tsl 3103 modul
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MODUL ENGLISH LANGUAGE TEACHINGMETHODOLOGY (ELTM)
PROGRAM PENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG)
MOD PENDIDIKAN JARAK JAUH
TSL3103
BAHASAINGGERIS
MAJOR
INSTITUT PENDIDIKAN GURUKEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA
ARAS 1, ENTERPRISE BUILDING 3,BLOK 2200, PERSIARAN APEC,CYBER 6, 63000 CYBERJAYA
Berkuat kuasa pada Jun 2011
IJAZAH SARJANA MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN
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Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan
Pendidikan di Malaysia adalah suatu usaha berterusan ke arahmemperkembangkan lagi potensi individu secara menyeluruhdan bersepadu untuk mewujudkan insan yang seimbang danharmonis dari segi intelek, rohani, emosi, dan jasmaniberdasarkan kepercayaan dan kepatuhan kepada Tuhan. Usahaini adalah bagi melahirkan rakyat Malaysia yang berilmupengetahuan, berketrampilan, berakhlak mulia,bertanggungjawab, dan berkeupayaan mencapai kesejahteraandiri serta memberi sumbangan terhadap keharmonian dankemakmuran keluarga, masyarakat, dan negara.
Falsafah Pendidikan Guru
Guru yang berpekerti mulia, berpandangan progresif dansaintifik, bersedia menjunjung aspirasi negara serta menyanjungwarisan kebudayaan negara, menjamin perkembangan individu,
dan memelihara suatu masyarakat yang bersatu padu,demokratik, progresif, dan berdisiplin.
Cetakan J un 2011Kementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
Hak cipta terpelihara. Kecuali untuk tujuan pendidikan yang tidakada kepentingan komersial, tidak dibenarkan sesiapamengeluarkan atau mengulang mana-mana bahagian artikel,ilustrasi dan kandungan buku ini dalam apa-apa juga bentuk dandengan apa-apa cara pun, sama ada secara elektronik, fotokopi,mekanik, rakaman atau cara lain sebelum mendapat izin bertulisdaripada Rektor Institut Pendidikan Guru, Kementerian PelajaranMalaysia.
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Cetakan J un 2011Institut Pendidikan GuruKementerian Pelajaran Malaysia
MODUL INI DIEDARKAN UNTUK KEGUNAAN PELAJAR-PELAJARYANG BERDAFTAR DENGAN BAHAGIAN PENDIDIKAN GURU,KEMENTERIAN PELAJARAN MALAYSIA BAGI MENGIKUTI PROGRAMPENSISWAZAHAN GURU (PPG) SEKOLAH RENDAH IJAZAH SARJANA
MUDA PERGURUAN DENGAN KEPUJIAN.
MODUL INI HANYA DIGUNAKAN SEBAGAI BAHAN PENGAJARAN DANPEMBELAJARAN BAGI PROGRAM-PROGRAM TERSEBUT.
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Falsafah Pendidikan Kebangsaan
Falsafah Pendidikan Guru
Learners Guide
Introduction
Allocation of Topics
Topic 1 Language acquisition and learning key concepts and issues
1.0 Synopsis
1.1 Learning Outcomes
1.2 Framework of Topics
1.2.1 Language Acquisition and Learning
1.2.2 Language learning process
1.2.3 Language Learner
1.2.4 Acquisition vs Learning
Topic 2 Theories of Language Learning
2.0 Synopsis
2.1 Learning Outcomes
2.2 Framework of Topics
2.2.1 Behaviourism
2.2.2 Cognitivism
2.2.3 Social Constructivism
2.2.4 Humanism
Topic 3 Second Language Learning Theories (I)- Krashens Monitor Model
3.0 Synopsis
1
17
29
CONTENT PAGE
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3.1 Learning Outcomes
3.2 Framework of Topics
3.3 Krashens Monitor Model
3.3.1 Input Hypothesis
3.3.2 Affective Filter Hypothesis
3.3.3 Acquisition-Learning Hypothesis
3.3.4 Monitor Hypothesis
3.3.5 Natural Order Hypothesis
Topic 4 Second Language Learning Theories (I)- Universal Grammar
4.0 Synopsis
4.1 Learning Outcomes
4.2 Framework of Topics
4.2.1 Why a Universal Grammar?
4.2.2 What does a Universal Grammar consist of?
4.2.3 Universal Grammar and first language acquisition
4.2.4 Universal Grammar and second language
acquisition
4.2.5 Implications for teaching
39
Topic 5 Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques
ELT Methods 58
5.0 Synopsis5.1 Learning Outcomes
5.2 Framework of Topics
5.2.1 Grammar-Translation Method
5.2.2 Direct Method
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5.2.3 Audio Lingual Method
5.2.4 Silent Way
5.2.5 Suggestopedia
5.2.6 Community Language Learning
5.2.7 Total Physical Response
Topic 6 ELT Methods - Communicative Approach 82
6.0 Synopsis
6.1 Learning Outcomes
6.2 Framework of Topics
6.2.1 Concept of Communicative Approach
6.2.2 Principles of Communicative Approach
6.2.3 Techniques of Communicative Approach
6.2.4 Strengths and Limitations of Communicative
Approach
6.2.5 Role of teacher, learners and resources
Topic 7 ELT Methods - Lexical and Eclectic Approaches, andTask-based Learning 91
7.0 Synopsis
7.1 Learning Outcomes
7.2 Framework of Topics
7.2.1 Lexical Approach
7.2.2 Eclectic approach
7.2.3 Task-Based Learning (TBL)
Topic 8 Syllabus Design Malaysian Primary School English Curricu lum 99
8.0 Synopsis
8.1Learning Outcomes
8.2 Framework of Topics
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8.2.1 Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary
School English Curriculum
8.2.2 The 2011 PRIMARY ENGLISH
LANGUAGE CURRICULUM or better
known as the Kurikulum Standard Sekolah
Rendah (KSSR)
8.2.3 Scheme of Work Weekly, Semester
8.2.4 Sample lesson structure
Topic 9 Second Language Learning in the Classroom (I) 114
9.0 Synopsis
9.1 Learning Outcomes
9.2 Framework of Topics
9.2.1 Issues of Second Language Learning
9.2.2 The PPP Approach
Topic 10 Second Language Learning in the Classroom (II) 121
10.0 Synopsis
10.1 Learning Outcomes10.2 Framework of Topics
10.2.1 Alternatives to Presentation, Practice and
Production
10.2.2 Teaching Implications of the Alternatives in the
Primary School Classroom
BIBLIOGRAPHY
Module Writer
Module Icons
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LEARNERS GUIDE
This module has been prepared to assist you in organizing your own learning so that you
may learn more effectively. You may be returning to study after many years from formal
education or you may possibly be unfamiliar with a self-directed learning mode. This
module gives you an opportunity to manage your own learning and to manage the way
in which you use your resources and time.
Self-directed learning requires that you make decisions about your own learning. You
must recognize your own pattern and style of learning. It might be useful if you were to
set your own personal study goals and standard of achievement. In this way you will be
able to proceed through the course quite easily. Asking for help when you need it, ought
to be viewed as creating new opportunities for learning rather than as a sign of
weakness.
The module is written in Sessions. A Session usually covers a certain number of topics.
How long you take to go through a Session or a topic clearly depends on your own
learning style and your personal study goals. There are tasks set within a Session to
help you recall what you have learnt or to make you think about what you have read.
Some of these tasks will have answers and or suggested answers. For tasks that do not
provide answers you might find it helpful to discuss them with someone like a colleague.
Or to make notes of your answers and take them along to the next Tutorial Session.
Tasks that have been set for Tutorial discussion or to be handed in during Tutorial
Sessions will need to be completed before the tutorial takes place. Assignments that
have to be handed in must be handed in according to schedule. This will be a means foryou (and your Tutor) to know how much progress you have made in your course. You
should bear in mind that the process of learning that you go through is as important as
any assignment you hand in or any task that you have completed. So, instead of racing
through the tasks and the reading, do take time to reflect on them.
You will find that icons have been used to capture your attention so that at a glance you
will know what you have to do. Appendix A gives you an explanation of what the icons
mean.
Another important component of this course is the project for School-based Assignment
for the Major course only. This component recognizes the fact that teaching in theclassroom is an important aspect of learning to become a teacher. Hence, the
assignments that you do for this component will form part of the overall assessment of
your performance. It is therefore important that you approach this assignment and all
other coursework assignment with the right attitude. The School-based Assignment will
be given in a separate document.
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There is an end of course examination that you will be required to do. The date and time
will be made known to you when you sign up for the course. The written examination is
expected to take place in an examination venue to be identified.
Here are some useful hints for you to get you going.
1. Find a quiet study corner so that you may set down your books and yourself to study.
Do the same when you visit a library.
2. Set a time every day to begin and to end your study. Once you have committed a set
time, keep to it! When you have finished your module, continue to read prescribed
books or internet materials.
3. Spend as much time as you possibly can on each task without compromising your
study goal
4. Revise and review what you read. Take time to recollect what you have read.
5. Consult sources other than what have been given to you. Do not accept information
at face value.
6. Start a filing system so that you know where you have kept that insightful article!
7. Find a friend who could help you study.
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INTRODUCTION
Welcome to English! Teaching English is fun. What you need is to be skilful in usingthe language.
Program Pensiswazahan Guru (PPG) Mod Pendidikan J arak J auh (PPJ ) EnglishLanguage (Major) for Primary Schools, is one of the major subjects offered by theInstitut Pendidikan Guru Malaysia (IPGM). It is offered to English language teacherswho want to upgrade and enhance themselves in teaching English as a subject. Thereare seven modules offered for English Language (Major) for Primary Schools.
This Module TSL3103 English Language Teaching Methodology (ELTM) is a 3 credithour module that will cover 45 hours. It has six main topics: Language acquisition andlearning key concepts and issues, Theories of Language Learning, Second LanguageLearning Theories (I) Krashens Monitor Model, Second Language Learning Theories(iI) Universal Grammar, Overview: Approaches, Methods, and Techniques - ELTMethods, Syllabus Design Malaysian Primary School English Curriculum, and SecondLanguage Learning in the Classroom. These topics are spread across ten sessions.
In Session 1, you will learn the difference between language acquisition and learning,and understand better the key concepts and issues related to language acquisition andlearning.
In Session 2, you will explore the different theories of language learning, namelyBehaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanism.
Session 3 will look into the Second Language Learning Theories (I) focussing onKrashens Monitor Model.
In Session 4, you will explore further the Second Language Learning Theories (II). Thefocus this time is on Universal Grammar.
Session 5 defines the terms Approach, Method, and Technique. It also provides anoverview of the different the English Language Teaching Methods.
In Session 6, you will explore in greater detail the Communicative Approach in EnglishLanguage Teaching Methods. and focus on the
Session 7 will focus on the lexical approach, eclectic approach and task-based learning.
In Session 8, you will study the Syllabus Design - Malaysian Primary School EnglishCurriculum.
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Sessions 9 and 10 will focus on second language learning in the classroom You willexplore issues, discuss alternatives to Presentation, Practice, and Production , andteaching implications in the primary ELT classroom.
By going through all the sessions diligently and doing the tasks given, you will be able to
enhance your knowledge in English and become more confident in using it. You willalso know your own strategies in teaching English. Before you begin working on thecontent of these sessions, be sure to have a dictionary with you because you will needto refer to it every now and then. Happy working!
We are sure that you are looking forward to begin this module with excitement. It isinteresting to refresh your memory and obtain new ideas and knowledge.
There are no prescribed course books and the sessions are designed to be self-contained. However, we do recommend that you should have access to certainreferences and dictionary. It would be useful if you have an ESOL Learners Dictionary
and a Modern Teachers Reference Grammar of English.
You should read the input notes carefully. You should also do all the tutorial tasks andthen discuss with your tutors during face-to-face interaction.
Remember by reading you will gain more knowledge. And Knowledge is Honour!
Good Luck and Happy Working!
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Code & Name of Course: TSL3103 English Language TeachingMethodology (ELTM)
There are six topics in this module and they are divided into ten sessions. Thetable below shows the allocation of topics through modular learning or/and face-to-face-interaction.
Session Topic Sub-Topic Int.hrs.
Total no.of hrs.
1Languageacquisition
and learning key conceptsand issues
Nature of language
Language learning process 3
6 Language Learner
Acquisition versus learning 3
2Theories ofLanguageLearning
Behaviourism
Cognitivism
3
6 Social Constructivism
Humanism
3
3
Second
LanguageLearningTheories (I)
KrashensMonitor Model
Acquisition-Learning
hypothesis Monitor hypothesis
Natural order hypothesis
3
6 Input hypothesis
Affective filter hypothesis
Implications for teaching
3
4 SecondLanguageLearningTheories (II)
UniversalGrammar
Why a Universal Grammar
What does a UniversalGrammar consist of?
3
6 Universal Grammar and first
language acquisition
Universal Grammar andsecond language acquisition
Implications for teaching
3
ALLOCATION OF TOPICS
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5
Overview:Approaches,Methods, andTechniques
ELT Methods
Concepts: Approach, Method,Technique
Principles
Techniques
Strengths/Limitation
Role of teacher, learners, andresources
Implications for SyllabusDesign
Planning activities for eachapproach/method
i. Grammar-TranslationMethod
ii. Direct Methodiii. Audio-Lingual Method
3
6
iv. Silent Wayv. Suggestopediavi. Community Language
Learningvii. Total Physical Response
3
6 ELT Methods Communicative Approach 3 3
7 ELT Methods Lexical Approach
Eclectic Approach
Task-based Learning
3 3
8 Syllabus
Design MalaysianPrimarySchoolEnglishCurriculum
Principles
Techniques
Strengths/Limitation
Role of teacher, learners, andresources
Scheme of work weekly,semester
3 3
9 SecondLanguageLearning inthe Classroom
Issues
Presentation, Practice, andProduction 3 3
10 Alternatives to Presentation,Practice, and Production
Teaching implications in theprimary ELT classroom
3 3
TOTAL 45 hrs
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TOPIC 1 LANGUAGE ACQUISITION AND LEARNING KEY CONCEPTS AND ISSUES
1.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 1 introduces you to the key concepts and issues related to language
acquisition and learning. It provides insights to the nature of language, language
learning process, and characteristics of the effective language learner. It also
makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning.
1.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of Topic 1, you will be able to:
define the nature of language
describe the language learning process in early childhood
list the learner characteristics that affect second language learning
differentiate between language acquisition and language learning
1.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
LanguageAcquis it ion
and Learning Key Concepts
and Issues
Nature ofLanguage
LanguageLearner
Acquis it ionversus
Learning LanguageLearning
Process
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CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours )
1.2.1 Language Acquisit ion and Learning Key Concepts and Issues
It is important for you to develop an awareness of the properties of language and
an understanding L1 language development in children. Your understanding of
what language is and how the learner learns will determine to a large extent, your
philosophy of education, and how you teach English: your teaching style, your
approach, methods and classroom technique. In short, this knowledge of the
nature of language and the language learning process would enable you to teach
your learners to learn a second language more effectively.
1.2.1 Nature of Language
Exercise 1: What is your definition of language?
Write down in twenty-five-words-or-less a definition of language.
Share your definition with another friend or in a small group.
Compare differences and similarities.
What is Language? There are many ways in which we could describe language.
Your definition of language (in the above) probably yield something that sounds
similar to the following composite definition: A language is considered to be a
system of communicating with other people using sounds, symbols and words inexpressing a meaning, idea or thought. This language can be used in many
forms, primarily through oral and written communications as well as using
expressions through body language.
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Language is defined as "a systematic means of communicating ideas or feelings
by the use of conventionalized signs, sounds, gestures or marks having
understood meanings." (Webster New International Dictionary of the English
Language, 654), and "is a tool for communication" (Emmet, 22). In most
common use of language, these signs are the words which we employ in such a
way that they may communicate ideas or feelings.
There are many possible theoretical positions about the nature of language.
Commonly, three different views are explicitly or implicitly reflected in current
approaches to language learning. They are:
The structural view of language
The structural view of language is that language is a system of structurally
related elements for the transmission of meaning. These elements are
usually described as:
phonological units (phonemes)
grammatical units (phrases, clauses, sentences)
grammatical operations (adding, shifting, joining or transforming
elements) lexical items (function words and structure words)
The target of language learning, in the structural view, is the mastery of
elements of this system.
The communicative view of language
The communicative view of language is the view that language is a vehicle
for the expression of functional meaning. The semantic and
communicative dimensions of language are more emphasized than the
grammatical characteristics, although these are also included. The target
of language learning is to learn to express communication functions and
categories of meaning.
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The interactional view of language
The interactional view of language sees language primarily as the means
for establishing and maintaining interpersonal relationships and for
performing social transactions between individuals. The target of
language learning in the interactional view is learning to initiate and
maintain conversations with other people.
Tutorial Task:
Language can be likened to an ocean. Like the ocean, language is never still. It
has many moods and shapes. It seems to be endless. It carries people and their
goods. Can you suggest another metaphor to describe language?
What is your image of language?
Make a simple sketch or drawing of your image of language.
Then, write down all the ways in which language reflects the image you
see.
Share your image with a friend.
Note features of your images which you have in common.
Note significant differences between your images.
Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
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1.2.2 Language Learning Process
Children go through a number of different stages as language develops, from the
earliest stage of producing cooing sounds through being able to produce
complex, multi-word sentences.
Babbling
first stage of language development
known as the pre-linguistic, babbling or cooing stage
period typically lasts from the age of three to nine months
babies begin to make vowel sounds such as oooooo and aaaaaaa
by five months, infants typically begin to babble and add consonant
sounds to their sounds such as ba-ba-ba, ma-ma-ma orda-da-da.
Single Words
second stage is known as the one-word or holophase stage of language
development
around the age of 10 to 13 months
children will begin to produce their first real words
only capable of producing a few, single words at this point, but important
to realize that they are able to understand considerably more
infants begin to comprehend language about twice as fast as they are able
to produce it
Two Words
third stage begins around the age of 18 months
children begin to use two word sentences
sentences usually consist of just nouns and verbs
E.g. Where daddy?
"Puppy big!"
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Multi-word Sentences
around the age of two
children begin to produce short, multi-word sentences that have a subject
and predicate
E.g. a child might say "Mommy is nice"
or "Want more candy
As children age, they continue to learn more new words every day. By the time
they enter school around the age of five, children typically have a vocabulary of
10,000 words or more.
Developmental Sequences
Developmental sequences reflect linguistic elements in childrens
cognitive understandings
Examples
Grammatical Morphemes
Negations
Questions
Grammatical Morphemes
Roger Browns longitudinal study (1973)
Present progressive ing
Plurals s
Irregular past forms
possessive s
Copula
Articles the and a
Regular past ed
Third person singular simple present s
Auxiliary be
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Acquis it ion of Grammatical morphemes
e.g., wug test
i. Here is a wug. Now there are two of them. There are two ______.
ii. John knows how to bod. Yesterday he did the same thing.
Yesterday, he_______.
Through the tests, children demonstrate that they know the rules for the
formation of plural and simple past in English.
By generalizing these patterns to words they have never heard before,
they show that their language is not just a list of memorized word pairs
such as book/books and nod/nodded.
Acquis it ion of Negation
Lois Blooms study (1991) four stages
Stage 1: no e.g., No go. No cookie.
Stage 2: subject + no e.g., Daddy no comb hair.
Stage 3: auxiliary or modal verbs (do/can) + not
(Yet no variations for different persons or tenses)
e.g., I cant do it , He dont want it.
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Stage 4: correct form of auxiliary verbs (did/doesnt/is/are) + not
e.g., He didnt go. She doesnt want it.
But sometimes double negatives are used
e.g., I dont have no more candies.
Acquis it ion of Questions
By the age of 4:
Most children are able to ask questions, give commands, report real
events, and create stories about imaginary ones with correct word order
and grammatical markers most of the time.
They have mastered the basic structures of the language or languages
spoken to them in these early years.
They begin to acquire less frequent and more complex linguistic structures
such as passives and relative clauses.
They begin to develop ability to use language in a widening social
environment.
The six stages of childrens question-making can be illustrated as follows:
Stage 1: using single words or single two- or three-word sentences with
rising intonation
(Mommy book? Wheres Daddy?)
Stage 2: using the word order of the declarative sentence (You like this?
Why you catch it?)
Stage 3: fronting - putting a verb at the beginning of a sentence
(Is the teddy is tired? Do I can have a cookie?)
Stage 4: subject-auxiliary inversion in yes/no questions but not in wh-
questions
(Do you like ice cream? Where I can draw?)
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Stage 5: subject-auxiliary inversion in wh-questions, but not in negative
wh-questions
(Why can he go out? Why he cant go out?)
Stage 6: overgeneralizing the inverted form in embedded questions
(I dont know why cant he go out.)
Then, share your thoughts with a friend.
Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
Reflect on your own language learning experience
First 3 years
Pre-school years
School years
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1.2.3 Language Learner
A lot of research has been carried out into what makes a good language learner.
Here is a brief summary of the latest theories:
The good language learnerthinks about how she is learning. She tries to
find out what works for her and what doesn't. If she doesn't understand the
purpose of a particular exercise, she asks the teacher.
The good language learneris willing to experiment and take risks. For
example, she will try out different ways of learning vocabulary until she
finds the way that suits her best. She is also not afraid of making mistakes,
because she knows that these will help her.
The good language learneris realistic. She knows that it will take time
and effort to become proficient in English, and that there will periods
where she does not seem to be making much progress.
The good language learneris independent. She does not expect to learn
English just by sitting in the classroom, and does not rely on the teacher to
totally direct her learning.
The good language learneris organized and active. She uses her time
to learn English sensibly, and is always looking for opportunities todevelop her language both inside and outside of the classroom.
The good language learnerhas a balanced concern for communication
and accuracy. Some students are experts at communicating their thoughts
but do not care that they make many mistakes in doing so. The good
language learner, on the other hand, is concerned with both
communicating and doing so as accurately as possible.
Although these are the qualities that have been found in the most efficient
language learners, there are still many other factors that influence how quickly a
child will learn English.
Source: Copyright Paul Shoebottom (1996-2011) The Good LanguageLearner. Retrieved 8 December 2011, from http://esl.fis.edu
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Factors affecting language learning
There are various factors that affect successful language learning. They could
stem from the learners own mind (internal factors) or from the environment he
lives in (external factors).
Internal factors are those that the individual language learner brings with him or
her to the particular learning situation, for example, age of the learner,
personality, motivation, experiences, cognition abilities and his native language.
External factors are those that characterize the particular language learning
situation,some of which include the curriculum in use, mode of instruction, and
the opportunity to interact with native speakers both within and outside of the
classroom.
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Exercise 2
The following are some factors that are known to affect second language
acquisition and learning. Determine whether each factor is related mainly to the
student, to the family or to the environment of the second culture. Use the
following code:
S = factors primarily in the student
F = factors primarily in the family
E = factors primarily in the environment of the second culture
1. Age _______
2. Socioeconomic status _______
3. Classroom culture _______
4. Cognitive development in L1 _______
5. Family support _______
6. Whether environment provides adequate L2 input _______
7. Literacy level _______
9. Opportunities for language use in school _______
11. Motivation _______
15. Proficiency in the home language _______
17. Role models in the community _______
19. Personality _______
20. Whether student has enough opportunities to use English _______
24. Teachers expectations _______
25. Preferred learning styles _______
Adapted from Maitland, K. (1997). Adding English: Helping ESL Learners Succeed. Good Apple.ISBN 1-56417-903-6.
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Now check your answers below.
Answers:
1S, 2F, 3E, 4S, 5S, 6E, 7F, 8E, 9S, 10S, 11E, 12S, 13E, 14E, 15S
Tutorial Task:
In your experience, as an English learner:
i. Are there personal characteristics that make you more successful than
another learner?
ii. Which characteristics seem to you most likely to be associated with
success in L2 acquisition?
Iii, Share your opinion with your group members. Find three most important
and three least important learner characteristics.
Individual Differences
Research findings reveal that every person has a learning style; therefore, there
is no particular teaching or learning method that can suit the needs of all learners.Learning styles are also value-neutral; that is, no one style is better than others.
Learning styles exist on wide continuums, although they are often described as
opposites. Learners should therefore be encouraged to stretch their learning
styles so that they will be more empowered in a variety of learning situations.
Age is only one of the characteristics which affects the learners L2 learning. The
opportunities for learning (i.e., context - both inside and outside the classroom),
the motivation to learn, and individual differences in intelligence , aptitude ,
personality , and learning styles have also been found to be important
determining factors in both rate of learning and eventual success in learning.
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1.2.4 Acquisition versus Learning It is sometimes thought that acquisition and learning refer to the same processes.
According to linguists there is an important distinction between language
acquisition and language learning.
Language Acquisition
Acquisition occurs passively and unconsciously through implicit learning.
Experts suggest there is an innate capacity in every human being to acquire
language. Language acquisition in children just seems to happen. Children do
not need explicit instruction to learn their first languages but rather seem to just
pick up language in the same way they learn to roll over, crawl and walk.
Language acquisition, therefore, is the process whereby children acquire their
first language. As you may well have noticed, children acquire their mother
tongue through interaction with their parents and the environment that surrounds
them. Their need to communicate paves the way for language acquisition to take
place. rather seem to just pick up language in the same way they learn to roll
over, crawl and walk.
Language Learning
As opposed to acquisition, learning occurs actively and consciously through
explicit instruction and education. Language learning is the process whereby
humans past the critical period learn second languages. In other words, older
children and adults need explicit teaching to learn their second languages. It is
the result of direct instruction in the rules of language. In language learning,
students have conscious knowledge of the new language and can talk about that
knowledge. However, studies have shown that knowing grammar rules does not
necessarily result in good speaking or writing.
We should not ignore the differences between language acquisition and
language learning. While all children before the critical period can innately
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acquire their first languages, most older children and adults past the critical
period must learn second languages through explicit education and instruction.
L1 and L2 acquisition are quite complicated processes. To understand these
processes will enable the language teacher to be more sensitive to the factors
involved. While L1 and L2 acquisition reveal some similarities, they also show
differences. Similarities in First and Second Language Acquisition theories are of
great interest to teachers and learners as they can be utilized to improve
language teaching and learning methods.
Nature vs Nurture
Much debate has taken place concerning the importance of nature (what is
innate) and nurture (environmental factors) in the acquisition of language. Is
language acquisition and development innate or taught?The debate about
nature versus nurture in language acquisition has drawn heated testimony from
both sides.
The following chart compares nature and nurture in language acquisition.
Nurture
Formal Teachers
Syllabus
Classroom
Systematic
Learning
Nature
Informal Parents & Society
Experiences
Environment
Exposure
Acquisition
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Tutorial Task:
Comparing First and Second Language Acquisi tion
Activi ty 1:
There are similarities and differences in first and second language acquisition. It
is clear that a child or adult learning a second language is different from a baby
acquiring a first language in terms of personal characteristics and conditions for
learning. Language teachers must have theoretical knowledge of how
languages are acquired.
How is learning a second language like learning a first?
How is it different?
How will this knowledge help you plan classroom experiences?
Write a paper (4-6 pages) citing at least four research articles to support
text reading.
Activi ty 2:As teachers, it is our duty to make sure that our students acquire rather than
learn the language. Discuss.
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TOPIC 2 THEORIES OF LANGUAGE LEARNING
2.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 2 provides you with an overview of four influential learning theories that underlie the
instruction of a teachers classroom practice. More specifically, it examines in detail the key
principles of Behaviourism, Cognitivism, Social Constructivism and Humanistic orientations
to language learning.
2.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Topic, you will be able to:
define terms relevant to some theories of language learning
explain the main principles of each language learning theory
distinguish the application of behaviourist, cognitivist, constructivist and
humanist principles in the classroom
2.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
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CONTENT
SESSION ONE (3 Hours)
2.2 Theories of Language Learning
The main goal of any teaching is to bring about learning. Generally, we
have not been able to say with certainty how people learn languages although
a great deal of research has been done into this subject. Various theories have
emerged over the years to study the process of language acquisition. The four
main schools of thought which provide theoretical paradigms in guiding the
course of language acquisition are: behaviourism, cognitivism, social
constructivism and humanism.
2.2.1 Behaviourism
The behaviourist approach in studying learning can be traced to the
philosophic traditions of Aristotle, Descartes and Locke. The founders and
proponents include John B. Watson in the early 20th century, Ivan Pavlov,
B.F.Skinner, E.L. Thorndike, Bandura and others. They argued that behavior
can be conditioned by altering the environment. In other words, by manipulating
and giving a certain stimulus, a certain response can be produced. Motivation to
learn was assumed to be driven by drives such as hunger, rewards and punish.
General perception is that there is no difference between the way one
learns a language and the way one learns to do anything else. According to
the psychologist Skinner, language is a conditioned behaviour: the stimulus
response process (Stimulus Response Feedback Reinforcement). The popular
view is that children start out as clean slates and language learning is the
process of getting linguistic habits printed on these slates through positive and
negative reinforcement or punishment. Both positive reinforcement and
negative reinforcement increase the probability that the antecedent behavior
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will happen again. On the other hand, punishment decreases the likelihood
that the antecedent behavior will happen again.
Learners are essentially viewed as passive and learn language step by
step, i.e.Imitation - Repetition - Memorization - Controlled drilling -
Reinforcement. They learn to speak by imitating the utterances heard around
them and strengthen their responses by the repetitions, corrections, and other
reactions that adults provide. Therefore, language is practice based. The
main focus is on inducing the child to behave with the help of mechanical drills
and exercises. Learning is controlled by the conditions under which it takes
place and that, as long as individuals are subjected on the same condition,
they will learn in the same condition. In summary, the behaviourist is notconcerned with how or why knowledge is obtained, but rather if the correct
response is given. Learning is defined as nothing more than the acquisition of
new behaviour.
The following is a list of behaviourist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Use a system of rewards to encourage certain behaviours and learning. Provide immediate and frequent feedback for complex and difficult
concepts
Provide practice, drill and review activities to enhance mastery of facts
Break down complex task into smaller and manageable subskills
Sequence material from simple to more difficult to enhance
understanding
Model the behaviour students are to imitate and repeat demonstrations
when necessary
Reinforce when students demonstrate the modeled behaviour
State the learning outcomes desired for the benefit of both teachers and
students
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Establish a contract with students on the work to be done and what
rewards will be given
Critics of behavioural methods point to two basic problems that may arise in
the classroom. Some teachers fear that rewarding students for all learning will
cause students to lose interest in learning for its own sake. Using a reward
system or giving one student increased attention may have a detrimental effect
on other students in the classroom. Also, another problem with this view of
learning includes the fact that imitation does not help the learner in real-life
situations. Learners are continually required to form sentences they have
never previously seen. A finite number of pre-practiced sentences are not
enough to carry on a conversation.
Exercise 1
Which of the behaviourist principles listed in the above do you think are widely
practised in the classrooms? Give specific examples.
Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
2.2.2 Cognitivism
In the 1950s there was a realization that behaviourism did not fully explain
human learning. Although behaviourism emphasized learning that was
observable and measurable, they did not account for what goes on in the minds
of the learner when he or she is learning or thinking. Cognitivists felt that it was
necessary to investigate how learners make sense of what they learn even
though such mental events are difficult to observe and measure objectively.
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The term cognitivism refers to a group of psychological theories which
draw heavily on the work in linguistics of Noam Chomsky. It replaced
behaviourism in 1960s as a dominant paradigm. Cognitive theories of learning,
based on empirical evidence, indicate that learning is a multi-faceted, complex
and dynamic process. Cognitivism focus on the mind or black box and attempt
to show how information is received, assimilated, stored and recalled.
According to the cognitivists, people are not programmed animals that
merely respond to environmental stimuli. People are rational beings that require
active participation in order to learn, and whose actions are a consequence of
thinking. Changes in behaviour are observed, but only as an indication of what is
occurring in the learners head. Cognitivism uses the metaphor of the mind as
computer: information comes in, is being processed, and leads to certain
outcomes.
Cognitivists view learning is as a process of relating new information to
previously learned information, In other words, learning is defined as a change in
the learners schemata. Learning is most likely to occur when an individual can
associate new learning with previous knowledge. Unlike in behaviourism,
learners are not passive receivers of environmental conditions. Rather, they are
actively involved in the learning process and can have control over their own
learning. Errors are also accepted as part of the learning process.
In contrast to behaviourism, the cognitivst perspective focus more on the
learner as an active participant in the teaching-learning process. It believes that
teachers can be more effective if they know what prior knowledge the student
already possesses and how information is processed and structured in the
learners mind. Therefore, it is important that teachers provide effective
instruction to help the learner acquire knowledge more effectively by teaching
students how to learn, remember, think and motivate themselves.
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The following is a list of cognitivist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Present information in an organized manner
- Show a logical sequence to concepts
- Go from simple to complex when presenting new material
Bring to mind relevant prior learning
Provide for review and repetition of learning
Provide opportunities for students to elaborate on new information, e.g.
inquiry-oriented projects
Help students process information in meaningful ways so that they can
become independent learners (Staged scaffolding)
Like Behaviourism, Cognitivism is also not without its critiques. It has
been criticized for not accounting enough for individuality and for giving little
emphasis on the affective characteristics of the learners.
The following table sums up very briefly what we have discussed so far:
Behaviourist vs. Cognitivist
Focus Bahaviour ist Cognitivist
View about the
mind
A blank slate.
Basically alike
An active organizer.
Varied, with multiple
intelligences and learning
styles.
S-T Roles
Teacher plans and sets
goals for learning.
One best way of
teaching.
Students participate in
planning and goal-setting.
Teacher teaches with variety.
Motivation Reward is motivation. Learning is a motivator.
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Curriculum Content
Students are taught what. Students are taught what
and how
Assessment
Teacher assess.
Product is important.
Students are involved in peer
and self-assessment.
Product and process are
important
Source: Diaz-Rico, L.(2008). Strategies for Teaching English Learners, (2nd
edn.) Boston: Pearson Education, Inc.
Exercise 2
Which of the cognitivist principles listed in the above do you think are being
practiced in the classrooms? Give specific examples.
CONTENT
SESSION TWO (3 Hours)
2.2.3 Social Construct ivism
Just as Cognitive Learning Psychology began replacing the predominant
Behavioural Psychology in the 1970s, Constructivist Learning Psychology has
been challenging the cognitive approach from the 1990s. A reaction to didactic
approaches, constructivism states that learning is an active, contextualized
process of constructing knowledge rather than acquiring it. Constructivism is a
perspective of learning that has its origins in the works of Bruner, Piaget and
Vygoysky. It is Vygotskys social development which is one of the foundations
for constructivism.
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Constructivists emphasize that learning is a social activity. They believe
that often it is social experiences rather than what is taught in schools which
accounts for much of the variation in student learning. Cooperative, collaborative
and group investigation methods allow students to discuss ideas, beliefs and
values with their peers and teachers. They also argued that the responsibility of
learning resides with the learner. Learners interpret what they hear, read and
see based on their previous learning, habits and experiences. Students who do
not have appropriate background knowledge will be unable to to accurately hear
or see what is before them. Unlike previous educational viewpoints where the
responsibility rested with the teacher to teach and where the learner played a
passive role, social constructivism emphasizes the importance of the learner
being actively involved in the learning process with the teacher playing the role
as facilitator. Learning is enhanced when students learn how to learn, engage in
serious discussion, and have shared responsibility for applying what they know to
new situations.
What does this mean for classroom learning? As active learners exploring
and going beyond the information given, thus students should be provided with
authentic and challenging projects that encourage them to work together with
one another. Authentic settings would provide learners with opportunities to see
a problem from different perspectives as well as negotiate and generate solutions
through sharing and exchange of ideas. In an authentic environment, learners
assume responsibilities for their own learning. The aim is to create a situation
more closely related to collaborative practice in the real world.
The following is a list of constructivist principles quite often applied in
teaching and learning in the classroom:
Encourage student autonomy and initiative
- Students take responsibility for their own learning
- Respect students ideas and encourage independent thinking
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Promote higher order thinking amongst students
- Ask questions that will influence student response
- Challenge students to analyze, justify and defend their ideas
Engage students in meaningful learning
- Provide students opportunity to express their ideas
- Involve students in real-world situations
The main critique of Social Constructivism is that it is often seen as
being less rigorous than traditional approaches to instruction.
Exercise 3
Discuss some problems related to implementing constructivist principles in the
classroom. Describe with specific examples.
Now, take a break before you move on to the next topic.
2.2.4 Humanism
Humanism refers to a movement in psychology which emerged in the
1960s and 1970s. Humanism has its roots in counseling psychology and
focuses its attention on how individuals acquire emotions, attitudes, values and
interpersonal skills. Perhaps the most well-known applications of humanism in
ELT are those of Gattegno (1972) and Curran (1976).
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Humanistic psychologists believe that how a person feels about learning is
as important as how the person thinks or even behaves. They describe
behaviour not from the viewpoint of the teacher as do behaviourists but rather
from the vantage point of the student who is performing the activity.
Humanists, led by such famous authors as Abraham Maslow and Carl
Rogers, are especially concerned with the idea of self-actualization, the growth of
a person to achieve whatever degree of individual satisfaction they are capable
of achieving. Learning is not an end in itself: it is the means to progress towards
self-development. A student learns because he or she is inwardly driven (self-
motivation), and derives his or her reward from the sense of achievement that
having learned something affords. Hence, much of a humanist teachers effort
would be put into developing a students self-esteem. This form of education,
known as student-centred, is typified by the student taking responsibility and
owning their learning.
The humanist teacher is a facilitator and not a disseminator of knowledge.
He or she creates an educational environment that fosters self-development,
cooperation, positive communications, and personalization of information. In
particular, the humanist teacher needs to have a thorough grasp of both how
students learn and what motivates them to learn. Participatory and discovery
methods would be favoured instead of traditional didacticism. As well as the
students academic needs the humanist teacher is also concerned with the
students affective or emotional needs. Feeling and thinking are very much
interlinked. Humanists believe that feeling positive about oneself facilitates
learning.
The following are some principles in the classroom based on humanistic
principles:
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Establish a warm, democratic, positive and non-threatening environment
for the students to work in.
Provide learning experiences that will lead to the development of habits
and attitudes that teachers want to foster.
Teachers should be role models and set good examples for students to
emulate.
Students are given choices (with limitations) and freedom (with
responsibilities) to plan and carry out activities.
Teacher facilitates the learning process and share ideas with students.
Learning is based on life experiences, discovery, exploring and
experimenting.
Respect students feelings and aspirations.
Provide opportunity for success.
De-emphasize rigorous, performance-oriented, test-dominated
approaches.
Students are allowed to set their own goals and follow their own pace
Experiential learning is encouraged.
Exercise 4
To what extent do you think schools give attention to the affective (emotions,
feelings) aspects of learning? Discuss by citing specific examples.
Summary.
What conclusions can we draw from this discussion of various theories of
learning? Instructional learning theories are centred on the major schools of
educational psychology. From these so-called schools have evolved modern
thinking and practice about how learning occurs and how your instruction in the
classroom ultimately affects that learning. Each has its own merits and each has
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shortcomings that may make them inappropriate in certain learning situations.
Your understanding of the basic principles and assumptions of Behaviourism,
Cognitivism, Constructivism and Humanism is critical to your approach to
classroom teaching. However, looking back over the current practices in our
classrooms, it becomes abundantly clear that they are a composite of the many
different theories we have learnt.
Tutorial Task
Based on what you have read in this unit, compare the four major theoreticalperspectives explaining human learning. Then, in your view as a teacher, state
your personal beliefs about the teaching-learning process.
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TOPIC 3 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (I)
KRASHENS MONITOR MODEL
3.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 3 provides input on a predominant Second Language Learning Theory
called Krashens Monitor Model. There are five components or hypotheses
which form the basis of the model. These are Input Hypothesis, Affective Filter
Hypothesis, Acquisition Learning Hypothesis, Monitor Hypothesis and Natural
Order Hypothesis. The topic also deals with the implications of this model for
teaching.
3.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this session, you will be able to:
1. demonstrate an understanding of Krashens Monitor Model
2. explain the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
3. identify the relationship between the five hypothesis of the Monitor Model
4. explain the implications of this model for teaching.
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3.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
CONTENT
SESSION THREE (6 Hours)
3.3 Krashens Monitor Model
Second language acquisition theory seeks to explain how and by whatprocesses individuals acquire a second language. A predominant theory of
second language acquisition was developed by Steven Krashen from the
University of Southern California. Krashen is a specialist in language acquisition
and development and his influential theory is widely accepted in the language
learning community.
The following are some quotes from Krashen (1982) about language
acquisition.
"Language acquisition does not require extensive use of conscious
grammatical rules, and does not require tedious drill."
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"Acquisition requires meaningful interaction in the target language -
natural communication - in which speakers are concerned not with the
form of their utterances but with the messages they are conveying and
understanding."
The best methods are therefore those that supply 'comprehensible input'
in low anxiety situations, containing messages that students really want to
hear. These methods do not force early production in the second
language, but allow students to produce when they are 'ready',
recognizing that improvement comes from supplying communicative and
comprehensible input, and not from forcing and correcting production."
"In the real world, conversations with sympathetic native speakers who are
willing to help the acquirer understand are very helpful."
Krashen explains five fundamental components - which he calls
hypotheses - as the basis for his language teaching model. Each of the
components relates to a different aspect of the language learning process. The
five components are as follows:
1. The Input Hypothesis
2. The Affective Filter Hypothesis
3. The Acquisition Learning Hypothesis
4. The Monitor Hypothesis
5. The Natural Order Hypothesis
3.3.1 Input Hypothesis
Krashen believes that the main factor in acquisition is not language use
but language input, in other words what the learner hears and reads. The most
useful form of input has to be understandable and it should be just a little
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beyond the learner's present capacity. If it is too far beyond, the learner will not
pay attention to the input, and if it is not far enough, the learner will learn nothing.
The learner improves and progresses along the 'natural order' when he/she
receives second language 'input' that is one step beyond his/her current stage of
linguistic competence. If a learner is at a stage 'i', acquisition takes place when
he/she is exposed to 'comprehensible input' that belongs to level 'i + 1. Here i
refers to the current language level the learners are at. i + 1 means a level
higher than the level the students are at or the next level along the natural order.
Natural communicative input is the key to designing a syllabus, thus ensuring
that each learner will receive some 'i + 1' input that is appropriate for his/her
current stage of linguistic competence.
Karshen suggests that teachers should give rough-tuned input and a wide
variety of materials, supported by visual cues and realia which gives it a
context within which the learner may guess at the content. As such,
language teachers must make input comprehensible by contextualizing it.
Evidences for the input hypothesis can be found in the following situations:
Effectiveness of caretaker speech from an adult to a child/ people speak
to children acquiring their first language in special ways.
Adults speaking to children modify their language in order to aid
comprehension. Adults roughly-tune to childs level of linguistic
competence. These include use of baby-talk and short simple sentences.
Teacher-talk from a teacher to a language student.
Teachers simplify their language to make L2 learners understand or go
down to L2 learners comprehension.
Foreigner-talk from a sympathetic conversation partner to a language
learner or acquirer
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Some of the ways a foreigner talks to a language learner include slower
pronunciation, omission of features of connected speech, heavier stress
on key words, short responses, use of gestures and demonstrations.
L2 learners often go through an initial Silent Period.
A learner is silent to build up competencies in 2nd language via listening.
Speaking only emerges after the learner has enough competence in the
language.
Krashen indicates that the comparative success of younger and older
learners reflects provision of comprehensible input. The more comprehensible
input the greater the L2 proficiency. The lack of comprehensible input delays
language acquisition. As such teaching methods work according to the extent
that teachers use comprehensible input. One finds that immersion teaching is
successful because it provides comprehensible input. As for bilingual
programmes, they succeed to the extent teachers provide comprehensible input
3.3.2 Af fective Filter Hypothesis
This hypothesis describes external factors that can act as a filter thatimpedes acquisition. These factors include motivation, self-confidence, and
anxiety. If a learner has very low motivation, very low self-confidence, and a high
level of anxiety, the affective filter falls into place and inhibits the learner from
acquiring the new language. On the other hand, learners who are motivated,
confident, and relaxed about learning the target language have more success
acquiring a second language.
Barriers to learning can also be found in any negative feelings that a learner has
about the language, the method used, the institution or the teacher. These
feelings become a kind of filter, which keeps the input out. Hence, the teacher's
job is to make language learning free of stress and enjoyable.
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3.3.3 Acquis it ion-Learning Hypothesis
Krashen elucidates two systems of language acquisition that are
independent but related namely the acquired system and the learned system.
The acquired system relates to the unconscious aspect of language
acquisition. When people learn their first language by speaking the language
naturally in daily interaction with others the acquired system is at work. Here
speakers are more concerned with the act of communicating meaning than the
structure of their utterances.
On the other hand, the learned system relates to formal instruction where
students engage in formal study to acquire knowledge about the target language.
One example of the learned system is the studying the rules of syntax.
The differences between acquisition and learning are depicted in Figure 1
below:
Acquisit ion Learning
implicit, subconscious explicit, conscious
informal situations formal situations
uses grammatical 'feel' uses grammatical rules
depends on attitude depends on aptitude
stable order of acquisition simple to complex order of
learning
Fig. 1: Differences between acquisition and learning
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3.2.4 Monitor Hypothesis
The monitor hypothesis seeks to explain how the learned system affects
the acquired system. According to Krashen, the formal rule system acts as the
Monitorin the acquired system. When second language learners monitor their
speech, they apply their understanding of learned grammar to edit, plan, and
initiate their communication. This action can only occur when speakers have
ample time to think about the form and structure of their sentences.
The Monitor is best used when:
we have to be very careful
when language is necessarily formal
e.g. writing letters of application, speaking to a hierarchical superior in a
formal situation.
There are three conditions required by the Monitor:
Time
The learner must have time to use the monitor. Using the monitor
requires the speaker to slow down and focus on the form of language. Focus on correctness of form
The learner must be focused or thinking about the form of language. A
learner may find it difficult to focus on meaning and form at the same time.
Knowledge of rules
The learner must know the rules. This means that the speaker must have
had explicit instruction on the language form that he or she is trying to
produce.
There three types of monitor users over-users, under-users and optimal-
users. Monitor over-users try to always use their monitor, and are so concerned
with correctness that they cannot speak with any real fluency. Monitor under-
users have not consciously learned or choose not to use their conscious
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knowledge of the language. Error correction by others has little influence on them,
as they can often correct themselves based on a "feel" for correctness.
Teachers should aim to produce optimal monitor users, who use the
monitor when it is appropriate and when it does not interfere with communication.
They do not use their conscious knowledge of grammar in normal conversation,
but will use it in writing and planned speech. Optimal monitor users can
therefore use their learned competence as a supplement to their acquired
competence
Krashen suggests that we should leave the monitor unemployed most of
the time, and concentrate upon the meaning that we wish to convey, rather than
on the form of our utterances.
3.2.5 Natural Order Hypothesis
According to this hypothesis there is a natural order to the way second
language learners acquire their target language. Krashen states that there is a
natural order in which learners pick up a language and this order is roughly
the same for all learners regardless of their linguistic background.
Research shows that this natural order seems to go beyond age, the
learner's native language, the target language, and the conditions under which
the second language is being learned.
Mistakes made by learners are a necessary part of language learning.
These mistakes are not random, but are very similar to the errors that
children make when learning their first language. The mistakes that students
make through time lie in a rough sequence.
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In addition, the sequence of errors for acquired language is not the same
as the sequence of learned grammar items. Some grammatical morphemes
which appear simple from the learning point of view are in fact acquired late - the
's' of PTS. Chinese learning English make the same mistakes, and will learn in
more or less the same order as the French. According to Krashen, this indicates
that there is a natural order in which learners pick up a language. In
addition, these mistakes will be made in the same order whether the
learners have been taught the grammar or not, and that teaching grammar
will not help them change the order.
The combined model of acquisition and production is shown in the
diagram below.
Combined model of acquisition and production
3.2.6 Implications for Teaching
Krashens Monitor Model has its implications for ESL/EFL teaching. Input
hypothesis focuses on comprehensible input at i + 1 level. To enable learners
to advance in language acquisition, teachers need to expose them to large
amounts of authentic language. The language need not be specifically graded in
terms grammatical progression, but adapted to the students interests and
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purposes for learning the language. A wide variety of input, supported by
visual cues and realia should be contextualized in a way that the learner can
understand a large amount of spoken or written language.
According to Krashen comprehension precedes production. As such, L2
learners often go through an initial Silent Period. Teachers should provide time
for silent period to allow learners to build up acquired competence in a language
before they begin to produce it.
In line with the Affective Filter Hypothesis, language acquisition should be
done in relaxing and friendly conditions. Affective-humanistic activities such as
dialogues, interviews, personal charts and tables are encouraged.
Tutorial Task
How does the Krashens Monitor Model help a teacher better to understand how
his/her second language students learn?
Design materials and tasks suitable for primary school learners in relation to
Krashens Monitor Model
Relax and move on to the next topic when you are ready.
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TOPIC 4 SECOND LANGUAGE LEARNING THEORIES (II)
4.0 SYNOPSIS
Topic 4 introduces you to Noam Chomskys Universal Grammar(UG), reasons
why it is termed as such and what does it consists of. It also aims to show how
UG relates to first language and second language acquisition. It also discusses
its implications for English language teaching.
4.1 LEARNING OUTCOMES
By the end of this Session, you will be able to:
define Universal Grammar
explain why it is termed Universal Grammar
explain what Universal Grammar consist of
relate Universal Grammar and first language acquisition
relate Universal Grammar and second language acquisition
identify and discuss implications for teaching
4.2 FRAMEWORK OF TOPICS
IMPLICATIONS FOR TEACHING
UNIVERSAL
GRAMMAR
PRINCIPLES PARAMETERS
UG AND FIRST LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
UG AND SECOND LANGUAGE
ACQUISITION
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CONTENT
SESSION FOUR (3 Hours)
4.2.1 What is Universal Grammar?
Universal Grammar (UG) is the system of principles, conditions,
and rules that are elements or properties of all human languages.
(Chomsky, 1969)
This means that a native speaker of a language knows a set of principles that
can be applied to all languages and parameters that vary from one language to
another. It also refers to an innate, genetic endowment of language-specific
knowledge consisting of the principles and parameters of language.
4.2.2 Why it is named Universal Grammar?
Chomsky named this innate capacity as Universal Grammar. Universal imply that it is
universal to all human beings and human languages and grammar signify the facts
about grammar (language rules) that humans are born knowing.
Before the 1960s, the Structuralist Model was very dominant. It was simply descriptive of
the different levels of production, namely: phonology, morphology, syntax and semantics.
This model did not provide any model or frame work for understanding how the actual
learning takes place.
Language was usually understood from a behaviourist perspective, suggesting that
language learning, like any other kind of learning, could be explained by a succession of
trials, errors, and rewards for success. In the late 1950s, Skinner constructed his
cognitive learning model: behaviorism which correlates with the notion.
Stimulus response reinforcement and habit formation
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According to Skinner, the mind is a blank slate at birth. Children learn the language their
mother tongue by simple imitation, listening to and repeating what adults said.
Thus in 1960s Linguist Noam Chomsky puts forward that the human brain contains a
limited set of rules for organizing language. He there is an assumption that all languages
have a common structural basis. This set of rules is known as universal grammar.
There are three main points of critique of Skinner by Chomsky:
1. Poverty -of-the-stimulus
Speakers proficient in a language know what expressions are acceptable in their
language and what expressions are unacceptable. How speakers should come to know
the restrictions of their language is a mystery, since expressions which violate those
restrictions are not present in the input, indicated as such. This absence of negative
evidencethat is, absence of evidence that an expression is part of a class of the
ungrammatical sentences in one's languageis the core of the poverty of stimulus
argument. For example, in English one cannot relate a question word like 'what' to a
predicate within a relative clause (1):
(1) *What did Dan meet a man who build?
Such expressions are not available to the English language learners, because they are,
by hypothesis, ungrammatical and unacceptable for speakers of that language.
Universal grammar offers a solution to the poverty of the stimulus problem by making
certain restrictions universal characteristics of human languages. Language learners are
consequently never tempted to generalize in an illicit fashion. The logical problem of
language acquisition is that the input is ungrammatical and incomplete and the output
are grammatically acceptable. Children only hear a finite number of sentences but they
are able to learn the abstract rules and principles of the language and produce an infinite
number of sentences.
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2. Constraints and principles cannot be learned
Chomsky believes that the reason that children so easily master the complex operations
of language is that they have innate knowledge of certain principles that guide them in
developing the grammar of their language. His theory on language learning is facilitated
by a predisposition that our brains have certain structures of language. Children, without
having had any formal instruction, can consistently produce and interpret sentences that
they have never encountered before even before the age of 5. At age 6, no one has the
cognitive ability to understand the principles of grammar as a system. It is this
extraordinary ability to use language despite having had only very partial exposure to the
allowable syntactic variants that led Chomsky to formulate his poverty of the stimulus
argument, which was the foundation for the Universal Grammar hypothesis that he
proposed in the early 1960s.
3. Patterns of development are universal
When children develop their language, they learn the various aspects of language in a
very similar order. If children only learned what they are taught, the order of what they
learned would vary in different environments. But Brown (1973) found that there is a very
specific order of MORPHEME acquisition. Morphemes are the smallest syntactic units
that can carry a meaning such as the following examples:
a) Prefixes un and suffix -ed in the word unlimited
b) Present progressive ing ( Daddy jumping)
c) Plural s ( as in books)
d) Irregular past forms ( I run I ran)
Chomsky further explains that human languages exhibit remarkable similarities or
principles. These patterns are called universals. We can find these similarities on many
linguistic levels:
i. Phonological universals: Consonants, for example, are distinguished also
according to the location of their production, that is, after the various organs of
the vocal tract. With the help of this detailed information we can now refer to
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every consonant by its location and manner of articulation; [f], for example, is a
voiceless, labiodentals fricative.
ii. Syntactic universals: Most of existing languages have verbs, nouns, adjectives
and pronouns.
iii. Semantic universals: One semantic universal regards our notion ofcolor. There
exist eleven basic color terms: black, white, red, green, blue, yellow, brown,
purple, pink, orange, and grey.
4.2.3 What does Universal Grammar cons ist of?
Universal Grammar exists in the childs mind as a system ofprinciples and parameters.
The amount of all the principles cover grammar, speech sounds, and meaning that
heredity builds into the human language organ. Principles of Language are rules of the
language or abstract principles that permit or prohibit certain structures from occurring in
all human languages. It is the properties that all languages possess. For example, the
principle of structure dependency asserts that knowledge of language relies on the
structural relationship in a sentence rather than on the sequence of the words. To
illustrate this, we need to establish the concept of phrase structure in the English
Language. Study the following example:
(English) The artist drew an eagle.
(Bahasa Melayu) Pelukis itu melukis seekor burung helang.
This sentence breaks up into a noun phrase (NP) the artist and verb phrase(VP) drew
an eagle. These phrases also break up into smaller constituents. The (NP) the artist
consists of a determiner (Det or D) the and a Noun (N) artist, while the NP an eagle
consists of a determiner an and a Noun eagle.
Sentence
Noun Phrase Verb Phrase
Determiner Noun Verb Noun Phrase
The artist drew Determiner Noun
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an eagle
The above example shows the existence of UG allows a speaker to follow certain rules
of grammar (a sentence has to have a subject) to correctly construct a sentence in that
language.
Whereas Parameters of Language are systematic ways in which human languages
vary which determine the syntactic variability amongst languages. For example, the use
of past tense in English and Arabic which is non-existent in Bahasa Melayu. Look at the
following example:
i. I went to the market yesterday. English ( change in verb go to went)
ii. Semalam saya pergi ke pasar. B. Melayu ( no change in verb pergi)
Chomsky (1986) reiterates that UG is part of the human genetic endowment and is
coded in the Language Acquisition Faculty(LAF). LAF is an innate component of the
human mind that yields a particular language through interaction with presented
experience, a device that converts experience into a system of knowledge attained:
knowledge of one or another language.
Tutorial TaskPrepare your answer to the following questions for your tutorialsession.
Exercise 4.1
a) In your own words, define Universal Grammar.
b) Why did Chomsky named this innate component of the human mindas Universal Grammar?
c) Explain briefly with your own examples what is meant by principles in UG.
d) Explain briefly with your own examples what is meant by parameters inUG.
e) List and describe briefly the 3 points of critique by Chomsky on SkinnersBehaviourist Model.
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Reflection
Do you agree with Chomsky?
Take a break before you move on to the next topic.
SESSION TWO (3 Hours)
4.2.4 Universal Grammar and firs t language acquis ition
The main questions are how UG is used and what other procedures (knowledge,
methods) play a role in the acquisition process.
Before we proceed, answer the following question.
In your own words, what does language acquisition refer to?
Lets check your answer.
Language acquisition usually refers to first language acquisition, which studies infants'
acquisition of their native language. It is the process by which humans acquire the
capacity to perceive and comprehend language, and to produce and use words to
communicate. This is different from second language acquisition, which deals with the
acquisition (in both children and adults) of additional languages.
Can you describe the various stages of language acquisition of a child?
You may check your answers in Session 2 and references listed in the
bibliography about First language acquisition.
The processes in each stage of development show that children are able to learn the
"superficial" grammar of a particular language unconsciously because all intelligible
languages are founded on a "deep structure" of grammatical rules that are universal and
that correspond to an innate capacity of the human brain. Stages in the acquisition of a
native language can be measured by the increasing complexity and originality of a
child's utterances. As illustrated by the example, goed (meaning went), children at first
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may overgeneralize grammatical rules for a form they are unlikely to have heard,
suggesting that they have intuited or deduced complex grammatical rules (here, how to
conjugate regular verbs) and failed only to learn exceptions that cannot be predicted
from a knowledge of the grammar alone.
Although children usually learn the sounds and vocabulary of their native language
through imitation, grammar is seldom taught to them explicitly whereby they could
acquire the ability to speak grammatically. This supports the theory advanced by Noam
Chomsky and other proponents of transformational grammar.
He claims that children are biologically programmed for language and that language
develops in a child in just the same way that other biological functions
develop(Lightbown and Spada, 1999). As one of humans biological functions, walking,
does not have to be taught. Most children learn to walk at about the same age as long
as adequate nourishment and reasonable freedom of movement are provided. Similarly
language acquisition develops progressively naturally according to age due to the
existence of the principles and parameters of UG. Exposure to language triggers the
parameters to adopt the correct setting.
Besides, language is said to be innate because it has the following characteristics:
i. Maturationally controlled
This is because language emerge before they are critically needed and cannot
be forced before scheduled. A child follows a sequence of stages before she is
able to speak.
ii. Do not appear as the result of a conscious decision.
A child does not decide to consciously acquire certain skills such as walking or
learning a language.
iii. Do not appear due to a trigger from external events.
What would prompt a child to begin speaking?
iv. Are relatively unaffected by direct teaching and intensive practice.
Although we correct childrens errors, it does not help them learn the rules.
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v. Follow a regular sequence of milestones in their development.
In spite of different backgrounds, locations, and upbringings, most children follow
the same milestones in acquiring language.
vi. Generally observe a critical period for their acquisition.For first language acquisition, there seems to be a critical period of the first five
years, during which children must be exposed to rich language input. There is
also a period, from about 10 16 years, when acquisition is possible, but not
native-like.
Among Chomskys arguments for his claim that children have this innate capacity,
Universal Grammar, are as follows (Lightbown and Spada, 1999):
1. Virtually all children successfully learn their native language as a time in life when
they would not be expected to learn anything else so complicated. Children who
are profoundly deaf will learn sign language if they are exposed to it in infancy,
and their progress in language acquisition is similar to that of hearing children.
Even children with very limited cognitive ability develop quite complex language
systems if they are brought up in environments in which people talk to them and
engage them in communication.
2. Children successfully master the basic structure of their native language or
dialect in a variety of conditions: some which would be expected to enhance
language development (for example, caring, attentive parents who focus on the
childs language) , and some which might be expected to inhibit it( for example,
abusive or rejecting parents). Children achieve different levels of vocabulary,
creativity, social grace, and so on, but virtually all achieve mastery of the
structure of the language spoken around them. This supports the hypothesis
that language is separate from other aspects of cognitive development and m,ay
even be located in a different part of the brain. The term modular is sometimes
used to represent the notion that the brain has different modules which serve
different kinds of knowledge and learning.
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3. The language children are exposed to does not contain examples(or, in any case,
not very many examples) of all the linguistic rules and patterns which they
eventually know.
4. Animals even primates receiving intensive training from humans cannot learnto manipulate a symbol system as complicated as the natural language of a three
or four-year-old human child.
5. Children seem to accomplish the complex task of language acquisition without
having someone consistently point out to them which of the sentences they hear
and produce are correct and which are ungrammatical.
The above evidences show that direct tea