MUSALLJ/302/4/2011

College of Human Sciences School of Arts

DEPARTMENT OF ART HISTORY, VISUAL ARTS AND MUSICOLOGY

TO ALL STUDENTS IN MUSICOLOGY

MUSALLJ

Tutorial Letter 302/4/2011

THE WRITE STUFF

► STYLE, REFERENCING AND CITATION FOR ASSIGNMENTS AND RESEARCH PROJECTS

► HINTS ON WRITING A GOOD ESSAY

It is extremely important to

study this tutorial letter carefully. Please take the time to do so

and refer to it repeatedly.

Tutorial letter compiled by George King and Stephanie Vos

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CONTENTS PART 1: STYLE, REFERENCING AND CITATION FOR ASSIGNMENTS AND RESEARCH PROJECTS INTRODUCTION ................................................................................. 5 1 ACADEMIC STYLE: THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF

SCHOLARLY WRITING .............................................................6 Taking care of your writing style...........................................6 Quote accurately....................................................................6 Use abbreviations correctly...................................................7 Watch your punctuation.......................................................8 Spelling................................................................................10 Titles of books......................................................................10 Titles of musical works........................................................10 Musical examples and illustrations.....................................12 Foreign terms and their plurals...........................................13 Numbers...............................................................................14 2 REFERENCING AND CITATIONS ...................................... 15

What is referencing?............................................................15 What is plagiarism?.............................................................16 How to avoid plagiarism: Citation.......................................16 Citation: How to cite............................................................17 Content notes (footnotes and endnotes)............................20

3 THE BIBLIOGRAPHY AND DISCOGRAPHY ................... 21

The Bibliography or List of References: What is it?...........21 Format of the Bibliography.................................................22

Books..............................................................................22 Articles............................................................................22 Scores..............................................................................23 Interviews.......................................................................23 Unisa study guides.........................................................23 Unisa tutorial letters......................................................24 Grove Music Online Entries...........................................24 Internet sites...................................................................24

The Discography: What is it?..............................................25 Format of the Discography.................................................25

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Compact Discs................................................................25 DVDs/Videos..................................................................25

General guidelines for the bibliography and discography....26

PART 2: HINTS ON WRITING A GOOD ESSAY 1 IN A NUTSHELL.......................................................................28 General pointers for essays...................................................29 Things to avoid.....................................................................30 2 UNDERSTANDING THE QUESTION ................................. 31 Read the question................................................................31

Find the key words in the question.....................................31 Determine the scope of the question..................................33

3 RESEARCHING THE TOPIC ................................................. 33 Finding information............................................................34

Extracting relevant material...............................................35 Critically assessing your sources.........................................37 Using the internet...............................................................37

4 WRITING THE ESSAY ............................................................. 38 Planning..............................................................................38 Writing.................................................................................39 5 TECHNICAL ASPECTS FOR ESSAYS ................................ 40 General layout.....................................................................40 Quotations and citations.....................................................41 Bibliography and Discography............................................41 6 CRITERIA FOR EVALUATING ASSIGNMENT

AND EXAMINATION ESSAYS..............................................41 Descriptions of essay mark brackets...................................41 Checklist: Answer these questions before you submit.......43

BIBLIOGRAPHY .......................................................... .....................46

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Dear Student,

This letter is quite lengthy, but it presents you with crucial advice which you need to study carefully and apply in your assignment essays. Please refer to it frequently when preparing your work for assessment. Academic writing has its own conventions which you need to know and master in order to prepare acceptable assignment essays. These conventions include knowing how to reference or cite your sources in a consistent way. Being able to do so will improve the technical side of your written assignments and affect the marks you receive. You may also find the guidance on writing essays helpful in carrying out your assignments and answering examination questions. And you will definitely be able to avoid committing plagiarism, a serious matter in academic work. Parts of this tutorial letter are based on material written some years ago by Karen Harris (formerly of the Department of History, Unisa) and Nicholas Southey of the Department of History, Unisa. In addition, my colleagues Marie Jorritsma, Cameron Harris and Stephanie Vos have made many valuable comments and contributions to this latest version. To all of these I owe a debt of gratitude. All good wishes, GEORGE T. KING Coordinator: Musicology programmes

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PART 1

STYLE, REFERENCING AND CITATIONS FOR ASSIGNMENTS

AND RESEARCH PROJECTS

INTRODUCTION Style, referencing and citation in assignment essays and other academic writing can be quite tricky if you are inexpert. Yet they are really very important in terms of turning out a decent and acceptable piece of academic writing, which is what you do each time you complete a written assignment. The recommendations given in this tutorial letter, which are based on the sources named in the Bibliography at the end, are a consistent and practical solution to the most common problems of style and documentation that you are likely to come across in writing an essay. If you have problems with grammar and language usage you ought to take immediate steps to improve your skills in these areas. I have dealt with a few of the most common shortcomings in the first section 1 (Academic Style: The Nuts and Bolts of Scholarly Writing). Style is the way we do things. It affects the way we write and set out our written assignments as much as how we dress or what make of car we drive. How we express ourselves in written form in an assignment or academic article, how we refer to or cite the sources we use, and how we record the sources – books, journal articles, Internet web pages, musical scores and recordings – these are all important aspects of our presentation. As Nicholas Cook (2007: 311) has put it, ‘Words channel our experiences of music; by representing our experiences to others, and even to

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ourselves, we contribute to making those experiences what they are’. So please take the trouble to look through this tutorial letter as it contains important and useful guidelines for you to follow.

1 ACADEMIC STYLE: THE NUTS AND BOLTS OF SCHOLARLY WRITING

When preparing an essay you should remember that you are in effect undertaking a piece of scholarly work. What is more, your style of presentation often reflects your thought processes. An untidy, sloppily-presented essay often indicates a careless approach to your work. Even if this is not so, at the very least a carelessly-presented essay is disrespectful and even offensive to your reader. So always take care with such matters as language usage, spelling, choice of words, the formal documentation of sources, and so on. These are crucial matters you need to attend to. TAKING CARE OF YOUR WRITING STYLE Use language precisely: don’t expect your reader to guess at your meaning. Write sentences that are formally and grammatically complete, with decent punctuation. QUOTE ACCURATELY When you quote an author ensure that you reproduce the original words absolutely accurately. This applies to spelling, punctuation, word order and italics. If you need to change anything in the quotation, you need to show that you have done so. Note the following academic practices:

• If you need to omit one or more words from the original, use an ellipsis (…) to show that you have done so.

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• If you need to capitalize (or non-capitalize) the first word of the quotation to fit into its new sentence structure, indicate the change by putting the altered letter in square brackets. Example: Peddie asserts that ‘[m]usic affects a relationship.’ (2006: xvi)

Try to avoid using long quotations. It is usually better to summarise a writer’s opinion in your own words – and then acknowledge that you have done so (see ‘Referencing and Citations’). Using single quotation marks is standard British practice; using double quotation marks is American practice. Choose whichever you prefer, but remember to be consistent. Always double-check a quotation for accuracy of word order, spelling, use of capital letters, quotation marks, italicization and so on. There is no excuse for reproducing a quotation inaccurately. USE ABBREVIATIONS CORRECTLY Don’t use abbreviations you would not normally find in printed scholarly essays or in textbooks. Remember that it is standard practice in formal written work to place a full stop after an abbreviation. Only in the case of a contraction is it unnecessary to use a full stop. ► What’s the difference between an abbreviation and a con-

traction? An abbreviation is a word from which the final letters have been omitted, such as op. in place of opus (op**) or vol. in place of volume (vol***). A contraction is a word from which the middle letters have been omitted, but which ends with the word’s final letter, such as Mr for Mister (M*****r), Dr for Doctor (D****r) and St for Street (S****t) or Saint (S***t).

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(In the USA the difference between abbreviations and contractions is usually ignored, so in American textbooks you will always find a stop after Mr, Dr and St. In South Africa we follow conventional British usage.)

Generally speaking, acronyms and initialisms (abbreviations which are formed by using the initial components or initials in a phrase or name) also do not require full stops. Examples are CD, DVD, Unisa (or UNISA), SABC, NG2, UK, USA. Please note the following abbreviations: Recommended Avoid i.e. ie e.g. eg (or for e.g.) ibid. ibid WATCH YOUR PUNCTUATION Punctuation is important. Although this is not the place to give you detailed information on how to punctuate properly, the following examples will show you just how much care you need to take with your punctuation. Give particular attention especially to these matters: • Confusion between ‘its’ and ‘it’s’. The apostrophe in ‘it’s’ is

intended to signal to the reader that something has been left out, as in the following examples:

It’s about time (it is about time) It’s become warm (it has become warm) This is the ONLY time an apostrophe in it’s is

correct. • The ‘yob’s comma’. This, writes Truss (2003: 98), is a

punctuation mark that ‘has no syntactical value’. As an example she cites the following sentence:

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The society decided not to prosecute the owners of the Windsor Safari Park, where animals, have allegedly been fed live to snakes and lions, on legal advice.

She then comments:

The comma after ‘animals’ is not only ungrammatical and intrusive, but throws the end of the sentence (‘on legal advice’) into complete semantic chaos. (Truss 2003: 98)

• Also note that it is not necessary to use the apostrophe in the following cases:

CDs not CD’s 1980s not 1980’s

• If an extract ends with a full-stop, question mark or

exclamation mark, put the punctuation mark before the closing inverted comma:

For example:

In his chapter, Ralph P. Locke asks the questions ‘How

can a musicologist express her/his social concern? In what ways is her/his work socially relevant? And how might it become more so?’

If the quotation does not include any punctuation, the closing inverted commas should precede any punctuation marks that your sentence may require. For example:

For example: Cook points out that ‘Locke’s “Musicology and/as social Concern” … calls for the making explicit of implicit ideological agenda’.

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SPELLING Take care to look after technical aspects such as spelling. In particular, make sure that you switch the spelling check on your word-processor package from ‘English (U.S.)’ to ‘English (U.K.)’ or ‘English (South Africa)’ on the ‘Set language’ option which you will find on the Language menu under ‘Tools’. In British English the word ‘colour’ is not spelled color; ‘centre’ is not center; ‘theatre’ is not theater. Also avoid sms-language: use ‘through’ not thru, ‘you’ not u, etc. TITLES OF BOOKS • If the title of a book is in English, you should always italicize

or underline it when you copy it in an assignment script or examination answer. Capitalize the first and chief words.

Underlining in a piece of handwritten work is the equivalent

of italics in print: The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians (not The New Grove’s Dictionary) Or The New Grove Dictionary of Music and Musicians. • Do not use quotation marks to indicate the title of published

books instead of italics or underlining. You may only use quotation marks in a book’s title if it appears in the title itself. (Remember, you must always reproduce a quotation absolutely accurately, exactly as it appears in the source.)

• In scholarly work, including your own assignment essays,

you should normally confine underlining to the titles of books and of long musical works. As far as possible you should try to avoid using underlining or italicization for emphasis.

TITLES OF MUSICAL WORKS The titles of operas, oratorios, motets, cantatas, tone poems and other long musical compositions should be written or typed in italics (or underlined in your handwritten or typewritten manuscript):

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Monteverdi’s opera Orfeo

Handel’s oratorio Messiah (incidentally, not The Messiah) Wagner’s opera Tristan und Isolde

John Adams’s theatre piece El Niño Titles of songs and short compositions should appear with single quotation marks without underlining: ‘Possente spirto’ from Monteverdi’s Orfeo The ‘Hallelujah’ chorus from Handel’s Messiah

The song ‘Das Wandern’ from Schubert’s song-cycle Die schöne Müllerin1

Tony’s song ‘Maria’ from Bernstein’s West Side Story Works identified by the name of the musical form in which they are written plus a number or key or both are capitalized but not italicized (underlined) or set in quotation marks. Whenever possible you should supply the opus number or the catalogue number; in the latter case the compiler’s initial letter is nowadays not usually followed by a full stop – for example, BWV (= Bach-Werke-Verzeichnis) or K (= Köchel). Descriptive titles (usually added posthumously) may be enclosed in quotation marks: Bach’s B minor Mass, BWV 232

Bach’s Prelude and Fugue in E flat major (‘St Anne’), BWV 552

Haydn’s Symphony No. 45 in F sharp minor (‘Farewell’) Mozart’s Piano Sonata in F major, K280 Beethoven’s Piano Sonata in F minor, Op. 2 No. 1

1 In German titles, whether of books or of musical works, all nouns (but only nouns) are capitalized. This rule also applies to anything written in German, whether it is a title or not.

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Names of keys require capitals as well as the term ‘major’ or ‘minor’:2 A major – not A

A minor – not a minor (which looks illiterate or at best just silly), nor a

Hyphens are not used in names of keys, not even adjectivally: A flat major, the F sharp minor triad You also need to capitalize musical terms used as titles of movements (but don’t italicize them):

The Affettuoso from Handel’s Concerto Grosso Op. 6 No. 4 in A minor The Finale from Shostakovich’s Symphony No. 7 (‘Leningrad’)

MUSICAL EXAMPLES AND ILLUSTRATIONS You may find it necessary to include a few short passages in musical notation that illustrate the points you wish to make instead of supplying a photocopy of an entire work (or even of an entire page). A carefully selected extract of three or four bars is usually more telling than a whole page of a score, especially if you have neglected to draw your reader’s attention to specific details in the long example. If you use a musical example or other type of illustration you should provide it with a proper caption and number, as in the following example:

Ex. 1. Vivaldi, Concerto Grosso Op. 3 No. 11, 2nd movement, bars 167-170

or Ex. 1. Vivaldi, Concerto Grosso Op. 3 No. 11, II, 167-170

2 This is different in the case of harmonic analyses. Some twentieth-century tonal works are written in a mixture of major and minor, so that only the key note is indicated, e.g. Stravinsky’s Symphony in C of 1940.

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(Note that in this alternative form the movement number is given in Roman numerals and the word ‘bars’ is omitted.)

The source of your example (i.e. the edition of the score or the book in which you found the example) should also be clearly indicated. The best way of doing this is to put this information in brackets immediately below the example, for example (and in reference to Ex. 1 above): (Kamien 1977:143) It follows that you ought to place a musical example in the body of your text and that you should make allowances for the amount of space it will take when you write or type your completed essay. A musical example should never obscure the text; it should not be pasted in with a little flap reading ‘please lift’ or ‘see over’. One does not expect to find musical examples set out in this way in a textbook or in a study guide and there’s no good reason why they should be presented like this in a student essay. FOREIGN TERMS AND THEIR PLURALS Since Italy occupied a supreme position in the seventeenth and early eighteenth centuries it’s not surprising that many of today’s musical terms are Italian in origin. A number of these Italian terms have long since been accepted in everyday English; examples are the words concertos, partitas, operas, oratorios, ritornellos and sonatas. My advice to you is to use the equivalent English or Afrikaans form of an Italian term when one is available and is in common use (for example, ‘church sonata’ for sonata da chiesa) and to use the Anglicized or Afrikaans form of the plural when the singular form has been assimilated into English or Afrikaans, as in ‘concertos’ or ‘sonatas’. Local words such as ‘kwela’ have also become part of accepted South African English, and don’t require italics (although it’s sometimes tricky deciding whether to use them or not).

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We find a real problem, however, with Italian compound terms and their plurals. While it is preferable by far to write and say ‘concertos’ in English (or ‘concerto’s’ in Afrikaans) instead of concerti, it is entirely another matter to write of ‘concerto grossos’, ‘concerto grossi’ or even ‘concerti grossos’. In the words of Henry Fowler (wise advice from many years ago), ‘those who use words or phrases belonging to languages with which they have little or no acquaintance do so at their own peril’ (1965: 207). Here there is no solution but to learn the correct plural form and stick to it. The following list gives the commonest and most troublesome Italian terms that you are likely to encounter: ITALIAN TERMS AND THEIR PLURALS Singular Plural concertino concertini (or concertinos) concerto da camera concerti da camera (or chamber

concertos) concerto da chiesa concerti da chiesa (or church concertos) concerto grosso concerti grossi opera buffa opere buffe (or comic operas) opera seria opere serie (or serious operas) sinfonia sinfonie (or sinfonias) sonata da camera sonate da camera (or chamber sonatas) sonata da chiesa sonate da chiesa (or church sonatas) NUMBERS It sometimes difficult to know what to do when writing numbers in a non-technical context such as an essay. New Hart’s Rules suggests using words for numbers below 100. So Beethoven wrote thirty-five piano sonatas, Haydn wrote 107 symphonies.3 Similarly, you should write ‘these two pieces’ instead of ‘these 2 pieces’ and ‘this four-part fugue’ instead of ‘this 4-part fugue’.

3 Recent research shows that three early piano works by Beethoven are in fact sonatas, giving a total of thirty-five instead of thirty-two. Similarly, the most accurate count of Haydn’s symphonic output puts the total at 107 and not 104.

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2 REFERENCING AND CITATION WHAT IS REFERENCING? When you quote from a source – a book, an article, a musical work or an Internet source – you must give a reference that enables your reader to find the original quotation. This you do normally by mentioning (citing) the exact page number(s). It is also most important that you also provide a reference for an idea, view or interpretation you have culled from another writer, even though you may have paraphrased the original in your own words. Apart from simply being polite to the reader (in the case of student work this would be your lecturer), we need to cite correctly in order to avoid plagiarism. This does not of course apply to common information such as when Handel was born, the fact that Beethoven wrote nine symphonies, or that the Beatles comprised four musicians. We use referencing or citations in order to alert the reader to the fact that we have derived certain information from another source. This is established practice in all academic or scholarly work worldwide. You need to provide a citation every time the source changes. Place the reference where it makes the most sense – for example, at the end of a clause or sentence. If you name the author, place the reference immediately after the author’s name. Each time you use a different source, or a different page number in the same source, you need to give a new reference. If the contents of an entire paragraph can be attributed to a single source, then it is sufficient to provide a single reference at the end of the paragraph. ► A handy source of information on referencing is

New Hart’s Rules, published by Oxford University Press (see the bibliography at the end of this tutorial letter). I would also recommend the Chicago Manual of Style, available online at http://www.chicagomanualofstyle.org/home.html.

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WHAT IS PLAGIARISM? If you present the work of someone else as if it were your own, without acknowledgment or citations, you create the impression that the ideas or words are your own. This is called plagiarism. You commit plagiarism when you deliberately or unintentionally omit citations. Why should we make such a fuss about plagiarism? The reason is simple: plagiarism is intellectually dishonest and therefore a serious offence. The Copyright Act protects all forms of published writing and prohibits the copying of any substantial amount of text (often regarded as approximately one tenth). Thus there are also legal angles to the whole question of plagiarism.

► Remember: plagiarism is always unacceptable

under any circumstances. You should always fully identify a direct quotation or even an idea you have borrowed from another author. It is dishonest not

to do so, because plagiarism is a form of intellectual theft.

HOW TO AVOID PLAGIARISM: CITATION What can you do in order to avoid plagiarism? Here is some sound advice (English et al. 2002: 41): • Acknowledge every single instance of using words and

ideas that are not your own. You do this by attributing every borrowed word or thought to the person who said it first.

• When you quote someone’s words directly, you have to

place these words in quotation marks. • Ensure that paraphrased or summarised material is

written in your own style and language. Simply re-arranging words or sentences is not acceptable.

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• If you are using a longer quotation (which you should try to avoid or use sparingly) the entire section should be indented and single-spaced to stand out clearly. A smaller typeface may also be used.

• When you use your own words to express the ideas of

someone else, you should still quote the source, even though you then do not have to use quotation marks.

• In addition to citing your sources in the body of the text,

you should provide a bibliography or list of references at the end of the text, giving full bibliographic details about each borrowed item.

• It is important to keep track of your reading as you go

along and not to keep citation for later, as you are sure to lose track of some of the things you have read. Use the ‘endnotes’ feature of your word-processing package to make your record-keeping easier.

So you should always fully acknowledge a statement or idea that you have taken from another source through an acceptable form of citation. We expect you to do this in written work under all circumstances, except when you are answering exam questions from memory.

CITATION: HOW TO CITE

There are various ways in which to acknowledge or cite your sources. In the past references to sources were always given in the form of footnotes or endnotes, but today’s trend is towards some form of parenthetical citation (referencing) within the text, even though you will still come across footnotes in some scholarly books and journals. We recommend that you use the author-date system in your assignment essays. The basic format is as follows: (author date of publication: page number)

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Examples of the author-date system: Citing one author:

• ‘Only … in this period has exact compliance with notation been widely seen as a virtue, since it is the first time that such a notion has become truly verifiable’ (Butt 2002: 122).

Citing one author whose name is mentioned in the sentence:

• According to Parrott (2000: 141), ‘if we are prepared to follow where the evidence leads, we must surely conclude that nearly all of Bach’s concerted “chorus” writing was designed to be performed with just one good singer on each part’.

Citing two authors:

• ‘In a technical sense, music is just organized sound...’ (Miller and Shahriari 2006: 47).

Citing two authors whose names are mentioned in the sentence:

• Miller and Shahriari assert that ‘[a]ll music manifests itself within a “culture”, however defined...’ (2006: 47).

* Note that the first letter of the quotation was changed from a capital to a small letter to accommodate its place in the sentence structure. Wherever such small changes to the quoted text are made, they are indicated in square brackets. In other words, author’s interventions with quotations are always indicated with square brackets – which is an important part of the honest and transparent use of information from other sources.

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Citing an author’s contribution to an edited volume of articles or dictionary entries:

• LaRue (in Sadie 1980, vol. 18: 439) states that ‘the text-book sonata form is an abstraction, rare in actual music’. * La Rue is the author of the article or dictionary entry, and Sadie is the editor of the volume or dictionary.

When a source has more than two authors, give only the surname of the first author followed by ‘et al.’ (not underlined and with a full stop after ‘al’ but not after ‘et’) and the year, followed by the page number:

• (Burkholder et al. 2006: 923) When two or more works by different authors are cited within the same parentheses, separate the citations by means of semicolons:

• Various writers have shown that the transition from medieval to Renaissance music was a gradual one (Westrup 1973: 58; Brown 1976: 3-4; Zaslaw 1991: 26).

Online sources:

• ‘Definitions of nationalism, of course, depends on definitions of nation’ (Taruskin 2007 [O]).

* The ‘[O]’ indicates that the source is available online.

Sources of which the date is unknown:

• Instead of the date, write ‘n.d.’ (no date), for example: (Michaels n.d. [O])

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For works without an author simply provide, in parentheses, the first two to four words from the title or the text in quotation marks, followed by the editor’s name or the title of the edition, the year of the edition, a colon and the page number(s):

• (‘Der neue Bauernschwanz’ in Davison & Apel 1949, vol.

1: 87) If the author published more than once in the same year, identify the sources by adding ‘a’, ‘b’, ‘c’, etc. to the year:

• 2007a, 2007b. When two or more works by the same author are cited within the same parentheses, give the references in chronological order, separated by a forward slash:

• Grout and Palisca (1996: 410/2001: 395) In the Bibliography or List of References the details of all sources must be given in full (see Section 3). CONTENT NOTES Content notes consist of material that is relevant to your discussion or research but that does not need to interrupt the flow of your text. Such notes may consist of an explanation, additional information, reference to other sources, information about procedures used to gain information, or acknowledgment of special assistance. While it’s unlikely that you will need to use them very much in student essays, it’s still worth knowing the dos and don’ts. The format of the note The format of content notes is the same no matter which style of documentation is used in the paper (Winkler and McCuen 1985: 121). A content note should read like a complete sentence, or sentences. It may include a source reference in parentheses, in exactly the same form as you would provide were the reference in the main text.

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Position and numbering You may add content notes to the foot of the page (in which case they are called footnotes) or to the end of the paper, before the Bibliography (where they are known as endnotes). In terms of convenience to the reader, however, footnotes are preferable to endnotes. It’s best to write or type a footnote number slightly above the line in the text, without punctuation. The footnote number should always follow a quotation or any punctuation marks (except a dash), and wherever possible should come at the end of a sentence, or at least at the end of a clause. Footnotes should always be numbered consecutively through-out an essay, beginning with note 1. Do not repeat the same footnote number and remember that each footnote should have its own number (but never more than a single number). Footnotes are separated from the last line of text on a page by a short horizontal line of about four centimetres in length. In typed or handwritten texts the note number need not be raised and should be followed by a full stop. Remember to allow sufficient space for your footnotes at the bottom of each page. Do not put footnotes belonging to one page on another page. 3 The Bibliography (List of References) and

Discography THE BIBLIOGRAPHY OR LIST OF REFERENCES: WHAT IS IT? It is essential that you supply a list of sources which you have consulted during the course of preparing an assignment. This list – only one per assignment – should be placed at the very end of your script. Strictly speaking, a bibliography is a list of writings used or considered by an author in preparing a particular piece of work

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– in other words, all sources you may have consulted in the course of doing your assignment. This is also sometimes called a List of Sources or Works Cited. We suggest you stick to the name Bibliography for assignments. The bibliography will also include journal articles, musical scores, scholarly essays accompanying recordings and relevant Internet sources – in other words all the sources you have used. FORMAT OF THE BIBLIOGRAPHY A bibliography should always give certain essential information about a published work. It is customary to give this information in certain format, which must be followed to the last letter and full-stop. The following format must be used for:

Books: Last name of author, First name. Year. Title. Edition if not first

edition. City/town of Publication: Publisher. Please note: the second and subsequent lines of the entry must be indented. Example:

Citron, Marcia J. 1993. Gender and the Musical Canon. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Example with two authors: (Note the order of authors’ surnames and initials here!) Cook, N., and M. Everist, eds. 1999. Rethinking Music. Oxford:

Oxford University Press.

Articles: Last name, First name. Year. ‘Title of Article.’ Name of

Periodical Issue number of journal: page numbers where article starts and ends.

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Example: Rycroft, David K. 1975. ‘The Zulu Bow Songs of Princess

Magogo.’ African Music 5/3: 41-97.

Scores: Composer’s last name, First name. Year (of publication of the

specific score). Title of the score. Editor. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example: Bach, J. S. 1958. Englische Suiten. Edited by R. Steglich.

Munich: Henle.

Interviews: Person interviewed. Year. Interviewer, date. Material form of

interview (transcript, cassette tape, radio interview, etc). City where interview took place, Country.

Example: Khumalo, Mzilikazi. 2000. Interview by M. Jorritsma, 12 June.

Transcript. Johannesburg, South Africa.

Unisa study guides: Last name, First name of author. Year. Full name of module.

Only study guide for module code. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example: Jorritsma, Marie, ed. 2007. Music and society. Only study guide

for MHS2602. Pretoria: Unisa.

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Unisa tutorial letters: Last name, First name of author. Year. Tutorial Letter number.

Tutorial Letter for module code. Place of publication: Publisher.

Example: Vokwana, T., M. Jorritsma, and G. King. 2007. Tutorial Letter

501/2007. Tutorial Letter for HIM330D. Pretoria: Unisa.

Grove Music Online entries [Please note that the [O] in these examples indicates that this is an online source] Author of article. Year. ‘Title of Article.’ [O]. Grove Music

Online. Edited by Editor’s name and surname. Accessed on day month year. Available: address of website.

Example: Rycroft, D.K., and Angela Impey. 2007. ‘Indigenous South

African Music: Nguni Music.’ [O]. Grove Music Online. Edited by L. Macy. Accessed on 14 December 2007. Available: http://www.grovemusic.com.

Internet sites:

Author/Company/Name of Site. Year. ‘Title of article/website

page.’ [O]. Accessed on day month year. Available: website link or address.

Example: Mbeki, Thabo. 1998. ‘Statement of Deputy President Thabo

Mbeki at the Opening of the Debate in the National Assembly on “Reconciliation and Nation Building.” ’ [O]. Accessed on 28 March 2002. Available: www.anc.org.za.

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THE DISCOGRAPHY: WHAT IS IT? Like the bibliography, the discography is a list of the sources that you consulted for the assignment or essay. The difference is that the discography (as one could deduce from its name) is a list of the audio and visual sources (CDs or DVDs) you had watched and/or listened to, whereas the bibliography refers to the sources that you had read. FORMAT OF THE DISCOGRAPHY List the audio and/or visual sources that you used under a separate title, ‘Discography’, after your bibliography. The following formats should be used for:

Compact Discs: Composer. Year. Title of Piece. Performers. Recording label and

number. Type of recorded media (e.g. compact disc, cassette tape, long-playing record, etc.).

Example: Volans, Kevin. 1990. White Man Sleeps. Performed by the

Kronos Quartet. Elektra Nonesuch 792752. Compact disc.

DVDs/Videos: Composer/Author/Producer/Director. Year. Title of DVD.

Length of film in minutes. Film company. Type of material (DVD/Video cassette, etc.).

Example: Hirsch, Lee, and Sherry Simpson. 2002. Amandla!: A

Revolution in Four-Part Harmony. 103 min. Artisan Home Entertainment. DVD.

EXTREMELY important to note is the punctuation and spacing of these examples–this format needs to be used consistently and with careful attention to detail.

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GENERAL GUIDELINES FOR THE BIBLIOGRAPHY AND

DISCOGRAPHY Note that in a bibliography and discography: • all the entries should be arranged in alphabetical order

according to authors’ surnames. If you like, you may give the author's first name instead of an initial.

• each item within an entry is separated from the next by a full

stop. However, the city of publication is always followed by a colon.

• it is normal practice to capitalize the initial letter of all

words except unemphatic prepositions, conjunctions and articles in the titles of English books and periodical titles.

• the title of a published work (for example, a book) must be

italicized. (In a handwritten or typewritten text this is indicated by single underlining.) Do not write published titles in capitals or with quotation marks. Therefore:

Representing African Music or

Representing African Music not ‘Representing African Music’ or REPRESENTING AFRICAN MUSIC. • you may name the publisher in an acceptable abbreviated

form, often a single word. Examples: Dent J.M. Dent & Sons Ltd Dover Dover Publications Inc. Faber Faber and Faber Limited McGraw McGraw-Hill Book Company Norton W.W. Norton & Co. Prentice Prentice-Hall Inc.

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For a university publisher you may abbreviate the entry as

follows: Unisa University of South Africa UP University Press (hence: Oxford UP,

Cambridge UP, North Carolina UP, and so on) • do not number the items in a bibliography and discography • remember to indent the second (and subsequent lines) of

your bibliographical entries

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PART 2

HINTS ON WRITING A GOOD ESSAY

It is important to realise that one of the reasons for writing assignment essays is to help you develop the ability to express your thoughts in a logical, concise and intelligible manner. This is a vital part in the process of becoming educated. So it is simply counter-productive if you merely string a series of paraphrases and quotations together (or worse, cut-and-paste jobs from the web), and then just hope for the best. I hope you will find the suggestions that follow useful.

1 In a nutshell GENERAL POINTERS FOR ESSAYS The following points summarize the main aspects of producing a decent piece of written work. • Analyse the question. Read the question a few times, and

establish the principal idea that needs to be discussed. Do not merely focus on a single word or phrase that catches your eye. Limit your discussion to the topic.

• Listen to as much relevant music as possible. Your

understanding of music will be minimal and probably quite useless if you do not take the trouble to listen widely. Studying music does not mean just reading what other people have to say about it. So your listening activities will include accessing CDs and DVDs (perhaps through the library), accessing Internet streaming, going to live performances, and listening to the radio and watching TV where relevant. You need to develop the ability to evaluate different approaches to performance in the various fields of music. Becoming familiar with good historically informed

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performances of Western repertoire before the mid-nineteenth century is also vital. These days it is much easier to access recorded music of all kinds than it ever was previously.

• Read as widely as possible about the topic. Authors,

including professional musicologists, rarely share exactly the same ideas or interpretations. So don’t immediately accept the opinions of a single author. By reading widely you will obtain the opinions of various writers and – most importantly – learn to formulate your own. And as Richard Taruskin (2005: 2) has reminded us, arguments, disputes and contests over the meaning of music by scholars ‘are the most interesting and significant facts of all, for they are what connect music history to the rest of human history’.

• Make notes. Do not copy whole sections of text from your

sources but try to write summaries only. This will help you concentrate on the material as well as allowing you to assimilate the material better. It gives you the opportunity to formulate concepts in your mind and helps avoid excessive paraphrasing.

• Plan your essay. Planning your work is important in helping

you to formulate your ideas and concepts. If necessary, invent suitable subheadings to help you stay with the topic. Remember: if you fail to plan, you plan to fail.

• Introduce the topic in the first paragraph. One of the first

tests for establishing whether you have prepared and planned your assignment properly is the first paragraph. If you experience difficulties with your first paragraph, you probably need to read and plan some more.

• Focus on the topic. Along the way you are going to read

about many interesting things, and there is always the temptation to include these additional bits of information in your essay. However, try to avoid straying off course.

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• Provide a carefully-considered closing paragraph. If your closing paragraph relates to the topic, the title, and the first paragraph, the chances are that you have focussed on the topic. If you cannot provide a suitable closing paragraph you may need to revise your work.

• Give proper references or citations throughout, using an

acceptable method. Always provide suitable references for specific facts or contentious statements, and to acknowledge any text or music extracts that is not yours. Facts that are part of the general domain of knowledge – i.e. dates of birth, places of birth, names of compositions, and so on – don’t need to be documented. But a statement such as ‘Andrew Lloyd Webber’s “Pie Jesu” from his Requiem is the best piece of religious music from the 20th century’ is merely an opinion, and needs a citation to tell the reader whose opinion it is and the reasons why you are in agreement or disagreement with this statement.

THINGS TO AVOID • Do not submit your first draft. It’s usually a good idea to

write your essay in rough first. Putting it aside for a day or two and then reading through it again will help you assess and correct many of the weaker spots in your text.

• Keep quotations to a minimum. Use quotations only to

support a statement and never to form the basic body of your text. Rather formulate your own phrases, and combine concepts or opinions of different authors in statements of your own. Quotations are there to provide support for an opinion or fact.

• Do not make unsubstantiated statements or repeat the

opinions of others without citation. Not acknowledging someone else’s opinion is called plagiarism and amounts to intellectual fraud. This is a serious misdemeanour in academic writing and you must avoid it at all costs.

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2 Understanding the question This section comprises three simple but crucial steps: • Read the question and/or instructions (also called ‘the

rubric’) • Find the key words in the question • Determine what topic(s) the question covers Follow these steps carefully: READ THE QUESTION It is extremely important to read the question carefully and to consider exactly what it requires. Read it several times in order to ensure that you do not misinterpret it. Remember that your answer must focus on the question. It is essential that you understand the meaning of the question if you want to answer it successfully. FIND THE KEY WORDS IN THE QUESTION When you read the question you will need to determine the subject matter that it requires. To do this you have to find the key words in the question. How do we do this? Here is an example of an assignment question:

‘Discuss Joseph Haydn’s use of sonata form in his late symphonies from 1786 on.’

The most important key words are the following: • discuss • Haydn • sonata form • symphonies

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From these words you should be able to pick out the theme of the question. In this case, the theme is Haydn’s use of sonata form in his symphonies. Other words define the topic more closely: • use • late • from 1786 on These words give you more information about your main theme. Use the key words to guide your writing. Keep these words in mind as you prepare your essay. Picking out the key words does not imply that you should look at each word separately and say something about each of them in your answer. The key words are the main issues around which you should focus your essay. Now look at the instructions in the question. You are asked to discuss Haydn’s use of sonata form in his late symphonies. You will need to approach the question critically. This means that you will have to present an argument about the ways in which Haydn used sonata form in his late symphonies, not simply describe what he may have done. Break up the question, and ask yourself other questions. What was Haydn’s attitude towards sonata form in general? Did he use it extensively in other works as well? Are his late symphonies especially important in his output, and if so, why? Asking yourself questions such as these will help you to approach the question critically. If you had been asked to ‘Analyse Haydn’s use of …’ or ‘Assess Haydn’s use of …’ you would also need to adopt a critical approach. Another example of a question is ‘Explain …’. Here you are required to concentrate on the reasons for a particular event or circumstance. Again, your approach would need to be critical.

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Always make sure that you do what the question asks, and remember that

all of the examples given above require a critical approach.

DETERMINE THE SCOPE OF THE QUESTION Make sure that you know exactly what your essay ought to cover. It is no use discussing aspects that have little or nothing to do with the question: you will receive no credit for dealing with aspects that are irrelevant or not required. Always limit yourself to those matters that are directly relevant to the question. Always ask yourself: does this aspect have something to do with the question or not? In the sample question on Haydn’s symphonies given above you would need to concentrate only on those symphonies he wrote after 1786.

3 Researching the topic So you’ve now read the question, found your key words and determined the scope of the question. What is your next step? Well, now you should begin collecting the information you need for your answer. There are three stages involved in this process: • Finding information • Extracting relevant material • Critically assessing your sources

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FINDING INFORMATION 1. Consult the relevant study units in your tutorial letters.

This will give you a broad outline of what to study and will indicate what the most important factors are concerning your particular topic.

2. Listen to the particular musical excerpts that form part

of your study material on the study CDs (if there are any for the module).

3. Read the relevant sections in your prescribed book and

other study material. These will supplement the basic information given in the study units. You should then access CDs and DVDs that are relevant to the assignment.

4. Once you have gained a general idea of the topic you may

consult the recommended books and e-reserves that are listed in your 101 Tutorial Letter.

5. Use the index in the prescribed and recommended books

in order to find the subject matter you need. The index is an alphabetical list of topics which is found at the back of a book.

6. Do your own searches for additional information. The

Oxford Music Online is a great place to start. Also use the library’s Oasis catalogue to find books, or databases such as JStor, IIMP or RILM (‘academic search engines’) to find articles.

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How to find the music databases on the library’s website: Go to the library website: www.unisa.ac.za/library. On the menu on the left-hand side of the screen, click on ‘Search for information resources’. Then click on ‘Resources per subject’ and select ‘Music’ from the list. Links will appear to all the databases that are useful for music research.

Remember that you cannot study music properly nor complete any musicology

assignments satisfactorily without listening to relevant music often enough

in order to get to know it thoroughly.

Bear the following information in mind when you are trying to understand the content and meaning of your reading matter: • Headings and subtitles tell you what the next section in

the text is about. These headings and subtitles will help you anticipate what is to follow.

• Select the key sentences of each paragraph in order to

identify the main points. • Note that each paragraph forms a unit. The other

sentences in the paragraph develop the central theme of that paragraph.

EXTRACTING RELEVANT MATERIAL Once you have established that a source will be useful for a particular assignment, you can set about collecting relevant information, that is, you should select information that relates specifically to the question. You should make notes of this information as you read.

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Bear in mind that the author of the book does not necessarily concentrate on your particular topic. She/he may include too much detail on topics that have little to do with your assignment or may place emphasis on aspects which you do not require for your answer. When you do your reading you should choose and write down only the material that is relevant to the question. This information will help you to substantiate, in other words, to support your point of view about the question. Leave out details that do not contribute towards your answer. Here are a few hints on how to make notes: • Use separate pieces of paper for notes on the different

aspects of the question. • Make a heading on each sheet of paper and then note

down the facts and arguments which refer specifically to that aspect.

• Ensure that you write down all the details of the source

you have used: the author, the title of the source and the page numbers.

• Use quotation marks to indicate when you copy a

passage directly from a source. When you use this passage in your answer you will have to reference it by some form of citation.

• Remember that we are interested in your

interpretations. Note these down as they come to mind during your reading and listening.

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CRITICALLY ASSESSING YOUR SOURCES When you do your reading you should not automatically accept everything an author writes. You must always approach your source critically. This means you should be alert to the difference between a fact, which is a generally accepted truth, and an opinion, which is a deduction made by a particular scholar. Authors often view issues from different perspectives and therefore hold different opinions. Do not let this confuse you. Refer to different sources and compare them. Decide which opinions you think are the best substantiated or the most logically argued and hence the most valid. You could include these considerations of different sources in your essay! Remember that you will not be penalised if you accept the argument of a particular author as long as you indicate why you support his point of view and show that you have considered other possibilities. USING THE INTERNET It’s particularly important to realize that different sources of information are not all equally reliable! For example, some Internet websites are extremely useful and generally dependable (for example, Grove Music Online or other databases available on the library’s website), but others may be dubious. Websites that provide anonymous information are never entirely reliable. This is why one cannot depend on the information found on a website such as Wikipedia. You should therefore not use or quote from Wikipedia in any academic work, including assignments. Anyone can edit its entries, whether they are experts in the subject or not. That is not to say that all information given there is unreliable. But as the Wikipedia website itself points out, you should limit your use of its articles to ‘background information, as a reference for correct terminology and search terms, and as a starting point for further research.’

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4 Writing the essay You have read the question carefully and decided what is required in your essay or answer. You have also found the information which will help you answer the question. Now you have to begin writing your essay (or paragraph). There are two stages: • Planning

• Writing PLANNING Your first step is to plan your essay carefully before you start writing. Remember that when you answer an essay or paragraph question you will not always be required simply to describe something. You will often have to view the subject critically. Essays normally comprise three main sections: • the introduction • the body • the conclusion On the basis of the notes you have already made, you should decide how you are going to approach the question. Write down your point of view about the question. This is going to form the basis of your introduction. Now decide what the main reasons are for your point of view and write them down. These reasons will form the body of your essay. Put the examples and the information you have gathered next to each reason. Your next step is to carefully organize your essay. Arrange your material so that there is a clearly logical order in your argument.

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Finally, you must summarize the main arguments that you have presented in your essay. This is called the conclusion. You should not, however, use the subheadings ‘Introduction’, ‘Body’ and ‘Conclusion’ in your essay. WRITING An introduction is a short statement at the beginning of the essay that sets out how you view the question and how you aim to answer it. It is a brief survey of the main aspects you intend to discuss in the essay. For this reason the introduction is a very important part of the essay (even though it may only comprise one paragraph), and you must formulate it very carefully. You should not explain your views in detail at this stage. Leave this to the main body of the essay.

A good introduction

• is short • outlines the main argument

• focuses directly on the question. The body is the main part of your essay. It is here that you will develop your main argument and give reasons for your answer. You should have one paragraph for each issue or factor.

A good paragraph

• is about one main idea • contains all the explanations,

details and examples that support the main idea

• shows how the information is linked to the question

• does not contain irrelevant information and does not repeat information.

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Try to use your own words as much as possible when writing an essay. Use direct quotations sparingly and only where absolutely necessary, always remembering to reference the source properly. The conclusion is the last paragraph of your essay. This is where you give a concluding assessment or final opinion on the question you were given. You should not include new information in your conclusion.

A good conclusion • summarizes the main argument and

content of your essay • focuses on the question • is brief

5 Technical aspects for essays The main aspects you need to think about here are • the general layout • the handling of quotations and citations, and • the bibliography. GENERAL LAYOUT The information you give ought to be correct (this includes the module code, the assignment number and your student number on the covering sheet). Do not use point form or numbering in an essay. Rather structure your discussion so that it is clear to your reader. Do not write in the margin which is allocated for your tutor’s comments. Make sure that you keep to the suggested length for an essay, otherwise you could be penalized.

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QUOTATIONS AND CITATIONS Please refer to Part 1 Section 2 (Referencing and Citations) of this tutorial letter for explanations and guidelines. BIBLIOGRAPHY AND DISCOGRAPHY Please refer to Part 1 Section 3 (The Bibliography and Discography) of this tutorial letter for guidelines.

6 Criteria for evaluating assignment and examination essays

The following two sub-sections give you an idea of how assignments are evaluated. The first section is written from our (the lecturers’) perspective, and describes the typical attributes of essays within certain mark brackets. These are, of course, generalisations, but it would give you a good idea of what to aim for. The second section is written from your (the student’s) perspective, and provides a checklist with which you can evaluate your own essay before handing it in. DESCRIPTIONS OF ESSAY MARK BRACKETS We keep a number of criteria in mind when evaluating assignment and examination essays. The following definitions of mark brackets give you an indication of the evidence in essays that is typically awarded certain percentages. These are only indications, but bear these in mind when you work on an assignment or examination essay: 70%-75% Very good - Excellent A paper in this category must develop a cogent, well-articulated analysis of the complexities of the issue and convey meaning skilfully. In order to achieve this, the assignment must present a probing, insightful position on the issue. The point of view that is taken or argument must be supported with compelling reasons and meaningful, illustrative examples. There is

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evidence of relevant music listening activities that inform the argument. A well-focussed, well-organised analysis in which the ideas are logically connected must be sustained throughout the assignment. Ideas need to be expressed fluently and precisely, employing effective vocabulary and sentence variety. The assignment must demonstrate a good command of standard written English (or other language, if applicable). This would facilitate the clarity and effectiveness of the discussion.

60-69% Satisfactory – Good Here the writer demonstrates competency in analysing complex ideas. Some evidence of relevant listening activities are shown, but the listening activities are not always well-integrated with the essay’s arguments and content. The essay is adequately organised; the main points are supported with relevant reasons and examples. Meaning is conveyed with reasonable clarity. Generally, the essay demonstrates a satisfactory control of sentence structure and language usage. In parts, there may be some errors that occasionally affect the clarity or strength of the argument.

50-59% Average An essay with a mark in this range demonstrates sufficient competence in the analysis and engagement with the ideas surrounding the given topic. However, the general presentation may be flawed in at least one of the following ways or a combination thereof: weak organisation, limited clarity due to weak control of sentence structure and language usage, limited illustration of the argument with relevant and persuasive examples (including references to listening activities), failure to conclude a point under discussion or exploring its details adequately.

40-49% Weak In this category, the presentation is fundamentally deficient in analysing and dealing with the ideas required by the task at hand. The essay’s content relates to the essay question to a very limited extent. Often the writing is flawed and consequently renders the content extremely confusing. Points are largely left undeveloped and examples are few and possibly irrelevant.

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0-39% Very weak The student’s presentation cannot be assessed or is given a low rating because the responses do not address any part of the assigned tasks. At times, the work presented is a direct copy from a source with no discussion or proper acknowledgment. The writing could also be extremely erroneous and no sense can therefore be made from what is written. In cases where a student’s language and discussion ability might be excellent (in the first two categories) but the response is totally off the topic and does not answer the actual assignment question, a mark in this category may be awarded. In such instances, you may also be advised to redo the work. CHECKLIST: ANSWER THESE QUESTIONS BEFORE YOU SUBMIT • Have I understood the rubric of the question adequately

and covered all the necessary aspects? [The rubric is the set of instructions that forms part of the assignment or examination question.]

• Have I dealt with the requirements of the question

sufficiently well? • Have I introduced my discussion sufficiently well

(including the aims and the premise or thesis)? • Have I argued my discussion logically and critically,

and have I substantiated the premise, aims or thesis I outlined in my introduction?

• Have I brought my discussion to an adequate and

logical conclusion? • Have I sufficiently assimilated the reference material

listed in my bibliography with insight and understanding (this includes listening material such as recordings)?

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• Have I included personal interpretation where appropriate?

• Are there doubts about the originality of my discussions

and arguments? • Does the way I have approached my answer and dealt

with the material at my disposal demonstrate clearly that I am familiar with the broader stream of musicological debate and recent scholarship?

• Have I adequately and consistently conceptualized my

references and quotations? • Have I consulted a representative selection of sources

(including recordings)? (This applies only to assignment essays and not to the examination.)

• Have I shown that I have made myself familiar with a

number of relevant recordings of the music I have discussed?

• Have I avoided plagiarism by consistently and correctly

acknowledging and referencing my sources and quotations – in other words, are my citations satisfac-tory? (This applies only to assignment essays and not to written examination answers.)

• Have I consistently used acceptable bibliographical

methodology? (This applies only to assignment essays and not to written examination answers.)

• Is my writing style acceptable (sentence and paragraph

construction, logic, paraphrasing, layout of quotations, use of foot- or endnotes)?

• Have I given enough attention to the technical aspects

of my language (correct spelling and punctuation, grammar, and so on)?

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• Is my layout and presentation satisfactory – typing, spacing, printing, illustrations or use of musical examples, captions, and so on? (This applies only to assignment essays and not to the examination.)

Now you should be ready to write your first essay. Read it through critically after you have finished it, checking for errors and any unclear phrases or passages. Remember to check that you have followed the hints suggested in this tutorial letter.

Good luck with your essays!

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BIBLIOGRAPHY

(This list does not include references to sources which were used simply as examples in this tutorial letter) Cook, Nicholas. 2007. ‘Writing on Music or Axes to Grind.’ In

Music, Performance, Meaning: Selected Essays. Aldershot: Ashgate.

De Villiers, G. 2001. Guide for the Preparation of Research Proposals, Research Reports, and Project Reports. Johannesburg: University of the Witwatersrand.

The Economist Style Guide (online). Accessed on 9 November 2009. Available: http://www.economist.com/research/styleGuide/index.cfm?page=805701

English, J, M. Fielding, E. Howard and N. van der Merwe. 2002. Professional Communication: How to Deliver Effective Written and Spoken Messages. Cape Town: Juta.

Fowler, H.W. 1965. A Dictionary of Modern English Usage. Rev. E. Gowers. 2nd ed. London: Oxford UP.

Gibaldi, Joseph. 2003. MLA Handbook for Writers of Research Papers. 6th ed. New York: Modern Language Association of America.

Maney, A. and R. Smallwood. 1981. MHRA Style Book. London: Modern Humanities Research Association.

New Hart’s Rules: The Handbook of Style for Writers and Editors. 2005. Adapted from The Oxford Guide to Style (2002) by R. M. Ritter. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

Taruskin, R. 2005. ‘The Oxford History of Western Music: A Conversation with Richard Taruskin.’ Accessed on 9 November 2009. Available: http://www.us.oup.com/us/brochure/0195169794/qa.pdf.

Truss, L. 2003. Eats, Shoots and Leaves: The Zero Tolerance Approach to Punctuation. London: Profile Books.

Turabian, Kate L. 1996. A Manual for Writers of Term Papers, Theses and Dissertations. 6th edition. Chicago: University of Chicago Press.

Winkler, A.C. and J.R. McCuen. 1985. Writing the Research Paper: A Handbook, with the 1984 MLA Documentation Style. 2nd ed. San Diego: Harcourt.