truffles in context: a mycological overview by matt trappe, oct. 2006

Truffles in Context: A Mycological Overview

By Matt Trappe, Oct. 2006

Truffles are here!!

Truffles in Context: A Mycological Overview

By Matt Trappe, Oct. 2006

or, “Where on Earth do Truffles fit in?”

Taxonomy: Slicing the Pie…

Many ways to divide and organize people- Diet- Morphology (height, weight)- Family group, ethnicity

Taxonomy: Slicing the Pie…

Many ways to divide and organize people- Diet- Morphology (height, weight)- Family group, ethnicity

Many ways to divide and organize fungi- Diet (trophic status)- Morphology (shape, growth habit)- Family group, genetic taxonomy

Organizing Fungi by their Diet (trophic status)

Mycorrhizal Fungi- Form mutually beneficial associations with plants- “Myco” = Fungus, “Rhiza” = Root

Saprobic Fungi- Digest dead material; wood and litter decomposers

Pathogenic Fungi- Attack plants (& animals!) to feed off them

Mycorrhizal Fungi

Form mutually beneficial associations with plants

- Ectomycorrhizae- Endomycorrhizae

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi

“Ecto” = outside

Ectomycorrhizal fungi wrap outside of root with a “mantle” from which foraging hyphae emanate.


This is a long-term structure, growing at the tips of the roots and extending with them through the soil.


The fungi also grow between the root cells but do not penetrate them. This is called a “Hartig Net” and is where nutrient exchange occurs.

M.Brundrett photo

Mantle

Hartig net

Root tip cross section

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Summary

Almost all truffles are the fruiting bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi.

Many mushrooms (half? less in tropics!) are the fruiting bodies of ectomycorrhizal fungi.

Ectomycorrhiza is formed by members of Ascomycetes, Basidiomycetes, and Zygomycetes (we’ll get to them later)

There are about 12,000 species of ectomycorrhizal fungi that associate with about 2000 species of hostplants.

Ectomycorrhizal Fungi Hosts

Some major plants that are hosts to ectomycorrhizal fungi in the Pacific Northwest:

Douglas-fir Pines Firs

Oaks Alders Birches

Poplars Hazel Eucalyptus

Beech Spruce

Endomycorrhizal Fungi, a.k.a. “VAM Fungi”

“Endo” = inside

Endomycorrhizal fungi do not form a mantle, but rather penetrate root cells and form temporary structures inside the root cells called “vesicles” and “arbuscules”.

Thus, the term “VAM” is an abbreviation for “Vesicular-Arbuscular Mycorrhizae”


Vesicles are balloon-like structures thought to be for energy storage. Arbuscules are tree-shaped (“arbor”) structures where nutrient exchange occurs.

Vesicles Arbuscule


Foraging hyphae extend through the host root cell wall into the soil. Vesicles and arbuscules have a relatively short life; individual structures can form and senesce within days.


All endomycorrhizal fungi seem to form arbuscules but not all of them form vesicles, so many folks are now calling the group “AM Fungi”.

Endomycorrhiza = VAM fungi = AM fungi

Endomycorrhizal Fungi Summary

No endomycorrhizal fungi form mushrooms.

Only one genus of endomycorrhizal fungi forms truffles: Glomus.

Most endomycorrhizal fungi form individual spores in the soil that are microscopic.

Endomycorrhiza is formed by members of both Ascomycetes and Glomeromycetes (we’ll get to them later)

There are only about 150 species of endomycorrhizal fungi that associate with about 300,000 species of host plants!

Endomycorrhizal Fungi Hosts

Some major plants that are hosts to endomycorrhizal fungi in the Pacific Northwest:

Maples Cedars Redwoods

Sequoias Poison oak Most grasses

Most herbs Most garden plants Most fruit trees

Most annuals …and most tropical

plants

Saprobic Fungi

“Sapro” = rotten

There are very few animals that can digest wood (termites, earthworms, centipedes?).

Fungi do the “heavy lifting”, accounting for over 90% of wood decomposition. Without fungi, fallen trees would stack up without ever rotting.

what a mess…

Saprobic Fungi

Also called Saprophytic or Saprotrophic.

Some specialize in digesting cellulose (brown “cube” rot).Some specialize in digesting lignin (white rot).

Cellulose

Lignin

White RotBrown Rot

Saprobic Fungi

Also called Saprophytic or Saprotrophic.

Some specialize in digesting cellulose (brown “cube” rot).Some specialize in digesting lignin (white rot).

Saprobic Fungi

Only one genus of saprobic fungi is known to form truffles in North America: Trappea. It is related to stinkhorns.

Trappea darkeri

Saprobic Fungi

Some saprobic fungi form sequestrate (but not hypogeous) fruiting bodies, such as Nivatogastreum. It is related to the mushroom genus Pholiota.

Nivatogastreum nubigenum

Saprobic Fungi Summary

Many mushrooms (half?) and all conks are formed by saprobic fungi.

There are probably thousands of species of saprobic fungi, many (most?) are microscopic.

Pluerotus ostreatus Ganoderma tsugae

How can I tell a saprobic mushroom from a mycorrhizal one?


You can’t.


You can’t.

Many saprobic fungi grow on the forest floor.

Stropharia riparia


You can’t.

Many saprobic fungi grow on the forest floor.

Many mycorrhizal fungi grow on decaying wood.

Boletus mirabilis

Stropharia riparia

Usually, all species within a genus are either mycorrhizal or saprobic. If you learn the genera, you can infer whether your specimen is mycorrhizal or saprobic.

Amanita muscaria? Lepiota clypeolaria?

Morchella sp?

Saprobic Genera Mycorrhizal GeneraAgaricus AmanitaAgrocybe BoletusClavaria CantharellusClitocybe CortinariusCollybia GomphusCoprinus HebelomaGalerina HydnumHypholoma HygrophorusLentinus InocybeMycena LaccariaPholiota LactariusPleurotus RamariaPolypores RussulaPsilocybe SuillusStropharia TricholomaVolvariella Almost all Truffles…

* We still don’t know the trophic status of many genera!

– Field surveying

Saprobic Genera Mycorrhizal GeneraAgaricus AmanitaAgrocybe BoletusClavaria CantharellusClitocybe CortinariusCollybia GomphusCoprinus HebelomaGalerina HydnumHypholoma HygrophorusLentinus InocybeMycena LaccariaPholiota LactariusPleurotus RamariaPolypores RussulaPsilocybe SuillusStropharia TricholomaVolvariella Almost all Truffles…

* We still don’t know the trophic status of many genera!

Pathogenic Fungi

“Pathos” = disease

Unlike saprobic fungi, pathogenic fungi just can’t wait until something dies on its own. They attack living organisms, sometimes killing the host and sometimes just causing sickness.

Sudden Oak Death SOD bark lesion

Pathogenic Fungi

Fungal Plant Pathogens

Armillaria melleaPhaeolus schweinitziiPhellinus weiriiWhite Pine Blister Rust Swiss Needle Cast Chestnut BlightDutch Elm DiseaseSudden Oak Death*Potato Blight*Various Rusts and Smuts (more than 6000 species!)

Armillaria mellea

Phaeolus schweinitzii

Pathogenic Fungi

Fungal Human Pathogens (a digression…)

Tinea (athlete’s foot, toenail fungus)Candidia (yeasts)Aspergillus (molds)Coccidioides (valley fever)Pneumocystis (pneumonia)Schizophyllum commune

Schizophyllum communeSee www.doctorfungus.com for gruesome pictures!

http://www.doctorfungus.com/

Pathogenic Fungi

Fungal Human Pathogens (a digression…)

Tinea (athlete’s foot, toenail fungus)Candidia (yeasts)Aspergillus (molds)Coccidioides (valley fever)Pneumocystis (pneumonia)Schizophyllum commune

Schizophyllum communeSee www.doctorfungus.com for gruesome pictures!

Luckily we have Penicillium!

http://www.doctorfungus.com/

Fungal Plant Pathogens Summary

No pathogenic fungi form truffles.

Armillaria spp. form mushrooms.

Some (Phellinus, Phaeolus) form conks.

Most are in habitats other than forests.

Most are inconspicuous.

They are ubiquitous.

Maple leaf spot Rhytisma punctatum

Rose blight

Phragmidium sp.

Summary: Fungal Trophism and Morphology

Truffles Mushrooms ConksMycorrhizae

Ecto- Many Many NoneEndo- Few None None

Saprobes One Many ManyPathogens None Few Few

Glomerella cingulata (Ro)Verticillium dahliae (Ro)

Bionectria ochroleuca (Pl)Hydropisphaera peziza (Pl)

Hydropisphaera erubescens (Ag)Roumeguieriella rufula (Ne)

Cordyceps gunnii (Le)Haptocillium balanoides (Ne)

Haptocillium sinense (Ne)Cordyceps ophioglossoides (El-A)

Cordyceps capitata (El-A)Cordyceps fracta (El-A)

Cordyceps japonica (El-A)Cordyceps sphecocephala (Hy)

Cordyceps nutans (He)Cordyceps irangienesis (Hy)

Hymenostilbe aurantiaca (Hy)Cordyceps aphodii (Co)

Cordyceps brunneapunctata (Co)Cordyceps unilateralis (Hy)

Cordyceps agriota (Co)Cordyceps stylophora (Co)

Cordyceps cf. acicularis (Co)Cordyceps heteropoda (Ho)

Cordyceps melolonthae (Co)Cordyceps ravenelli (Co)

Cordyceps variabilis (Di)Ashersonia badia (Ho)

Hypocrella sp. (Ho)Ashersonia placenta (Ho)

Hypocrella schizostachyi (Ho)

Epichloe typhina (Po)Claviceps paspali (Po)

Claviceps fusiformis (Po)Claviceps purpurea (Po)

Verticillium epiphytum (Ur-B)Myriogenospora atramentosa (Po)

Balansia henningsiana (Po)Balansia pilulaeformis (Po)

Pochonia gonioides (Ne)Metarhizium album (Ho)

Metarhizium flavoviride (Ho)Cordyceps taii (Le)Metarhizium anisopliae (Co)

Cordyceps chlamydosporia (Mo)Rotiferophthora angustispora (Ro)

Torrubiella ratticaudata (Ar)Lecanicillium antillanum (Hy-B)

Engyodontium aranearum (Ar)Cordyceps cardinalis (Le)

Paecilomyces tenuipes (Le)

Cordyceps tuberculata (Le)Torrubiella confragosa (Ho)

Cordyceps scarabaeicola (Co)

Paecilomyces farinosus (Le)

Cordyceps militaris (Le)Cordyceps pruinosa (Le)

Simplicillium lamellicola (Hy-B)

Simplicillium lanosoniveum (Ur-B)Simplicillium lanosoniveum (Ur-B)

Verticillium incurvum (Hy-B)Hypocrea lutea (Pl)

Sphaerostilbella berkeleyana (Hy-B)Hyphomyces polyporinus (Hy-B)

Pseudonectria rousseliana (Bu)Nectria cinnabarina (Be)

Viridispora diparietispora (Ro)Cosmospora coccinea (Hy-B)

Ophionectria trichospora (Pl)0.01 changes/site

Animal

FungiPlant

Ambiguous

100

100

100100

100

100

100

99

100

100

100

10096

99100

100

100

100

100

100

99

100

10099

100

100100

10097

99 100

96100

95100

100

100

100

100

100100

100

100

100100

100100

100

99

100

100100

100

100

100

100100

82

75

98 70

73

76

71

100

100

100

100100

100

100

96 100

100

100

95

77100

100100

98

100

100

100

100

100

76

75

100

100

77

100

100

6

1

2

3

4

5

8

9

11

9

10

12

13

14

15

7

Hypocreales

Bionectriaceae

Nectriaceae

Hypocreaceae

Clavicipitaceae B

Clavicipitaceae A

Clavicipitaceae s.s

Clavicipitaceae C

‘Cordycipitaceae’

Nutritionalmode shift

‘Ophiocordycipitaceae’

The Big Picture - Kingdoms

Bacteria – single cell without nucleus - external nutrient absorption

Fungi – multiple cells with multiple nuclei - external nutrient absorption

Animals – multiple cells with nuclei - internal nutrient digestion

Plants - multiple cells with nuclei - photosynthesis

Protozoans - single cell with nucleus - photosynthesis (algaes)



Gain of nucleus& chlorophyll

Gain of multicellularorganization

Loss of chlorophyllGain of enzymes

Loss of external enzymesGain of internal digestion (and a few other things)

Primordial Bacteria







Bacteria – single cell without nucleus - external nutrient absorption - no truffles

Fungi – multiple cells with multiple nuclei - external nutrient absorption - truffles!


- no truffles

Plants - multiple cells with nuclei - photosynthesis - no truffles


- no truffles


Fungi – multiple cells with multiple nuclei - external nutrient absorption - truffles!

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom

Fungi

Chytrids – microscopic soil, puddle, & gut fungi - spores have flagella

Zygomycetes – mycorrhizae, molds - spores formed on

suspensors

Basidiomycetes – mycorrhizae, saprobes - spores from basidia

Ascomycetes – mycorrhizae, saprobes - spores from asci

Glomeromycetes – mycorrhizae - spores formed from hyphae


Fungi

Chytrids – microscopic soil, puddle, & gut fungi - spores have flagella

- no truffles


suspensors - a few truffles


- “false” trufflesAscomycetes – mycorrhizae, saprobes - spores from asci

- “true” trufflesGlomeromycetes – mycorrhizae - spores formed from hyphae

- a few truffles


Fungi





- “true” trufflesGlomeromycetes – mycorrhizae - spores formed from hyphae

- a few truffles






- “true” trufflesFungi


- a few truffles

ecto-AlpovaArcangeliellaCystangiumFevansiaGastroboletusGautieriaGymnomycesHymenogasterHysterangiumLeucogasterLeucophlepsMacowanitesMelanogasterPyrenogasterRhizopogonThaxterogasterTrappeaTruncocolumella

Basidiospores

Sterigmata

Basidium

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Basidiomycete Truffles


- “false” truffles

“Basidio” = pedestal

Usually squishy, spongy, or rubbery


- “false” truffles

“Basidio” = pedestal

Usually squishy, spongy, or rubbery

ecto-AlpovaArcangeliellaCystangiumFevansiaGastroboletusGautieriaGymnomycesHymenogasterHysterangiumLeucogasterLeucophlepsMacowanitesMelanogasterPyrenogasterRhizopogonThaxterogasterTrappeaTruncocolumella

Basidiospores

Sterigmata

Basidium


Gautieria monticola


Macowanites luteolus


Truncocolumella citrina


Rhizopogon vinicolor (remember this one!)


Cantharellus formosus

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Basidiomycete Truffles?

Tricholoma magnivelare

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Basidiomycete Truffles?








- a few truffles

BalsamiaBarssiaCaziaChoiromycesElaphomycesGenabeaGeneaGeoporaHydnoplicataHydnotryaHydnotryopsisLeucangiumSarcosphaeraTerfeziaTuber

“Asco” = bagUsually brittle, often hollow

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Ascomycete Truffles

Ascospores

Ascus

ecto- & endo-Ascomycetes – mycorrhizae,

saprobes - spores from asci

- “true” truffles

BalsamiaBarssiaCaziaChoiromycesElaphomycesGenabeaGeneaGeoporaHydnoplicataHydnotryaHydnotryopsisLeucangiumSarcosphaeraTerfeziaTuber


Ascospores

Ascus

ecto- & endo-Ascomycetes – mycorrhizae,

saprobes - spores from asci

- “true” truffles

“Asco” = bagUsually brittle, often hollow

Elaphomyces muricatus


Gilkeya compacta


Hydnotrya variiformis


Tuber gibbosum


Tuber oregonense


Leucangium carthusianum


Morchella deliciosa

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Ascomycete Truffles?








- a few truffles

endo-

Acaulospora EntrophosporaGigasporaGlomusScutellospora

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom - Glomeromycetes


- a few truffles

“Glomus” = ball (of yarn)

Most genera form individual spores in the soilTruffles usually small, irregularly shapedSpores very large (to 200 µm)

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Glomeromycete Truffles

Glomus microcarpus








- a few truffles

ecto-

EndogoneModicella?

Suspensor Cells

Zygospore

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom - Zygomycetes



Truffles usually small, irregularly shapedSpores very large (to 200 µm)Group includes Rhizopus (tempeh)

“Zygo” = yoke

Endogone flammicorona

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Zygomycete Truffles

Endogone lactiflua

Phyla in the Fungal Kingdom – Zygomycete Truffles

Summary: Fungal Family Groups (taxonomy)

Truffles Mushrooms ConksBasidiomycetes Many Many ManyAscomycetes Many Many OneGlomeromycetes One None NoneZygomycetes One None None

Daldinia occidentale

“Mycophagy”

RelatednessTruffle Truffler

Kingdom: Mycota AnimaliaPhylum: Ascomycota VertebrataClass: Discomycetes MammaliaOrder: Pezizales PrimatesFamily: Tuberaceae HominidaeGenus: Tuber HomoSpecies: gibbosum sapiens

In English: Oregon White Human Truffle


Kingdom: Mycota AnimaliaPhylum: Ascomycota VertebrataClass: Discomycetes MammaliaOrder: Pezizales PrimatesFamily: Tuberaceae HominidaeGenus: Tuber HomoSpecies: melanosporum sapiens

In English: French Perigord Human Truffle


Kingdom: Mycota AnimaliaPhylum: Ascomycota VertebrataClass: Discomycetes MammaliaOrder: Pezizales PrimatesFamily: Tuberaceae HominidaeGenus: Choiromyces HomoSpecies: alveolatus sapiens

In English: Sorry! Human

RelatednessTruffle Truffler?

Kingdom: Mycota AnimaliaPhylum: Ascomycota VertebrataClass: Discomycetes MammaliaOrder: Pezizales PrimatesFamily: Helvellaceae PongidaeGenus: Barssia PongoSpecies: oregonense pygmaeus

In English: Sorry! Orangutang

RelatednessTruffle Truffler!

Kingdom: Mycota AnimaliaPhylum: Ascomycota VertebrataClass: Discomycetes MammaliaOrder: Elaphomycetales MarsupialiaFamily: Elaphomycetaceae PotoroidaeGenus: Elaphomyces BettongiaSpecies: granulatus tropica

In English: Deer Truffle Northern Bettong

RelatednessTruffle Truffler?

Kingdom: Mycota AnimaliaPhylum: Ascomycota VertebrataClass: Saccharomycetales AvesOrder: Saccharomycetidae PasseriformesFamily: Saccharomyceticeae CorvidaeGenus: Saccharomyces Aphelocoma Species: cerevisiae californica

In English: Brewers Yeast Western Scrub Jay

RelatednessTruffle Truffler!

Kingdom: Mycota AnimaliaPhylum: Basidiomycota ArthropodaClass: Agaricomycetidae InsectaOrder: Boletales DipteraFamily: Rhizopogonaceae MycetophilidaeGenus: Rhizopogon MycetophilaSpecies: vinicolor fungorum

In English: That same durn Mushroom gnat

‘pogey again!

Edward Drinker Cope is related to a mushroom gnat. Mycetophila (1840-1897) fungorum

Tuber gibbosum is as closely related to Rhizopogon vinicolor as

What do you think of that, Ed?

Huh??

What do you think of that, Ed?

truffles in context: a mycological overview by matt trappe, oct. 2006

Documents

rootsaprobic fungi

outsideectomycorrhizal

insideendomycorrhizal

ectomycorrhizal fungithe

weight family group

genetic taxonomy taxonomy

morphology height

piemany ways