material
• Chapter 7 Imaging for radiation therapy planning. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
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• Chapter 2 Imaging for radiation therapy planning. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. Volume 2. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 2005.
• Chapter 1.3 Imaging for IMRT, and Chapter 2.9 4D CT simulation. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
• EMERALD project (http://www.emerald2.eu)
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12. Definition of target volumes and organs at risk
• J.P. Shah. Patterns of cervical lymph node metastasis from squamous carcinomas of the upper aerodigestive tract. Am J Surg 160, 405-409, 1990.
• K.T. Robbins, J. E. Medina, G. T. Wolfe, P. A. Levine, R. B. Sessions, C.W. Pruet. Standardizing
Neck Dissection Terminology. Official report of the Academy's Committee for Head and Neck Surgery and Oncology. Arch Otolaryngol Head Neck Surg 117, 601-605, 1991.
• G. Leunens, J. Menten, C. Weltens, J. Verstraete, E. van der Schueren. Quality assessment of
medical decision making in radiation oncology: variability in target volume delineation for brain tumours. Radiother Oncol 29, 169-175, 1993.
• W. Zhen, R.B Thompson, C.A. Enke. Intensity-modulated radiation therapy (IMRT): the radiation
oncologist’s perspective. Med Dos 27, 155-159, 2002. • J-F Daisne, M. Sibomana, A. Bol, T. Doumont, M. Lonneux, V. Grégoire. Tri-dimensional automatic
segmentation of PET volumes based on measured source-to-background ratios: influence of reconstruction algorithms, Radiother Oncol 69, 247-250, 2003.
• J.A. Purdy: Current ICRU definitions of volumes: Limitation and future directions. Semin Radiat
Oncol 14, 27-40, 2004. • I.S. Grills, D.L. Fitch, N.S. Goldstein, D. Yan, G.W. Chmielewski, R.J. Welsh, L.L. Kestin.
Clinicopathologic analysis of microscopic extension in lung adenocarcinoma: defining clinical target volume for radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 69, 334-341, 2007.
• P. Petric, J. Dimopoulos, C. Kirisits, D. Berger, R. Hudej, R. Pötter. Inter- and intraobserver variation
in HR-CTV contouring: Intercomparison of transverse and paratransverse image orientation in 3D-MRI assisted cervix cancer brachytherapy. Radiother Oncol 89, 164-171, 2008.
• RCR/ IPEM/SCR. On target: ensuring geometric accuracy in radiotherapy. The Royal College of
Radiology, London, UK, 2008. (http://www.library.nhs.uk/GUIDELINESFINDER/ViewResource.aspx?resID=303654)
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Other material
• ICRU-50. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 50: Prescribing, recording, and reporting photon beam therapy. Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement, 1993.
• ICRU-62. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 62:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting photon beam therapy. Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement, 1999.
• ICRU-83. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 83:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting intensity-modulated photon-beam therapy (IMRT). Journal of the ICRU, Volume 10 No 1, Oxford University Press, 2010.
• British Institute of Radiology. Geometric Uncertainties in Radiotherapy, BIR, London, UK, 2003.
35
13. Contouring and prescribing for specific clinical sites for 3-D CRT (and IMRT)
• A. Eisbruch, R.K. Ten Haken, H.M. Kim, L.H. Marsh, J.A. Ship. Dose, volume, and function
relationships in parotid salivary glands following conformal and intensity-modulated irradiation of head and neck cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 45, 577-587, 1999.
• A. Eisbruch, H.M. Kim, J.E. Terrell, L.H. Marsh, L.A. Dawson, J.A. Ship. Xerostomia and its
predictors following parotid-sparing irradiation of head-and-neck cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 50, 695-704, 2001.
• M.R. Pfeffer, http://www.sciencedirect.com/science/article/pii/S0360301604006017 - COR1T. Rabin, L. Tsvang, J. Goffman, N. Rosen, Z. Symon. Orbital lymphoma: Is it necessary to treat the entire orbit? Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 60, 527-530, 2004.
• O. Chapet, F-M. Kong, L.E. Quint, A.C. Chang, R.K. Ten Haken, A. Eisbruch, J. .A Hayman. CT-based definition of thoracic lymph node stations: an atlas from the University of Michigan. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 63, 170-178, 2005.
• L. Zhao, M. Chen, R. Ten Haken, I. Chetty, O. Chapet, J.A. Hayman, F.M.Kong. Three-dimensional conformal radiation may deliver considerable dose of incidental nodal irradiation in patients with early stage node-negative non-small cell lung cancer when the tumor is large and centrally located. Radiother Oncol 82, 153-159, 2007.
36
• C.A.F. Lawton, J. Michalski, I. El-Naqa, M.K. Buyyounouski, W. R. Lee, C. Menard, E. O'Meara, S. A. Rosenthal, M. Ritter, M. Seider. RTOG GU Radiation oncology specialists reach consensus on pelvic lymph node volumes for high-risk prostate cancer. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 74, 383-387, 2009.
• B. Engels, G. Soete, D. Verellen, G. Storme. Conformal arc radiotherapy for prostate cancer: increased biochemical failure in patients with distended rectum on the planning computed tomogram despite image guidance by implanted markers. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 74, 388–391, 2009.
• R.J. Myerson, M.C. Garofalo, I. El Naqa, R.A. Abrams, A. Apte, W.R. Bosch, P. Das, L.L. Gunderson, T.S. Hong, J.J. Kim, C.G. Willett, L.A.. Kachnic. Elective clinical target volumes for conformal therapy in anorectal cancer: a radiation therapy oncology group consensus panel contouring atlas. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 74, 824–830, 2009.
• V.W. Rusch, H. Asamura, H. Watanabe, D.J. Giroux, R. Rami-Porta, P. Goldstraw. The IASLC Lung Cancer Staging Project: A proposal for a new international lymph node map in the forthcoming seventh edition of the TNM classification for lung cancer. J Thorac Oncol 4, 568-577, 2009.
• F.O. Spoelstra, S. Senan, C. Le Pechoux, S. Ishikura, F. Casas, D. Ball, A. Price, D. De Ruysscher, J.R. van Sörnsen de Koste. Lung Adjuvant Radiotherapy Trial Investigators Group. Variations in target volume definition for postoperative radiotherapy in stage III non-small-cell lung cancer: analysis of an international contouring study. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 76, 1106-1113, 2010.
• A. Eisbruch, J. Harris, A.S. Garden, K.S. Clifford, W. Straube, P.M. Harari, G. Sanguineti, C.U. Jones, W.R. Bosch, K.K. Ang. Multi-institutional trial of accelerated hypofractionated intensity-modulated radiation therapy for early-stage oropharyngeal cancer (RTOG 00-22). Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 76, 1333-1338, 2010.
• P.W. McLaughlin, C. Evans, M. Feng, V. Narayana. Radiographic and anatomic basis for prostate contouring errors and methods to improve prostate contouring accuracy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 76, 369-378, 2010.
Other material
• V. Grégoire, P. Scalliet, K-K. Ang. Clinical Target Volumes in Conformal and Intensity Modulated Radiation Therapy : A Clinical Guide to Cancer Treatment Book. (Series: Medical Radiology / Radiation Oncology). Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2003
• Handbook of Evidence-Based Radiation Oncology, second edition. Eric Hansen and Mack Roach III, Editors. Springer, 2009.
37
• DAHANCA, EORTC, GORTEC, NCIC and RTOG Endorsed Consensus Guidelines for the
Delineation of the CTV in the N0 Neck of Patients With Head & Neck Squamous Cell Carcinoma. (http://rtog.org/pdf_file2.html?pdf_document=atlasneck_CTV.pdf)
• Breast Cancer Atlas (http://rtog.org/pdf_file2.html?pdf_document=BreastCancerAtlas.pdf)
• Brachial Plexus Contouring Atlas (http://rtog.org/atlases/BrachialAtlas/Brachial%20plexus%20contouring.pdf)
• ESTRO-EAGLE: Interactive learning in oncology. Evidence and Research on Rectal Cancer – Interactive online course for oncology professionals (http://www.estro-education.org/elearning/Documents/Evidence%20and%20research%20on%20rectal%20cancer.pdf)
• Anorectal Atlas (http://rtog.org/pdf_file2.html?pdf_document=AnorectalContouringGuidelines.pdf)
• Pelvic Lymph Node Volumes for Prostate Cancer Atlas (http://rtog.org/Atlases//PelvicLymphNodeProstateAtlas/Pel%20LN%20Vol%20P rostate.ppt)
• Post-Op Positive Prostate Apex Atlas (http://rtog.org/atlases/Post-OpProstateContoursAtlas/Post-Op%20Positive% 20Apex%20Margins.ppt)
• Post-Op Positive Seminal Vesicle Atlas (http://rtog.org/atlases/Post-OpProstateContoursAtlas/Post-
Op%20Positive%20Seminal%20Vesicle.ppt)
38
• Consensus Guidelines for the Delineation of the Intensity Modulated Pelvic Radiotherapy CTV in the Postoperative Treatment of Endometrial and Cervical Cancer (http://rtog.org/pdf_file2.html?pdf_document=GYN-Atlas.pdf)
• Pancreas Contouring Atlas (http://rtog.org/atlases/pancreasAtlas/Adjuvant%20Pancreas%20(Post-
op)%20Atlas.pdf)
• ESTRO-FALCON: Multifunctional platform for contouring and delineation (http://www.estro-education.org/elearning/Pages/Falcon.aspx)
• ESTRO-TIGER: Tutorial for Image Guided External Radiotherapy
(http://www.estro-education.org/elearning/Pages/TIGER.aspx)
39
14..Geometric uncertainties
• J.C. Stroom, H.C de Boer, H. Huizenga and A.G. Visser. Inclusion of geometrical uncertainties in radiotherapy treatment planning by means of coverage probability. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 43, 905-919, 1999.
• M.B. van Herk, P. Remeijer, C. Rasch and J.V. Lebesque. The probability of correct target dose: dose population histograms for deriving treatment margins in radiotherapy. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 47, 1121-1135, 2000.
• V. Grégoire, P. Levendag, K.K. Ang, J. Bernier, M. Braaksma, V. Budach, C. Chao, E. Coche, J.S. Cooper, G. Cosnard, A. Eisbruch, S. El-Sayed, B. Emami, C. Grau, M. Hamoir, N. Lee, P. Maingon, K. Muller and H. Reychler. CT-based delineation of lymph node levels and related CTVs in the node-negative neck: DAHANCA, EORTC, GORTEC, NCIC, RTOG consensus guidelines. Radiother Oncol 69, 227-236, 2003.
• AAPM Report 91. Task Group 76 Report: The management of respiratory motion in radiation oncology. Med Phys 33, 3874-3900, 2006. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_91.pdf)
• D. Verellen, M. De Ridder, N. Lindhout, K. Tournel. G. Soete and G. Storme. Innovations in image-guided radiotherapy. Nature Reviews Cancer 7, 949-960, 2007.
• IAEA-Publication-1296. Setting Up a Radiotherapy Programme: Clinical, Medical Physics, Radiation Protection and Safety Aspects. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2008. (www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PubDetails.asp?pubId=7694).
40
• RCR/ IPEM/SCR. On target: ensuring geometric accuracy in radiotherapy. The Royal College of Radiology, London, UK, 2008. (www.ipem.ac.uk/docimages/2649.pdf)
Other material
• British Institute of Radiology. Geometric Uncertainties in Radiotherapy, BIR, London, UK, 2003.
41
• D. Verellen. Chapter 1.9 Image guided patient setup. In: T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
42
15. Treatment planning 2-D RT to 3-D CRT
Other material
• Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
• Part II. IMRT / IGRT Clinical Treatment Programs. In: IMRT.IGRT.SBRT Advances in the Treatment Planning and Delivery of Radiotherapy, 2nd edition. J.L. Meyer, Editor. Karcher, Basel, Switzerland, 2011.
43
44
16. Treatment planning 3-D CRT to IMRT
Chapter 8 Treatment planning systems. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999. (http://www.medicalphysics.org/apps/medicalphysicsedit/VANDYKCH08.pdf)
• AAPM Report 81. Task Group 63 Report: Dosimetric considerations for patients with hip prostheses undergoing pelvic irradiation. Med Phys 30, 1162-1182, 2003. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_81.pdf)
FIG. 4. CT images of a patient with a hip prosthesis ~cup, head, and stem!: ~a! frontal image/scout, ~b! lateral view scout, ~c! transversal slice showing artifacts, and ~d! same image as in ~c!, but contrast level adjusted to better visualize the contour of the prosthesis.
45
• AAPM Report 85. Task Group 65 Report: Tissue inhomogeneity corrections for megavoltage photon beams. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 2004. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_85.pdf)
Figure 27. Correction factor for a 15 MV x-rays, 5 ¥ 5 cm2 field as a function of depth below the surface of the phantom for densities of 0.015 (humid air) and 0.18 and 0.31 (lung) gcm–3.
• ESTRO Booklet No. 7. Quality Assurance of Treatment Planning Systems-Practical Examples for Non-IMRT Photon Beams. ESTRO, Brussels, Belgium, 2004. (http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx)
• Chapter 11 Treatment planning systems for external photon beam radiotherapy. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak,Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
Sponsored by“Europe against Cancer”
QUALITY ASSURANCE OF TREATMENT PLANNING SYSTEMS - PRACTICAL EXAMPLES
FOR NON-IMRT PHOTON BEAMS
ESTRO European Guidance Booklets for Quality Assurance in RadiotherapyBooklet No. 7
l Ben Mijnheer
l Agnieszka Olszewska
l Claudio Fiorino
l Guenther Hartmann
l Tommy Knöös
l Jean-Claude Rosenwald
l Hans Welleweerd
46
• ACR–ASTRO Practice Guideline for 3D External Beam Radiation Planning and Conformal Therapy. Res.22-2006. (http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/guidelines/ro/3d_external_beam.aspx)
• IAEA Technical Report Series No. 430. Commissioning and Quality Assurance of Computerized Planning Systems for Radiation Treatment of Cancer. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2004. (http://www-pub.iaea.org/mtcd/publications/pdf/trs430_web.pdf)
• IAEA-TECDOC-1540. Specification and Acceptance Testing of Radiotherapy Treatment Planning Systems. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2007. (http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/te_1540_web.pdf)
• IAEA-TECDOC-1583. Commissioning of Radiotherapy Treatment Planning Systems: Testing for Typical External Beam Treatment Techniques. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2008. (http://www-pub.iaea.org/MTCD/publications/PDF/te_1583_web.pdf)
47
• AAPM Task Group 105 Report: Issues associated with clinical implementation of Monte Carlo-based photon and electron external beam treatment planning. Med Phys 34, 4818-4853, 2007. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_105.pdf)
FIG. 11. Opposed, oblique field treatment plan (15 MV photons) showing the 100% isodose coverage for MC (modified DPM, University of Michigan/UMPlan) in the solid line, and an equivalent path length (EPL, University of Michigan/UMPlan) algorithm in the dashed line The PTV is demarcated in white.
Other material
• Faiz M. Khan, Treatment Planning in Radiation Oncology, second edition, Lippincott Williams & Wilkins, 2006.
• Ann Barrett, Jane Dobbs, Stephen Morris, Tom Roques. Practical Radiotherapy Planning, fourth
edition, Oxford University Press, 2009.
• Gunilla C. Bentel. Radiation Therapy Planning: Including Problems and Solutions, third edition, McGraw-Hill, 2010.
• Chapter 1.4 Physical optimization and Chapter 5 Practical IMRT planning. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
• Chapter 39 Quality assurance of the treatment planning process. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
48
49
17. Plan evaluation for 3-D CRT and IMRT
• A. Niemierko. Reporting and analyzing dose distributions: A concept of equivalent uniform dose. Med Phys 24, 103-111, 1997.
• A. Niemierko. A generalized concept of equivalent uniform dose. Med Phys 26, 1100, 1999.
Other material
• ICRU-50. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 50:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting photon beam therapy. Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement, 1993.
• ICRU-62. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 62:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting photon beam therapy. Bethesda, MD: International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurement, 1999.
• ICRU-83. International Commission on Radiation Units and Measurements. ICRU Report 83:
Prescribing, recording, and reporting intensity-modulated photon-beam therapy (IMRT). Journal of the ICRU, Volume 10 No 1, Oxford University Press, 2010.
50
• Chapter 1.8 Biological aspects of IMRT planning and delivery, and Chapter 2.5 Biological optimization. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
51
18. Additional physics equipment QA for IMRT
• M.S. Huq, I.J. Das, T. Steinberg and J.M. Galvin. A dosimetric comparison of various multileaf
collimators. Phys Med Biol 47, N159-170, 2002.
• G. Ezzell, J.M. Galvin, D. Low, J.R. Palta, I. Rosen, M.B. Sharpe, P. Xia P, Y. Xiao, L. Xing and C.X. Yu. Guidance document on delivery, treatment planning, and clinical implementation of IMRT: Report of the IMRT subcommittee of the AAPM Radiation Therapy Committee. Med Phys 30, 2090 – 2115, 2003.
• T.J. Losasso. IMRT Delivery System QA: AAPM Medical Physics Monograph No. 29, Intensity-
Modulated Radiation Therapy, The State of the Art, Jatinder R. Palta and T. Rockwell Mackie, Editors, Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 2003.
• J.R. Palta, S. Kim, J.G. Li and C. Liu. Tolerance limits and action levels for planning and delivery of IMRT. In: Intensity-Modulated Radiation Therapy: The State Of The Art. American Association of Physicists in Medicine Medical Physics Monograph No. 29, pp. 593-612. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 2003.
• ESTRO Booklet No. 9. Guidelines for the verification of IMRT. ESTRO, Brussels, Belgium, 2008. (http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx)
52
• G.S. Ibbott, D.S. Followill, H.A. Molineu, J.R. Lowenstein, P.E. Alvarez and J.E. Roll. Challenges in
credentialing institutions and participants in advanced technology multi-institutional clinical trials. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 71, S71–S75, 2008.
• G. Ezzell et al.: IMRT commissioning: Multiple institution planning and dosimetry comparisons, a
report from AAPM Task Group 119, Med Phys 36, 5359-5373, 2009.
Other material
• Chapter 1.10 QA-QC of IMRT: European perspective, Carlos De Wagter, and Chapter 1.11 QA-QC of IMRT: American perspective, Jean M. Moran and Ping Xia. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
53
19. Patient specific physics QA for IMRT
• D.A. Low, W.B. Harms, S. Mutic and J. A. Purdy. A technique for the quantitative evaluation of dose distributions. Med Phys 25, 656–661, 1998.
• ESTRO Booklet No. 6. Monitor unit calculation for high energy photon beams – Practical examples. ESTRO, Brussels, Belgium, 2001. . (http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx
• D. Georg, M. Stock, B. Kroupa, J. Olofsson, T. Nyholm, A. Ahnesjö and M. Karlsson. Patient-specific IMRT verification using independent fluence-based dose calculation software: experimental benchmarking and initial clinical experience. Phys Med Biol 52, 4981-4992, 2007.
• ESTRO Booklet No. 9. Guidelines for the verification of IMRT. ESTRO, Brussels, Belgium, 2008.
(http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx)
54
• W. van Elmpt, L. McDermott, S. Nijsten, M. Wendling, P. Lambin and B. Mijnheer. A literature review
of electronic portal imaging for radiotherapy dosimetry. Radiother Oncol 88, 289-309, 2008.
• A. Mans, M. Wendling, L.N. McDermott, J.-J. Sonke, B. Mijnheer, M. van Herk and J.C. Stroom. Catching errors with in vivo dosimetry. Med Phys 37, 2638-2644, 2010.
• ESTRO Booklet 10: Independent Dose Calculations – Concepts and Models ESTRO, Brussels,
Belgium, 2008. (http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx)
.
• L. Masi, F. Casamassima, R. Doro and P. Francescon. Quality assurance of volumetric modulated arc therapy: Evaluation and comparison of different dosimetric systems. Med Phys 38, 612 – 621, 2011.
• R.L. Stern, R. Heaton, M.W. Fraser, S.M. Goddu, T.H. Kirby, K.L. Lam, A. Molineu and T.C. Zhu.
Verification of monitor unit calculations for non-IMRT clinical radiotherapy: Report of AAPM Task Group 114. Med Phys 38, 504-530, 2011.
• D.A. Low, J.M. Moran, J.F. Dempsey, L. Dong and M. Oldham. Dosimetry tools and techniques for
IMRT. Med Phys 38, 1313 – 1338, 2011.
Other material
• Chapter 1.10 QA-QC of IMRT: European perspective, Carlos De Wagter, and Chapter 1.11 QA-QC of IMRT: American perspective, Jean M. Moran and Ping Xia. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
55
56
20. Treatment verification: imaging and dosimetry
• P.J. Biggs, M. Goitein, M.D. Russell. A diagnostic X ray field verification device for a 10 MV linear accelerator. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 11, 635-643, 1985.
• AAPM Report 75. Task Group 58 Report: Clinical use of electronic portal imaging. Med Phys 28,
712-737, 2001. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_75.pdf)
• ESTRO Booklet No. 5. Practical Guidelines for the Implementation of In Vivo Dosimetry with Diodes in External Radiotherapy with Photon Beams (Entrance Dose). ESTRO, Brussels, Belgium, 2004. (http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx)
57
• AAPM Report No. 87. Task Group 62 Report: Diode in vivo dosimetry for patients receiving external beam radiation therapy, Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 2005. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_87.pdf)
Figure 5. Schematic diagrams for entrance (a) and exit (b) dose calibration factors.
• Chapter 12 Quality assurance of external beam radiotherapy. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak,Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
• ESTRO Booklet No. 1. Methods for In Vivo Dosimetry in External Radiotherapy. ESTRO, Brussels, Belgium, 2006. (http://www.estro-education.org/publications/Pages/ESTROPhysicsBooklets.aspx)
58
Figure II.1: Schematic representation of the different doses involved in in vivo dosimetry for a single beam. • AAPM Report 95. Task Group 75 Report: The management of imaging dose during image-guided
radiotherapy. Med Phys 34, 4041-4063, 2007. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_95.pdf)
FIG. 4. Conventional geometry for cone-beam CT.
• D. Verellen, M. De Ridder, N. Lindhout, K. Tournel. G. Soete, G. Storme. Innovations in image-guided radiotherapy. Nature Reviews Cancer 7, 949-960, 2007.
• E.D. Yorke, P. Keall, F. Verhaegen. Anniversary Paper: Role of medical physicists and the AAPM in improving geometric aspects of treatment accuracy and precision. Med Phys 35, 828-839, 2008.
• W. van Elmpt, L. McDermott, S. Nijsten, M. Wendling, P. Lambin, B. Mijnheer. A literature review of
electronic portal imaging for radiotherapy dosimetry Radiother Oncol 88, 289–309, 2008. • AAPM Task Group 104 Report: The role of in-room kV X-ray imaging for patient setup and target
localization. American Association of Physicists in Medicine, 2009. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_104.pdf)
59
Figure I-C-2. Schematic illustration of a typical treatment process using in-room radiographic imaging.
• ACR–ASTRO Practice Guideline for Image-Guided Radiation Therapy (IGRT). Res. 2 – 2009. (http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/guidelines/ro/IGRT.aspx)
• S. Korreman, C. Rasch, H. McNair, D. Verellen, U. Oelfke, P. Maingon, B. Mijnheer, V. Khoo. The European Society of Therapeutic Radiology and Oncology–European Institute of Radiotherapy (ESTRO–EIR) report on 3D CT-based in-room image guidance systems: A practical and technical review and guide. Radiother Oncol 94, 122-144, 2010.
• A. Mans, M. Wendling, L. N. McDermott, J.-J. Sonke, R. Tielenburg, R. Vijlbrief, B. Mijnheer, M. van
Herk, J. C. Stroom. Catching errors with in vivo EPID dosimetry. Med Phys 37, 2638-2644, 2010.
Other material
• Chapter 13 Megavoltage radiography for treatment verification. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
• Chapter 7 X-ray Imaging for verification and localization in radiation therapy. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists, Volume 2. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 2005.
• Chapter 1.9 Image guided patient setup, and Chapter 2.6 Advanced imaging and guidance system for use in intensity modulated RT. In: Image-Guided IMRT. T. Bortfeld, R. Schmidt-Ullrich, W. De Neve and D.E. Wazer, Editors. Springer, Berlin, Germany, 2006.
60
• Chapter 14 Portal imaging devices. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
• Image-Guided Radiation Therapy. A Clinical Perspective. A. Mundt and J. Roeske, Editors. People’s Medical Publishing House, USA, 2011.
• IMRT.IGRT.SBRT Advances in the Treatment Planning and Delivery of Radiotherapy, 2nd edition. J.L. Meyer, Editor. Karcher, Basel, Switzerland, 2011.
61
21. Special treatment techniques
Total body irradiation (TBI), half body irradiation (HBI), total marrow irradiation (TMI), total lymphoid irradiation (TLI)
• AAPM Report No. 17. Task Group 29 Report. Physical aspects of total and half body irradiations. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1986. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_17.pdf)
• L. Durelli, M.F. Ferrio, A. Urgesi, G. Poccardi, B. Ferrero, L. Bergamini. Total body irradiation for myasthenia gravis: a long-term follow-up. Neurology 43, 2215-2221, 1993.
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• Chapter 15.3 Total body irradiation. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak, Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
• ACR–ASTRO Practice Guideline for the Performance of Total Body Irradiation. Res.23-2006. (http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/guidelines/ /ro/total_body_irradiation.aspx)
Other material
• Chapter 17A Total body irradiation. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
• Chapter 47 Total body irradiation. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
• Chapter 38 Systemic irradiation. In: Practical Radiotherapy Planning. Ann Barrett, Jane Dobbs, Stephen Morris, Tom Roques. Practical Radiotherapy Planning, fourth edition, Oxford University Press, 2009.
63
Stereotactic radiosurgery (SRS), stereotactic radiotherapy (SRT), stereotactic body radiotherapy (SBRT)
• AAPM Report No. 54. Task Group 42 Report: Stereotactic radiosurgery. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1995. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_54.pdf)
• Chapter 15.2 Stereotactic irradiation. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students, E.B. Podgorsak. Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
64
• ACR-ASTRO Practice Guideline for the Performance of Stereotactic Radiosurgery. American College of Radiology. Res.24-2006. (http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/guidelines/ro/stereotactic_radiosurgery.aspx)
• M. Hoyer, H. Roed, A. Traberg Hansen, L. Ohlhuis, J. Petersen, H. Nellemann, A. Kiil Berthelsen, C. Grau, S. Aage Engelholm, H. Maase. Phase II study on stereotactic body radiotherapy of colorectal metastases. Acta Oncol 45, 823-830, 2006.
• K.E. Rusthoven, B.D. Kavanagh, H. Cardenes, V.W. Stieber, S.H. Burri, S.J. Feigenberg, M.A. Chidel, T.J. Pugh, W. Franklin, M. Kane, L.E. Gaspar, T.E. Schefter. Multi-institutional phase I/II trial of stereotactic body radiation therapy for liver metastases. J Clin Oncol 27,1572-1578, 2009.
• ACR-ASTRO Practice Guideline for the Performance of Stereotactic Body Radiation Therapy. American College of Radiology. Res.4-2009. (http://www.acr.org/SecondaryMainMenuCategories/quality_safety/guidelines/ro/stereo_body_radiation.aspx)
• AAPM Task Group 101 Report: Stereotactic body radiation therapy. Med Phys 37, 4078-4101, 2010. (www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_101.pdf)
Other material
• Chapter 16 Stereotactic irradiation. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
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• Chapter 45 Stereotactic techniques. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.
• Part III. SBRT: Stereotactic Body Radiotherapy. In: IMRT.IGRT.SBRT Advances in the Treatment Planning and Delivery of Radiotherapy, 2nd edition. J.L. Meyer, Editor. Karcher, Basel, Switzerland, 2011.
Intra-operative radiotherapy (IORT)
• AAPM Task Group 48 Report. Intraoperative electron beam radiation therapy, technique, dosimetry, and dose specification. Int J Radiat Oncol Biol Phys 33, 725–746, 1995.
• Chapter 15.5 Intraoperative radiotherapy. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak, Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
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• AAPM Report 92. Task Group 72 Report: Intraoperative radiation therapy using mobile electron linear accelerators. Med Phys 33, 1476-1489, 2006. (http://www.aapm.org/pubs/reports/RPT_92.pdf)
FIG. 1. The soft-docking system used by the Mobetron. (a) The electron applicator,in contact with the tumor bed, is rigidly clamped to the surgical bed using a modified Bookwalter clamp. (b) The gantry being moved for soft docking to the applicator. (c) The LED display and electron applicator. The green light in the center of the display indicates that proper alignment has occurred and the gantry is properly docked. Note the air gap (4 cm±1 mm) between the end of the gantry and the top surface of the applicator.
Other material
• Chapter 17C Intraoperative radiation therapy. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
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Total skin electron irradiation (TSEI)
• AAPM Report No. 23. Task Group 30 Report. Total skin electron therapy: technique and dosimetry, Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1988.
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• Chapter 15.4 Total skin irradiation. In: Radiation Oncology Physics: A Handbook for Teachers and Students. E.B. Podgorsak, Technical Editor. IAEA, Vienna, Austria, 2005. (http://www-naweb.iaea.org/nahu/dmrp/pdf_files/ToC.pdf)
Other material
• Chapter 17B Total skin electron irradiation. In: The Modern Technology of Radiation Oncology: A Compendium for Medical Physicists and Radiation Oncologists. J. Van Dyk, Editor. Medical Physics Publishing, Madison, WI, USA, 1999.
• Chapter 48 Total skin electron irradiation. In: Handbook of Radiotherapy Physics: Theory and Practice. P. Mayles, A. Nahum and J.C. Rosenwald, Editors. Taylor and Francis, Boca Raton, FL, USA, 2007.