transition to motherhood

8/9/2019 Transition to Motherhood

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Jo n o Soc n C n c Ps c o og , Vo . 28, No. 8, 2009, pp. 943-970

943

TAUBMAN BEN-ARIETAL.TRANSITIONTOMOTHERHOOD

the transition to Motherhooda tiMe

for Growth

Orit taubmaN beN-ari aNd Shirley beN ShlOmOBar-Ilan University, Ramat Gan, Israel

eyal SiVaN aNd mOrdeChay dOlizkiSheba Medical Center, Israel

t s x n o pos v ( n , p son g ow ) n n g -v (p c v cos s) p c ons o ns on o o oo , s w

con on o n n so c s (s - s , s - s , c n sx n so c s ( ons p, n g n o s s ppo ), co

v pp s s ( , c ng , s - fc c ), n cop ng s g s ( ooc s , p o - oc s , s ppo s ng).

on h n n t f t-t m m th ch -ng th th t m t gn ncy, n g n x m t y tm nth t th v y. Th t h n m v m nt

n m nt h th n n nc n th n n g th b t n th n t n tn t m m nt . M th thg t nt n n xt n c h c v th t n -t n th t n ng n m m t n- cc ng m nt n h gh m nt h th. M th th n-t n c t n h gh c t n c t . M th-

th g t xt n c h c v th t n t n m ch ng ng n m g t b m- v ng c ng

ch h gh n g th.Th t y h gh ght th n v nt v nt v nt n t n

y t g m t m t ng th ct th t c n th t n -t n.

Th ch c n ct t th ph.d. t t n c t t thTh l n G b w sch s c w k, B -i n un v ty by th c n

th n th v n th f t th . it t by th schn tzn t n ch n th i c n my n c ty.

C n nc c nc n ng th t c h b t o t T bm n B n-a , sch s c w k, B -i n un v ty, r m t-G n 52900, i . e-m :t bm n@m .b . c. .


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944 taUBMan Ben-ari et aL.

a g t t e b u be eft t e tr t t m t er ,

t e e t m e m y ex ct cert c t . w e t c -ere m j r e e e t t t r u e j y e e u f me t c e ge, t m y be tre u ex er e ce, ge er t g x-

ety ee g c m ete ce ter er e e , e e e term ut my, t me, e r ce, ccu t e t ty (e.g., n c , 1999). g re u re-e rc (e.g., km & M k tz, 2000), t e curre t tu y ex m-

e b t t e eg t e ect bec m g m t er rt e fr t t me. M re er, t ug t t ex re ter exterre urce t t m g t c tr bute t t e r u utc me .

MentaL heaLth, PerCeived Costs, and Growthin the transition to Motherhood

o e t e utc me c g t tre r e tr t t t rece e c er b e tte t me t e t , et er e e

r m t e eg t e er ect e tre , c tr , e-re , r r m t e t e er ect e e -be g -

t t (p t & d e er, 2004; ve t & w re, 1983). a me t e t

re te t ter ex er e ce t e r c g t e e u t , r t ert t yobjective me ure, t te be esubjective well-being r, c er e y, psychological distress(d e er, 1994).M j r e tr t re b e t er e y ect me t e t ,r u g em t uc x ety, e , e re , gu t, -

ger, ye r g r t e t (Te e c & C u , 2004). i t ec e reg cy c b rt , me m y ex er e ce e e

e t e c ge ge er te by t e e e t re ect tt e t me t ey e r t em e e , t e b ty t m ge t e r t me,t e r c tr er t e r b y, t e r b y m ge, t e r c re -t (n c , 1999). suc e , r erce e c t , m y et yc g c tre r ec e ubject e e -be g.

at t e me t me, e er, t e ee t t t g y em -g c rcum t ce m y e ge er er gr t (Te e c &

C u , 2004). T term u e t m y t e te retur t b e e, but t c te ex er e ce m r eme t t t m y

met me be r u . T u , t e tr t t m t er ,me m y g e -e teem, e me g e, e e c m-

ete ce, re e t e t e et t em e e

t e r c e r me t (we , h b , & l , 1999). a gr t


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transition to Motherhood 945

e e t t ve ych g c ch nge ex e ence e u t

the t ugg e w th em n ng e c cum t nce (C h un & Te e-ch , 2001), wh ch equ e t ve e u ce n ch enge the w ye e un e t n the w n the ce n t (J n -Bu m n,

1992), Te e ch n C h un (2004) gue th t me eg ee en-u ng ych g c t e nece y n t n y t et the -

ce n m t n, but the enh ncement n m nten nce g wth. M e ve , they c nten th t th t e e n t eme ge

n y n the w ke t um t c event. Thu , t ve ex e enceth t e e- te ng, uch the t n t n t m the h , m y beequ y ch eng ng t the n v u chem n e n -

t ve, n thu h ve m e ect n g wth.re e ch h h wn th t b th nte n n exte n e u ce ,

the ck the e e u ce , m y c nt bute t g wth (Te e ch &C h un, 2004). in the w , ce t n e n ty t t , c gn t ve

, n c ng e n e , we c u t, m y the n v u t egu te t e n ex e ence e n g wth

n the w ke em n ng c cum t nce . in the cu ent tu y, wethe e e ught t ex m ne the c nt but n t g wth the c g-n t ve n c ng e n e , the nte n e u ce

e -e teem, e -m te y, n tt chment ty e, n the exte ne u ce the m t e t n h n the u t v e by

m te n g n m the .

stress and CoPinG theory

The the y ych g c t e n c ng eve e by l -z u n h c e gue (e.g., km n & l z u , 1985; l z u &

km n, 1984) ent fe the tw ce e c gn t ve n c ng c t c c nt but t t e u e n-env nmente t n n the mme te n ng-te m utc me .C gn t ve efne the ce by wh ch e n

ev u te whethe t cu enc unte w th the env nment e ev nt t h he we -be ng, n , n wh t w y ( km n,

l z u , dunke -schette , del ng , & G uen, 2000). p m y - e te t the que t n whethe meth ng h ccu e

wh ch m ght ect the n v u c m ge e -e teem. oneect m y th e t , th t , the be e th t

t n ct n w th the env nment m y en nge the e n we -

be ng. an the ect the ev u t n the ch enge nv ve ,


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( .e., t e o b ty o m te y o be e t; l z u & o km ,

1984). seco d y e te to co g o t o d ev u t oo t e e o e ou ce v b e o co g t t e tu t o .it , e ect, e -e c cy o t e b ty to m ge t edem d o e cou te o ctu ze e o comm tme t (e.g.,

o km & l z u , 1985).Co g de ed t e d v du ' co t t y c g g cog -

t ve d be v o e o t to m ge ec c exte d/o -te dem d t t e ed t x g o exceed g o e

e ou ce (l z u & o km , 1984). T m e t t o t tegy co de ed mo e de b e t ot e , t t co g oce

c occu ce t co text, d t t t e t teg e ex t eve t ey e ot ucce u ( o km et ., 2000).

T e t o m jo u ct o o co g e to egu te t e u emo-t o (emot o - ocu ed co g) d to te t e e o -e v o me t

e t o t t c u g t e d t e ( ob em- ocu ed co g).nume ou tud e d c te t t t teg e med t e o m g bot

u ct o e em oyed mo t t e u e cou te , ugge t gt t t e ect ve o e tu t o m y e be e ect ve -ot e (e.g. o km & l z u , 1980, 1985).

internaL resoUrCes

se -e teem ge e y de ed t e ove o t ve o eg t vett tude o e o d to d o e e , d e e to ee g o e -o t , e - e ect, d e - cce t ce (ro e be g, 1979). se -

m te y de ed ge e e e o e o co t o o m te yove e eve t , d e e to co de ce t e b ty to fue ceo co t o t e o ce ect g o e e (pe & sc oo e , 1978).Bot e ou ce ve bee ou d to be o t ve y e ted to mot e

yc o og c dju tme t. wome t g e -e teem ve beeo to e ce ve t e t t o to mot e ood e t e te g

to t e e t (Te y, Mc ug , & no e , 1991), e mot e o e bo te ve c e o be eved t ey d g e te e o

co t o ove t e c d ecove y te ded to ex e e ce e de e -o d g c t y e e m jo t e e ct o (a feck, Te e ,

& Ge m , 1985). s m y, hob o d le m (1988) ou dt t mo g mot e o e , cute y , o c o c y c d e ,t o e g o e -m te y ex e e ced e yc o og c d t et t o e o o t t t. Mo eove , exte ve tudy o mot -e g c d e t v ety o c o c e e ou d t t


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the w men d lay ng m e t ve v ew the el -w th and

a g eate en e c nt l ve l e event e ted ewe ym t m ych l g cal d t e (s lve , Bauman, & i ey , 1995).in add t n t el - e ce t n, the nd v dual ab l ty t egulate

em t n al gn fcant n e ect t t e ul l e event . B wlby(1988) ma nta ned that the qual ty attachment nte act n du ng

n ancy duce mental w k ng m del wh ch gan ze c gn t n,a ect, and behav , and ha e the el - mage a well a c al and n-t mate elat n h . u the m e, he cla med that the ucce ul ac-c m l hment a ect- egulat n unct n n ea ly l e e ult n at-tachment ecu ty, that , the en e that the w ld a a e lace, that

ne can ely n tect ve the , and the e e that ne can ecu elyex l e the env nment and engage e ect vely w th the e le.recently, tud e th n t n have em l yed tw ba c d men-

n t mea u e attachment: av dance and anx ety (B ennan, Cla k,& shave , 1998). pe le l w n the tw d men n exh b t the ecu e

tyle; they a e c m table w th cl ene and nte de endence, andely n u t eek ng and the c n t uct ve mean t c e w tht e . Th e h gh n av dance a e cha acte zed by a d t u t th-

e g dw ll and a e e ence em t nal d tance, ely ng m tlyn them elve and a l ng t u e x m ty eek ng t el eve d t e .

ind v dual c ng h gh n anx ety d lay a t ng need cl e-ne c mb ned w th an ve whelm ng ea eject n; they tend tdwell mentally n the em t nal tate and ely n em t n- cu edc ng t ateg e . M e ve , th e h gh n e the anx ety av d-ance a e l kely t a a e t e ul event n negat ve te m , and t

e t h gh level d t e ( aley & shave , 1997).stud e have und that nd v dual w th ecu e attachment d -lay h ghe well-be ng and l we d t e than th e w th an n-ecu e attachment. u the m e, they evaluate t e ul event a

m e challeng ng and them elve a m e ca able c ng e ec-t vely w th the t e (M kul nce & l an, 1995). in c nt a t, nd -v dual w th an n ecu e attachment eact t t e w th d fcult e

n a ect egulat n, t ng negat ve em t n , and h gh level anx ety (M kul nce & o bach, 1995). p egnant w men w th ecu eattachment have been und t gene ate a m e t ve elat n hw th the etu m the f t t me te and th ugh ut egnancy,a well a t eek u t m the env nment, thu l we ngthe en e t e . in c nt a t, av dant w men we e cha acte -

zed by d tanc ng, and anx u w men by em t nal ve l ad (M -

kul nce & l an, 1999). s m la ly, m the w th ecu e attachment


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ve bee o to e mot e ood mo e o t ve te m ,

e ce ve mo e v b e u o t, be mo e ke to eek u o t,d e o t e c o og c d t e t mot e t ecu ett c me t (e.g., Be t, M ku ce , & o , 2001).

externaL resoUrCes

soc u o t def ed te e o t ct o vo v g bot emot o d me o , t t ; t e ex e o o ove, c g,

o d t , d u f me t o e o eed , d t ume t

d me o , c ud g; t e e de g o good , e v ce , d t g b et ce uc mo e d e t t k (w de m , w -de m , & K , 1980). re e c o t to be o e o t em e ou ce o d v du co g t t e ge e (hob-

o , 1989; s o , p e ce, & s o , 1990). i t cu to mot -e ood, e e oc u o t oc ted t bette me t

e t d m t d t t o mo g mot e o c d e t d b t ( o & d e , 2001), ck o dequ c o u o t

t e u tu t o c e ed vu e b t to c o og c d t eemot o d u ct o ob em , d om t c e e (e.g., Co-

e , 1988). Mo eove , tud o t e oc t o bet ee t e doc u o t o t e o e d, d m te tt tude d emot e - t te ct ve be v o o t e ot e , ou d t t mot -e t c e ed t e d dec e ed u o t e e e o t ve

t e tt tude d be v o to d t e t (C c, G ee - be g, r goz , rob o , & B m, 1983).

a c uc e ou ce t t e uc e m t e mot e e -t o t e ou e. M t t ct o de ve om dev et o e e c t e ttem t to m t o -t ve emot o equ b um bet ee t e o eed d t e eed

d ex ect t o o t e ou e ( ee, B dbu , c m, & Be c ,2000). nume ou tud e e o t dec e e m t t ct od c e e eg t ve ect bet ee ou e t t e b t o

c d (e.g., Cox, p e , Bu c , & p e, 1999; lev -sc , 1994).yet ome cou e e mo e c b e o co g t exte ded

t e , m k g g fc t d t t o m e d m t -g o t ve v e o t e m ge te o t e dd t o bu -

de (Be k & rov e, 1990; Cox et ., 1999). stud e ve ou dt t e t e m t e t o b ed o t e b t to e

ee g d to be em t c d u de t d g to d t e eed o t e ou e, ome e o t g e e -be g du g t e t t o


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to mot e ood (le t e , Ke y, & r c m n, 1997; s mp on, r o e ,

C mpbe , T n, & w on, 2003).in dd t on, t oug c n c epo t ckno edge t e g e t ueo t e extended m y n n o m uppo t y tem, c nt e e c

been de oted to t e un que cont but on o t e g ndp ent .T e e tud e t t e dd e ed t ue ound g ndp entto p y c uc o e n t e dju tment o bot mot e nd t e(e.g., nd e , 2000; M fn-ve tc , B y, & w t on, 1996). Mo eo e ,m te n g ndp ent , nd e pec y t e m te n g ndmot e ,

e been ound to p o de mo e uppo t t n p te n g ndp -ent (By ne, Cunn ng m, & s ope , 1988; nd e , 2000).

the CUrrent stUdy

a t e cu ent tudy oug t to n e t g te t e dyn m c o t e t n -t on to mot e ood, p o pect e de gn dopted, pp o c -

ng f t-t me mot e du ng t e t d t me te o t e p egn ncynd g n bout t o mont te g ng b t . o o ng l z und co e gue t eo y (e.g., l z u & o km n, 1984), e ex-m ned bot po t e nd neg t e e ect o t e t n t on, e

t e cont but on o nte n nd exte n e ou ce . a g o t been ound to be g e mong nd du go ng t oug eexpe ence o d p y ng o e e e o pe on e ou ce (e.g.,Tede c & C oun, 2004), nd t e e t o c cum t nce e ke-

y to co nc de ( o km n & Mo ko tz, 2000), e expected t e nte -n e ou ce to be m y oc ted t bot pe ce ed co t

nd g o t . ho e e , n e o t e te tu e eg d ng d pt -t on to t e u e ent , g o t , nd ment e t , e p ed ctedd e ent oc t on bet een t e exte n e ou ce , cogn t e

pp , nd cop ng t teg e on one nd, nd epo ted co t

nd g o t on t e ot e . Mo e pec fc y, e ypot e zed t t:1. h g e e e o ment e t nd o e e e o pe ce edco t nd g o t t bot nte ou d be oc ted t g e

e e o e -e teem nd o e tt c ment o d nce nd nx ety,me u ed t inte 1.

2. h g e e e o ment e t nd g o t nd o e e e o pe ce ed co t t bot nte ou d be oc ted t bettem t e t on p, me u ed t inte 1.

3. h g e e e o ment e t nd o e e e o pe ce edco t nd g o t t inte 2 ou d be oc ted t g e e -e o e -m te y, me u ed t inte 2.


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4. h g v o m t t d g owt d ow v o

c v d co t t i t v 2 wo d b oc t d w t g -c v d oc o t om m t g dmot , m d ti t v 2.

5. h g v o m t t d g owt d ow v o c v d co t t bot t v wo d b oc t d w t g

o c g d - fc cy d ow ot t, m d t i t v 1.

T t w x m d x o t v y: ( ) d c b tw t two m m t (i t v 1 d 2) o t o tcom

v b : m t t , c v d co t d g owt ; (b) t o-c t o b tw m t t , g owt d co t o o d, dt o ob m- oc d co g, mot o - oc d co g, d

o t k g co g, o t ot ; d (c) t q d com- b d co t b t o o t t d xt o c , cog -t v , d co g t t g to t o tcom v b , botd g g cy d t d v y. o t , w co d tf d v o f d g w c co d o o g c fc y-

ot dv c .

Method

parTiCipanTs

T m co t d o 102 f t-t m mot g d 20 to 38 (Mg 28,SD = 3.26). Mo t (80.6%) d c d m c d c t o (Ba),

d mo t d f d t co om c t t v g (79%). a wom- w m d, d t ow mot w v .

insTruMenTs

The Appraisal Scale( o km & l z , 1985) w d t d to -c fc y wom cog t v o g cy d c d- b t . T c co t d o 16 t m , x v t g c g -

( .g., t d g to w c t wom b v d t t mot -ood wo d k ow b tt ) d v d t t

( .g., t d g to w c b v d t t mot oodwo d m t d d c ). T dd t o t m d -

fc cy, . ., ow w b v d co d co fc t y w tt d m d o mot ood. r o w g v o 5- o t


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c om 1 (v y tt ) to 5 (v y much). in th nt tudy, C on-

b ch a h .81 o ch ng , .80 o th t, nd .67 o -c cy. e ch t c nt th o gn d 3 co o cogn -t v by v g ng h on on th v nt t m , thh gh co nd c t ng h gh v o ch ct o .

The Revised Ways of Coping Checklist( o km n & l z u , 1985) d t d to x m n th co ng t t g do t d by th moth to

co th th n tu t on. Th c con t d o 21 t m , 7 t-ng to ob m- ocu d co ng ( .g., i t y to n yz th tu t on to

und t nd th ob m b tt ), 10 to mot on- ocu d co ng ( .g., it my th ng th t h m b tt ), nd 4 to u o t- k ngco ng ( .g., i ook o ym thy nd und t nd ng om om on

). r on g v n on 5- o nt c om 1 ( dom) to 5(v y o t n). in th nt tudy, C onb ch a h .78, .72,

nd .73 o ob m- ocu d, mot on- ocu d, nd u o t- k ngco ng, ct v y. e ch t c nt th o gn d 3 co -

ng co by v g ng h on on th v nt t m , thh gh co nd c t ng g t u o ch co ng t t gy.

The Experiences in Close Relationships Scale(eCr; B nn n t .,1998), con t ng o 36 t m , u d to t th d m n on o t-t chm nt nx ty ( .g., i o y bout b ng b ndon d) nd vo d-

nc ( .g., i not to ho tn ho i d do n).p t c nt t d th xt nt to h ch ch t m d c t v o th ng on 7- o nt c ng ng om 1 (not t ) to 7 (v ymuch). Th b ty nd v d ty o th c h v v ou y b nd mon t t d (B nn n t ., 1998). in th cu nt m , a hC onb ch co c nt .82 o nx ty nd .87 o vo d nc .acco d ng y, co com ut d o ch t c nt o ch o th ub c by v g ng h on on th v nt 18 t m ,

th h gh co f ct ng h gh v o th ty .ro nb g (1979)Self-Esteem Scale m oy d to th

c v d - t m o th moth . Th qu t onn con t do 10 t m t d on 4- o nt c om 1 ( t ong y d g ) to 4( t ong y g ). C onb ch a h o t m n th cu nt m-

.84. e ch t c nt thu gn d - t m coqu to th v g o h on on 10 t m , th h ghco nd c t ng mo o t v - t m.p n nd schoo (1978)Self-Mastery Scale u d to m -u th moth ng o cont o ov th nv onm nt nd

utu . r on to th 7 t m ( .g., wh t h n to m n th


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utu m t y p m ) c t 5-p t c g-

g m 1 ( t g y g ) t 5 ( t g y g ). i t p ttu y, C b c p t qu t .77. T g c p t c p t p t m t c mput

t p uc -m t y c , t g c c t g g -m t y.

The Evaluating and Nurturing Relationship Issues Communication and Happiness Scale(enriCh; & o , 1989) u t m t t p. w mp y t c t g 10

t m (l , 1995), c p t c t t t -p t t p u ( .g., t c xt t c y u y u p ucu xp c m t ) 5-p t l k t-typ cg g m 1 ( y t g y g ) t 5 ( y t g y g ).

a C b c a p t qu t .77 t p tmp , m t t p c g t c p t c p t

by g g p t m , t g c p -t g m p t p c pt m t t p.

The Support Functions Scale (du t, T tt , & d , 1988) u t t upp t p by m t g m t . a

pt m t (T ubm B -a t ., 2007), t -p t c c t 19 t m , 11 t g t m t upp t

( .g., s m t c u g y u y u ), 8 t -t um t upp t ( .g., s m p y u t u

c ). r p m k 5-p t c m 1 ( ) t 5( t ). t p t tu y, c b c p .95. t t c

p c m t g m t upp t c p t c p t t c mput by g g p t m ,

t g c c t g g p c upp t.The Mental Health Inventory (Mhi; v t & w , 1983) u t

m u t m t m t t . it c t 38 t m t gt ct t t ( .g. fcu ty t y g t c m , x t ), t p t c p t c t g t t y

xp c c t t t u g t p t m t 5- 6-p t l k t-typ c . C b c a p t t y tp t tu y .91, t t m t t c c cu t c p t c p t, t g c c t g b ttm t t .

Perceptions of Costs and Growth in the Transition to Motherhood Scales.

T t um t p c y g t tu y t


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e ce ved co t and g owth n the t an t on to mothe hood. in o -

de to gene ate the e mea u e , we t conducted a el m na yqual tat ve tudy on ten t-t me mothe n wh ch we exam nedthe ada tab l ty o th ee ex t ng que t onna e : the Texa rev edinvento y o G e (TriG; a ch ngbaue , 1981), wh ch elate to e -ce ved co t n com a on to the a t, and o ten u ed to a elo a a e ult o the death o a elat ve; the po tt aumat c G owthinvento y (pTGi; Tede ch & Calhoun, 1995, 1996), and the st e -related G owth cale (srG; pa k, Cohen, & Mu ch, 1996). Thqual tat ve tudy took the o m o an o en nte v ew n wh ch the

a t c ant we e told that the a m wa to ex lo e mothe eel ng ,

emot on , and thought du ng egnancy and a te g v ng b th.The nte v ew t add e ed gene al que t on ega d ng theex e ence o egnancy and ch ldb th. Mo e ec c que t onwe e then e ented, o exam le, whethe anyth ng had changed

n the l ve a a e ult o the mothe hood. nally, a t c antwe e a ked d ectly about e ce t on o co t and g owth n thet an t on to mothe hood. The e on e we e ta ed and latet an c bed. The nte v ew we e then ubjected to content analy by th ee e ea che (a ycholog t and two oc al wo ke ), wo k-

ng e a ately to dent y the cent al theme . Com a on o the e-ult oduced a ool o 100 tem wh ch we e e ented to a newam le o 10 mothe o cla cat on and ne-tun ng.The nal que t onna e u ed to a e e ce ved co t n the

t an t on to mothe hood con ted o 25 tem elat ng to moth-e d lea u e w th the hy cal a ea ance, conf ct w th

eo le a ound them, eel ng o de e on, and o on. ou temwe e ada ted om the TriG ( a ch ngbaue , 1981) and the othe

h a ed a a e ult o the content analy n the el m na y tudy(e.g., i have become mo e w thd awn, i eel le att act ve). The

que t onna e y elded a C onbach al ha o .91 du ng egnancy,and .86 a te the b th.The que t onna e con t ucted to a e g owth con ted o 19tem elat ng to mean ng n l e, el -con dence, and the amount

o wa mth and love mothe g ve to othe . ve tem we e d awnom the pTGi (Tede ch & Calhoun, 1995, 1996), ou om the srG

(pa k et al., 1996), and the othe 10 tem we e o mulated n thewake o the el m na y tudy (e.g., i am mo e at ed w th myl e, i eel mo e matu e). The nal n t ument y elded a C onbachal ha o .89 du ng egnancy, and .90 a te the b th.


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i t v t, t m m t c v c t

g t q t c mb t -m . i t ct c m l t g t q t ll : w m b t t b c m m t t f t t mt t c g t t g t , l g m t b t

t m lv t . s m t c g m y b t v l t, l t m y b l . pl c t t t xt t

y l t t t c g c b t ll g t t m t -t t y y l t t t m . r m k

c l g g m 1 ( t gly g ) t 5 ( t gly g ). e ct c t g c c t c g t by

v g g ll l v t t m , t g cc t g g t c t c t g t .

A Demographic Questionnaire m t t bt tm t g , c t , cc t , m ly t t , ll t cq t g g t b by, cl g t b t , g , b t g t k g t t t b t .

proCedure

ll g t v l t t y by t i t t t l r vB v l t l i l, m b t tg v b t t t f t c l l c t t g t l -t b t c . a t t g l t t y x lt t m, 108 m t g v t m c t t t c t b t t ct v g . T y t c t ct by

by c t c l m v t t m -t t q t . e c t v l t b t 60 m t . Tm t t l v y, t m m t c g

t m m ( c ll ll by m v t). T f lm l c t 102 t c t c m l t t ll t q t t b t t v l . at i t v l 1, t l - t m, eCr,enriCh, c g t v l, Mhi, c v c t g t t t t t m t , m g c t m t

m t . at i t v l 2, t m t c m l t t l -m -t y, m t l g m t t, w y C g, Mhi,

c v c t g t t t t t m t q -t . T m m ll c f t l ty, g v m ll g t t t t c t t t y.


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resULts

d t lys s s c ucte t ree st ges. T e frst ex m e -ere ces bet ee t e t me sureme ts t e utc me r bles,

t e sec c ecke r ss c t s bet ee t e e e e t utc me r bles, t e t r s ug t t e t y t e ct rs t t

m g t c tr bute t t e me t l e lt , erce e c sts, gr t frst-t me m t ers.

i t e frst ste , e c ucte e- y re e te Manova tex m e ere ces t e utc me r bles me t l e lt , er-

ce e c sts, gr t s me sure re- st rtum. T ble1 rese ts t e me s, st r e t s, sc res r t e -u l anovas.

as c be see r m T ble 1, s g fc t ere ces ere u bet ee t e t ter ls, F(3,99) = 13.80, p < .001, t g erme t l e lt gr t re rte ter t e b rt t ur g reg-

cy. h e er, pe rs c rrel t s re e le str gly s g fc ts t e c rrel t s bet ee t e t ter ls,rs = .56, .45, .50, p .05. T us, only mong less vo d nt women, w s g er p-pr s l o t re t rel ted to lower ment l e lt . in dd t on, mongwomen g er on nx ous tt c ment ( bove Mdn = 4.79), t e s-sessment o t re t w s neg t vely nd s gn fc ntly ssoc ted w tment l e lt , r = -.31, p < .05, w ere s t s correl t on w s not s g-n fc nt or women scor ng low on nx ous tt c ment, r = .25, p> .05.in ot er words, only mong more nx ously tt c ed women w s

g er ppr s l o t re t rel ted to lower levels o ment l e lt .T ble 3 lso reve ls t t mot ers ntern l resources ccountedor 30% o t e v r nce n perce ved costs dur ng pregn ncy, w t

gre ter costs perce ved t e lower t e r sel -esteem nd t e g ert e r tt c ment nx ety. T e extern l resource o m r t l rel t on-s p d d not contr bute to t e expl ned v r nce, nor d d t e t ree

spects o cogn t ve ppr s l. however, n t e fn l step, t e nter c-t on between mot ers ppr s l o t re t nd vo d nt tt c ment

ccounted or n dd t on l 12% o t e v r nce n t s v r ble. inex m n ng t e source o t s nter ct on, t w s ound t t mong

mot ers c r cter zed by g er tt c ment vo d nce, ppr s lo t re t w s pos t vely nd s gn fc ntly ssoc ted w t perce vedcosts, r = .32, p < .05, but t s correl t on w s not s gn fc nt mongmot ers w t low tt c ment vo d nce, r = .07, p >.05. T us, only

mong more vo d ntly tt c ed women w s g er ppr s l o t re t rel ted to g er percept on o costs.

in respect to growt , T ble 3 s ows t t mot ers person l resourc-es were not ound to m ke s gn fc nt contr but on. T e extern lresource o m r t l rel t ons p contr buted n dd t on l 7% to t eexpl ned v r nce, so t t t e better t e rel t ons p, t e g ert e level o person l growt reported. an dd t on l 19% were


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co tr buted by t e wome cog t ve r l e tered ste 3,

w t g er r l o c lle ge co tr but g to g er er o lgrowt . no g fc t ter ct o were ou d or growt .T e er rc c l regre o or i terv l 2, two mo t ter de-

l very, com r ed 6 te . T e outcome v r ble me ured t i -terv l 1 were e tered ste 1; t e ter l d exter l re ourceme ured t i terv l 1 ( el -e teem, tt c me t vo d ce d x-

ety, d m r t l rel t o ) ste 2; t e cog t ve r l o c lle ge, t re t, d el -e fc cy (me ured t i terv l 1) ste 3;

d t e t ree co g tr teg e (me ured t i terv l 2) ste 4. iste 5, t e ter l re ource o el -m tery d exter l re ource o

m ter l gr dmot er u ort, bot me ured t i terv l 2, weree tered. lly, t e ter ct o betwee t e de e de t v r blewere e tered ste 6 u g te w e met od, o t t o ly v r -

ble ow g g fc t co tr but o were e tered t e equ -t o . T e re ult e r T ble 4.

a T ble 4 reve l , t e v r ble ex l ed 62% o t e v r ce mot er me t l e lt , 51% o t e v r ce t e r erce t o o

erce ved co t , d 50% o t e v r ce er o l growt . Me t le lt dur g reg cy ccou ted or 31% o t e ex l ed v r -

ce me t l e lt ter del very. a urt er 14% erce t were co -tr buted by e e o el -m tery, w t g er el -m tery oc -

ted w t better me t l e lt ter del very. T e co g tr teg eco tr buted dd t o l 10% to t e ex l ed v r ce, o t t t e

g er t e u e o emot o - ocu ed co g, t e g er t e level o me t l e lt ter t e b rt . ne t er ter l or exter l re ource

or cog t ve r l dur g reg cy dded g fc tly tot e ex l ed v r ce me t l e lt o t rtum. however, t e f l te o t e regre o , t e ter ct o betwee r l o t re t d m r t l rel t o w ou d to ccou t or dd -

t o l 3% o t e v r ce me t l e lt ter del very. i ex m -g t e ource o t ter ct o , t w ou d t t mo g mot erc r cter zed by oorer m r t l rel t o (below Md = 4.01),t e r l o t re t w eg t vely d g fc tly oc tedw t me t l e lt , r = -.33, p < .05, w ere t correl t o w

ot g fc t mo g t o e re ort g better rel t o w t t e rou e,r = .21, p>.05. T u , o ly mo g wome w o d d ot erce ve

good m r t l rel t o dur g reg cy w g er e me t o t re t rel ted to lower level o me t l e lt ter del very.

perce ved co t dur g reg cy co tr buted 19% to t e ex-l ed v r ce co t erce ved ter del very. T e co g tr t-


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t a B L e 4

. h i c

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t


20/29


eg es dded 13% to the expl ed v r ce, so th t the h gher the

use o emot o - ocused d support seek g cop g, the h gherthe perce ved costs. a other 9% were co tr buted by sel -m stery,w th h gher se se o co trol ssoc ted w th lower percept o o costs ter del very. Mothers ter l d exter l resources dur gpreg cy, s well s the r cog t ve ppr s ls, d d ot dd s g f-c tly to the expl ed v r ce perce ved costs ter del very. ithe f l step, the ter ct o betwee tt chme t vo d ce dm r t l rel t o sh p ccou ted or urther 3% o the v r ce perce ved costs. i ex m g the source o th s ter ct o , t w s

ou d th t mo g mothers report g better m r t l rel t o sh p,

tt chme t vo d ce w s pos t vely d s g fc tly ssoc tedw th perce ved costs, r = .40, p < .05, but th s correl t o w s ots g fc t mo g wome w th poorer ssessme t o the r m r t lrel t o sh p,r = .14, p> .05. Thus, o ly mo g wome e joy g better rel t o sh p w th the r spouse dur g preg cy, w s h gher

vo d ce rel ted to more perce ved costs ter del very.lly, T ble 4 shows th t percept o o perso l growth dur-

g preg cy co tr buted 25% to the expl ed v r ce growthexper e ced ter del very. Cog t ve ppr s l ccou ted or -other 6% o the expl ed v r ce, d c t g th t the h gher thewom s ssessme t o ch lle ge the tr s t o to motherhood,the h gher her percept o o growth ter del very. Cop g str te-g es dded urther 13% to the expl ed v r ce, so th t thegre ter the use o problem- ocused cop g, the h gher the perce vedgrowth. a dd t o l 2% were co tr buted by the wom s per-cept o o the support prov ded by her ow mother. although th sco tr but o d d ot re ch the level o s g fc ce, t suggests th tmore support rom the m ter l gr dmother w s ssoc ted w th

h gher percept o o growth ter del very. no e o the ter l or

exter l resources me sured dur g preg cy dded s g fc tlyto the expl ed v r ce growth exper e ced ter del very, ord d the ter l resource o sel -m stery. i dd t o , o s g fc t

ter ct o s were ou d or th s v r ble.

disCUssion

The prese t study sought ew emp r c l ev de ce demo str t gth t d pt t o to the tr s t o to motherhood m y be ected by

comb t o o ctors, clud g ter l d exter l resourc-


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es, cog t ve ppr s s, d cop g str teg es. B sed o l z rus

mode o cop g t stress, e s ed to s ed g t o t e re -t o s p bet ee se -esteem, se -m stery, tt c me t x ety dvo d ce, cog t ve ppr s s, cop g str teg es, d t e exter

support prov ded by t e om s re t o s p t er usb dd t er mot er o er me t e t d percept o s o costsd gro t e becom g mot er or t e frst t me. T e studydeed e ds crede ce to t e b s c compo e ts o t s mode , d -

c t g t t ppr s d cop g processes re cr t c e eme ts t e tr s t o to mot er ood.

T s study s u que sever ys. rst, prev ous rese rc s

te ded to ook t mot ers d pt t o terms o eve o d stress(n co so , 1998, 1999). i co tr st, e c ose to ex m e bot eg -t ve d pos t ve outcomes, d to co s der t e ge er st te o t emot ers me t e t s e s t e spec fc outcomes o perce vedcosts d gro t . we be eve t t t s ppro c e b ed us to ob-t more mu t d me s o p cture o ome s exper e ce o t etr s t o to mot er ood. i dd t o , umerous stud es ve -vest g ted t s tr s t o retrospect ve y, t t s ter t e b rt o t e b by. T e prese t study med to ex m e t e dy m cs o t eprocess o becom g mot er or t e frst t me, d t us dopted

prospect ve des g , me sur g bot co tr butors d outcomesdur g t e t rd tr mester o t e preg cy d g bout t omo t s ter de very. T s des g o ered t e opportu ty to deter-m e et er t e co cepts o costs d gro t re dy ex st dur gpreg cy, d t e ect t e v r ous ctors prese t t t t t me

ve o t e mot ers d pt t o ter de very. i dd t o , t s de-s g e b ed us to ex m e c ge outcome v r b es. y,t e opportu ty or perso gro t s tr d t o y bee ttr b-uted to t e exper e ce o tr um or eg t ve e eve ts, d essso to pos t ve e-eve ts (Tedesc & C ou , 2004). a t oug t etr s t o to mot er ood s co s dered pos t ve e eve t, omem y ve comp ex ppr s s o ts outcome, d deed exper -e ce v r ety o outcomes. T s ssumpt o s bor e out by t eresu ts o our study.

T e f d gs suggest t t p tter s c re est b s ed dur gpreg cy te d to be d c t ve o mot er ood, s t e re t o s be-t ee me t e t , perce ved costs, d gro t t e t o p ses

ere qu te subst t ve. ho ever, e bot me t e t d t eexper e ce o gro t ere ou d to be some t g er ter de-

very, t e eve o perce ved costs s most t e s me. T s m y


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nd c te t t t ug w m n m y ee bette te g v ng b t

nd m y beg n t d pt t e new e c cum t nce , t d e n tnece y mp ct n e expe ence me k nd c t, w cppe t em n t b e.T ge extent, t e e u t upp t u p ed ct n eg d ng t ect t t n b t enc u ge t e d pt t n f t-t me m t -

e . B t nte n nd exte n e u ce we e und t c nt bute tment e t nd pe ce ved c t du ng p egn ncy. h g e tt c -ment nx ety nd g e pe cept n m t e d t e t we e

e ted t we eve ment e t , w e e g e e -e teemnd bette m t e t n p we e e ted t bette ment e t .

s m y, we e -e teem, nd g e tt c ment nx ety we e -c ted w t g e pe ce ved c t du ng p egn ncy. in dd t n,

w men d p y ng g nx u tt c ment, g e pp t e t w e ted t we ment e t . am ng w men w n

tt c ment v d nce, g e pe cept n m t e d t e tw e ted t we eve ment e t , w e m ng t e g

n t c cte t c, g e t e t pp w c ted w tg e te pe ce ved c t . T e e fnd ng e c n tent w t p ev u

e e c w ng t t m e v d nt c ege tudent , w we eyet t bec me p ent , nt c p ted v ng m e d fcu ty e t ngt t e c d en (r e , s mp n, B ke y, l n g n, & a en, 1997),

nd t t m ng m e v d nt p ent n nt , t e m e t e ut ey und p ent ng, t e e me n ng u nd t y ng t ey pe -ce ved t e e t be (r e , s mp n, & edm n, 2006).

ou tudy t u ugge t t t n de t m nt n ment e t nt e t n t n t m t e d, b t nte n nd exte n e u ce eneeded nd t e tu t n mu t be e ed n nt e ten ng. once t e t pe ce ved, ment e t tend t dec ne, e pec y m ngw men w gene y eg d t e w d ecu e p ce n w c

t ey e ved nd c ed . suc w men tend t be m e e -w e nd t e e e en t ve t c nge n t e ment e t .inte e t ng y, n y tw v b e we e und t c nt bute t g e en e pe n g wt du ng p egn ncy: bette m t

e t n p nd g e pp m t e d c enge.T u n c nt t t pe ce ved c t nd ment e t , g wt d dn t p ve t be en nced by ny nte n e u ce, but n y byt e e ment t e tu t n n pp tun ty nd upp t-

ve env nment. h v ng expe enced c t c e t n t n, t epp t e tu t n e t e ten ng m y t e e e e d t

g e we -be ng, but n de t expe ence g wt , t e tu t n


23/29


24/29


p me ured t i terv l 1; gr dmot er upport t i terv l 2)

co tr buted to t e p yc olog c l gro t o fr t-t me mot er . Tle d upport to t e umpt o t t le me t l e lt d per-ce ved co t m y be ected by t e me ctor , gro t d t ctd me o , r t er t merely cre e ell-be g or t e op-po te pole o perce ved co t (Cordov , Cu g m, C rl o , &a dryko k , 2001).

sever l po ble l m t t o o t e tudy ould be oted. r t,t rel e exclu vely o mot er el -report . i order to prov de

more compre e ve p cture o mot er d pt t o , uture tud-e m g t clude dd t o l me ure der ved rom ot er relev t

ource (e.g., u b d , gr dp re t , ot er m ly member , p y-c ) or rom ob erv t o l met od . seco dly, t e curre t tudy

ocu ed o p yc olog c l dju tme t. it m g t be tere t g to go beyo d t pect d clude d ce o mot er p y c l e lt ,

oc l d c reer dju tme t, etc. uture ve t g t o . T rdly,t tudy de g correl t o l, d correl t o do ot m-ply c u l ty, e ould t ke t c ut o t e ugge t o t t ourpred ctor ctu lly c u ed c ge outcome v r ble . lly,

lt oug i r el m y y we ter oc ety, culture pec fcctor m y ve mp cted o t e pre e t f d g . T ere ore, u-

ture tud e m g t be co ducted ot er loc le order to obtcro -cultur l d cro -et c v l d t o .

T e e l m t t o ot t t d g, t e pre e t tudy repre e t ttempt to co der t e mult v r te exper e ce o becom g

mot er or t e fr t t me. urt er ve t g t o eeded to ex m-e dd t o l co tr but g ctor o t e o e d, d dju tme t

outcome o t e ot er. nevert ele , our f d g lre dy o er m-port t g t or pr ct t o er .

a u der t d g o t e complex et o ctor t t pl y role

t e v r ou t ge o t e tr t o to mot er ood c e ble t ede g o t mely preve t ve terve t o or fr t-t me mot er .T could br g bout elcome c ge rom t e ex t g tu -t o c ome re tre ted o ly ter t ey d pl y ome ormo p t olog c l be v or. at pre e t, e ttempt re m de to de -t y t e ctor t t c e ce me t l e lt d t e exper e ceo gro t t e ke o tre ul l e c rcum t ce , d t ere orel ttle do e to re orce t em (G ble & h dt, 2005). or ex mple,t e ct t t ome t lo er level o ter l re ource d o-c l upport ppe r to u dergo gre ter up e v l t e tr t oto mot er ood ugge t t t t ey ould be prov ded t more


25/29


su t t t s t m , s ll s t m t l t y m d t

st gt g t ct s u d t c t but t b tt m t llt . i t t s t s s t m g t b d t t ly t ubl c u s, suc s m t d t cl cs, lt s c-

s, g l syc t c s t ls. p t b t cl ss sd s t s m t b su c t s s t t s d. as t y g lly g t l st m t s g cy, t y c m y l t

t m s c ss c g t st tus. M ,t y ty c lly ct c l tu , t l ttl tt t d t dt t m t l s cts t t s t t ms b t t l

d t s l c t ts.

ou d gs ls g l g t t m t c t m t l g d-m t s t t st-t m m t s su t syst m t t b t . T s l s t l ys b us t t l l d. nm t s s uld b c u g d t m k us t s t l bls u c su t. als , t t s s uld b d s g d t lg dm t s d t c ss y su t t t d ug t s,

d t d t m t t s t t g dm t d, c s t-s l m j l t t t c b x ct d t m ct t m t l

lt , c d c sts, d s s g t s ll.M d s c ty s d y t t cl d t l sd t su t t t usly cc m d l t s t s. w m- t d y must b l c m ly, c , d duc t , d d s tt ut t l t xt d d m ly c mmu ty. M ,

t y must c t d t c m l x s t x ct t s t t d m dst t t y m c m t tly ll t s lms. n dl ss t s y,t s c cumst c s l bl t c s t st ss st-t mm t s. ou study m y d ss ls t ll t t t st ss

d c t s t utc m s t t s t t m t d t b t t ly t m t , but c ld s ll.

referenCes

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