.' From,

Theorleo of the Symbol

Tzvetnn Todorov (tr. C. Por lc r)

(ltha co, NY: Cornell U.P. 1982)

2

The Splendor and Misery of Rhetoric

The fil~t IIfeal Cfl." 0' rhdoric (COincicle. ~rr~o.imalely wllh Ih~ beginning 01 our ~r.l. T.l( ilus I~n~ its stmy 11\ Ius ,ustly lamou, I )inloK"t 011 Orarars . The very first sentence ((~nv('ys an awarenfSS

of drdine: "O ur ar.~ abovr alt , bauen amI , lfll'r,'d "I Ihe r,tory 01 c1O<Juence, sc.,cely rela ins Ihe wry n.m~ 01 '.".Ior: .lIhough "Oldier Iw lilut s \,lopml,,1 wHh Iht., rcnowllt"l1 I.lk" ... ,If ~(l malt~ distinguished orators . "I .

It would be wrnnr, In SCI' in these wurth nolhmf~ mUfe t.~iln J

rcformul.,Iion of I Ill.' pe rennial nusl"l~i( r("e rence tn lilt! .good old (bys ." Taci tus" .. own ilnalys('s and a shuty (,f thr (' v~.luhn" of rheluric in his .1.,)' ~(IU"lty 1V~1t d~null1slr .ll~ Ihe r~ahly 01 Ih.

change . . . '" II •. What was the rhe tor ic of "('arher pe rlnds . In a we -Known

I · I " " I it i .. 'In> iul tIt

I,hrase. thuuR,h (lnt" who~ I ' (lri~~i" .. IIOP;U ' I~ ~' .

I I • nl his 1<1"" p Cls uas 'on . Or, it S "ris toth- put s it at 'U' w.;"ml"h I

r

61

I"ic " IUu:turk may Il(.' Jt,fint" .. t a~ Ihe f"fully uf ub:iCrvinc in any ~h'en G' ~l' Ihe tlvalbhlc m .. ~an~ tlf rc,~u:1siun" (I . 2, 1355(-1). Tilt.' ,,1' i, 'd III 1""'1'1":" i ... l'I' '' I"''II\'t' , tldim·d ., ~ l'I ft 'd i\"(' Sp("'fh I h .... ' fIt,ll .I 's ill,",; .. iI111 ' h. , I" tin .. llwrs. I{h,·h,,·u· I:.-.ts ps l."'I~II"I;I ' Ihll .I~

hum- it is nul ( l'lh'('rncc.f wit" \llIt~ri1nn's "s stlfh- t"ul .1S ,,(liun ; ! ~l\' lingtli!;t ir fill III ht'nmlcS an illJ;redicnt of it ~Iobal ad til utln · nllmir.tliun (nl whit'h JWrstlolsittn is llll' musl char.l f lcrislic typt·) .

Rheloric eft'als wilh III(' f"".-lions III Spt 't" 'h , IUlt il !" slrut:lUft' , li s um' nmsl,tnl is II", ul'in'livl' it Sl'\.''''S 1o .• thil'vl' : lu pl'rSlliHll' (ur, in the It."nninolll)W 01 tl later tl~e, In ills'rurt, 10 O1I1V(", and 10 rlr'l~") ' '.in",ui .; li, ' 11H',IUS . In· t.II':"11 il1lo .;1'\'''0111 III Ih,' t· .. I, 'ul Ih.I' Iht'y 'nlol), ht ' w :"llill ft ',l Ch this "l';t'di\'t' ,

Rlwlnrk sh,"it '~ 11ll' nU'.In:; Ih.11 .111,.\\, .1 dUlst' " (' nll III llt., .chievcd . II is nlll surprising I" dis<I1ver Ih.t the m,·I'l'h .. ," "sed ill rht'ltlric I .. \It'~ i':U,I'" rlU'ttlric.: ilsdf art' .lhYOly~ hils~J till Ihi s h 'l"lion nf "wailS Itl ~ 11,I , RIU'lnrk is stlllwlillll'S \'umpi1r('d 10 O\(',Iit-,,1 kdll\i'll"" o..:PlHdinw:; lu mililar\' ~1r.ltt'J.~~· . '1Ims, in A r i ~ ·

1(Jlle:

It is dl',u. tlIl'II, Ih.I' rhl'luric . . ' is USt'fu ' , II ~~ rll'ar , furlllt'r , Ihal II~ flln("lilln b IIHI :-oi l11l''' ' In ';111 ', 1'0 ,,1 in 1t(' , ", u" dinJ;, hul rllther lu Liisc{lY ... ·r Iht, means ttl cumintt a~ n('.u such su((cs~ as) Ihe circumslanc('s uf ('.1Ch particular G1S«.' .. lInw , In thi~ il resr m· hlc!Ii nil nlhl'r arts, hlr l')t.lmrlt·. il is not Ill(' h",diu" of nU'lli ­(inl' !liimply lu ",.I~"· .• man qUitl' h .. ·.llthy, hul III Jlul him as far A!' m.lY t'lt' UII IllI' ft.,.,1 10 IlI'.llIh; il i .. ,"'I" "il-l, ' Itl ,:i\'l ' ,',n'III'"I bralml,.,1 l'Vt'l1 In Ih"St., whu COlO nl'v,' r (' ''ioy SUU,h' h l".llih . IRI,,·I., " t, tJ5~1'1

Or, in Ihl' RI,d.";(II "d IIntHU;II". (Tn Gaill~ Hrrc nnius (Ill Ih(' Th('nr~- (If ,' .. hli, ' Sp,'a l..in.~). 1r00,lititUl.,ltv .Ithilt"",,1 10 C in'ru :

-This .'''nl\~m.nl nl I"pics in 'rc~kinr" like Ih. ", •. lyinr, .. ( sol­diffs in 1>,111,·, "n n';lllily brin.: vicln,v" (II', III, t~l .

It is clt',u th.II IIU' ~pirit (It rhdtlri<" is rra~nlo11ic _HH' llr IIt.ll

\'f'n' l'I~,'n il11l1"lr.,' : \\"h,lh'v('r Ih,' , 'ill " l1l1 ... t."h· ' ·~ "' Ih, ' , ' :111 '; ,' dt' ­' ,'r,dnl, .111\' 11111 ~ 1 I·, ' .lbh..· h • . ldlil'Yl' (' :I .. ··S "'11'1. I It l' assorlt'd df'(1.1 ... lions Ilf rrin t"i p'" d llslC'rt'tI .,1 Ih .. , ('nlrann' or lilt' t' xit tl ( Ih~'

rhf'lorir .ll t','ifif" hardly prevl'nl th(" el'"l"l'nl elralur frum II sin~ h : ~ ,ut f(lr l,.trl'4I " I ' ~ ",ho,o:; ,' i" .; lin' i~ "I'p.ln·nl ,,"1\' III him:-;dl. ? : ~ :l' lh dpl " . 111.1 , .IIPII / " t'II, "1'" ,11 ~ f" "" " ,,\,, '1' nllll·r .; ; ,II'Y cr\' ~n~ "' ... g'Hkl p ro\'i",'" Ih.lf till' obin ·th,' i ~ .llIailwd , ,\!lY ,,, .,,1. 1I101\' t ~· dli, ',11 ill,, :;; il 11111:',.1 simply l't, lI :-. t ' ,1 lowartl ""

.' 62 TIlf.OMI~S OF Tin:: SVMBUl

appropriate end. W~ lHay rCf., .. 11 Ihe "topicOt)" ellumcr~'liuIlS th .. t foresee all possible cases and rind a solulinn 'ur eat:h:

ElClernal Circum5Iance~ : Descent- in prais4': Iht' ann'slors of whum he l~ tiprung; if hl' is uf illu:dfiuu:, lk~n~ lIl . I,,: II.b llf.,t:u Iheir peer or superior; il 01 humble dcsecnl . he has had his support. nol in th(:' virtul's ni his anccslUfS. but in his own. In censure: if he Is of iUustriuus descent he has bet:n a llisll"an:- tn his forebears; If of low dcS("t·nt. he is nonc lilt' I~~s a \tishnnour even 10 Ihese. I KIwI . ","k ... 111.7. IJI Rhetoric leaches its prilclilinnt'rs to lise the tYlll' ul discourse

suilcd to each parlk' lIlar l:asu. 'Il,e key nolion 0' rh~lnric i~ Iherclore Ihe nuliun 01 suilabilily.

apprul-'rialcncss (J'''',,,,,,. dr'-II,,,,,,), as I\.lhcrl Yun h.,s puintctl Hul ("an arbilrary simplilicalion has made 01 suilabilily a mmpoilenl "I doculion. whereas il is II,,· j;uidinj; I,,·illdple Ih •• 1 j;lIwrns Ihe whole arl of speakinj;") . Suilal>ilily is Ihe b.lsis .. I .·lIi.·adly. Ihlls uf clOtlucnce . A':J Ci":l'rt) wrill':., ii, hi:; 0,,,,,,, :

This. indeed. is the furm of wi:o:;t.imn thai the umlm must espe­dally employ- h) .hl,IP' hilUsd. In lk.'l".ISiuus .tlhl ,wlsnlls . In my opinion on~ I1lusl nnl speak in Ittl:' s.unc slylc at _III IilUl'S. nor ~fore all people. nnr a~.'insl all opptllwnls. nur in tldcncc 01 .til client" nor jn partnership with all advocates. ftc. there­lore. wiU be eloquenl who (an ada pi his speech lu iii all con· ceivable circumstances . IU:.l\f - JU.lVI. 1231

Speech is above all hlOcliunal; It) 1)(' fuo r lional b lu lw..' filling . Such WiI,S rheluric before il!J crisis . Ca n we lraCl~ tht! patll 'rom

this picture to the uri,.;in. Ihl' caust'S ur Ihe cri:.is? Yes. if we alt~ willing to go alung with the analyses uf · ~·"d'us. \dh' lIuks .hd­oric Liirecily 10 politics ami sudety. In hi~ Vil·W .... -It"'I"l'un.- I'ru­gre .. ed so long .dS i l aclually served sollie purpose. so long as il was an effective inslrumen .. lhal waS unly pussiblc. huwever. in a titale in which speed. hild puw.:r: in Hlh~r wurds. in a free and democralic slale . -Creal d"'I"ence. like a /IallIe. i. I~.I b~' luel. i, l'x rilt.:'J lly motion, alh.1 ~rows hri~hl as il htlnls" (Vi,I"tS"", XXXVI) .

Now Ihis luel is prnvide.l. in a dem"cracy. by Ihe .Iesliny "f • people: " In addili"n. Ihere wao Ihe hillh r.,nk "I IIII' dc/endanl. ilnd lhe Imporlanc,-' n' Iht..' issu,~~. wh".- h tt' Ihems,'lv,'~ an' iu lin' hi~hctfl dt..,t;,rcc nmJud"l' lit l' ltlllUt'nn' . I;or IIU' l'tIWl'r of ~enius grows with lh~ impul.an~t.· nf allolirs. nur ,-'an ;:u'yune pru­duce .l sJ"t.' t.'t.'h Ih.,. i~ "rlUi.UtI ,1Ih.' ft..·lIuwlh',1 1I .. 1,'ss h,' h.,~ ftl'lIul a case worlhy 01 il " ( ... VII) .

fl.\

'I h,' r t.'qllis llt..' IHllliulI is .1 S::'Wl.' t.I hy Ihe "l.'l'dulH til ciliLl.·U S Il) spt'.,k of ;,"ylhing, willwul ht'in~ inhihih'tI hy ctln s idl'fillioo s of rauk or pnsull , willi ".ht..' privill'J.:C Ih.lt w.'s ~r'II\'l'lJ uf all.Il'klllg Ilu' IHII~. I pnw,·ftul IIWII " (!II) All Ih,ll j, . 1·" ... ·.i .. ll · to .. ll' ill .1 '. I.llt'

where ius lillllilm.II l'llnstrainl s .UL' w"" •• k _lnd Wht'fl' Ihe pt)Wl'r uJ .a t1c1il)('r.llivl' .lssl'mbl)' is ""I' V s lr,lOl!.. thl'!'>l' ""IIUrl'S l>t..·il\~ th l.' L.lSis uf lh' "H ... : r.h·Y. ThL'sC ..In' tltl.' h'nus ill whi t' t. ' 1 , llllll ~ d',If.IL·'

lerill'S Iltt' I'fl" 't',linh pt·rit ... l : " WI ... u l' V"f,' thilll~ W , IS in ,I stall' H' l'lInlllSiuli .111-1 1,llJ..l'l1 ., sillt~I,' UVt·rM"'I . ".I,'h tll .lltll' W.I~ nm' sitleretl as wist, as IIU' l·rr.ln' pt'ollll' could ht' nHI': ill ("(.,( t Ih.lt I ... \Vas" ( ... lIVI) '" lllf ~I.I'" 1t ... I, ,I'" ','ug ,I'" it \\',IIIII,." ',I .IIIIIII 's,,, !\- . .. Uilliullhlnll\' pn,dtll ,'d ,I IIInn' "i~tlrl)w; dlhlll"IIl'l', I"s i .I S .10 1111 '

(Ulli",Ih-d lid,1 !'IOtlllt"'s ,·t,,.I.Iin I1Itll,' Ilnll" ,llIt 111.lIIh '· (I )'I,/II~II. · . IL) . .

n"IHI ... 'r,II 'y is till' ilillislwl1!'oo.Ihlt, , 'Olhlilitfll 1111 Ih, ' IIttw.,,.illh til

rlu'lllt'lh"'; t'ul1vl'rsl'iv, dUlllU,'lh'" is Iht' hi);h ... ' sl 'I" ,IIIIV ftf tliL' in · dividual ht.·'un~inh In a tlt'mtll'r;:,,'y : Iwill"'f 011, ' ".,,; gl'l ollon h wilhuul the uther. lIulluencc is '· ,,,,·n'ss.uy"; lIus i!'oo its tlumillanl f ... atun-. "lilt at II", same lim" this ''x 1".1 ins ils sw ', ','ss , Thl' all ' cil'lIls "h ... 1 t.: .... vi ....... ·,1 IIll'msdvl's Ih •• t 110 Ulll' l 'ullid rist..' ill Ihl' stall' ur nmltt m 'linl •• in .. ,lt1sililH: ur imp,"I.IUf" ,l lld )"unlllH'III '" without umhlrit..'.tl ,.hili,y·· (XXJlVI) . "No Ulll' in Ihust' IIUlt'S illl,lillt..J

glt!al power wilhnul some elOlluenc~ or utl",r" (lllVII) .

So ehMI"t.' uct.' Sp.llklt'J in drrumslann's Ih.l' W"U' III fhangl' ror reasons ('asy lu surmise: in a WUrtt. lold, H' lihcrlv . ttt'mller.lcy ouslt.·tI by a slruu); sl .• ll' wilh wdl· t.'~IJhli !'oo h,',1 l,lW S ,HId .HlI I II)! i. I,ui.\I1 1t.',ld,·rship .' Sud. is Iht.' PiHli,·ul.lf , ',I !'oo" ,.{ Ittl .. ", (" CII ';ll.' US

I'ompt.'y in his Ihih' nillsuiship \y,, !,> II", fif !'oo llu nUllilw Ihe .. " lIil~'r ' lit'sl·lIlll . ;:IS it Wl'll' , put reins UpHIi dtklul'Ut.."'" l"l"VIIIII) ; sud, b Iht.' ~'·I\I·rall,"v. spdlt'tl nul in ,ld,Iil hy T.h'itlls : " W,' dn nol t'V"1I J know uf dn'lul'lIfl' .1II11Ult; Iht!' Mact'<innians and Pl.'rsians or .lny pt.·uplt· who Wt'(t' s,Ih ... li,'d willi ... I,.blt, gP\ 'I ' lllIIlI'lIl" ( 11 1) . If dl'IIHk"

lat..'y dis.lppl·.lrs. il II is rt.'I'I.I,, '" hy .t !'oolrullh h1wl'IIHnl'ni Ih.II can dispt.'I1~'· wilh puhlir ddil .... ·r"liu"!" ... , Wh.ll us,' i .. ,' h"'I''''IKt' ! "Whal nt'l',1 is Ihl'h' Ittr lung t..·)'prt';i!"iuns III "pilliull III Ihl' St..'UillL'

when '],1' lit ·", IIIc'" 'Iuit-kly (UIIU' I" .1n ,_grt"'lIu'nl! Wh,,1 is lillo' nl'l'J for IlIolUY 1Ill'l" in~~ lx"nu.' Ilu' 1lt.·,IP"·, wlU'1I II", i~norilnl m.l:-t~t·S M" lIul ,I""hlin~ .1 "t.lllt'r "I' pllhlil ' 1'"1,, '\' 1-1I1 III,' ,til, '

1I1,'i,I","", " 'hl l I'i II ... 1I'I'oI'sl?" '\' f ; l·mph,lsi .. ,hl,I,',I) , hnlht'CllUtre. Hugh I we lu ... ·~rtt l IIlis st.II,' ot .lf1ai .... ! Nol if Wl'

"n' In 1""lil'\t' ~I,II"IIIIIS •. Ih,' IIIII'IIt,, 'ullll III lilt' dl,lltlhlW whit rsl.lhlisltl's Ihis ,ti,l~nll~is . Fur lil""rl\' .In,' ,il ' mlk ·l .h · \, l!tn·.,"''' flU'

TilE O R1ES OF TilE $YMIJUI.

('ilee anLi wel l-heing of t'vl'ry imfivhJual : might w~· 10 "'grd thr. rL of c Uecli\'c remedies when we can rc joice III lilt' Olhst~ nn­a.,scnce I . I rd of illness? " I( !'ome s tate should I~ found in w lK. ' 11(1 Ull(~ < I wronr" th e uralnr would Il\' tllHwH' ssa ry :l mollg r.",lIh·ss pt'op',',

as a doctor is amour, healthy ones" (U.I) . ., The clnqucnce uf (".'lrli,·r times \Y0l ~ 1,00 "osHy: II ~; plll't: WOl~ II",

insecurity of COld) t: ili /.C'I1 'S lifl". Ihis 1~1IIr, tlU' <I"'-'fl rt'sult (If Ihe

de mocratic institution .

Thai great and renowned l'h"luen(c is th~ uffsprint; uf li~e~se, which fopl s (all Iit~rly ... _ wUhout respecl, wilholll d'glllly, violent, I.,s il , Mrnnanl. which d'M's nol i1PJX':'If in ~dl .• ~ttvl' rn~tI I I N either Ihl' "llltltrcncl' tlf IIH' (.ri'rdu wa .. nf suth sacs. . . . . h

hfl.'at ad\'.'nta~c 10 Ihl' stille Ihat Ihe . I"UN ('~cn pUI up WII . the ir law s nor did Cin: n. lintl Ih.lt Iwo ur.lhmc,II It' nuwn was

.,t1cquale compt.'n~a lion rur his tc nihlr tlt'alh . I IC II

T;lcitus ';q rondu~ion : "Sinn ' nn ,m\' c .... 11 att .... in gu'at r(,llnwn

and gn' at re pc.lSl" at lin' saltlt' linn' , 1t' ll'.1( h lUll' l'!tioy Ih l.· ltlt'ss ill~ or his o wn age withoul dl'lradillg frum Ihe tJ lhcr" (XI I) . ,

Let us leave thi' valll l' j1utl\n1r nl .,ide; Ihe fa cts "'mal~' 10 "" analyzed . The nowering of eloquence was linked 10 a cerl.on form of go ve rnment, denult:rary; with Ih~ disal'Pl.'o1 ran:l' ur ,Il'nu,:,,-'racy, cioquence ca n only decline . Or even disappear? rhe ,hclu"c Ihal laught how 10 be eloquent musl meel Ihe same. fal c. Unless ,,10-(I"cnn' wrre to chan~e il~ mt·allinf~-al1t.t rh~ I(l.n( wrrt.' 10 (,~lan~l' it s ub;cd .11 Ihe ~a"H' hUH ' . Ami. dS IlI l' ((III(' I ~ 111'1 d" .... d 111 I!,f' Yl';U Onl'. tilC trum it, Ihal is what mtls t hav e.." happ"'l1n' ; th.)1 IS, in f., c l , wh.l1 did happt·n .

III it d l' rnoc ra( y. s pc('ch coul..l he effkaciOlls. In a rnnn"rrhy (10

IC.lp quickly aheOlt.l), this is I1H lonf~l' r pHssibl l' (I''''\,'t I: I l"'un~s In in slilutio,, ~. not to assl'll1bli, 's l. the i,teal Iht'1~ nC~'css'H Ilv ch.1I1grs. the b esl specch is now tht, ""l' illll~t.·d ''' '111111/"1 . "\"f,'rt' 1t.1\.0 debalr un Ihe ca llses or lhc d et' •• J l' ll (l.' or rlll'Ioric, the s;rml' nUllc'Xu,' t"l (lnllClrs cl'ntOlins ;tlHlllwr t·xchanr.<" in which A~'r and M css;lia comp.,re the r("I .. (ivl· ",l·rHs. tlf llil' ,,1,1 OlmJ t.h.l' IIl'W d~H.lucncl' . Ape r, dcf l"nd'n~ the lath'r, tinlls in it (luahill's Ihat. were ntll noticed ilt Ihe time ni t·lnqllt ·l1l·t' -jlc; · in s iruflu 'nl : '11' 11l-1'~ rl'c('~1 s p("cch es thai itrc ·'hrilli.,nt . " "striking ." ""cOIulilul " - an,1 hc IS

IlIU.:ont'l' rlH'tl with tlwi. dli'",H itv In Ih,< 11M sPI 'I·t·IU' ,;.

jus t il ~ in ;, ru tldv nllt~hud,',1 buil,ling, th,' tv,III i~ n'llainly s trung ,l1\d gpjn.: III 1 , 1 ~; t . vt'l it j .. ill ,ukqll.llt 'Iv t 'tl ll '; llI'd ami

III &: S I·I.I : I'~UUK ANU . MISERY OF RIIE1' ORIC 65

~I,inin~ . I. huw,·'·t·r. wan' an "",t,'r, i"~1 .l!" ol ... kh anti la!!>tl'flll I"',hl It' a h(ltl~dluhl . In be ~hdll'fl"l.l not nnly by II,,: klnJ uf h(lOll" Ih.,1 k(" ' J.s aw .. y Ihp rain and wind. J:,ul ('v('n one Ihat tJdi,~hts Ihl' "p'; ,lIltl I wish him lu I"" 1'tI:"s('!":"t',1 nul "nlv of flHUilllrt · Ih.11 i ... . hll " I"" II · luI' olllin.,ry 1'lIrl'u,,(· ~. Itut ~ultl .tlhl iewds sllOuM I ... · ,ullunJ~ hi~ "c.'''IIl~in~~ , !'iill thai hi' 111.,y mor(' orkn J~"I plt.·01SUU· Irorn hant.ilinf.t and J;~zin~ upon Ihem . lUll ; 111'1(' tltl' shifl i'Wi'y frum inslrumcnlal I11l"I,'phnrs lo"" .. rd Iho~c Ih.ll e vukc.' urn.ll1l1'nll

eicern, I~sl of Ihe ancien Is .nd firsl of Ihe ml"'~rns, ""longs amnnr, Ihe 1.1t"·r by virille of ferlain <IU.llitil'S l'haracll'rislic of hi s Spt"("Chl'S: ." It· w.,s II", fir!'ii' (lm.· In ;l.,.,ly .1 finish 10 •• spt-l'l'h , the first une ttl folluw il principl~ of seleclion in vucahulary find In prnltlln' sk illful ,IH.lIlJ~('ml' nl" ("XII) . TIlt' illt'vil.lhll· ( HIlSl'II"l'lIft' of Ihis ~lyli7.;'1liCln is Ihat SIlC't."fh('s may ~ro\V mlln' anll mun' l"l'OlU .· liful, bUI Ihey .re nil more apt In fulfill Iheir (fnrnll'r) funclion, which i~ ttl nlUvilln'. tn ad . ,, ~ "r .... ·'s inlnlunllu, rl'lnrl!" : ·' W\.. knuw hy l'x llt'rit'un' II'ill Gln' .1ntl ("(IIln'rll fur pn'parOllioll ;lrl ' h.rmful" ( ..... ). .

The new cilkllll" " '" .liffers fm", Ih~ .. 1tI in Ih.1 ':s ide.1 is Ih" inlrin~ir (1".11i1), p, ,tiS«l~r;-;(" ralh('r IhOln i'~ Oll'lillld,' (uc s('rvinh an ~)( h'rnal plirpOSt', As i1 malll'r ul tad , thl' l'tlrlil'r rhetoric in . clu.fed sever.lnnlin", Ih.1 Ctluld have se rved frn", Ihe begillning u Ihe basi ' for Ihi' 1.lIer concepl of eloquence; al Ihe lime of Ihl' crisis in ')uestion. thl'se notions tonk on mnre prerise meaning or a visihly l'Xptlntll'll rnl l' . Thi~ is II", GISl' wilh tilt' h'fIU It,."",;o. o",nr" which bccnm~s. as we shall S~, the fure (l' the n('w rhe­torical ("(lifice : "TIlt' prupe r meanin,; uf orunrr is 'furnish,' 'equip .' Dul 'a(lnr,, ' is nnt f.lr tiff, an,1 it is in Ihis ",·n~t· Ihal ""Inl;" is Ih l.' distinJ;lIishinK fralllrt." nf eloqul'nn'" IAII"'r l YUI1. PI'. clxx- dxxi) . We 1i1l,1 ex'lInp'l'~ ttf t .... lh m('t'nil1J;~ n' thl' WU1l1 in Cicl' ro. whu \'irillillly l'ruhu,Ii,'s Ihl.· transition . As it h"PI"l·ns . Ihl'St' Iwu m ca n ­ings also CtlHC;-; rttll,' Itt Ihe IWI' l"llfll(' rliulls or rltd,n ic. tlld and n t' \\' . ill .. !! "1111 ,,,1 .,, .lIhl orn.lOh'nl.lI .

~f"n' rt·m ,uf..."tllt ' :-- 1111 is Ihl' f.I ~l' ". Iltl' "'rill " 'igurl'" ("lI,, ;"III . (0"(""",,';"_ Ittrlfl" , lIS""') . Nul IhOl I its nw.lninn vari('s, from Thcu­phrasl .. ~ (lr DeIHt 'IIiu s I" Quinlili,lII . E ;d, linn', " Iigllfl'" is d e . finrd hy its :coy nlll1\'m "r.'rm. " or ltv " t'Pl1lp.'lfi sun wilh f" .... lttrt.s ,lIld htltl~, p"·;I1I1,·''': ;lI .... 1 ilS till ' hu,lv I ... t ·c :-- .... lfilv .hl"I" S I'u:-. lllres . . 11\\'a)'s h"ld s il s,' 11 til ,. n'rl,Iin w.ly. so disnlur .. ,· .Ihv,IYS has i1

((' II.lin dis pll~ ilitlll . ". \\' ,lY 0' Ilt ' ill'~ 1'I1lIS ( 'in ' ro It 'k, ... I" " Ih .. •

66 TtlEORIES OF TilE SYMBOL

t!mbcllishmcllb th"l Ihe CrtTJ..S t ,.tll nxilluUu, l'igurl.'S, .IS it Wl'rl.'. 01 speech" (Oro lor, nv, 83) . On~ imporlanl cunsc'l"cnce til Ihis ddinilioll is that, if it is l.ll-l'U lilt· .... lly. all tli~;l ·"ursl· is libur.llivt' . Quinlilian ctn("~ not hil Itl null' litis . I i,' n·I~ · .'h lilt' S.IH\(' tlt·lini · hun ul the h.'rm "Ii~\ln.·": "il is .'pplk'll Iu _IllY Itlnu in whkh Iholl~ht is ~xpn.~~sl.'t.L i"!"l .• s it is II' lltktit's whit h . Wh.II",'vl' r Ihl'i. l"t'lnpuSi liuli. must h.wl· ~UII'" ~ h.,I"· " (/11:-" ;'''''11 I )III'IIIIJ' , UI. I. 10); "Ihe name is 10 be applil'd I" ",,'Iain altiludes, ur I lIIil\hl say gcsturcs ut language" ('1, I, 1:1) . Ill' t;tH.'S 1111 In (undllt.h·: "In M)

doing we speak as if every kind 01 lar,/;ual\e p"sscssed a fiX"'" .. . TIU'rdun' in th" first ,"\11" ("tllllln .. n St·n~,· tl( II,,' Wllftl t'vt'rylhin~

is exprcssed by li,~"""''' (IX, I. 12). 11.e figure is Ihus cunsish-nlly clefint,tl as ,1 tlis,'must· whnst.>

very lurm i. perccivcd . Hul whcrc.s, I .. nnerly, Ihe Iij;ure w.o, only unc among counlle!i$ manUl'rs of an .. lyzin~ tlisnuusl', nnw this aututelic concept ha!i llt.'nunc ""mint'ully apprupriall'- since enlire speeches are beHinnin~ In h ... , appreciated "ill IItl'lIlsdves"~ Thl! role of ligures thus cunlillues Il) gruw in the rh"'lurical hea­

lises 01 Ihe period- and we know Ihal Ihc "dY is enlllinl\ when rheturic wlll be no ",urc Ih.m an ~numeratiun l)1 ligllrt's .

8111 Ihere is anolher, slill IIIore imporlanl change, lrum Ihe old lu Ihe new rheloric, belore and a/ler Ciccru, Ihal (Ul\cerns Ihe very organizalion 01 ils conccplual lidd ... is well known Ihal Ihe rhetnrical edifice is suhlli"itll'tt int.- fiVt' .,.uIS, uf whirh Iwo

deal with enuncialion anll Ihe olher thn~c-;IfI"'II';", disllOSWO, dlJt'ul;H- - wilh ulll'ralh·t'S . III thl' nlll instnllnenlOiI pt.· rspcclivc. these Hve pariS arc in prindple (Jespill' Ihe sumetimes dear pref­crenc~s of authors) nil an ""'lllal fUClting : Uu-,y ('uHl.'spmul lu five aspects of the linliuistk cll:I, whith arc 1111 sulljerl Itt ,ut ubjective exlerior 10 Ihemselve., Ihal til cnnvinrin~ Ihe lislcner . Nnw Ihal Ihe exlerior objective has disappeared, we lind Ihal dtlculiun­Ihal is ligure, ornamenl- occupies an increasinj;ly lar~e place, since Ihe ncw ubjective- Ihal "I sp."kin/; (or wrilinl\) ;nIl lilly, 01 creating beautiful speeclu~s-'s bt:st n'alized by Ihis means , Cicero uses an etymological ar,;uuh.'nt to SUPf"lt)rt his uhscrvtllion uf Ihis

shill :

We must now hun to th\! lask of purtrayi"~ the J'Nfl'd uralor and lh~ hi~hesl t.'lu'luCIll'c . Tlu' Yl'ry wnrd "Chkl"H'IIr' shuws Ihal he exccls bl.'GUtS,· 01 IllIs tIIu' qu .• lily, th.'ll b, in Iht· us,,' o. language. and thaI Ihe uthef 'Iuahlics all.' uVl.'rsh.l,tuwcd by

. this. For the alHndusivt' WOht 1:-1 nut ",lisnlYt'n'r" tfrum ;"'''''' -

'11I1i SI· • . f.NUUK ANn MISI'MY tH NIII' IUNI('

'i •• ), ur .. . u •• lnh"· .. ·· (lrum .1;=-'''':'''11'), or " ,h'llIr" (Irum .,,'IeI), hul ill

Cn't.'k Ill' is (''llktl ,I,rl,,,, frum II", W,Htl "10 spc·,.Io..," "lid in Lllm Ih' i:. s •• itl lu loc' "t'I'~IUt·III." hit ' 'V'" Y"lh' d,lIllI :' IlIr I.illl ­!-OI'H S OliII' 1·.Ht ,II Ih.· nih. ·,. '1".Ililit·!'> 111.\1 ,:,. Itl 1I1 . • L..,· III' ,III 1II,Ihtl, 1,"111", :-'III'"'IU'" Ill,wl'f III ~1'I."IL..ut);, Ih,lt IS .'Ia~I,u ' lIn ' , is ):r.Hlh·,1 tu hilll .11,.'h'. Il)ld'ltI , I(U., hll

67

Thus invl'ulhHI, .... Iht' St',.H·h hlr id,',as, 1:-. hll'" Ify lillh- dUIli ­

nalel.i from rheltarif, which h.'roml·s II"" pCtwinn' of t"ilKllliun

.IUIll', The laller ' s vidnry. hnwl'vl.·r, is ,lIuhitiUtlus . Winning 1111..' bailie within rheturic itself, elucution Ilondht'l~ss Itlst.'s tl1I' w.lf :

ill!'1 Ill"l ·.IIISI ' Itt Ihi:-. "idlll)', rlU' 1'lIti,,' tli" 'il'lill" II'~I ' S Y,II",' til ,I

v~ry lout;l.' tlct;rt..'I.' , In Ihis \Yd)' lilt' p.1idllg III Inl'.IUS .11lct "IHI is ":pl.1n'tl hy Ih .... 1 tI' '''1'1'' .11hl ""111t'1i1. I~hdl.lh' tI",.t.. With 'l.flH :

"ideas, " lunnelly 1UI.',UIS cump"r,lhll' lu " wlJrds," nuw .1SSlJlIIl·lhl' edt.'rnal ""1,,1 llumin"linh fundion ut "l'lhl:-. ."

Nnw ,tiSt.-UtifSI' Ih.,' cUIiM ()t • • lpprt''''i.IIl't1 lor ils"II, fur ils in ­trinsic 'IUi,lilil's, its turan and 1""'OIuly, illn'ally t'xish',1 .'l1ltlll)~ tilt' Rumans. hul such discuurse had nul prt'vious ly bel.'li known dS

rl0'luelln~; it was ri,Uu.'r what Wl' w("lIti totla~' ,';1111;11'",1",.., Ap,'r, in Tacilus's tlidlut;ue. is perf~lly CtUlsciuus ul Ih .... ~hill : "hJl t.'VI.·11

Ihe beauty of poetry is now reqllir~d Hf Ihe ".."Ior, ,1 h .... aul, nol defile,1 by Ihe uld fut of Accius ur Pacuvills hUI dr.lwn frum Ihl' shrine of IInrace an,l Vergil and Lucan" (xx) In IMI. Ih,11 is how poetry was ,'dint'd, in nHltmsl wilh "r •• It'fi,'.II dO'I'h'IIr,,': thL' 1.11 -ler was dominal.-d hy a concern Inr 'ransitivt' "Hi,"l,'il\', ",hl'ft'olS tltt! 'urmcr w .. s .hlmired fur its""'" t ..... ·' ·.IlISI.· til ,m ' wurk which Ihe very WUfJ~ of the speech had lIfhl~rgUl''''' ' Th .. ~ whl.'n C it'L'rn w.nted In tiislill,;uish nraturs 'rnm pods. hc !'i ,Iid .It.,' Ihe I.Iller "pay mun' ,Itll'nliull h.1 suund Ih •. m In St.·use" (C I.,"Jr , ).)I. , Otl) .

The 'h.'W t.'Ilhlllt·nl't· in ,1n w"'y tlilkrs hom litn,lhul'; till' nL'W obiect of rhetoric (uinchJes with literalure . And ,f t'I'Mluenl speech was one..: ddinl.'''' bV its efficacity, UIIW. 'Iuih' III IIH' nllllr.uy, it is useless Spt:t.'(h, spt.'l't'h withu", purpl'St.', Ih,11 ,h.I"':. "faist· . I .... ·' us return une Idsl liml' til Tacitus's di;, lu~I1"· . It 0pt.'IlS wilh a di~fUS ­

sion, nul yt.'l Illl'uliulH'tI hcre. ht:lwt.'L'n 1\I' ... or .uhl M.Ih'IIHIS UII Ih,,' respective value of l'It\Cltlcnce and plH.'lry . Altlu'uJ~h Ih,,'y tlt'f,'u,1 oppnsint; "pinions. 1I1l.' twn orators a~H'L' 1m om' I'uillt : ,h.lt dn­'lucnet' (all I'e lISl'tt auti Ihal put.·tr), i!i u~, · Il.'SS , fhl'ir disilgn'.'IIH.'nt Ihlls hillgt's "'nlin'lv un lilt' \ '.11"" tht'Y .,11 •• bolt' III IIs,'hd.h·:-;S .

, I A(l'tlfltill~ I .. ils lh .. unpiun, t"lull"l'llI"t" l'n,lhl,,'~' ., Sp",.lkl'r hi "pr(l­~Ul'l' allt' I'n'~l'rvl' trit·utlships, ,It'lluin' t'llllnl 'l'IIIHI ~. ,llld bt 'l'IIIIl'"

TIII: (JHII~ !' ,_r= rlll~ SYMnclt .

Ihe palron 01 provinces" (\I); according 10 II. opponenl, II pul. orillors in the position of N-inr, a~kf'd fur f.won; d'1ily ilnd of ;1nr,ering those who ilsk ()ltll) . C"nvl~r.sdy, :-;p'-'ilkint~ or lih~rature!, Apcr holds Ihat "ro{'lry il'lll vt~rsifkatinn . . dn nol win any hnnor lor Iheir aulhors nor do Ihey produce any tangible benelit. . . . Maternlls, whn gets my bendit il Agamemnlln I" Jason s~~"ks wilh skill in yutlr plays? Who fur this r('<l~;cm .~ucs IWlnE'

obliy,ated to y"u because III a slIccc .. 11I1 delense?" (IK) . Matl'rnlls, on Ihe nther hand, says: ''In,lel'd, let 'th,' SWet't Mu,,'s,' as Vcrgil S<lys, ca rry me off ttl thust' s.len.·ct plact's and IhwO(" hmnttlins, aft e r I have been r('lpflscd from wnrries and (.ues "Oll the n('C(,!I­sily of doing something d."lily ar,ainsl my inciill,llinn; nnr lei m~ any more experience wilh dn.·"d Ihc mtld and tlangernlls forum a'1d the glory that brings un paleness" (XIII) .

The une reproaches p".try I"r its lise less ness, the other re­joices in it. P()('b have no conl,,(1 wilh th(' wurltl; shuuld we­applalld this or deplore it? Iler" is Aper's po.ition: "Poets have to leave the acquaintance 01 Iriends anel the charm 01 the city, il they wish to work out and p""llIcl' anythinl" wnrthy, that they must disrer,Md olher dllli~s, amI, as thl'y themselve. say, th"y mllst go off into nlc;tdows and grovl'~, Ih"t is, into s(lliludc" (IX).

But onc man's poison is another man's meal . Maternus says: "Indeed the meadnws and groves and the very .olitllde which Aper chid,.,1 allord m" so mcorh pleasur,. th.t I rank them among the nul~tandinr, rcw;ut.is ttf IltK.·lry, ll{'(tltlsc it is nol (tltnposcli in hcostle ami hustle nor with a litigant sitting helore une's dour nor in the rnid!il of the mmunin.~ flulhe!) anti h~,u~ n' 1110 .. (' who art "dng prosecuted, bllt the mind goe. nil into pure anel IInsoiled hlC"ll's and cnjtlys holy ~tlu"lInllin.~s" (XII) .

Whatever allillld(· nnl' may t"k(' luwanl lil('r.11tIrt·, there is .~e neral agrecm('nt that it is tf.·fined hy ils us('les~rwss . Quintil· ian's view is the s"me: " I'erhaps tI\{' hir,Ill'SI (I' all .,h::"asufcs i5 111;"\1 which w(, .-tcriv(' from priv"lc s tucly . 2I nct the only circum­Sl,'Ulces under which the dclir.hlS of liti'milire arr nn"Uuycd are wh('11 it wilhctrtlws 'rom .. ("Iioll . Ih.lI is lu s .. y hom loil , anti (an ('11 joy Ihe pll'OlSun> ur !'dl ... ·lll1lt-mplalit 111 " (''' '' ';' "lill ( tn"lIrin, II, lA, 4) . Poets "aim solely ,t pll'",inl" th"ir "',"l",," (V'", n, 17).

Thus u:'>cil'ss. judfil·;l("inus ~ p,·t:d, ic; 10 1~'fOIHI' II,,' tllljt'rI of rIH.'hnic. anel rlu,tori,· il-,,'H llo('fonws II", IlH'O;y of lal1r~utlgt' ,,(1, mired in and fur ilsdf. To I" , s lIre. enl"in VnitTS will ht.' hr.ud dt ' mtlnding" u'turn In dfit ,tt it\" ; Ihll s AlIglis litw \\'ill \\'''111 Chri~ ·

1111: SI'I . I: NUUM /t.NI' MISI: MY tlf MIIl:.UMIt...:

lian preachers tn p"ssrS5 an '"""lllencf' at lea.1 ,s dlecti If' as th"t nf Ihrir ;tllvt'rs"ri,'s:

WhH \Vllllitt ,bu' It' .... 'Y Ih.II trulh !'>hHIlItt s t.llhl in tl,,' 1'I\·, ~"n .. ( its tlde","'rs IIn,1IIne,1 against Iyinf'" so that they who wish to urg~ lalsehouds mOlY know huw In makt· Iheir li:'>lcnrrs bcncv­ol('nl, ur .1Ih..'l1ti\'t', ur .. ltlit·ill· in Iht'ir I"f(':'>t'nl.,tinn, tvhih' Illl' "("('OUt't'r:,> til truth .. nt' ir.nuranl .. f Ihilt ilrl? . .. While' 11,<, f,l("ully (Ii clct41I1c'nn', whidl i~ nr J!,n'.II \,.,Iu,- in ,u.tin~ dllH'r c\'iI ,'r iustin~. is in ibt..·1f imfifft..'rcnl. why shuuU il nol h-t... ul,t.,inC'tI fur Ihc uses ur Ihe W""f in Ihe ~' ~rvin~ "f hull1 If II ... l'vil usurp il for Ihe wi"ni'1~ ur pt'rVl~rse an~t vain caUSl'~ in tlt'f~'n~" of initl ' uily and err .. r? I()" C',r;s,itUl Vt.dri"t·, IV , ii, :11

8uI h(> fcn~ .. -I:-; wh.,t Tilcittf~ts l'h"rOJdc"rs "n .. ·w: l'1, ... lut.'nc .... nl'cds "eedom. It tloes not nnurish when its aim is prescrihed by dog­ma, whether plliitical ur relillinlls, nllr wh~n it i. asked to inin in Ihl!' servin' uf ",,, huth . Elot,luenn- rru~pt'r~ nnly in 1Ill' scarch rur truth, nol in the mere illllstration 01 a particular tnoth .

The second ~reat period of rheloric, hum Quintilitln In Picrre Fonlanier in tin' t..·.'rly nincll"l'nlh n'nltlry (11 i:'> ., ,lisCllllinl.' in which .uch shurtcuts are possiblp and even legitim;h:, so slow is it. evulutilln : Quintilian and "ontani"r, hatl they heen able to communicate with each other across the centurie" w·luld have understood eacll nth .. r perlectly), i. Ihlls characteri7.ed by one ~~sential f('ilhue! : tlU' rUllctinn nf cJisnUlr~t· i~ fnr,~ulkn . Thus it is 'h~ poetic Ie!xt Ih,,1 bt'l'umes lilt..' privilt..·gt.'tlt·xOlmpl .. •. In the R/II"4_'­ir. ", /lrmlll;UIJI, in a naive way perhaps, the description 01 each ligure was Inllllw",1 by thaI 01 its ellects; in later ,hetories, lunc­Uon i~ fir:'>t Ir("ilh'tt ~('rf1ra'ely. thc'n lInifi" .. 1 fur ,,11 fiJ~'ut.·~, "nd releg,ted til tI,,, last fhapter; linally il is III'Il"ttell . Whl'n Sllm,~,"e like ftlntOlnil'r ~pl'nll"tl:'s nn Iht..~ dft't.'ls ur fi.~\lrt.·s "nd Ir(lpt.·~, hl' no lungt.'r considt'rs lilt' .-frect nn Illh('r pt"'plt', hut only 111(' rd;t · lion bctw('('n exprt'ssiun and lhuu~ht, form itnd (,tnlcnl- an in­t~rntll lunelinn nr litllf; .. tlge: "Wc shall he asked whether it is userul to shllfy riJ~u,(,s, 10 know th("m . VI'S, wt- ~h,ll1 an~wcr ,

nolhil1~ is more u sdul. mure nt:Cl'!>sOtry l'Vt'n, rur thust..· whu st.' .. ~k In pe!lll'lr<lfto Ill(' ~t'nius uf Ihl~ lf1n~u.1~t..·, I" m.lsh'r lilt' st..·nt'ls or slyle, "nel wh .. wish til be abl,. t .. r:rasp, in CVN)'lhinr:, till' true U'l.l liull hdwl"'" ,·xprt .... sinn ,llhl itl",1 or lI",ugh." (I .,· ... ri,'\"'I'~ ./11 di5W", 5 . fl . ,.7;, I . p . I(7).

Of thl' Ilut.'l· fllnfliuns nf rigHr('~ -- lu inslrufl, In mnve ""tI to pka~", .. ""IV II", I,Ilh'r H·m,lins. wilh .,,, illll'_41ry "xlt'llsion: .. rhl'

\ •

JO TIIEOMIES OF TIIF. SVM80t.

gl.'llccilll.'ffeciS lof fi";IIH'sl IUust llt.·: (I) hi L'lHlll"lIiSh l.1I1t;lIilt;t.'; (2)

10 plcase by Ihis embellishm"nl" (ibid .• p . 4(4) .

Rhetoric's first gU'at crisis thus St'{'ms h.1rllloninlisly resolvl"t. Since il is no lon);~r pussihlc I" us~ sp"~ch Ir~dy. il is ;'l'l'rnprial~ to draw back, like Malernus, inln "PUft.- aud "nsnih'tl IlN:alcs ." Since it is useless to know Iht.· St.'erets uf t'Uit'adulIs discourst.· (in any case, such discourse nn longer ser.:es any purpose), rtu:lnric will be lurned Inlo knowledj;e of lang'''j;'' for lan);ua);c' s sake.

, language offering ilself up as a speclacle. allowillg ilself 10 be savored lor itsell. apart 'rum any ul the- uffensive M'rvin's .n whkh it was formerly sllbj~Clt·d . Ithl'll)ric l~('unu's •• ((,· h.-br.lliun. II It,S­lival of language .

All appears 10 be well; and yet Ih" celebraliu" i. "ul III be . lJdween Quinlilian and Funlal1ier, fortune duL'S Iwl smil~ upon .1

s ingle rhelorician •• nd Ihis IlInllesl pedlld ill Ihe hislory nf rhel­uric- Iasling ne.rly IIIIMI years- Iurn. IIul III be. al I~asl in il. broad outlin~ •• a perilld IIf slllw d,'udel1<'e ."d d,'sradatiun.

! .ullocalion and bad conscience. Rheloric embraces ils new ob­jecl; poelry- Ianguage as surh-bul il due, so relucl."lly. Before

_ Irying 10 comprehend Ihis );uilty cu"scienr~. lei liS allempl 10 galher some evidence IIf il .

We firsl find leslimony III il ill Ihe very set;me lliation 01 Iht phenomenon 01 rheloric. Take Quintilian: fur him Ihe whllie sel of rhelorical calegorie. is based lin Ihe "pp"siliun belwl-en ,tS and vaba, IhoughlS (or things) and words: Ih~ npl)usitiun is banal, but ils inleresl lies in Ihe facl Ihal il doc. nol v.l",iz~ Ih~ Iwo le,ms equally. ld us look a lilll" more closely . FitSI. here is Ihe opposi­tion. explicilly slaled: "Every speech however ennsisls al once of Ihal which is expressed and Ihal which expresses. Ihal i. 10 say nf mailer and words" ('"S/;/I//;II 0",111';11. III. 5. I) . 0,,111 Ihis art grafled several articulations. Hrst o' all Ihdt (If Uu~ (umpont.>nls U, rheloric: • As regards mailer. we musl study invenlilln .• s rellard. words •• Iyle •• nd a. rej;ar.1s bolh. arra"semenl" (VII'. I'r.. 6). These components ar~ rdah:d In Ihc funcliuns nf discoursc: in-81ructing and movin/l depend he.vily upun inventilln and .r­ran/lemenl. but plea.lnl\ depend. upon slyle alune .

The duty uf the oralur ts cumpusc,t u' inshuc:tint; , muvtn~ i.Hul dell~hling hi. hCilrcrli, ,,1.Ih-rul·nl u' 'acts il",1 ar~um"1I1 '.llllllt; under Ihe he.d olln.lruclilln. while emlllio"al .ppe.ls are con­cerned with mnvin,; Ihe JULli,': " ":. ;and, allhHlIHh Ih,·\' lUay I ....

'1111; SI·I.f.NUUM ANI» J.tlst::w.v Of 1011: 1 OMit '

""'plny,',1 Ihltlll.~IIOlit III,· t ·.I :-Ot ', .111' lUo~ 1 dh" li"t ' .,1 Ilw '~q:,ill "

ning tIIh.1 cnll . As lu the ck!mcnl 0' charm, . < !:H HII ~h it n",y rl'si,Il.· ..... Ih in ' ,Ids .lIhl wurtls, it:-. sp",·i.,l :-tpl ... r,· i:-. Ih .11 0' slyk . IVII •• 1' ... 71

71

(In spill' ,,' lIU'ir ;'pp.u,·nlly ... ·.dusivl· .,lIadlllh·ul I" Iht' .,tllln·s:-t.· .... ·, Ihest! fUlu-liulis ". tlis..·uluse l:lt-arly fl.,t:.ll1 Ihl' hasl" 'unLiiolls dl·scrilu_·t.I lly K.ul Uuhll.·r an,1 nUln.I" J"~,,h!'otl n : "il\~lrudil1l;" is oriented Inward the rdl'rent, "muvin~ " luw.ud Ihl' u ·n_·ivt.>r. and "deli.;htinJ;," ur plc.,sing. luwartl Ihe ulh'rtlu(c ibdr. Sigoifi ­(.Jnlly. Ihe c)t.prcssivl· funclion, uri,-nh·tI Itlwartl Ill,' spl'aJ..l'r, is missjn~: tlbnHuSt.· ,1'M's nul .,,·.~in h_ ,.tl"'· . ...: ... • 1 sul-i.·, ·t ·- in ,. sys­lernalk W,ly. in any ,-asl' - unlillhe rum,lulit' l·r.i.) ·Ih.< n·h_·hl.'ll· .... theory of Ihl' Ihn'" slylt·s nmfnrms tn Ihl~" ".HU'· "ppn .... ilinns: IIIl' low slyle serws I .. i"slrurl. Ihe ,,, .ddle slyk h. I'le • ."e. Ih~ IlIgh .Iyle III IIIl'Y" ( .... III. 511- 59) .

lhis triparfih' llivisiu" is h.1St·ll un . 1 ltidUlI"I"Y (wuulsl thouJ;hls) I'lus ., t."umprumisc term (lli~pusi IIUU), (II dst.· 01\ Ihl' same dkhuhllllY pain·l..t with a sL·nm...t: iJL·.lsl'l·t.·lillgs (Ihis I.Iltl.'r

dicholomy is Ihe b.lsis lor Ihe inslrucli"~/I,,"ehin); suhdivisi"" .nd allihal r~sis up"" il) . Hul Quin.ili." tI" .. ·s ""I limil hilllsdf I" this simple illx1apusilitln; im .... li(illy _I nd l.')f.pli, illy, lit' v.dori/.l·:-' Ih .... term n's; hy tI", .. • s.w....- luken, lilt' It'rlll lIe 'II", . wilh .111 its l'or­

relahvcs, is subicrt In a new ani,lysis th.11 is IIrt-;.lIIiLcd. WI(C

~gain. around ,Iu' ,,'~ 1"',1 .... axis . Doc:uhon ("styl,, "), whid, ... It.' , peruJs. as w.· hav,' St','n, un wnr,ts. willllt· Iht' PI"Vill,"t ' of slylislil­qualitiL·s. The lisl ul tln'St..· '11I.Ilili,·s v.lrit's I,um 1I11l' ,IfnUIlI1 lu tlnother. but Ihcir systematic prcsL·ot.tliun in UtH.)k VIII rl.'ducL's them to twn Inaiur (lnes: discnurses must bt.> d~ar (,.. •. , SI';CUd) a nd ornale, .:mhdlish .... t.I (1" Wild) , Nuw wunls ,I(t' de. If \Vhclt thL'y make us see lhinJ;s dt'arly, and tht.·y an' llt.·.hllihll wl ... ·n wt.· .1.1 -mire flu'm for Ih"IIIS4'lvL's: darily is lu Ilt.·.wly .\S UlillhS oUt' III \YonJs . This nppusiliun in turn ,,;ovt.'rns oll"." rs . Fur ",.,mpl .. ·, lin;' Oppuslllnn ht'lwl'l'n pU'llCr mcanin~ and Ir.lnsp"st.·, ! ml';\IIil'g :

"lhe c;lIIum. thaI ell·arnt.·Ss mainly u"tluin's prt1pril'ly II' l;\n~lI.l~e lind urnaUlt'li1 lilt' st..illlli uSt..· til nH'I.lphur ("'III~Jdlb) , is pl'rh-dly . sound" (VIII, :l, I~) . I;rum hen- Wl' muv\' 'III 10 Iitt' oppositiull tI' historic,,1 tilyll'" ur l'v,'n nf lan~lIa~ ... '~; wt.· fin,lel"", fur "J(amI1Ill, in Ihe dkhuhu"y ~·twI ·t·n Allid!'tm anti Asl.llli:-om: " J\~ ( ;rL· .. · ... ,:r.hl , lI.llly "lIh'n,h',1 its r.III~'· ill In II", lIt"i~hhurill'~ dlil'S 4" Asi.l. th"fl'

, iUtSC a dilss "I 1Ilt.·0 whu dL'sin·t.J In llislin}-tllish tllt'lI\sdv\'~ as ur.tIHr~ llt·luft· Ih,·.y It.hl .u'l.llIirt·.1 slIlIid"ul ,·PIIIIH.II,,1 III lilt' 1.ln-

2 llifOMltS or TIII~ SYMIIOI ,

gil age, and who conse'l"enUy I><>goo III p'press hy perlphrosc. wh"l enul" h;lve llt,'\,U l'l(pn·s~l·tI din'l,tly, unlil finally ahis prth'lin' hl'GlmC all in~rt1i'll'd hahit" (:ell , Ill, Ill) . Gn.',·k 0111,1 1..,lin .1ft' ctln ­

tr.l~h .. .'d in lhl' !i''IIlll' w,'y : "" sli11 :ilrt,"~t ' r intlic:01liun ttf lIu .. ' illr ... ', riorily of I.alin Is 10 he "'"od in II ... fori Ihol Ih"re or" m"oy Ihing' whic h have nu L,lin n"IIll'S, :o:u that it is nt.'n,'ss.uv 10 (')(I'H'SS

Ihell' by 1t1c1i1phor ur pl·ripluash"· (XII, In, :H) . r;inally . if in 0111 uhim .. h.' n'I't.· titiun or II", ~;u,,,· )~l"shUt' Wt'

0,,0IY7.c Ihe lerm nllw ·Iinked 10 I""", Ihal i., Ira'''I'"sed mcan­ing. we discover within it nnce a';;1in Ihe ol'pnsilitHl helw('cn words an(1 Ihings . In fod , omllog Ihe lropes, "SIIII'" . . . a .. employed 10 help nut tun ow.,ning and uther!'l In atfurn tutr style" (VIII, 6, 2) . Thlls in Ih~ wry w,'y lropes are IIse,l w~ 1i,"1 yel ol\oin Ihe familior dicholomy I><>lwpco Ihnse Ihol ,crve moillly 10 reveal IllIn,!;hl o"d Ihings , ollli IhllSl' Ih,,1 are Ihrre I" be "I'I'"'doled for Ihcm!=;clvcs . The r.,lh WI' havl' tilk,'" C;l11 tlt' ~ummari/.l·t' i1~ in the

di.grom .

(Invellhufl ;"10(1 111:-1',1' ,1'''''' rcs, Iflstfuchnq alltllnovlI~~ .

Inw and hlOh slvtr.)

,-

I('S Ic l:lllly.

(elocuhofl ,

verba, plr.RSton. mlddlo S!yk'!)

11'011(':1 1H4!;,Il""1 1\1I1{: I!;Il1 .

1~IN :k I:1t'l(III ; 'III ~ )

Vf?lh,l ., UM!Auly. { ;:::'~ntllC1IUI hopes) " j,nsIlOScd rnC"nlllo(l .

I\r,ta'"!';ln ... nlh:.,

I alK' lanqu8gc ) (1!lOhf'lhslllng !lOpes

Such on arlieulalion hilS a paradll. icol aspre! : ilkI' 0 ,hrinkioll '. skin, Ihe oIomain 01 1 ... 1 .. is conlinu.lly redllcetl wlwn nmfronlcd

with the rhetorician's d\:'!'>in·. whl'r('''~ the prore r uh; .. ' d (If rhel­orir, ('vl~n rur Q"inltli.,,, . is 11)t 'a ..... 1 mud, nt ' ,Ht'r Itl '''1-,1", thiln In ,,.~ . Hhrltlric, which ollght 10 h.lve h .. "t' n privilt·gt·" work with Wtlrds. b ( tlnSlOlnliy 011 hOll'k ill ~nl~~·. :-; itln.~ rhl'lnriri.,"s d"im in rUcct 10 valu£" £lnly di~(:lltl r ~ I.' lI'ill ~erves In inform, disnnuse una,lllrm',1 wHh l1 ~ ('It-~~ "mb,'lIi~hnll'l1l ... , ,ti~("OIIl S ", ill Ihl' ,')C­

h,'ml..' ("as,', that ~ot. .. s ul\I'nlin·d -- in s ho.t. ,Iisnltlf:-'I.· Ih.II ,Iot.'s nol ,h-rive hom ,hl'luric I"ht, d"IIl,lIhl ... . 'f,' nll1iratli, lurv, ill,,1 tlU' (tln ­

'r"didiol1 h., s iln ilH .. '\'i l.,l llt· ' ·'I" ~"'llI, · no.' : Ihl' .Iwtolh i.m ,I, .... ·s 1101

.111· "'-I . ' ~ NIIUM. ANn MIStley til· 'till·. I OM,, ' 7J

(hant~'· hi~ 'f"I.I\·, but practiu's it h .. 'nfl,fttflh with ,I J~uilt~ ("('1\ ­

sd,',,, ,,,. Mon.·nv.'r, Quinlili.IIl ,It"" ·s nnl limit ',imSt,lf lu Ihi~ implidl

fUlu.ll'nIlMliul1; he hliliudalt'S il ttpl'nly; asst·rlin,.; \.ul1rid~nlly Ihat h(' Jln'fcfs ",.",k II, "'lUI1, Allidsm In Asi.mism. ill s hurt, IlIl'OII\­ing lul ..... Hlly . "Wh,'" , I sl't· .. ·d'l i~ pr"is,',I'or ils wOhl ", il implil's Ih,,' ib senst' i~ in,hlt -'llIal,'" (VIII, I'r " .11), 'Tnr "'y own p.'lfl. I rt'f~aftl d .. 'aflu:ss .lS flU' firsl ,'sst'uti,'I1 "f a ~'"kl slyll.'" (VIII, 2, 22), "These crilics wou'" show finer feeling ood heller ludgemcnl if Ihey h~Jk Ihe vil'w Ih,,1 Allie el"'lucnce ml'anl rrrf,'ci eloquencc" (x, 10, 26); ond s" "" .

Quintilia" Cilnnnt I.'raw rht'lnric inln Iht, cdl'llralinll 01 lan­lIu-ge, for hI' scrs onl 0 celebrolion hul .n "'I;y. Ilis Ihesis will he wnflrmrd ood oml'lifi,',1 I>y onnllll'r onalysis nf Ih .. 1"'l'l'S IISt' ,I by rhel",idans I" ,iesi,;nale rhelnric,-or rolher, m",,' sp .. df;cal­Iy, uf 11ll' partie-ubr Irup\.', which is l .. te;,I",I. as w,' hav,' iusl seen, al the vcry h('ilrl uf rhl'luric. Lf'I U!II r('("all Ih:.. 'h,' ml'faphnrs of tlu· earlier rhl'ltJril' (frum Arislull,' Itt ("in"u) fI.·fl.'rrl.'l.l In a n 'I.,Iion of Ilu' llll'illts1"lhl typt' . Nnw 'hin~s .u,· ,tiff,'rt'nl; IIw I11l'al1s1l' u,1 ,rial ion hos been rel'l,,,ed hy Ihe form/wnk"l p,,;r, "r ,"Ih .. r­and Ihis is where Ihe door i. ope~ed I .. dev_loriZ<lI;"n- by Ihe out!llide/insidc pair . Thoughts or things ;Ut" the inh'riur, which is only cuvt'r"lI nv,', hl' i1 rhdori,'.,1 wri\f'pin~ . "'hI. s inn' 1.,nt;tI"hl'. as Wl' hav,' sl,,· .. i, is l.'I1,lIessly nmlpan',llo Iht' hUInilll tl4ltly. with Us .;(~shln's .m,1 ib pus h1fl.'s, rhdurk .• 1 Hrn,1ItH ' nl ~ ,!fI ' thl.· .Idorn ·

menl. "f Ihl' "'"Iy . Such an j,t,'ntifit.'illitlll implies IWtl nunpl"IHt'nlilry ptlsili('I's :

I" USt· ml'l'Iplwrs ol1l.'s\'lf is In ((lvl.·r Ihl.' hOlly: In tllhll'r~t.uHI Ihem is 10 \lowil il . Exoml""~ "f eorh on' (,O'Y I" fintl . '1 hl' inh'r;or/ C)1l'riur rd.llinn is posited in Cin'ru; allhuu,.;h il IUrilS uul ttl "'-' sli,;hlly "i,lt",oll',I , os il were: II", \>toJy ilsdl is m~rl'ly on e.lerior eonvelupc rnr ~(Imt"lhin~ else: "To disc('lv('r ilnct cf,'d,t" what In s:. y is impure ., nl , ,"I n,1 is let d'"1""nn- wh,.1 IllI.' min,1 i ~ III tl\l' body" (( h,I'lt" XIV, .I.t) . Apt.'r, wh" ,II.'snil"H.'s Ih,' m'w """I"l'nCl' in Tacitus's dialoJ~ut· . al~n invokl"!i Ih(' t .... tdy. ,",lit in il murt" "",tc-riill scnse: "I"~I as" n"'n's huJy, su rn"Cisdy is Ih.,1 sp,·t'rh bt'auliful in which Ill(' vdn~ ,I" nut ~tick Ullt anti thl.' 1 ... "lt'~ ('.,nolll ill' (CHlllk,f 11111 rililwr ftompl.'rah' 011111 I,,'allh\' 11100,1 lill ... Ilu' lilllh~

",.tI swdls in IIH' ,,,"~dl'S .'InJ a ,~llIw ftl, l .... Ih,' sillt'w~ tlll·m."dvl..'s \ aml;tll I'Iq:.III1,' ':r ... ·t· ... Ilwln" (."It . 1.1".,,, .u,' lil.,' btllh' '' ,Ind

vt'ins; wultls, II~" Ifl'~h . lI"jl's, illl" skil1 .

74 ·rllli OMlli S u.· rllt: SYMIIUI.

One slcp turth""f alH.1 Wl' (OIlH .. • In I'lt.' hwly's nl\/t' riIlJ~: ;uturn­Illl'ni or cI()lhin.~ . Thi~ t"lHUI"ubllll Is (,"'lIni(",Ii : Arbln.le. ~p,·.I~ ·

ing 01 melaphors. had .Iready slaled Ihal "il I. Ii~.· having 10 as~

ourselves what dress will suit an old lUiln; certainly uul the crim­son cloak Ihal suils a yuung lIIan" (RII'·' .. 11 •• 14115.,) . As lor Genu:

lust as 5ume Wtllnl'H an.' said 10 he h .UHbtUlH"r will'" IIn­

,adorned- this very lack of ornament becomes 111(.·"' - 5u this plain style give! plcasuu· l'ven wht'n .. ncml~:lIish"'·ll : Ihl"u' is something in both cases which lends ~r{'all'r chMm, hut with· out shuwinR ilS<'U . Alsu .\11 nl,lin'.lhl., Ofll;"'U'III, 111",uls as it were, will be t..'-.dudcJ; nUll.'Vl'U nllli .. ~ · iIOUS will 1If.' ust',I; all cosmelic5 •• rlilici.1 whil~ .nd rcd, will I.· rein .. ·.I; unly eI,·· ganc~ and ncalness wail rCIiMin . 10",1,11, UIII, 7tl-7tJI

One of Tacitus's char.lcters 4.'hooses amun~ !,l'veral types of doth­ing: "it is so much beller In dulhe iI Spt..·l'l·h .. ~vt..'n in iI rm •• ;h log. Ihan 10 make il sland oul wilh Ihe colored d(llh~s 01 a cllu!lesan" --(xxv.) .

Clearly I these cump,uisulis an' pern,,·.)k(1 with moral nuutcm­nations: ornate discuursl.' is like an l'asy \voman, with ~I,aring

Inakeup; how much mon° highly must one value natur.,1 Ix.-auty, the pure body. anti thus Uu' atl!*'ncl.· 0' rlu·tllric! I(i~hl lip hI Kant we conlinue 10 find tra(cs tlf lht..'se assimilaliuns: illeasint;, the rheloricai' (unclion par cl(n,U4.·IlH', as Wl.' h.)vl.' St'l'n , is wumen's busincss (the funclion of luuching, muving, belongs lu men .. . ); t>e~ ~lj' is the province of women, intelligence of men (ObsL'rrraliollS 011 · II" fcdillg o{ II" /k,,,,'i{,,1 ",,,I Sub/il"cj .

This moral cond("nlnalion rcaches a kind of pinl1adt' in Quintil· ian fur whoat discourse is masculine, trlllll whtl.:h it lul")w~ Ihal or~an~;I;'~d -discnurse is till" mOl Ie (1JIlrtesiH~: till' vin' HI hmno­;e~u~lily i'- superimposed "pon lusl . II is hard I .. believe Ihal these invectives have In du wilh anylhinl; buI iI dl' ... ,-shaven trOll\svestite:

There arc even some whu .lIe c.'pturctl hy Ihc ~h;\IIIS of artificc and think thaI there &s more beauty in Ihose who plud. nul 5u~rnuolls hair ur us(' depilalories, whu dress Ihcir lud(.s hy scorching them wilh the cUflinK irun dlHI ~Iow wilh a ulIl'plcx, ion thai is nul Ihcir own. IhM' Gut ever be UIUh:fft'tl by Halluft.'

pure and simple. s.c' tlMI il rt·.llly s .... t·(Us as if physi'''ll 1"It·.lUly depended enllrely on O1ur.II hidl..'uusm·ss . 1'"",','ul,,1 0"",."". II, v, 121

The same theme appears t+ .. t'wht·(t·:

1111: !'JI· • . • : NUOM ANU MI ~; "MY 01· MIII ·. IOUII ·

I h·.,tlhy I)()(tit·s. t ' nin\'in~ a ~"tltt l"irnll.lliPII .lIltl slwuhlht'IH'd I,y t·~"H ·i~t' . • ,," llIlIt' J~I .h ' t' hun! III.' S,t"t,' '.lIlth t ' 11 •. 11 ,:1\"' :-' 11,,'m shcnhlh , for II",y h.lve a hl'.1Uhy oo'mpl ... ·.Ilio.t, firm n~sh .,ud shapely lhews. Uut. on Ihe ulltl.'r h.lIld. Ih .... IItdU who aHclUp's It) l'nhann' th,'s,' ph~skal ~r.h·l·s hy Iht.' dl ... · IlI.n.llt- USt' 01 ,1t'l'il · a ... rit·s .Hltl n,s uH·Ii, ·s. :->1It't'I.·,·,b ml.·rely in dt'l"dl\.~ tht'm hy II" .. ' \I ..... y ('.u ... · wllit'll Itt' hcsltlws un IlwIII , SIIUlI.uly . ,I Ir.l,, :-. Iu ·

75

{enl .1Utl iri,tt·S4.-,' nl style mCH-Iy St.·rv .... !' tn I.'masful.lh· tilt' sul'it'cl wh .... h il olJr.,ys with such pum!', or wurds . lVIII , I'r ., Ill - 2UI

And i1~i1in :

But sud. urlt""'I.· .. 1 ~uusl. as I h."lVl· .lln".ldy s.lid, t)t., bold, 1lI.101y ami "'hash' , 'H'I." frOIll _,n ...I1"min;-,h' smuulhlh'SS ,md lilt' f;lb,' hues dl'rivl'lI hum ,utiliri.ll tlYl'S • • tud IllUst ~Iow With hl'.lllh all,1 viHUf . I VIII, 1, hi

ekern, a(cus ... ·J uf slylislic J\sianism, 1lt..·4.·.11ll ... • illllHl'diatl'iy sus­peel in terms of his st-xual mnn's: he W;lS n'proi11'IH'lt with Iht' chart;l..' lhat hl' W.ts " homb.lsti..-, Asi.tlit·, n·,hllhl.lIIl, );iYl.'1I Iu ... '1( ­

(t'ssiVt, u'pt'liliun, li.lltll.· i,1 liuu'S tn I .... · I'Uilllll'ss in hi:-. willit'is lll , sensuuus, .~ xtrav.l.;.mt and (an uutri1~ .. 'nll~ ,)('("us.llion!) .llmost d ­femillOlIt.· in his rhythm" (UI, In, 12). Sud •• 111 • .'lil1liu;ltiuII 01 III.IS­culilll' dlar.l1'krislit.·s I ..... h.ts Itl mun:,lrusity : \'Vt.' :-'1',' (h.tl sum ... ·

peuplt..' plaft~ a hi~hl'r value nn fi~uft'!' whit-II iln" in ,lilY Wily 111011 -

shuus ur .lislorkll Ih.1I1 thl'y Ju un thust' wll,' h,IV" lIot 10:-.1 .Iuy

of the advant.'ges t)1 Ihe nurmal lu,"m uf lUiln" (II, 5. II) . Discuurs .... lIlust ')tlth "giv~ pleasure an .... awakt:'1l admiration;

ilnd Ihe admiratiun will be ul a kinll f.u "Ih"'r than 11t.\t whidl w .... beslow on pur .... nts. whilt, till' I-.h·"suft.., .. ·vu .... l·d tty Iht' dl,lflll WIll havt! nulhin~ nunbid aboul il, but will l>t: prdisewurlhy ,Hhl tli~ ­

nifi~d" (VIII. I' .. , 11). Hheluriral urnill1u-nlaliun chan~l's lhl' Sl'l( o( disl·ourS(' . And

we lU~cd nn, 'ilC UIHIStl.,lIy pt.'rn·pliv .. ' In S4.'I.. II ' I' l}uinlilian is lIul • partisan uf sex dliUlt;CS , Nur .Ill..' Wl' ;lshlllishl'J 10 Sl'4.· 11t.II , alth(JtI~h Ill' had lx' .. ' n ahle lu Iran!'mil lhl' lh'finitiull ttl thl' (i~lHl' as an altitude uf lanJ.)u~'ge, a ddinitiun Ihal implil'd a vdlorilatioll

0' langtli,~e Illr its own sakl', hl' hilllsl'lf ruuld nd slop there; h~ ahandoned IItai ddinititln in '.,vor uf iHhtlher whkh ",,;IS 10 bel-UI1W l."anoni""ll ill Eurupedn rhl..'luril'.,1 tr.lllitil'll , l.}uilllili.lIl jlllt,;t-" 11.,' ",lrlit'( ,Idinilion II!' II", fi}~Uf" IIItI \ ', lg'U' , .111.1 pro · post'1.1 Ihe following : "In lilt' S(·fllilti "Ihl ~p",' i.,1 S"U~I', in whid, il is ..-dlh.·ll a ~dlt''''jl, II lIIe.II\S ,t r,lliulI.,1 d"'''gl' ill mt',lIlin~ or lal1-I;ua~t' IrtHIi Ihl' onlill.lry ,lIIll siml'h- lorlll" (III., I. II); .lIld ,I.~,'ill,

16 TIII~ ()IUF.~ eH' IIiE SYMhOI .

"we mu.t interpret "·''''IIl. in the .rn<e .. I tll.1t whlrh is p .. ctir~lIy or rhetorically ;,11c..'."I'd rnml 1Ill' slmpl" 0111(1 "hvillliS I1lt'lhctt' nf expre55ion" (IX, I, 13) . IIi. here Ih,t the lip.nre i ••. ldinr.l"I", the lirst time a. divergence . This ,Ielinitiun will (Urne tn dn",inate the entire Wc~lern traditio"; anll yet it conlain9 ~OIne'hinf~ Vf"ry dose ' In OJ l'Imtlt'mllillinn .

If rhetelrical pn)(llicliul1 :c;km~ 'rum :u.'urnmt' l1l anti du'hin.~. thrn intcrrrclinJ~ lexls Ihal USl' lIlt'st· ~1t·'Jk.·s is , a" ",.111 I'('rin leacts US to observe. an Clclivity akin In ufl(lrt~ :.sin,~ .lwlll- with all thai m.,y IX" rl("a~ lIr ... l'I,'" in such ,Ill flrlivily . fur in dils~i"ill twr­'"t.'nl'tllics. il~ In Ihl.' st ripll','Sl'S t" Pig.tllt· , tht' ,llIr.,Ii .. n or Ih~' l)iTK."CSS and even its tlirfkully augment its villllC- Stt lun~ itS nne is certain to arriv(' in thL' l'fH' al till' h(ltly il ~l'Ir. Tin' wrilings ul J\~gltSli.!1~, on author whtl Iran~furm~ rheturir inlo hermeneutics, ,:;rc particularly rcveali;l.i Ull this puint. Thill 01 cnnsdulis principle is indrcJ involved c.,n 1)(' shuwn tly clclt-",nal affirm;1lion~ n' Ih~ 1"lIowing sort: Christ ... li,1 nllt hi<le Itruth<1 in lI"ler tn rrevent Ihem from being cnmmunicflled, hut in tJul~r tn prnvukt' desire for tlll'Ol hy thi~ Vl'ry t:unfl'all11l'ut" (Sf'lIIIIIU .... 51 . -t. ~); ur : "Nu one <Ioubts that thinr,. arc pt'r<eived mnre readily thrnur,h simil­itmlcs and that what is slIught with ,Jirrkully i. ,Iis .... vere'. with more rleasure . Tho.5(" who dn nut find wh.,t 1Iu.'y ~t~l'k diredly stnted labor in hunp,er; Ih(l<e whn <In nnt <eek be<OlI<t' they have what they wish at .. nce fre'Iu"ntly hew",,, intlnl""t in tlisdain" (0" Clrrisli." Doc/ri"" II, vi, R) .

At the end 01 this «lme perind, in the eighl"enth <entury, we encounter the~e compflfisnns nncl:' O1'~01in . mutiulak,1 ")' Ihe Swiss

I writer 'nhann ,.koh ""'itinl:er: "Md"rh",s ,1ll1 till' lither 1ir,lIres I are like .all and .pices: tno .kimpy a <lo<e Icav .. the ,Ii<h taste­k .. ; I"" heavy n sprinUi"!: "",k,', the dish i'Il'.lible. SlIch inup­rmtune and disp"'pnrlillnat" p"'<lir.ality with <pic,,< in the prep­;u.1tinn nf food tc~tific's 10 lilt' w('alth an,1 r,t'nernsily uf II" .. " m01slC'f 0' Ihe house; hut it hc.."lrays, .,1 the sanlt" li!11l' , his corruplt'tI I"sh~" (Krili'c/It A/I',n",11I11'g, r 1(,2) .

Ordinarily. how('ver, what is in (Iu("stinn is nnl it carefully cu hiv.,tcd hunge r, h!'1 lihh'~, Ill' r~ an" Ol fc'w ttf tlu' I1hUlY nmncC­lions m.,de- tht'sc. ag41in . hy Augustint' ; ..... "l· mOlt· Ihesc th in~s

~t'l'm 10 be ohscurt.'t.I 'lY fi}~ur.,tiv(" wor,t .. , th .. Sw,'('h'r tlwy 1)(', co me wht'n they (\,t' l'Xp lO1 inl'd" «()" Clrr;~ tiff1l 1)".·" ·;"1'. IV. vii, ·15) . .. All th{'se Irlllhs ~lippC'd In It ~ in li,: .. n·s sprv(' to I('('tl II", firr of

Invc . ' , ; for IIH'y inspirt, ,Jltd inll"nw Iuvl" mort' Ihiln if tlH'y Wt~re

·'III~ SI'.tNIHUt ANU MIS.: KY Uf "1I1~ 'IOMIl" n

prc!'icnh'll in IIwi,r n.,k""lln('ss ltl'vuill nf ilily ~iJ.;nifvin~ im"~l"ry " ('~·""'s. ~~. 111.21' . "1'111 in .,,..I,·r .h .• 1 IIl.Inih·sl Irlllhs slu'IIltlnui beeu",e tirinJ~. tl1l'y have been nwer('d with a vl'il, while rt'main­iny, "nch,nged, anti thus they been",e the object uf de.lre; being "('!'iircII, th.'y .n." in a way mOld .. YUlinr. ,'gilin; with Iheir youlh u·s'un't.' . IIwy ('uk. Ihl' spiril ,~c'nlly (~u"I';',"r (ihill., 1:17. v. IH). "lhl'~l' Ihin,~~ .lfl' vdl ... d in fiJ~url·s. in ';i1lnwnls <IS it WCrt.." , in oftft'r Ihal IIwy "MV ")(t'rd~" Ih,· minll III Ihc' p illus in'luiu'f .... nll nol I>t..'cuml' cht'ap lur being bare anti uhvinlls . For heing r('I11" .... llwy .'1(' 111"U' anlt'nlly ,I"sin'll (", · .. j,' .. nIHIII,. """'",i" ... ) . . ,nli for It"i"t; tlt.' sin' .. 1 Ilh 'Y .1ft.' 1UllIt' i"ylully ,lbt.·tI\Th,,1 ('un""t;" ... )" (AJlni,,,' tyi"g, " 24) .

Wl' mOlY wdl I('inirc in J\uJ.;ustim"s S.'':'''' st'nsuOIlily (which is .11 the m(lr~ ",v(lrl"I, I darr "y, in th,t it i< <l'i'l'n,ed tn hell' Iransct;'nll Ihe primary s('n~l'. Ihl' m.,h'ri01I an,1 S('n~ual unl', in ' .. vnr ul a st;'cnnJ01ry spiritual sellst;'). hut II remOlins no I('r s Irue that I ... him, lust n< Inr the other rheturida", and ex"get .. , doth ­ing is nIles< value Ih,n th~ bn,ly; dOlhin,; i. an ~.tl'rnal envelnpe Ihal musl I", ft'l1Hlvnl ((·v.'n Ihtlll.~h this "P"loIlitHI CUt I", pit';) · ""oble) . Further ~vi.lence lor this pt"ition i. Inund in the Ire­qU!!!!, c41mpMisun H' a melaphur It, a prn.sliluh.'-a cumparison now urlented in tlU' inverse dirt"Ction (when 0111 ih", veils have bef'n r('mtwrtt. tilt' \Yuman fintfs 'wrsd' I101lc.t,.1 O1Ilt! Ihefe is nnl)' one prole"i",; Idt Illr her In proctice). Thus Manubius relates the misadventures .,f the neo-rylhagorean philtlsorher Nume niu5 (CoIIIIII",'.r.¥ 0" II,r fJr .... rn of Sri"io, I, ii, 19):

100 ... .'('ll. Nunu'nills. t1 rhiln~"rlt('r will, ., nnio~i'y Inr ,,,·c ult thin,;s, hit" ,.,Yt·.,It.,t.I .... him in n drt.'illn thl~ · lUIr01'~(, tll' had ~nmmitt(''' "1~01in~' Ihr ~od!l> ily prn.-l.,imlnJ; his inlrrprdOllinn '0' thc i.:Il'usiui.1II lUyslcril-s. Thl' l:lcusini.m ~Ut..hIl'SSl'S thl.'m­sciv('s. dr("s~('d in Ihe ~armcn's ttl cU\lrll:'~n~, ill'f1('."lrcd to him !II1"'1t1i".~ Ilt.,run' an upt.·n hrutht'l. "'0(' wht'n in his a ~ 'Clni~hnlt'nl Itt' askt.·,1 thl' H',lSl111 Ittr this sl1U.'kin~ l'tIllJu(l. Ihl'Y an,~,ily rcrli('(1 Ihal he h;u' drlv~n Ih('m hum IIU'ir ~"h·htary tlf mod· esly O1ntl h.,,1 pruslilull-d them In t.'very p3S~f ' hy .

Stich nHnp01risuns, and tilt' vfllll~ ;ud,;mt.'nls tflt'y imply , ilre POlSS('t. tlltU1'~ thrnu,;hnul Ihl' sc.'-IlIl,1 pl'rint.' til Iht' hiSlory til rhetnrie:. from Cin'ro In FuntOlnil'r . They hl·cUmt· till' defining 'ea­IlIrt' of a (ivili1,.,lio" which~ trntlt.·r tilt.' influl'IIl"t.' of IlIl' C hrisli;lll r('ligipn . (,("'''''sh'ullv \'alul:'!" thour-h' .,1"41V(· WOrt I ... !"o sur.' is il th,.t "the ;"ltcr kills, an,1 the spirit {,,;n,;s Ii"' ." l.eI liS re<,11 hrre

TIIEUII.I~S OF TI l E SYMBOL

one l.lsl pil~-' ~ of l'vitl,'nf,', lilli' Ih.1I is p.trlinll.uly d'kIUt'1I1 owill.~ to the fame of its aulhur , II is found in Lucke's Ls:;..,.'1 CtlHfall;IIK

HUI/IQII Ulldtrsl.ndill.~. Locke mnd~mns rhdoric (and Iherer",e eloquence. and Iherelore speech) as a travesly ollho"l\hl.

I confess. In dist"tlUrS4.'S wh"fI' WI' sa't'k r.ltlll'r I'h"ts.trt' .uhl tl,' ­light than inlurmatiun. anJ iml'ruvcnu_'nl , sud I nUI.lInt·ub 'IS 'Ht' b..rrnwed hum Ihl'm (,'n SI"lr, ' ,' t},lSS for l,,,,lb , 11 .. 1 yl'l it WI'

would speak of Ihiut;,s as 11\l'y an', we lIIuSt .-.110'0'1 Ih.ll .-.11 Ihe art of rhelork, besid("~ nrth'r .1nd cleolrOt'SS; all Ih .. , arlififi.ll ;Uh.1 figuralive applicftilln nf words l.·lulluenn' hath invcnh'il, .1r~ fur nOlhing else bu"'-to insinu.1h· wrun,; itteas, muve the .,.,ssions . • 1IIJ tllt.'fl.'hy misll';i;i'II,~' illd,~nh'ul;)'Uld SII indt'('tl '-"1 ' I)f.'.','d cheals: and thcrdure. howi·vl.·r 1':'lIlli,I,It.' or alluw.lhlc ur"lmy may render Ihem In tur;mt-:lH's .1nll popular ilthln~ss.'s. Ihl'Y au' (l'rldinly, in all t.l.i~uLlrscs th.I. preknJ lu illiurm or iuslrud, wholly to be avoidl'd; .uhl wlll'fl.' Irulh .1ml knowlt'tIKl' .u,· t:on · cerned. cannot bul tx- Ihou..:hl a t;u'al fault, l'ilhl'r ul II", lan ­Kuage or person Ihal m.1k,·s IISl.' H' Ihe'l1I , I ' -.1nnot Ilul ob­!WrVl' huw htlle 111t_' pll.'St·rv.llill .. ,uhl impltll.','m,'ul "I hulh .lIhl knowledge is the carc ami (on(ern of mankiml; sinl't~ Ihe arts of tallacy are endow~d and rrcft.'rred , II is t'vhlt-nt how mut'h men love 10 deceive and be deceived. sloce rhelorlc, Ihal rowerlul inslrument of error all,1 d,'(t'i' , h,-.s ils l·st.IM;sht.'d f'ru't·ssms. i::i publicly lolUt;hl. antJ h,,~ ,llw,.y:-. l'Ct' n h .• d ill ~rl'a' rqull,Ilil"' : and I doub' not but it will he Ihuught Kreal lxIIJul'!>S. il nol brulality. in me 10 have s'Ij,t thus much .... t;ainsl ii , H(MIIIt.'IKC,

f

like Ihe lair sex, has 100 prevailint: beauties in il In suller ilsell ever 10 be spoken a,;ainsl. Anil il is in v.lin 10 finlt 'ault wilh those arts of d«civirlg. wlu'n'in nwn find plt.·asun· In bt..' dl.'· cdved. (III. x, 341

\

We can now return to causal analysis and ont:e 'lJ;ain raist! the t.llu!slion, why1 Why is an acn'ptahl ... rht.'lmit" illlpnssihlt! t.l.uring

Ihis period? Why is il impossible III appreciale l,nl:u'l:e 1m ilsell? Why c.Joes Ihe celebration l,;,iI In tKTUrl

A salislactory rhetoric woultl hav~ bt..-.: n pnssihlt,· if lh~ t.l.isap· pearance of political, anti Ihus vt:'rhal. liht:'.tit·!'l h ;'HI l~,t 'n a((-"in ' p,nied by a disappe,"lnC" "I .111 Stk'i,,1 mar.llily : Ih,t wo"ld h,ve Ic.-;itimized the solitary admir.lliun, nn il\divhluali~1 rrincirlt.'s, uf each lint;uistic utterance for ilsdf. Yl:'1 Un' "prosil .. " is 11\1' case, Whether we look at the Knman Empire or ill lalt'r Chrislian sl.tlt.·s, we are lar frum finding intliyitlll.11 l''''o\S1U.', .111d IIIl' v.IIIII' tlf self · salislaction • ..,1 up as a mudel . We ..,e this wilh Au~ustine: tilt

nit Sl'lENOOR ANn MlsUn Of RIU"TUKIC 79

hllilt i~ IlI'lil'v"d """"'II. 11'"1,- .111,1 111111" ~tlld\', 1111'11' i~ 11111111" :-' liull ul .,lIl1win.,; t.·.h:1t inliivi,lu.ll tu .Ippn'l'i.lll· hi~ uwn truth .11ld In lovt., nhjt'ds (in lhis cast.', lingllislk OIlt.·S) simply for Iltl' S.lkt, ul their hannnny ;UlIJ beauty . Thus ptK..'tir plt'.lslln', inasl11l1dl as i1l'unsisb ill .111 "!'I'rt't'i.llion 01 IIst'll'SS 1.H1~~!I"I~i · . i ~ IIll.I\YI'I'I.1111, '

in this s,~'i,,1 orilt· ...

nlll if Ihi' iil",.1 til Iht, Ih ' W Ihdtlrit- is impn!":-. iblt', why dUl' !> il 1lI.1I1,II;" 10 suhsist tlurillt; 1h'.lI'ly Iwn millt'lIl1i,I! It is Ilt.'t.'.lUSI' IIlt'fl' is no 'Iut'slinn , t'ilht'r. uf .11lMltlilOin)!, II", rq;ill1l'IIt.lliol1 IIf dis " cuurse, 1111: vt.' ry prin(iplc th.,t is n'spultsihlt· lor Ihe JiS,lppl'.U ­anee ol Ihl' old lo ... n uf rhdHrit"- dli".h'iulIs t'I'NIIlt.'nfl·-- Io.,"'Ps dtl'lufit' .,)iVt' .I~ .1 Iludy til fIlll'S , TIll' \"1111,, sV~1t-1U th,II is (Ihli); "

alc.1I y lur Ihe wholl' sc.M.:it..'ly suppu.'SSt'S Irt.'l· SPt.'l·' '' h. but 1Il01in ­liiUls r ... ~inU'l\l.lli,," , TIlt' ll'lUd II.· Ih.11 '"II,lt-IIIII ' ; ,·IINI'II·III ,. (.Iud , with il • ",dt.'l1n', nmlrihuh's "I Ihi' s.mu,' limt' 10 kt.'t.,t>inl~ it ,,'iv" In Iht., faft.' tlf lhis (ontr.1t I':tury n'tllllrt.·IIlt.·I1I ­Ihal rhduri( lll' ,'ullt't'rnt.',1 ,'xdll:'>ivl'lv wilh Ih, ' Ilt,.wly Ilf dis ­CUll!.::." hili ,II Ih. · S.UI'" lill'" Ih .• 1 il 11111:'>1 11111 \' ,II".-i/" Ihi~ 11'-,lIllv

tht.'re fl'mains only tlnl.' pussibll.' allihull': Ih.11 01 b.ld cOlbl'il.'Il(t:

(mw is lemplt.'ll lu say of ",t.'UI.ll iIInt's s) , iU.dori(: pill'S ;thoul its business reludanlly .

This sl.llt' til .,II,lil's finils .1 Io.iud til ,"(lulin",llill" in thi' su l-­selilleni hislury HI rlu.:luric- ;t hislory Ih ... Wt..' ~hall I" .. ' u: unly ~killl over r.'pittly, llislilry indl.'t.,,,, "tk~S nnl slop wilh hUlI.1l1il.'r. or ralher, only lilt.' hislury of rhel"ric sl"ps Iht'n' - Ihlll of Stk...' iCly Intt uf civili.f.aliuns nUllinul.'s , 1\1 lIu' ,,'lid 1'1 tilt' ,'it;hll'l'l1th ,','II · tury a mulaliun tk.·(urs Ihal will st.:i in .n"lion Ihe ~l't 'und l'risis III rhetoric, llilt.' Ihal will puw., It) Ill' murt' St'riolls th.u, IIH' fi .. ~t. And

I just as, t.lurint; Ihl.' lirst crisis, lIlll.' anti lhl.' s.nnl.' hl·slllrt· l"llll ­

tlt.·Ill .. ",1 il .mtl kept it alivl.', SH uuw til .1 sillhh' :-.lIl1lo.l' il will til'

acquill""!. liI",rall"t. 'lOd pul In .tl',lh. Tht.· l'i.~"h"'nlh ""'lIlury is IIII' ';,sl hi '·Ihl,)r:-.t' wh.11 h ,ld I ... ·'·n '"

preparation. wilhill rheturic, Silllt.' T.,.-itus's da~;: lilt' l'njoYllll'lll 0' 'angllan' .15 SlId" This s.lnw n'lIlliry i:" IIH' firsl III v,Ihh' illlit.,

liun - .I n'l,lliun til suhmissiull lu the L'Xh,'u",1 worltl - Il.·ss lIihhly Ih.111 1lt.'.llIty. whit'li is nnw ,it'filwtl .tS.1 h.trIHtllli'HI!'t l'tlillhill.llitlll

(1f lilt' t'I ... 'nll.·nls til ill1 olljt'ct .1IJlUI1~ Ihl'IlISt·lvl's .• 1S .111 .1CfI'IUplish , 1Hl.'1I1 in itst'II , 'I his i:-. in I'lt'l .111 ,·r.1 ill whit h i'\" '1 Vlllll' , "I,lilll:-' I" h.lvt, lilt' :",111'" li);hIS .1:0; t'\·,·(\'lIlh' "lsi ' .. 11111 lu pll~:-"'ss ill hilll or hersd' lilt' slantl.lrd I',.r n\t'asurb~ llc,luly tlntl value , "\V,' III I

v o

TItEOAIES (IF filE SYMBO l.

I"n~cr live "I Ihe 11m" wlwn IIniv""nlly " ..... "ph·" r",,,,. wer" dominanl ," wruh.· Nuvali!-O . r"n'wdl In n'li~it'", .hl' UHrm .:tllt' -

1l1On 10.,11; farewell hi Ill(' .-.ri!-Olufr01fY, 01 (,01:"lt· wilh rH't' ~; I01hli :" h ('{ 1

rrivile~es . rhe lI!i1eful .U·l· .... lUI 100,~t·r IK! allmir c tl, '01 Ihrre i:" no Itlllf~t.'r a ( umnWIl .~oitl It' o.; , ' t'V(· , O1lhl '·,H:!. st'par,,'" .~"" I s(Tls priority . Morit1. . Kiln', NUVilli s, SdH'lIin · will tkfinl' Ih('llt';luf II , arl, poclry as 101 w ,ie" sullin's .. n'o iI~df ; lIlt'y will nol It(· Iht, firsl 10 do so, as we have :"l' ( ' n, hut Iht,y will t l(> thl' (jr s l 10 Ill' hcard : Ihei r message falls IIpnn wdl -dispo:"t'ri ('ars .

And rhclnric? I kre il is, we miJ;hl Ihink, rre,'" rrom ils h"d CCl I1SCII?n((", [Jecomin~ Ihi~ lim,', in truth. Ihe c(')chrfllilll1 of lan­r,tI.lr,C . nul Ihe romanlic wavl' lh01I su 1 r conscience 101 ar eel'l" consequl'nces: it .,Is" suppressed Ihe nl'ccssity fur regimt'nlioJ', ,Ijsnlllrsl" c;.inn' now "Yl'lYllnc, by (Irawing 111~~sQnj)1 in~'lirillino wilhuuUcdlni!IU\' tlr rules, can rroduce admirable wurks of .ut. ThuUljht is no lungef di ­vorccd--or even distin tli~hl·J-frotn (')( lrcssion; tlll'rc is no Inog"r, In" word. aoy nt't",1 'ur r"durk, " .. dry can t {I wilhout il .

I his sr(ond nisis can ht.' tliaJ~nns('tI simrly nn Ih t.' hasis ft' Iht , ",at('rial di!'appearanc(' of rhdorical Il'xls. Ihe shallow in In which ! a whole prnblemalics will plunr,e . Murenvrr, we (an turn 10 somt

eio(JI,ent testimonials, sllch as Ihl' OIn' K"nt It' ft us in hi~ Cril;qltt· flf ,,,dsr,,,rrlt. C l1mran· ... 1 Itl pndry, whirh finlt!-O it!" ;tlslific"linn in il sf" U, rhclo!ic-stlhjur.ah'..J sp ... ·,·...- h - is nol only infl·.ior, il is IIn-.- -- . wnrlhy even tu e )dsl . As for Ihe fllrmt"r : " In poetry e vrrylhing is s lrair,hl alltl ;::huvc Il(l;ud . II shuws it :" h .1Dt. : it {I('s ir.'s lu carry un a mere e nterlaining play wilh Ihe ima,;inalinn, ant' nne Cunso­nant , in respc<:1 of form, with the I"w~ (I' Imtlrl s ta,utlng, and It (Ioes nol seek 10 slt>al upon and ensnare Ihe nntlf'rstanding wilh a sensuous p'ese nl"lion" (~5J, " . 5JS). (We Illighl he lislening 10 Mfllernlls. al Ihe bt'J~inninJ; of T"dlll s's dialur,ue ) AJUI as for Iht 1.,lIe r:

Rhetor ic. so far 01!' Ihi~ is 1;11"" .. tit mean Ihl' art "f Ilt'r!'lIilsion, i .c . , Ihl' lIrl of tJt'llidin.~ hy IHt',lnS (If a filir st.'mhl.lnn' (as firS ftrnlj1r;(,), anti not IHcrdy (''(ft.,lIt·net' or ~ p('('rI, (dp'I"I'nn' ami s lyle). is a cli.,lcflie, whirh horruws from pudry only sn milch O'IS is 1H·(('ss.1ry 10 win "vI' r nwn's minlls 10 111(' .. itlt· of Ih,' s p".'1k, " b"fon' Ih,'\' kJVI ' \\'I'i~:IH'tI Ihe m ;IIft-r , aU11 In Il1h Ilwir vI'uli t"' of its f,, '(, .. lnlll . I'bi,t I

Kanl 1I1IIS tflk~'s gn·a t f;U t ' In ('!-O Ia I1Iis h Iw o St ' ,it ' ~': 011 one sidr Ilu 're is !', wlr y. ptlft 'ly;t 101111.1' g.HlII', alld 1'111'1111'1 It I ' !,flll" ' ''), so

rllt:: SI·I.ENUOR ANU MISUIY UF IlflETOMIC 81

(

(011.·.1. Ihal is. II .... ,,1 .. r savi"l: w..tl no,,' wilh slvl,'; "n,1 un Ih •• oll .... r, IIU'ft· is IlI',IIII"j",,, .1ft, whidl SlIhl11i1s Iht'!-O(' Solll1l' lill~tlistk m(',ms In flU l'xll',nal r,tltll. WIWSlo tli.lhulical killo;hip is immcdi ­all'ly "1'll"fl'nl : "str!I;, t~al(·." '){'wilrh. " .. tll'H·ivr ." " win minds ." Th~' rhdotir ,rifiti/nl hy K,1I11, tl, · .. rly, b; Iht, rhl'luri, ' ullh(' lilll\' tH.·fnrt' Cit-l'fll , Ihal . ~hirh ~nIlJ~hl In r ... ·rsll,l ... tt· .1nt' nnl tn S,1Y wdl . Antf h ... s pl'lls 11111 his IltIslilily In I,;uliliulitli t ' lo'llIl'Un.' in a 1l0Il ' :

I I1m!';t oJI1',·ss I" Ihe purl' dl'lI~ht which I have rver tlCcn afford"tl hy ., Ilt',1"tirul put.'m ; wl"'n',1!-O 11tl' rl'.ltling tlf Ihl' Nsl sp('l'rh Clf ,1 Roman '"r('osif uralur. tI mUtt t'rn f'iulii1mrI11,uy dt·h .. lrr. or Ol prt·.,,·her. has invariably bt'l'n min,;lt-d wilh ,ln

nfll'l(, Ol ~.1 nl !'('nSt' tlf tfi!'.lppruvOlI tlf Olt1 ins ittious oul Ihal knows how, in m.llh.·fS ... , moml'"I. lu tn(lve men likl' m.l( hines 10 a ilt{t.~t· ~wtlt !h," mllsl lUSt' "n its w"'J~ ht wi.h Iltt ' tH tllltUl {',,11ll

re.nCclltln. I'urn' and elrgancr of spet'rh (whirh IO~f'th('r con­slrtuie rheluric) belling Itt finc arl; bul ur.Jlory (II'~ ornlor;n),

/ being Ihe arl tlf rl" ying fnr line'!, nwn pllrpu~" IIpun Ih(' w<,,,k­\ n('SSt'S til I1H'n (I'" Ihi~ purp,lsc' Itt , ,-v, 'r ~" J~,"",t ill il1h 'nli" .. Ilf

('Vl'U in f.H·I) mnih I1U ,,~'''', wl""l·,'cr. U,,·sitlt·s, 1 .. 111t ,II AlhlllS and .1 Rnme. il nnly alloined il. IIr.olrsl heighl 31 0 lime when I~I(~ stall' W.l5 h,~slt"ning I" its t'c.'c"y, f'nd gt'lwin,' p"triotic sen ­time nt was iI IIHn~ uf Ihe p., .... . II, ii , ~.11

In Ihi~ 't''1I , al'JI1~si(lt· lilt" ttirhtl'ulUV aln',ltly t'''llkt'''' I~'hy,'t'n lite wwful. whirl, is impurt·, antllht, lISt'l ... ·!'"S. (l1~it'd of Ulul'st'rv\'tl

'1(lmiril'~ttn : '."'t' sl~"ult.l nult! tlu.' surfadn,.; of lypic"lIy buurgeois values : Inttlvlchr",1 mtfeJl'f'ndence, nationOlI autonomy (palriotis m) . Subiul~a't!ll tliSCutUSl' is nu lun~l'r wurlhy u' l'slt",m; nl'ilher is rt.elnric. TI1('re is nil ruum fur rl",tnri( in il IIniv\'r~t' tlominah.·tJ hy ",mantic values . ~

Ir .. m..- ahalUltins histOfY altogether aod Iurns 10 Ih(' prub­It-mattes of I"",'ay , onE" may wunder 10 what t.>xll·nl things have changl'd, to wh"t t.'xll·nt w(" slililive in Kant's {'ra . If, on Ihe o ne hand, sndal rnnrtllily is still lacking in nur day, as it was in Kant's, spt"~h has perhap~ increas{'t.f in impurtanrl" . Tadlus reporled, as a distant ml·mnry. thOlI the and"'n' "ralors "h.ltl fonvinc('d them ­selv<,s Ih.11 nn onl' l'Cluld rise in till' slillt' Of maintain i1 position of

I 2. I ~ it "V .11.111,'" Ih.11 (:. .. ·Ih,·. Ih.11 "Ih,·, rum.HI' .... ,·,l'III ·.t .11"",,' ., 11 d "", ill

...:,111'· ... lVo"" !I,i ... . ,,, .. I, ·IIO.uti.," lit II ...... , .. • ,, " , ..... \\, ... 1 •. 1.\ ,"10' I ... . 10. " " .,1 ,-"nll'lhlll,; .. 1 III '" ' t.;,II.f · ... ' . I "'1l1ll1n!! ' ,,,1 t .. \ " 'I! 'Ii ... ( " ""1"" j' lI II,, · ""'n" • ., / 11"," . "",·n/ . ill ", "i,11 I .. ' h .... w"lh 'n ,lt lll.i, .• ','" """" ,h,·I", .. . 1, .I,·f." "" "!,,,n ...... " y. hili uno;.,lj 'd.llhlfilv t." 1'1. ... .. , ,Ht " I C" UI~ ' I "" "o"' ~ 11'111, 1.'," '1/,1/111 IN, ·\\, YII,k ,1"" I ., .n · ,II''' . 1"IfIII. I' l 'If •. /\ ""111 . IH:!71

82 TIIEOMIES OF TilE SV .... O ..

Importance and rrumin"nn' wilhuut "f.llurk.,1 .• ltililY " (Pi."",'\"", XXXVI); but in uur d.,y. wlu.'11 the wurds ,u\ .. 1 ,h:is \11 I'uhlif 1i.;lIn·~ are lransmill~d dircclly 10 Ihe must dis .om. nmwrs or the slale, thanks to the mass media and allfJve all lel l!visiulI, is it shll cun­ccivahlc that "withtllli dUlojlh'nn'" tint..' , ",111 hoM 1m til .an impur­lanl posUion1 Two ,,-,(cnl I.Ids. i.lmunt-; huntlrL't. ls . pnlVl' lin' (un­Irary . A presldenl 01 Ihe Unikd Slale. appeared less mnlcmplible in Ihe eyes of his fcllllw l'ili/,ens wht'n un 1"lIucrnUS (","cilsiuns he

Ilransgressed Ihe laws 01 his wunlry Ihan whcn he revealed his linguistic dcridencic~: th~ puhlkaliun u! his privak ,'lIllvl·rsalions. intended 10 prove his lehill innncl.'ncc. ha'" an uVL'rwhdlllingly negative eUect. when it llt.·caml" (I("ar IhOlt Nixun spuke lM,lIy, OlS badly a. Ihe averag., American; Ihal he swore in every :;cnlen,.; that his remarks wen" stwh',",' with slant; . ()u Wl' llau' "ffirm, afler Ihal, Ihal "cln'luellce" is IU' Innt;er re'luin',1 "I Ihe slales· man? Anuther example (tuucs hum Frcnc:h polilkal lif~ . In Ih~ opinion of the experts, Ihl" fhoice uf a 1\1"W presitll'nl in IlJ74 was in large pari dL"t.-id~ll Jurill~ at Il"ievis icm ,khak in whidt the Iwn candidates confronted cach ulher fur .tn hour and it half; arc wc 10 believe Ihal Iheir • hel",i ... 1 skills, Iheir .!Jilily 10 lIlanipulale spee,,:h in order 10 instrucl. 10 move, and tn plc .. st'. hd,l nu cUt'd on the spectators? A puhlif fi~llfe ("aIlIlU' Ollinw himsdf lu Spt~"k badly. "!lwer loday is al Ih .. lip III II ... IOIlI;ue; ~pn'd,-as Iran,'

~ milled by lelec,sl. ralher Ihan as heard in dcliberalive assem· blies-has once agaill become all dleclivc wl'ap"lI .

We are perhaps 01 Ihe bet;inning 01 a 10~"lh era III rheloric, i.\ which dCMluenn' will lilt'" nt 'ilht'r thl' ';nl.llll~r ;; n,~r thl' "nulVc­ment" it needs in order lu shine; wililhis l>t.wl·r of spel'l'h l>c OlLi(' In cOlulucr that of inslilliliuns? I shaU UHI t.1k~ til' the ~ame 01 divinalion, bul I shall lIolc whal is pt.'rhal's only a coincidence,

( afler all: Ihe awakeni"t; 01 rhelmiral sludics in W"lern Eurol''' / over roughl)" ihe pust twenly y"·.1rs- sinn .. · mass l"'lmmunicillions ~ began 10 domina'! our world .

Will fortune (orne tn sntil~ un rhl'lorit.'"ians nnn' il~ain, as in Ihe early day' hi Gre,'Cc a",1 nome? One ,loUes nol affirm il; one must be content to nut~-sadly-Iheir absl'nn.· ,turing Ihe twu thousand y~Olr9 our worl,1 has just livl.·d tIHOII~h ..

Unless we hav ..... the wrun~ hislnry . U"ll'SS all Ih" Sl' ('hararlt'rs I have been referring lu, Ciet.·ru, Quintilian, Funtilnicr, and the rest, are fictitious bf.:'inW', and their wrilill~s 1I1t.'fl· iukl'S . Unlcss Ihe lrue hislOry is the one Inld on., day in Ihe seve"lh cenlury by

.· lIt SI'L~NOOM ANU MISEMY Ut KIII::: -IUMI ~

Th(' tirs l. Illl'n , W.1S a h .·rl .. in DUllalus JI 1. 'Y wi . . .. I h I· I I I . 10 b !j; iHl lu .1V.· IVI'l .1 I U'U:-..Uht Y".us .. I ft· t'" IIH,' .,' I' I · I I H • ' \011111 11 :-', 'Y \v IIIIH 1I."Il \V.IS 'Hlllld, ',I , .ltI,t W . I:-. n', , .. iv".1 I.\, 'lim wilh 1II.IIlY linn

IU.S .. .. 11,' .. !'o ll"1I1 'UII~ YI'.lrs .1t"It ', huihllll~ •• ,,·llIloul. ,IUd hi ' It'll ~lulUt (lIunll,'ss hilit' ICN.ts in whit-h I ... s .• , II .. . • , . . ' .. .. . , ur, tl'H'shuos tnr :., ullo". !'illl h .I S : Whu IS II my Stm wi, • I I b t '1 t ' " .. , ... L'lll:-. IL'r n ' .!O(:) ~"'I f U 1ft'" 1lt.'YIHhl nllmlll'r. ,In,1 whu prllvid,·s as" mllfh u:,:.r .. b U1u'nl .. IS lh,'v 1",111 I .• k",'" This w '" w · I . . .. ' .. . .' 1:-... 11111. • ..

. I ~h: lt. ~ •• s . • II!'on. Oll T ruy . • 1 1·I·rl.lin Virgil. ,I db' '' ll'k III Ih,ll :klln' Il.IH •• hls. WitH W;,S o"Io!'o1 dlli)~t'''1 ill d. I~s ilyillJ-! v'·rsl · .. · I . ~~ .. "Il.· !'tt·vl.'nly IItMI~S un mdrit's , .mJ II Idler 10 V .. ·.;II A ~ si:"I11:~ iIIutUl1 IIw ('xpl,lnahun of tile" wonl.

~s (or Ihl' IlIil"ll Virt;il, il i~ I. ... . Ihcl.' lh.,·rl.' W.IS Crq.;urius. in l!~)'pl. '~h·.lllv d"v"lc\t 10

G .. ' .t.'l·k Shl,llt's,. whu (·ump"St.·,1 Ihh'" thuus.Hhl tn,ls un Crt'l' lo. lustClry . . AI Nlftlllu·.lia, lIu'n ' W.IS 11..· I. .... 1I.,I,Ip~idll s # ",,110 Oll ~Iy r, '11I" s l tr.lUsl •• ll·,1 huolo.s of ollr I.I\V ~ ililu 1 .. llin- buul.. s wind, I rCild, ~ur my pari, in thl.' Grl.'l.'k .. .. . .. .

6J

ThefL' ~"S alsn Vir.;il nf Asitl. Wlhl d .liml·,llh.lll'.h·h Wllhl h.ld tw~l.vc 1.... __ 1111 lI,llneS Ihal (uulJ he lIse"t un apl'H1pn.lll' ,N... .. ,,·,ls·ions .

I ht'n' W,lS Olls.. A"'nl'as 1Iu- Jhint v,·, ',·1· . I · I

' . I, S 1"11 ,'ss tlr whll I~u& ,I hllll II", " .. hit, ,lIId us<'lul "I .. I 10, . • . . I . I .. .. , .. . II\IUJ; up Wilit S , III &rouPIOA l'Ih'rs ill'l"Ort'IIIA In Ihdr simil uili. S (II . ..

I I . . . , l tllllpOS lng 114.'\'01

won s Will "Id tII'l'S by lakinv a ,.in"le syll I." I I 1

., " n dU c rnnl t"ac 1 .

,cr~ Wits ..

.... IU·fl· h .lv,' I .... ·,·u lurlluMIt' I hdllrid ., I ':"> .

3

The End of Rhetoric

Cla .. lcal rheloric has nnl ex151~ .1<><", Ihe nlncl...,nlh "'nlury. 0,,1 belnre II dl,,'pP'·nn.oJ, II I'rtKllIrcd- lhnlllflh n final dlurl more powerlul Ihan any Ihal had gone belore II, .s \I 10 Iry 10 'lave oil Immlnenl exllncllon-a b"dy ul rent'Clions whuO<! qualily I!I unmatched . This swan sung d~5erve5 to bto ~xllmin~d from two viewpoinls: Iheorelical- Inr Ihe body 01 Ihollllhi In 'l"eslion I. nol yel ollld.lcd-and hlslnrkal- Ih,' Inrm I.h·n by Ihi' dim •• I. highly signincanl .

We are In France, anl' Ih~ p<>rlod In 'Iueslinn (IIvel1l exactly one hundred ye.l1I . II .... l:ln. in I7JO, when Ou M.r.;al. l'"bli5h~ a rhelorlc.1 Ircali.e d",linl',1 I" "Iir up n",,,' Inlere.1 In I .. own cOllnlry Ihan any 01 ilo 1'" •• It'Cessor.; Ihe p<>riod ~",I. in 18JO, when Fnnl"nlcr rut the rini~hin,~ hmchC5 ,,, Ih~ la~t edition of his Mntllfrl ctns~;q.lt. prcfadnr. it with Iht~(' wtlrd!'l. whn~e prophrlk impnr' he cnuld nHI h olY\." n .. ·"lin· .. I: "-rhi~ wnrk h;l~ ..... ·.·n impruved ;'I~ much "'~ po~si1114 '; .tuuh,lt·s!' nul in it s "wn h.'rms . t.ul with n·sfX·cf In lilt! limih'tt ca rOlfilv ttr i'~ aullwf. wh .. ,'n-' ;ut'!" th,,' h~ h,,!'1 dnne his ulmus t an,1 thai Iluthin~ rt' lll"ins fur him I .. do bu' rc{'ummcntl the failhrul \'''''('u'itm tlf hi~ wurk In I Ill' prinll'r~

(" hour,cd with reproducing il .··

TIIB INO Of _"UOllle 85

n ... rhelnrn'al h.>t.Iy I~ Ih"rotU!:hl~ '·mb.,I" .. ~I; "nlhl,,/: i, 1 .. 11 hut lu I'lu\, il.

lei us meellh .. aulhOl1l 01 Ihls rhelorlcal rhApsody, They span one hunl'r~.! Y"'" an.! Ihr .... • generali"n •.

. '1'" .IU" ti" ~1 ,!t'Ut ' r,tliun h,'lun,!~ CI .. ly ( ·,,~u ( ·1 ... ·~It,·.1u 1)11 M.., .

~,~ (1"7"- 17~.) . Iii, ·"n~." · wa. an","!: hl~ "MII"r wnr\ts .lIhnu!:h II w~s by nu means a pruJueliun 01 hi, youlh . I'""r Ihmughoul hi. hr.·, a lul"r wh ... ulhnred a ",'W nll'lhnd nlleaching L,lin Ihal m~anl nmre 10 him Ihan anylhing elO<!. he """Iv~ •• 1 Ih~ aK~ 01 $("vrnly-ftv(', his firs' rn~!\'i,~iu .. s il!'l!'4iJ!n"wnl: Ill' Wi1~ ",;Ilh~ n'-

'-8pc)n~.lblt! lor Iht! t;ramm~lk .. 1 3nJ ,hl'luri",'al !M:"t.·liun~ ollht! r."C}­clopnI, • . Th~ lask .uiled him very w~lI, mnfl'(lv('r: 011 Ma~i. was ('ndow,"" above all wilh lhe allribulcs "I a wriler- nol lu say a popul.rlzer; beyond Ihal, h .. was uncncumbell'<l wilh uriginal Id~a,: "'..flrea~ t'cll'Clic, he ha.J read wi.Jely, ht' ha.! Iht' "philo- \ sophKal splnl; nevertheless, his Indillere"", 10 all 'yslem and 1 rohere~ wa, his undolnR on more Ihan ont' o('Ca.lon , Further­~ore, hi' rollabur.liun on lhe E"""",~ .... ,;" wa. brid: when h~ d,~, he h • .! .. nly jnsl cumpld'oJ Ihe HGramn •• rI.n" arlicl~.

The second genera lion ron,lsla, In our a""""nl, o( Iwo ralher dissimilar individuals, The IiI1lI I, Ou Ma.,..,I,', heir as head 01 Ihe r;rammalical and rhelnrical seclinn" of Ihe r."l'lfl·/.,rr Iu.: Nicol.s O"auz .... (1717- 17f1'1), " I'ml,.,. ..... 111,,· r""I,' Milil.i,,· , I h' .... ,,1 in · ued 10 cunlribul,' In lhe t'k',IfI.·,.,rnI;" unlil II. cumplelion in In2; durinR Ihe same ",·,iocl. in 1767, he publl.hed a synlhelic work, hi. Iwo-volume Grnrnm.ir. Kh",.I., which indud~ some ~xcerpls hom his [/lc1(d,,/on/in arlide~ . 1\1 Ihe 0pl'''sil~ 1'"le frum 011 Mar. sal., n.·au1.('(' had" 1',,<1'I.'(,I.rly sysl,·m.l;" ,,",I n' min.! . Ilis prin. cipal Inleresl was r.~Ammar~ nol rht'loric. nul Ih~ nne ,\0<" wilh lhe oll."r, an.! IllS Lrdmlllll,n' al"<, int:lmJ"ol !10m" .1t'Ci5ive paKes devo ... .! lu rhelurlc.1 ligure~ , llelween 17112 and 1711(,. lin.liy, Ihe Ihrce vl1h,.m"" 01 II,,· f/l.".·",.~Iic /I"'II •• Ii"/I~ al'l"""~', ct>nlaininfl ali Ihe arhde. 01 Ihe ["f,IfI.·,,,, .. 'in .lea ling wilh "grammar and Iii . f'rnh"~" ". Tn Ik"." z",;",', Ino, It·1) till' lask ttf rt..·vi!\in,; Ih ... • sect;un! un ,helnne In Ihe l"':l/d",<rdid, a la.k Ih.1 flave "im Ihe opl't>rlunily 10 ~<:rnnll'nl un, nlhnz~, anc.t {'Ctmr'cle Ih ... ~ i1rtklt"~ by Du Mars... ... is .

1Iu- ~l't 'un,,' rt"pf\'~l'nli1livl' uf Ihi!'> '~l"Wri1tiun i~ It",. wdl known fnr U~ 'n lillg<'r uv,'r the "it~r"rhk;tl fad~ . flif"nnr Ikmnul . "M~ HI l'on,'iII.t,· (1'l1 ·1 17HU), ~.,s .t lutur likt· I) .. M.lfsais; bdwl'l.'n .17~ ;md 17AH h,- nHnrn~'t1 " rtH'lnrit' thai w,'s plIMisht·tJ ill Iti:o; (IIlIrs ,1',:,"",,,:, I""" r",strut'lim, ,I" I"",n' ,'e' I'a"",' (1775) . A fri('nd

86 TUt:UN.If.S ut "._lIi SVMIOI .

nf Du Marsajs and of Ihe Encydop<"di~I~. {'nlh.fill,u' nOlll'lheit's5. occupit.·tI Q position apart hum thd .. ~. ~lntt in his In'.IIi:->l' .le· 1"1" II'/cri,t he was satisfied 10 participate in II ... , prt'vaHing almnsplu.'rc ralher Ihan 10 begin an open debale with his predecessors and hi. contemporaries. These rhdClrician~ had in cummnn IIw fact ~ill they were all alao gramma.lan~. this I' a lime when grammar was NphllosOphlcal"; II follow. Ihal lheir rhelnric.llre.tiSt'. were_li~e--wise ""general and reasoned."" - " . The ihlrd 'geniraik>n appeared after a considerable lapse of lime (Ihe dlrecl Une of descenl is broken I: il is represenled by PI"ne Fonlanler, .boul whom, oddly enough, virlually nOlhlng 15 known. lie musl hove laugh I rheloric in a Iyc~e, using Du Marsal.'. manual; dlssati.fied with lhe Incoherence of many pa.­!Iages In Ihal work, he d«id",t 10 replace It with un,' ht' had wril-

/

Ien himself. Oul Du Marsai,', pre.tige was .uch Ihal Fonlanler opled for a very complu stralegy: he firsl published, in 11118, I new edition of Ihe Tro~, along wilh In equally Ihick volume which contained his own C,u"".,',,''';,t· '1I;504f1111,'. llli:i cummcnlary wen I beyond It. original objI'Clive, however: nol only Du.Marsai. bul liso Deauzh, Condillac, and others ore invoked in a debale Ihat no longer focuses on elu'Iuence-'-and Iherein lies il. origi­nality-but ralher on rheluric (Folltanier's Co",,,,o"niu is a work of melarheloricl. Having Ihu. laid the I\ruunrlwork, funtanier published hi. MQllut/ c/.ssiqu< llOIIr /'IIIId< dts Iro~ in 1821 (the definitive fourlh edition _ppearerl, a. we have seen, in 18301; Ihe second pari, Ihe Tr.ill glnlrQ/ dts figurts du discollrs QuIrts que Its Iro~, followed in 1827.

Reading Ihese lrealise! anJ arlide, lixlay, one Is in no wly Impres.ed by Ihe genius of Iheir aUlhors; il wuuld nol be lIoinll 100 far 10 say Ihal genius i. purely and simply lacking here. Every page, lake"by. il.elf. reeks "f mediucrity . We are dealill!; wilh an elderly genlleman (rhelorlcl: he never dares to slray very far from the Ideal of hi. youth (ext'llIl'lilicd by Ciee ... and Quintilian­although Ihey were elderly !;entlemen Ihemselves, In Iheir way); he doe. nol nolice Ihe Iran.fmmatlons of Ihe world .rmond him (Font.oier came _{ttr J"omanlkhun, in ils German manifestation ,II lea.I) . And yel Ihere I" lI"melhlnll splendl ... holll Ihl ... 1,1 al\t" Ihe old rna" has fUfKuUen nc)lhin~ nl the twu-thuusand -year hblury of his life. Detter still, In a ,Iehale animaterl hy many v"ice., nutions, definilion8, lind n.'l.tliuf1:i arc rt.'fillcJ and cr~l'il.dIiZt·t.I as never before. Here Ihen is Ihe paradox: Ihi. !It'CJuence of IIIslerle.!

nil:: l:.NU tH MIII: IUMll

p.1J.;l'S. wlH'1l ....... I·U .tS ,1 whtlk', pro,llh:" S .J d .lI Ililig imprt.ssioll ilhl,,'(',I .

I .d liS now tr\· In lis ...... 10 ,I fr"~;I1h'111 til Ihi .... 1Il,IIIY ' yuin'd rhapsudy 0

·t I II ' !'It ;11100, nll 'Otly "Nil U ."SSII'I( · ..... IONS

[)u Marsais hq~ins his In'aliS(.' wilh .1 dislindin" 1\4..·h .... "t'll Iwu

ddinitions uf Ih~ li~ure Uta' we (an 5wnnl.1(ill' as fulluws : fi~IUl' as dcvi.diulI , and figure ~s furm . In fac!, Ihese Iwo li"'linilions hdd already ht.'en n. .... ·nrJed by Quintilian: iusll'ad ul uppusin~ Ihe one lu Ihe other, he presenled the second as a reslriction and clarifira ­I«llt u( 1I1l.' first. Ttl S4ty Utili " li~tln' is llll' "Irm ul ,m ulkr.lllt·I.' is, ft)r Quirtlilian, insuUicient, fur in thai '-'''St.' all I,mhllilt;e wtluld lx· figurative; thus we musl cumplete Ihe assertion by adding Ihal a ligure is a manner ul speaking thai is u'nUlv('d frnm RIll' simpl ... , comm"" lIl.unll'r ,

Du Marsais's preferences lie in the opposilt.' direclinn : hl' (h()()St.,~ Ih.· hr .. ,Il' as npl'lCtS4.'l.llu Ihl.' 'lolHOW lldillililln , Ilis ,Ir.,;u . menls at;ainsl lht" idea 01 Ihe 'i~ure __ ;0 dt.'vi .liion arl" wdl known

, ~ ("M()rl.:' IiHur~s art· prutJuo·tf in .\ sin~I,' III,U~t'I ,I.I\' .It 1I1l' 11.\l1t' :-< lhan in scvt.·r.llll,ly~ .. f _l(aLlt'mit" ml.'l'lin~s") : "Fi~I;Il'S till nol dt" viate from ihe ordinary language uf 1Ilt'1l. l.u from il; on Ihe nUl ·

bary, sl'"ceh with .. ul figures wuuld be rleviilllt, if il were possible \ 10 construct a Liiscuurse thai cunlained unly nnnfi~uralive sp~,.'h" (DT, p. 31.

Consequently, he chooses Itl define the fil\ure as Imlll, and dnt·s sn, mnrt'uv .. 'r. hy way til UlI.' ... ump,uis .. n- .,'u,.u.ly a (anun.

ie_lone in Latin rheloric-bel~~en la.':'l\ual\~ ",d Ihe_~ty: "fiX ' '''<, In Ihe pm",-'r ,,'nse,.ls the exler,,,, f .. ;111 .. f a tollly . All tollli", htlYI! exlt.'nsiun; hUI beyond Ihal gt.>n,,·rill prtlJ>'!'rt)' til t:'XIt'IiSioll .

I 'Ilk' 1:"'I""h ",'r~iun , .. Ihi~ l>-.. 11o. ' '''''*'nb II", .hd"f" ".1 1h.,,,'ri~"S ,·"n:-.iJ"fnl twl~ In tircoilltr d",oIIU (rl" M-11l1 · -rhCM' Ih('t'l""ft 11,1\/,' .I!'oI' I" ... ·n J",),1t wllh bridty &n Ilk- tulluwinK "hhlit'S t~l·nt·r,),lI)' wllhuul Jt'';''h' lu lI",if h, ... ,,",k: •• 1 (linin' tlf I .. 11N.·if Inulu •• 1 n-I,"tun:oohil':ool: LJ'.UlJ t;"·IM.'lIl·, ".1'111":'0 (1'''":00, 1''''''"), PI" ' 1I1S---112, Todumv. Uti,'"'''''''''' ~;.'':lIil'''''illH (r .. ,i!'!, IlItI7). rl' . "1 - ItK; C ... ·nl'llt·. rrt'l,Kt' 1"lh., 1%7 "~Iililln Itl U'" "'."" .~; .. I"" "lnlfllthM·'.iHU, 1.1 fhdl1fio,III' ., ..... "hUll'''. ~ in IIII' IWIIt ",Iili"f! "' " ,'i"'t-:- .1" J;N~N":l , ,'1'. !Iio · 17; I l ·,.h"II, ~ II .. """, tl.· I., "hUh', ~ (.'/I""I4It1""'hll' .~ Ih 1''1711" .\ ·2'-'; ';"'lIl"Ih' , ",'i'f1I ' ,~ '''.'·.If .... I·' i .!). rl' 21 -411, M Ch.uk-:oo, " I,' 11i~ 'IIIU:OO ...... UKU""'," ".II 'hl.It· , .. (I'j ;- II. '~I \101 . 1',Ii, Kk .. t·IU , !.. "H"",oIhltl' j'''''', 1'011110. 1":;-",1'1". h..l4lIl t; , :-Whhn'", ... ,Ihl ~ Iu.ly , t ' l . "u ALu,",b , W.uil'. 1~2t4. , tt'· ... M v,'O' lillk' wilh Ilu M.u~i"·,, fht'lllfk".l1 "'I'f~ ,

11M ' rllnHtll~ S "f, rill: SYMnol .

each one .1iI1 has il. /il\"'" anet il. 'J'<'rllic furm. which make each 1l4H.ty "'PI"',1r diUt'u'ni 'nlltt ,.Iht·f!" In tHlf t'~"s : tlU' S.IIIH' htlhl!i Irlle for (ir,urativ(" {')(rrcssinns" (11"'-, p . 7) . An utll'r."1ncc nlay

change ils figure. but il ("an nl'vcr avni,' having (lill' : "Whl'n a word is taken in ;mulh{'r s,'n~,·. it Ih(,,11 flrpt',Us, as it wefe, in t1

h",rrnwl.'d form, in a figttrt.· Ih.I' b "HI its .",h",,1 nlll' '' (I Jr, p . 27) . I All bfxlies howe 'orm; ducs it folluw, .,~ Quintilian hal' sl"l.'n,

( th,d .. II lal1);Uagl' is ri~lIrilliv,'? Ilil M.trsais nt'v,-r faist.,s thi·; (l'll.'s· liun openly. and its slIrrr('ssioll Ip;ul!'l him !o a whul(' seril'S of inrOllsisll'ncic~ anll l'v.,shms . Ilis inili .. 1 u',Icliul1 is Iu f\'i,'d thl' rerrntlch. aHlrming tllill (lint..' are in ... tt"ctl fhlnriguralivt.· expres­sion<; Iml he et"e, nol cq"ip him,clf wilh Ih.· m .. an, 10 cslablish

I Ihe dislinclion. Thi< ,ldid,·.KY is wibl lJy Ihe word "m"..tific~-

I !inn": fi~\lrcs are Ihn~e exrn'ssions I~al have u"defJ~ont' a nutrll,h. calion; bul On M.USiHS lives ""I speCIfy the n"turt" uf Ihe matenal mot.IHird . Anti if the fir,lIrr is Ih·HIlt'cl. in u"alin" leI tilt' nunfig· ure, as il modHicOlliun impclsl',1 un " primary expn·!-lsilln. have we O(lt relurncd. minus till' Iwinrativl' nutln(·c. to lilt' ,Idinitiun 0' figllre as devi.liun? II<-rt' is I III Mar,;.,i" .... 1:

I Figur<1live exprcssiunsl firs t n'ycnl wh.,t (lnt· thinks; they have lirsl or .11 Ih.1 gcm·r.1 p"'perly tx,lnn~ins In all <cnlcnces and all word groups, which consists in slgnifyin~ sumclhing by vir­ItiC of i'I ~,amm,'lil.ll 1'lll1slrudion; hul I"'yunll this lilt' fi~lIri\ ­live exprcssi(lns also h01ve a s~cifir moditk"lion Ilf"fuliar to Ihcmscivcs. and II is "y virl .... , or Ihls stx·1.:iHc mUltifk"lion Ihat each type of figur .. hcctllO('s a s~des ararl. . . . Tht" ways of ~p('~kinJ; in which I~ram",arian~ nnll rht'loridan :r> 1 haye Clh-

'served no ollll'r I',opt;rly btlt 11t,,,1 (If n'v l'alin.~ 1I111 .. ~hl <lrc : c"lIcd simrly s('nlcnc('~. ('xrrC'!'sinns. pcriu&.; hul Ihn~(~ thai ("x­pft's ~ nol n\l'rl'ly Ihnllhlll:->, hUI lIH1ugl,(o; ulll'n" t in .1 p.1l1kttl.u manner which ~iv(,!i IIR'Jn <1 rharilcll'ri~li( ('.,It,rc. Ihc'sc, I <lm silyinr,. arc cillkd fi.'\""'~, ''' ·C·,1USl' Ilu:y ~prcnr, so In s,wak~ i~ a sl'C'cifir form. an,1 with Ih,11 charil(h'nshc fC' .l lure Ihat dlsh"­~lIi shcs Ihem frum ('.lch otilt'r and from what olI"l' fIlcf('ly s("n­lence. or expressions. (Uf. PI'. 7- 9(

Du MarSili!i fonnlllillt"s his ddinilion at the end of this same

( hapler:

r('<flrr!' ar(" w ... ys "f sp(,aking llistiuclly of otlwrs by nll'flnS of a specific mudifica tion . which nW;1ns Ih .. , c.lch nnl' IS rl'Juced 10 il st'p ... ralc Iypr and H'ndl ',nl "itlwr liv"'il ' r. or Ilobkr. ur mur(' a,~r('(,.lhl(' III.ln Ih(' Wily!'> of "11I';,kinr, th"1 ('Xp"'55 IiI(' 5;"1111(' hask

Ihutl~hl wilhoul 1, .1Vln~ anv pilrtklll.1r mu,tlfk,IliulI 111'1', I'p . " 1-11

Nul all 1.llg.J.1g,· i, fil\uralive : Sllm~ senlenct's merely signify. l1ll'rdy h~I~5m~' IIUHI,:hl; nllwrs .1lM 10 Ihis ~I'IU'rall'rllpt ' rly lIu'ir UWII mtt~'llh ·"hnll. Ilr spl'l"ilit- 11M "',,·r . Ih'l \\'1"'11 h,' h.IS IUl'xpl.lin t~~~ ~rl'(lSl' nature uf IhiM nutdifit."aliun, Uu M.,rs.lis hillt's llt.'hind ., '1II.~,IIst argltll",,,I , .11',IIIt1Ul1in,.; tilt· slrudur,,1 Il'rr;!ill tha' w.,s his

~~nhl It.,cn: the fi~ur .. 1 mndifiratinn is th~ nn(' thai ill1f1rnvl'~ Ilon . I ~gtlrahv(' t')(pn'ssit1l1s .

, Itl·rh .. ps ,Uti ~1.lfs.,is JUt·s I1l11 IUl"i111 'u imply ,h.,1 nonfip,ura ­live exrr(,sslCln~ ar~' "~impl('r .lnct mUfI' c .. mmun." nnr thai 'thl'y

.ut' I'~'·f" .. ahll·. h. hgur."s; '",wl·v"r. Ih" llichololllY Ihal he has ('st~hhsh('''. With III\' rl~tlfI' rnmin~ tu nUklify an ""prl'ssiun tI( .. riVInf; f"'.~ 1'''''' Ih'>I.ght. draw, him illI'vilal,ly .,lonll Ihi, I'alh . for h~ IS ItIl· .. p.lhlt" tlf surmtlllnlillt; OOt· "f lilt' tnos l persis lt'nl pilr:''-'Igms uf ~· I.,ssIG.I , WI'!'I"rn nllh;n', thl' Olll' ,IlTtlrdilll,; 10 winch 1I1~H.,~llt IS I1Utr,' '"'purlant th.ln ils e):prt'~si"I1 , 01,.. Ihe spiril

b nUUl' .lm .. tlrt~lIt 1110111 ~,atll'r. II ... inshh' Inure impurl ... lt Ihall thf' olllsu-tc. II ,~ n(1 aCCident that 011 M."s.,i~ tlrrl,1rl~ Ihal Ih(' dinerenli3ting f"all"e of Ih" Irope "con,isls in Ih" way 3 word d<l".'" from ,Is p"'p,.' r signilicalion" (Vr. p . III; l·mph •• is .1It.k") . It is nul without ft"'~Hn Ihal he ~ihl.'lt·s 11..- d.lfi1v ur di!'c'''lrs,' .~v". all III her """sideralinns (fur ",hat COli let ,,;, dearer Ih.n di5Cuur~c U'ill "",Ol"'I'~ knuwn wh.,. UlW Ihinks ' ?): "Tuday . . people Inve wh31 i. lrue. wh.1 luch.s . ~nlighl"n'. inlere. I,. h.s a reas,,",',,Mc Uhi(· .. :I; tlll'y on lun~l'r ftklle. al WClrtt~ (')(n'pi as ;o;ir.n~ u,'·cr. W!."d'. onl' llot·s nul linger ,,·.n'pl In ~u slrai~h' In whal Ihl'Y slf.mry (nr, pro .12(1 -127). nu' if ~i,~n~ must I,. · Ir.UI~p."""I , how slt,tn we ~ljsl __ tJvl'r Iltl· "(haradl'ristir fcatlln'" that sl'ls aparl I~~i.c ~onstrucll(ms? And huw cuuld Wl' arrfl'dah' ~tI(h il " 'alllfr, if Ihc idral of cfi~CClllrS(' is "1,,1 tr .. n~r,"t'nt .,:I."ily? "Onl' f.'ltnnl fl'fX'al 100 oflrn In ynllnr. '"'''1''' Ihal Ihey mllsl 'peak 3n •• wril. only 10 11(' un(I ... ·.slnu'-I • .,ntl Ih.,. clarity is llno firsl and "IfCOlost qu .. lily of

discourse" (" Amphihologie." ["'-I((f",';,/;r. 0,.11("". 'v . 137) . The figurc's t")(lcriority--and Iherffore ils inf("riuritr...- art" best

re\'palc(J irl H1e-c(lfnpilfisons a~d .rnrc-·s Ihat ar~ usc~f 10 '.,Ik ahoul il . ()II Marsais J'i1~s('s wilhuill difficulty frum Ihl' first i",il'~t'-Ih(" figure as bodY- ht .HlOlher. whit-h draws .llknlion In il~ slIpt'rfi ­

(i .l1.11,,11II1I1(·n ·~s .1rV dlilr,lflt-r - lh.lt of 'lit' liJ-;lIfI ' ., .. do.lk .• 1 ('(lIH ­rarisull Ih.d , <lS Wt' know, hits flrcnmpitnil'tt rhrloric sinc(' its

90 Tllenll:IES OF T t~f. SYMBOl.

l>irlh, and nne that Uti Mars.1is St.'CIHS in dis(uvl.'r in his (urn

with a Jis("oncerling freshness . Hg,ures .,1t~ lhl nobler dress, as !t w t.' rc , .h ~ Illest.' common idt:<ts " (I n ', p . 34) . lit.' l.'Vt.:'1I l:un~ lnl("ls a vc-r~ tablc ' ''apt~lhi~ue'' un this puinl:

Imagine for a moment a crowd uf suldit.',s in whkh slime iUI!

wearing only th{' ordinary dolhcs lhal they hall bcfurc jnining ull, and the others .ue in Ihe IInUnrm of thl'ir rcgiml.'lll : Iht:' lal· ler an have clothes lhilt sd 1Ilt'1ll ararl . and thai rt.'veal Wh.l' regiment they belong. tu; SUlUe ilrc dressed in lcd , ulhers in blue. while, yellow. and su on . II is Ih~ samt.' with groufls of words thai make up discuurs(' ; an infurmL>ti reader can relate a certain word or phrase Iu a ~iven Iype of figure. assuming that he recognizes in it the fmm. Ihe siRn, Ihe distin);uishinJ; ('harac­It.' rislie ullhal lisun' ; sl'nh.'IKl'S .1111.) wl""b .II.' ! I~ . IJ(L. Ihl.· IH'H'k of some specific ligure are like Ihe ""Idiers Ihallack Ihe w,ifornl ut a 'parliClllar .~~S~~.~.~. ' : Ihey have no mndifiCihuns C)(fI .. '1l1 !hose Ihal are neces&ory fur revt"alillb 1I""'gh': l(Jl. I'p . 111- 111 ..

And a few lines 'urllu'r nn Du M.1fsais aJd s, "J\sidt..' hum the properlie. of expressi,,~ IhuUI;IoI. sharetl wilh .11 word 1;""'1'5, Ihey also have. so tu speak, lIu: a,lvanl.l.,t.:' "' tlu:ir ,hess. by which I mean their p.uticul.\r nwdificatiun, which serves to arouse allenlion • .Io please, or 10 mOlv,," (OT, 1'. II).

This 'passage deserves allen'ion on mllre Ihall one aU"ounl. In Ihe firsl place, iI bears wilness 10 Ihe facl Ihal Du Mars.,i. shares in Ihe traditional ideology 01 rheturic, and. whal is more, doe. so wilhoul nul icing il. AI Ihe ""me Iime-~Iltl Ihis a';Jin illuslralcs tile fecund inconsistency 50 characteris'ic of ~u Mals~i~-he nl ... uages 10 subvert this Iradili"n from within: everything is clo"ked (figurative allJ nnnfihurcllivc c)!.pressiolls alike); mure· over, Ihe cloak no Itlll~l' r st.'rVl·S In embellish, as il always (lid in

/ Ihe pasl, bul rather to indicatc belon!;in!;; the ciHak is functiona" \.and no lonllcr omamenlal . II is nol enlirdy dear whelher Ou

Marsais is subv£rting haditinn nr vice versa, in ahis l'unllict of which doubtless ncUher si,ll' is aware .

For no matter how Vu M.u s'lis lUanirulall's lhe comp.uisnn, it h as, in itself, a meaning il has carried fur some Iwu Ihnusand years, nne Ihat gives prima(y III Ihl' t'!isl'lI lially lIfI",mcnt.,1 fune· lion uf fi~url's. We .. Iwll nul Ill.' itslonisl",,,1 Iu St't· p .. t'l"y, " '"V· uH' d h...:us 'ur 'i~lIrt·S, ,I"'innl .IS ,lisnHusl' Ih.lt s,'ys "Ihl' S,llUl'

thing" as nOnpUl'lic d . ....... uufs,· . hut in a mOi l ' urn.ll,· W.ly . "Thl' t-;cnius uf puclry nlllsish in .lInll!"'ill~ lilt' imal~il"'titlll hy imilHl's

1"111: f NU UI MIIEIUWIt' '.II

whi( h in lilt.:' I.Isl a al ' I . . ' n. YSIS art..' tI It.:'n h.',lu(eJ 10 .1 Ihout-;hl Iha l orJanalY (tlsn .• urs.t' w'lUld express wilh 1l\tIU' s illllJlkily, hul in . 1

malHll'r 1'1.11 IS elllu'r hK. tlr\, ur hJ4.J luwlv " (/1/ ' 2"2 221) '. . . 1'1' . - - . . Wllh'lltl I\~ ' III)~ ,h III.IIIV tll 'llIt~"'Ih'd h"II'. ti'~1 " :-, . tlt ' pullllll~ ,IW .I), "um tilt.' s lInl'le m'Ulner of speakiu).;.

These c(llIlr.l"tktinns and unc~rlainli,,'s bring .1huul thl' 0111

IInlable l.'vulutiun in Ou Marsais's wurk. tl\' lwl'l'1l his 'rt.:'alis,,' I>'~ IrU~""s an,1 his pfl's~ ' nlatinn tlf rlwlurit-,ll tludrilw illlh,' ["'"!I"" '"'''''' a~hdt.'s . In I~ll' "rllde t." .'tillt.:'d "Fi~un.·," he aw ItlllJ;l'r prt.'scnls as ius nwn Ihl' .Ul~il .I(~·nrdmg 10 whi(h every l'xpn'ssiun has a figure (form). bul IInnls lumself lu Ih,,' nuti .. n uf figufl' .IS ,h' via li,'n from the simpl .. - e)(prt'ssiun. a murl.' nmsisl('nl bul 11'SS ' lfubiliolls con · eept.

f(f(urt' . This word ,-'omcs 'nun (iIlS"'I', in till' St 'US,' of ,'lb'"'''''''''' WIII,."Jlla(·. lu funn, to tJispusc. 10 arrangl' . II is in Ihis sens ... , Ihal ~~:illlg(' r S.IYS Ih.I' .1 li~un' is nolhin~ 1'"1 .1 1',1I1i"IIIM .lrr.mg'" ml.'nl ul un .. - ur ~t·vl·r.ll w"Iftis . .. . Ttl whid, WI ' nl ,1\' .1d,1 . . . tlla~ this p.uticular dispositiHn is r...'I.llivt· 10 Ihl' primiliv(' .11lJ , a~ ~I wl'r" ,. h~"tt.mll'nl.11 s lah' uf Ihl' Wt'hb or 1'11I . , ~"s . I h,' various ,,'evioiliuns bruught .-buul in Ihis ptil1litiv,' stolte illld the various alll'mHulls ,'''('(""ll'.1 in il Lrl'ilil' Ih,' voHious li,;Ufl'S ul words and ·lhnul;hts . Io.-.,,,,.s, v, 21>21

Thus figurt's are now nothing murc Ihan lil'vialions anti .l ller· .tions; nnl. 10 be sure. with respt'ct tu Ihe 1110s I flUllnwn mus t frequent manrU'r uf l'xpn'ssiuh I Hh:S(·If. hul wilh n 's pp,.'1 10 .\ "'(undarnelllal" st.llt:' u' discuurse, abuul which Ull Mars.lis has very lillie Itl say . lhl- dirt'ctinn in which his Ihuu~hl is inclined Gm, huwt.'v(' r. ht." il1',,'rred frum thl' artidc "Cons lrudilln ," whidl cuntains l.hL· essen(t.' ttf his th(JlI~hl un ~ranu".Ilk.,1 'tlu 'stions . Cnns~rudltm. ur Ih,' synladir slrll ..... un· 01 p.lrli.-tll.1f Sl'nh.'IKl'S, may It~t'll h ... • prup"r or figur ;:llivl':

lhis sen.Jllt. Sur I uf nmstnictiull is ,'alh·d 1i,\!IH.",. .. , 1..."st'''''';,III . bt.·(·tlUSt' III 1.ld il 1.IL..es a fi~urt.:' ... 'urm, wl,i,·h i~ nol 111 .. 101 III\.' 5.i",1"'" 1"1 1":- '1"11. '''''1 rhl' liJ;ur.llivl· lUlIs'rudillll i~, in IIlIlh .10-Ihmill'J hy .\ "Mtinllar lIsa~l'; l1ul il is no "11l~"r ill ,·onlo;lIIily wllh Iht' must Iq~ul'l( w.IY 01 :-'1 ... , .IL..it1~. Ih,ll i:-., wilh Ih.11 ,0111 '

plt'lt· allli ohll'rlv nlnslrilcliull 01 wllidl w,' sP""'" iii ~ l. If ) •. ", •. u .... v. III

IIt'rl' "sillll'lt-" is illh'rprl'l,,',1 ,IS {f'X"/.,, : IIII' liguft , is "PI'IISl',1 In .1 rul, ', whidl III.,V •• bt) pru4.lun' u's,dh Ih.11 . lIt' .l"t 1111 pll'l l' "

91 TftEOIUES Of TilE !liYMIIOl.

(olttl'rwi~e Ihen' I~ f'llil f:' i ... ) ,lntl "unlt'rly"' (ullH'rwisc' 11,,'u' I!-I iu-11(',~ iotl) . The fir-nre. like Ihe nonriJ~ln\". is "authurizt:ll hy lIs .. g .... ·· :

V it i:c; opposed nol In "~i1gt· (as (Juinlili.)Il'!> .J"'inilioll would h.1V("

il) hul In the rul<", Ihll~ 10 IIII' norm ,

Ttw .. Idinitinn Clr (j.~tnl· I'rnp(lsl'd hy DII M;trsi1i~. l'rUlI)~hl In ils own lo~ic"al cundusiun , is no IHnJ~t'r "Pl'ust·,1 .... 1", illt'a ul tip,lIre a~ devialion, it is rnr .. dy .. v .. ri;:mt tlf 'h;~ id .... a (even though Ou Mar~ai5 never succeeds in furmulating it with prt"lision). This retractinn and Ihi~ relative 'ailufe rc~mlt from 1111 M.US.1i!>'s inahil­ily In syslcm.,liu' hi:::i own hl(';ts .

SliII, in Ihe Immulali .. n< I",ond in Ihe rro, .. " Ih('re remain sevf'ral that point luwtlftt nnuUwr solutinn of the initi'll .. Iifficulty a, il had already been formulalrd hy Quinlilian (_inc .. every ul­Il'ranc(! ha!l a particul.u furm, .. 'a..-h is .1 fi'~tHt'. tlu.·rt'fuu' IUlthin,.; i~ a figure). Thtl~ a' the vcry I'"'ginninr, uf hi~ work I)" M;usais qtlnles several e)(amples uf fif~tlre~ : "Anlilhpsis. for l"x;1mple. is di s tinr,tlishet.i from other hl(m~ tt' !'Jli~ech in fhaf, in tlu~ r,rntJp of words Ihal constllllles anlilhe,is, Ih~ wllrd, are opposed 10 each olher. . , Aposlrophe is dillerenl hom olher enuncialinns be, calise il is only in apuslruphe thOlt one suddenly addresses one's spC'cr h 10 ~omc prl"st~ nt ur allsrnt ~rs"n ... " (nT. p . R),

We perceive 0\11 Ihl' ~\'.dt'l1n's . and l'ach ~t'nt('nn' h;1!'1 " furm; howe ver, we discern lilt.' "d,.uilrtrrislk feature," thai is, thc qual· ily of fi~ure, only in c('rtain ones : as in thosf' in which someone is addre"ed slIdd",/y , and nul ,Iuwly and aller some p'''paralion; or in thosE' in which 'the WOrtts ;u\' 1,,,,,,~·cll(l nn(' :tnnflu·r. ;tnd nut In Ihu,,, in which U",y a'e ,.lik., IIr simply Jill"renl. Why? Whal accounls lor Ihe lacl Ihal cerlaln lurms ore perceptible whllr others are nol7 the rart Ihilt w~ "rr("ugl1i1.C" Ihe fir,ures in one case h .. 1 nol in anolher? Du Mar<.is <eem< 10 relurn 10 Ihis que<lion mud1 Iiller on: .. A~ fir,tlres ilfl' only ways of spt'akinJ; Ihat have- , parlictll;1r chaucerr III whid. a "flm(' has l~rl1 Ptivcn .• md more­OVl'r since each Iype uf ri,;1Ifl' m.,y he varh·tl in scvt'r .. 1 different W.lys, il is ohvious Ihal, if wt." OU(' gtJil1~ In uhs(,fve ('ach of these manners and giv(" Ihern ~pt.'cific lIam('s, w.· will nt'illr a c("rlain numller 01 ligures" (IJT, p . 2~J) .

This 5('nlenc(' i~ impurl;"lnl . Tf1e figure ;:; nul a prnfl('rly that hdnn,~s , inlrinsically OIn,' 0111 ,.f illl (Huh'xI , In s("nh'flCCS: evt'ry s('nl('flce is pntentially ri~lIr"tivl· . thus no di~criminalClry nilerio" is to be found hert' . l1ul we k"uw how 10 "ohs('rvc" Iht' form tlf errl"in ull('ranc('s . <l ncl not Ihal ul others . On Marsi\is does nol

TilE EN., OF IUIETOR.C 9J

que'sfi-tll Iht' uri,:ills tl, Ihi!-l tlt;,.'re·nn· (whh-h rt'~ i,lt'S 11lt'11 in utlr .1Itilthl .. ' h,w.".1 tlu' St'II'l'l1n'~ ralln'r 1110111 in tht· S('ull'nn's Ihl'lII ­selv('s), h~tl I~r pruvidt·~ U~ with n nit· f.,r n"Ctlnl1i7. i"J~ it : th\' fOl et thai ("l'rl.l1n. h.~tlrt,~ h,Wl' n;mlt'!'t whilt' otlu'rs dn nol . lIy ~ivin •. 1 nill1l(' til •• "J~UU · . Wt· iIlSliluh",,,,li,,' il; hul .1.,. ilistilliliun, inl~tr ­" .. ll· .. 1 "~'r" i,1t .IIH' .. ·).isll·nl· .. · Hf Iht' ."'nt .. · ... (,Iit~ .. ·s us ttl I"'f\ .\'iv\' errtal" 'ml;tllshc furm~ and alluw~ II:OS I .. it-;nnr~ thl' ntheors, Thus in l)l~ Marsais'S ~fl·Sl.'l1taliun there i:'i the basis fur it sC'Cund intcrpre. ... tUIIl nf .he h,~tln' :ts fnrm: it .. tU('S nol dt.'vi .. tl' 'rH11l Ihe rult" hul (Jb('y~ anutlU'r rlllt" nul a lin~tlisli .. - (II1t' Ihis lillU' bill a ml'I.1-linguistic- mid thus" cultural-rull-. I\n t.')(rrt·~sinn i!l figurativl' ~11l'n Wt· know httw lu pcrn'ivl' ils furm; nnw Ihis knuwlt.· .. I~l. is Impnst..'ll tin us by a sudal nurm, incarnated in tlu.' l')(is'enct..' t)f a n~m" fur II", fi,~"rt· . h',ln 1',,,.11. .... , ill .1 nllnnH.·It,.lry un Du M.lr

s.a.~, ha< n"le" Ihisparadoxkal cnn"" l"~nc~: "Thi< i, 10 s,'y Ih.11 I.gllr~. hav(' as Ih"., single characl~ri,ti( Ih,' rellt-cli"ns an" I he fn<~tliry Ihal rh .... urid.'"s pursut.· with ,..·).to',..t In lIH'm" « ~ ·"I/r .. :-; rn"'/'/~~,." II, "Traill' ,Ies ligur"', " 1', 22'1) . All 1""':Uolt:~ Is l"'lcn­!I.IIy I'guralive, I", il is Iheorelically pos<ible It, perc~ive Ihe lorm o! ev~~ ut,lerance; 1m wever. it i!l nol an omnipn.·s('nl and Ihus nond,shnchve property; 10 say th .... an l')[rr('~~inn i!li figurative is nnt l~u.'ulu,;irO'I, h, ',';mse 011 OIny ,~ivt.·n inst.,,,t Wt' ,Ut ' CO'PO'hlc.· u( pe.n'lvlIll; Ihl' furm ullly tlf (t' rlai .. 1I1h-riln .. ·l·S .Hul nul (If .,11 . Thl' nollon 01 ligure is nul distinclive 31 Ille linguistil' level, hul il f~gains irs 'ullmc.lI1inlt at Ihe Icvl..'l nf our pt.·rcq,Iinn uf langllagt:' . An utlerill1l"t' l)t','omt·s fi~'Jr;1tiv .. • ;IS ~uon ilS Wt' ,wrn'ivi' it in lI.ell.

, ~elll' Iry lu summarize Ihis line ul Ihuullhl. Ou Marsais re o 1""1< Ihe Idea .. llh" li~i;n;'", ' lIevi,ilioli: <lIh<liIulint: I", il Ih,,1 .. I Ihe ligure as lurm. nlll in Ihe lace nllhe dilliculties 10 which Ihi s dcfinitinn r,ivcs risC'. unwilling 1(1 nmfrnnt th('m tlirl'CUy, he Jays 'h.e gruUflttwnr,k for Iwn inl('rrrl'lalinns of hi~ inilial position . ,qlhuut mO'nilr.In~. huwever. In furmul.lh' t.·ilhfOr onl': (I) Ihr fi h-tJrc is intiE'ed i1 dt'vi.,linn. wilh rt..'spt'c1 Ihis lime.' nol 10 usahe but ~o.an .,h:,> lr:trl rule; (2) the fi~ure is., 'orm, ~tli nut jus l any form : II IS only Ihat furm which, owin~ 10 a stt(ial convE'ntion, is incilr­nilll, .. 1 in the cxish'nn' (I' a nilml' .1"tI is p('rn.'ptihh· .1 <> form hy lilt' lISf'rs (If .1 r.iv(~n 1.1I1gU,'r.e .

Of 11H'~l' two pO";"il,I,' WilVS ,tI., 1If" .111 inili.11 imp"";~t', Ut,.107.t.'.("

0" Marsais's dirrct h""ir. rE'Solult'ly t.· hu,,~, ·s Ihl' rir~ l . formulilting

94 ,,,EORIES Of Iliti 5YM6UL

it wilh a clarily enlirely .. 1-:-;t'ul in 1)11 Mars.lj :-;'s wrilinl;. and t;lvin.~ it wider extension . Just as nlCaninh was Llt'rived from sil~niH{a· Hun through the figure. the cmpiri..-al ftlrlll king uppHsed to .he tlbslracl itiea, so any cunslruc:liun or nhs(' rvahl(' ~rammalical struc­lure is produced by mt:ans til a Ii.,;un.· un tlu.' basis ul .In ahstrad and universal syntax. Each individual scnlent.:e is liguralive pr~ ' cisely in thai it 15 In.uividual; only lhe abstr.'l', strudure ('()mmo~~

, ,: 10' several relaled senlences is ligureless. In Ihe lanlluage oltrans· formatiunal grammar, whit'h St't'ms lu iii lH.'u-. "li~urt·" would bt

I replaced by .... ransformaHun·'; every sentence in surface shucture is derived through a lransformalinn (thUlUKh a fi.,;urc) from ill

, deep slruclure , lIere is Ihe way Ihi. iJ"a is exp,ess~d in Ileauue's

language:

Jusl as Ihc lif\ure, in Ihe plimilive and I'wl,er sense, is Ihe individual dclcr",in.li"" n' a IK><ly by Ihe scI ,,' l"'n'~I'Ii"1c paris of its contour, St) the linguistic figure is the individual dct~rminalion of a llnJy tty ItU' ~pccific hun 01 phra~c that dis­tinguishes it trom uther analogous expressions . In cold, lan­guage, usage and a"alogy hav, esla"lisheJ Ihc male';al 01 die· Ilon, Ihe primilivt! meaning and the OIn:idcnlai ,.UIIlS of the paris of Oil prayer. the rules uf syntax af'prupriJte In this basic shK"k prcpart.·tJ by Ih,' ~('lIiIlS 0' Ilu .. ' bl\t;lIa~l.'; Ih.lt is. so 10 speak. the universal fOfm 01 lan~ual)""; which is found un­changed in all discnufSt!. but which nevertheless receives vOIr ­iuus 6pedfic nuK.iififalitlflS in disuuust.'; uwillg In these modifi­calions. Ihe primitive fnrm never appears in lhe same aspect Thus it is Ihat all 11It.'1\ havt.' ill 'mm (·ommon tu Ihe whole spe­cies, and resemhlc (,Jch oillt.·r IhrnuJ;h lhis g,-,neral cunfunn.­lino: bul when WI! cnmp.ul' imJiviliuals. whilll variety! what dif­ferences! not nne rt.'sl.·lubks ,1 ItHIItl.·r; Ih~ futm , IS .tlways the samc, " .. I all Ih" 'i~urcs are different. II is Ihe same wilh Ih. e)(pressions of a lanHua~t.' : _.11 arc sul>it.'cl In Ihe sa"".' general. inalterable 'ornt. yet e .. (1t une h.1S its uwn physiugnomy. so 10 6pcak. whleh rcsult~ fnlOl Ih,· lliU,·,...·nn· hdwl't'U II", !tuM-tifying figures (lnd Ih~ conunun fmm; 11,,~s,-, fit;urcs inc likl.' thusc Ihal ... haraclcrizc indiviJuab ,lrnun~ mc.'n. lIu.'y annUunfC n".'- fi6iJi ond deplcl h , I"fi~u"" - tM, II, HIIII

·fhe "general" .111,1 ah!"ilr,ld "furlil " J\t.'fl'ssaraly 1U,1I1ih'sts ilsl'lJ in a figuraliv~ slate . IIl.'.Hl1. ~c.·'s pn~Ulull b c)(lIcmc. ,;uuf tH."'l'ctll' consistent : unlilu: ()u Mars.lis, Ill.' ltUt..'S ;\ul cnvasaw' the t.'"ish.'llCI of nonfiguralive "cunslrudiuns" whosl.' mtlnift.'st slruflUI"C \VuuW be a lailhlul rcOL,<lin" "I Ihe lIn""rlyi".: ,Irue",,,,; Ihi. IL'a,Is him

I II Ii liNIJ UI· ~III:IUH.ll·

10 .'~k : :' Is IIH· ~· " •• . W:tV III Sp".1"- withollt li.:III' ·~ ? ·· (ibid . , l III In 1,,:-. t.'''I1I111m,,· 1\1'11"",'" Ill' llr tWS ·1 I " I I ' I . I ) . I.', .' . • , " !'>lr II II!'> pin , ' ,,'S:-'U, UOUl" I It: t.!"iS. In I Itt..' lHurs,' uf a Jl'h,lh' wilh n\l' A(li " II II' .. I' I I . It .1, U)., ,\lUlh IlIg

n w ""H it "glln' in nne lan'·lIal·t' milV l1ul I"' a " , , It ' . " ,,' .... Igun' 10 iU1UI "'r l'aUi'.l',· ""1'111':-' ,IS 1"lIuws: Ih"I·" t·~i "'h , 1" "" I I ' ' III ' . . , • 1' . 1 U1l11l01l1l1l01l11l

.l .• :'n);tla~cs. wludl Je-st.'rv .. ,s un ,h .. 1 .'l",·ollill til l)t· ",111l'd ",\,IllI -

rOIl. an ,1(lllill 5"" .... ,,· .. , may c.·mhtkly Ih II '" , I' ' I oJ... . . ..t nt: ra Hrm wll Illul rn I .cahulI; bul dS SHun as there is muJitkdliol1, thcrt~ is a Ii, . Uh', Wh.lh'Vt'r lilt' 1"uJ~lIa~.· in 'itit'siion, .1,,&1 wh.-.t l'vt'r lilt' I ' "~ . lu",ary lIsa"e ""Y I", "A J' ' I ' . . n ' . ,xure', In an~u"gt.'. is thus an c.·x In.'s ·' s~un lI,al ,'s renlOW,' nllllrnm II ... "'tlinMy ;",tI lin", ' h"nu,,'} w.y ~d spt~aklll6 ~11~1 (rUIil the natllral m.lIHll'r 01 n·l1dl.·ril1g II", silln .. :

I ea~ 111 any uJu~m whatever; su Ihal ordinarily what is a figure in 1U1t· ,lUg,: ••• ; .. Will, I .. , ',I 'i~lIrt' ill ,lIItllh"f" Ip I).,,,) .

M OI , lh" IWil ,hn''''",", '"1:1:,"10'" hilI 11 .. 1 l .. r",,,I.1I,' ,1 h)' I)"

~ "~StllS, Ueauzt.'l' dmuscs. in Iht.'ory. lilt.' (Ufllll'r. And d unl·t.. ,ig~lIl. ~I:t:'n Itt.· ,.;i.\les cxamples nf fi~lIrt·S , or 'llh'mpls h; d,\ss il

:~"n:, hh all .. II", I'"""~.""",, I,,' .... "si,!.-" ""Iv till' 'il:""" i;' Ie, ~)(ISltng ~epcrlury of ~helurkal traditiun- only till' libun's Ihal

Micady havt: nalllt.'s. MI).;ht this nul 1)(' prutll ill il sd( Ih.11 tilt' S>t't,onc..l , ~e~ponsl· would have "t'l'n IImH' t'Hi(,iKioll~? 1Jt.',ll1/t'l' ·~ th~o~y IS uu'prUtldl,lhll' frum wilhin. t'xn'pl IIIf JIlt' (,,,·1 thai hl' :pphcs the ~.Illt..~ ".ihlue- lu a IIHll.·h bro.hln sL'l til phCUtll1Il'U.l

~n are urdlnanly call~d by thai name (10 11ll' IinJ-tuiSlic Inanilt:'s . ~hun. as opposc~1 lu 1I.,e absh,u·. ,J1Il1 uuivl' l"s .11 fOlIll) ; this l' Jillen­

s&on ~)~ ".,e narn~ IS St .' little ius' Hit," thai n"ilII1.'\I' himself dot's nol su((cc,1 In htl"'ln~ 11III1:-odf Itl il.

"

96 TIII·. ()MII~ S ur '1111: SYMntll .

Ih~ dlflerence bel ween II,,! "xrn'~~lon olll"lU!;hl~ ~I\.t Ihe "xrre~­~iHIl tl( ft:dill~~ 'n "is"l'pt~:lr in its Ilirn. Tlti .. is pn·dsd\' II", lim' .. f re.~onlng (.Ire.dy nulli,wtl in II,.. Purl -Rny.1 I".~i .. ~Il·" by 1;.lhN Bcrnard tamy) Ih~1 Cnndillac willlnlluw . More I'recisl'ly. wilhuIII ~Iiminatinr, the (Iis 'inclion ht·lwt..·(' n Ihmlf~hls ami h.'(·linJ;s. he will till without the distindiol1 h • ..' 1 W('('U prtlpt'r amt (i'~tuativ'-' l'xpn's ­

sinn, in that each will h· Ih(' prnper ('xl'fl'ssion of a different !Jignifier: feelings art:' no longt'r an appent.iix In thuu,;hls hut a

source of signification in their (1wn right. Con(liII;!( ~wts furth ",I lilt' PlIlsl'l a ,lis linrlic1I1 whkh Ik"l1l7.t"('

O1lsn n1:lde bllt whkh fur IIll' 1,'lh: r I;.ekctl J,,,:1rinal signifit: •• "n .. ': the distindion betwecn pr(tl'~r I1lcaninr, ~n(1 proper word .

lust ilS rh"loridan~ call "lrflrc~" word;ol lak"o In a IlorrowM m~nninJ;. they enll .. .... rup(·r name!''' words I.,kl'n In tin' primi­live meilninf;: anJ we must nl~l'rvl' IhOlI thl're is "' ,liUl'n'un' hetween "propocr namc" 010(1 "prop("r wnu" " When w.' s"'Y Ihat a writer alway!!> h",~ the "rtlpt'r word. we fin nol mCOln th .. t he "IWilY5 u!!>("s w(lrd~ in tlldr primitive !Cif~nifici11i(ln. w(" mCil" that Ihe words he IISCS wnvey all his ideas pcrle<lly; Ihe p"'lll'r word Is alway. Ihc be.1 .'pre,"i"n. (AL p . 5(,(11

Wh.1 inleresl~ C"",liII~c i~ Ihll. nol Ihe liler~I, a~ uppo~ed 10 the rigllrativl", hut ralher Ilu' arprnpriatl', which ennllltrilS~CS lhf rip,lIfative . The notion uf apllrupriillt!f1css is h01rJly furdgn In da!l­~ ic .... 1 rhetoric; it is ('Vl'U this IlH' .. ning t.r Ihe h.-'fln "1',ofW'r" thai Quinillian ref .. ins ror his own lise- without r"ilinr" hnw("ver. to draw the seH ~evillellt conclusion, n"lndy. Ihal the rip.urativf i! nol nrrn!!>t'd 10 the "prtll"'r" (anlt Ihus cannni m., ddincd through il) : " PrI'I"irt.y i~ alsn m .. de tn include Ih(' aprrnpriat(" \I~C of word! in melaph"," (IIIslilllli., On",.,.i<l. VIII. ii , IU) . Yel il')IIinlili,,, had aprli t"d Ihis principle ("on~i~tenlly, his whule study uf nrnamenta­tion could not h<lvC COI11l' ahout . This is itl~1 wl .. ll h"ppcns wilh Condillac (onsi~tcnl wilh himself. he en.ls ur eliminating Iht

nolinn olll(;",e . Whal is soughl. Ihen, is " Ihe besl expression": whalever Ih.

nahrre 01 Ihe meaning inlende.t . Ihere i~ ~Iways nne exrresslon Ih.11 i~ heller Ih.n all Ihe olh~rs . Conti iliac ~~ys so ~g~in. very explicilly, in Ihe iniruclllriion 10 III Inllgll' ".,~ nr"'"I~ (II. 419): '" )ifkr£'nt cJ(pfl'~sinns rl'pn'sl' nl the s .. ou' thing in difh~n'nl as· peels , ;Hul Ihr vit'\~ .. ptlinIS I'f Ihr minlt, thill is. til(' OIsrrcls Olc · conlinr. 10 whit h w,~ consi,t.'r .... Ihinr. . dd"flUilll' III., dwict! \\'f

I .... . f' to m:lk r 1111' " Ilw " " 'I1 '<; ~ i"n ,""<;1'11 j .. , ""II.1t "',. ('.,11 Ill('

1111: I: NU In Mllf:1UN. .. · 'J7

~:ope.f I('rnt. "mn".~ ~·v ... ral , thl',..' is thus alw.l\ .... St n't' S pn,r",..lh.' .. ·. . 1111(' Ih.lt dl' -

Ctll1Vt'rst'ly , an (' ''pfl'~~inn-ri~tlfiltlVt' n I . bt.' Ir;tnsl .... t('d wilhulil l(lS" ',I sl I • 'I . r '.11. u·nVISI.' ---cttn Ill'v,'r

" . a e~ , s ""n,lrE'll L_II h olllf~r l')(rn's~it1n ('"" '1'1, ' , I h t"" er I an any .. ' . t!rt" IS nu nnl'('r vilriill ' I rur nil M .' , . ,... .• UIIt, .... !!> t H'n' was ar~ilIS .• H1Hln~ ~cV"r ,I ('xl' •.. ' 'I '

I I .. • nssums".1 s1l1l'1~ Ihull -hi

HI van .. huu amull,. the Ihnl,,'I.I< Ih . I ' h h ' .. 1 ... t m~' vt;'s ' tn ' h . T I

rorrespun"s illl' llIy il ... in~I' " .,. I . . . (ttC SI~nI le( lale Ilnr red;Jce ;i~II~;s ' RUI' i;I~~lI ~'.rl;,t1Us on~' ' · .... ~t Iwith"r Ir.lns-

" , ~ '~r"nce Ires 'n Ihe sir;nif d .1 lUll'. I 1t.' fiJ~ur,' is nlt'hin~ hUI .1 rt'Ut'rllnlt ur ~ , 11' ., II 1('

:;~~I~~':',:::"~:'~~:I i';";~' ~ 1;~ls i~I" '~I.,;"" ., '" I ,I, It·s . n,',: \~;":~rv:'~:,';:;: 1- I I ' I UV( s rom an urn.lnwn ... 1 conn'rlinn ~~; :~~;rrll.~{';'t'~ ~ttQ. 1 !lI~,~'litliMI t .. u· ·· · whl.'lher ht, rl.'lurlls 1(1 Ihe

'" "u IIrnlr ,a n ", Ih" n" .. II I f I' I d'rl" It .' lil U nWI', foHnlani.'r is f lUI In say . It IS I1nl1t·Uwll.· ... s Ih -' - . II . .

silu;'1ll'" withill Ihl' d .... ssical pt' ri~~ C( (al~I(" . t.l1. dt~un~'I.,glt·'ll1y , tlnl I ac s wurk IS, In certain

rt'"spect~ ;'11 le;lsi. fnnfcplually fnrl'i~n Ie) it . ~et u~ Ittnk ill sum~ ('xilmrll.'S Clf 1111' Irt'iltmt' l1'

!J'lh,lxt!'l h~Urt's : '11 which h~

Th('r~ is. fO,r t'ilch . sentiment, a prnpcr wurd III ilrUUS C its idca 'h" senhmenl I~ ilt'Uer (')Cpr~s('tI whl'n w(, sln--ss forcdull . I (' reil!!>nns Ihil' pnltlucc it in uS II I I '1 I Y (('("Is ,,' i1 passion ,In' OIl .. " flU' "~I~r~'~":""I,.e.·r'I<" 011 S tl'~ .~I th .. d -I I . II ' "t·" tIIu'nl n crnlJtahun .• Is" nUItrilmh.'s In Ihe ex,lrt'ssiHn uf S.'l1ti ' , ' .' . ;

,'rl"1f'ilrS 10 1,\, Ilw (u f I ' men ~, I IA[, r~ . 572- 57.11 In Il I' Ir"S~' must .11'1'Iupri.t"· lu r.·pro ..... ·hl·S .

r n~e ~if~'.I~l. ~s Iltt' prup(-'r (ttnd IIlIi'1"(' , irn'pl;lt"',Ihld l'xpressiun o a r,lvt!n selllmu .. '" •. Interrogatiun!'; arc apl'ropriill • I I for . , . . c t.: u reproac I t'S '

pa!!>,Slnnl'll gt'lIt'r.ll. till' whult' rur 111(' p.lfl {sY Ih'nlot:hl'} or III:' caus~ (lr I ,e dl" cl (1IIl'Innymy) 0 ' . r. a~all1 :

To wri~t· t·~t·;lrly. it is oflen 11t" '('S~;l:y tn lurn ,lWilY frum II", ~uhonhn.""~.'n I .. w~lid., direct urtil'r !oiubj"ds itlt· .... s . . ' . . The I"w Ihttl .prCscftl)('s d .... rlfy .~ "I!-itt tlil-I,lll"t hy Ihl.' dlolr,u .,,·h'rislk .. III

~ glVl'U h,' Ih~ styll', ol((urtlin,; tn thl' !'A'nliml'nls ul Ihl' sPc-.1kcr miln W 10 15 up",d ilnd a In I ' I I . Ih"d . ' I " an w "' IS l'a III ( Cl 1101 O1ffi'lllhC

(,Ir I cas In I Ie same ortil'r 0011 k' . .. '1 . ' .. , mil e I It' r,re.,I(' .. 1 PUSSI It ... ·onncctlon ,tmunD IlIdr idl'i1.. iln' I ·1 • f · I. fU n' .. • tV" t'," I onl' 01 -m .. ~ .... (I (·rt·nl t"PI1 :" lrllc lion , 1111:". f' . ~.7f'1 '

In Ir .... c~ilion", rllt'ltlrir. nne wnllit. h .... \·.· s., iet Ih.l l direcl oril,'r "(,'n'~ 1o Inslrud , ;111,1 I., vtlrs d'1fil~ . when·.ls inv,' ,sion st·rvt ·s 10 mon° .lIhf In ph-.I :-' I· . . Ind ,·unhil'"fI·s In l't· lilly II" , \ ./ I I . • \ III t'''t 1, ' lItl'

98 TIIEOMU: S OF TillE 5VU.OI.

as disrupted in Cundillac: inversion may s~rve da rily if Ihe persnn beil1~ desnibcd (ur III ..... (Inc wi,,) is spe .. kill~;) is uPSt."i : WUIlJ~ un lunger have three {un(liams. llul (lnly uue: In s'caLl " ,f mSI~UL~II .. t;, movlot;. nnd plcasinh. Uwy "nly ~i6nify ; tlllly the lIlI11.~S sl~lUhl'd vary. nle absolule norm of urn. menial I helmie is rcpl.(eJ by Ih. relalivism of "what i~ "pproprialc": there art" as many Iruths as i~dividuals and parlit.:ul,u .: .lSCS .

It is wurth nntinh '",n' th.11 this .1H.'tnrkal rt'l.,Hvism Icads Condillac 10 furmulalc " lih.'r.uy acstlu ... 'lk lha. is ius' ,IS rd.llivis­tic. in which Ihe classical and unifying n"linn of 1111/"" is replared by the plural nuliun ul :\",." ';-; (lhi~ is the famuus Chal'ler v ttl UI,t fourlh pa,l Df Ihe Ar/ ,,·rrr;n·) . ··We supp"se Ih.1 Ihe nalural IS

always Ihe .ame .... lAs a m.ller nf fdell. eve,y lillie Ihere is • diffe,enee in genre we are Jilferenlly disposeJ. anJ ron""'1ucnlly

v we judge aeeoHlinr, In diff~r~ul ,ules·· (I' . 6411) . ··N.lhor;llm'ss Ihus eonsisl. in Ihe ea.e wilh which a Ihing can be dune" (I' . (113). "In general. it ~uHicC's 'n nhSl'PJt' that in poetry as in prusc tl~~rc ar~

'- as many ways 0' beillg nalu ral as Iht!H.' arc ~cnfcs ... . I hus ,. appears demDnslrahly dear lu lIIe Ihal th,' lIalu,alne" proper 10 poetry and to ead, typc uf IHM..'IU is OJ (Bliven"u ... ,1 l1alur .. lllc~ s Ihal va,ies 100 milch h.l", <ldin~,I" (r. (11).

This re jeclion Df Ihe universal norm. of absolulti leulh. is ap· plieJ 10 Ihe noliDn of lile,alure ilself: lile,.h"e <lues nnl exis!. 0'

ralher u isls only within spedfie hislnrieal conl".ls . "To Iry 10 discover Ihe essence of poelic slyle wOlIlJ be a vain effo, l: Ihe,e is nun,," (I' . 6(6) . II is ,1, ... ·i,I,·,lly In Cnlulill.IC·S ~ra. r;.lhe, Ihan III Ihe one Ihal preceded Quilllilian. Ihal l'onl ;lIIie, ""'I .. ngs afle, aU.

The Idlter's thenry of Ihl' 'i~ure remains In be t.~)(amined : thas lake!j us backward in cunf t..'plual history. but 1101 in analytic.1 rdincment. Uk", DII Milr~ab . hul ntnr<.> dcady. I~onlanit~r presents a double delinilion. slruelura l anJ fun clional: Ihe figu.e is.delined. al nnee by whal il is an.! hy wh.t II tI .... ·s. All.! if Fonl.lIlic, d".s not innuvate so f.u as Ihe dfccb uf ri~urt.·s art! n UH.:c .. ncd, h~ moves away from Ou Marsais in his slructur;:,1 lldinilinn . by c hoHs int) the secund of tllt_' well -havelt'" p ... lhs, Ihat of llt'vi,,'ion, while Irying In ~ive il a p"'cisi,,n Ihal il dill nol haVl." befme. Hcfuling nu Marsais's ohit'd iun , ,' (rnHHIl~ 10 whit'll figurt.'s art.' I'S

cumlHon iI~ n(lnfi~lIJl's , ht· Wlilt's: "Tha t .I(u·g nol pn'vl' nl fit;\lrl's from ,/"";I,'i".,(, in .1 Sl'n s,', ""111 ,',., ~ ""/'/, ' 1111111'''''. ,,."11' II,,' 1I1,lilllll" awl (O"'UIOII ",auuer uf s~lIkillg , Tht'y ,Il'vililc fruill il in thl.' Sl.'nSf

Ihat one cuuld suhstiluh' suuh·lhil\.~ IthUt' unliuluy .Hlli Ullin" film '"

TilE hNU (If RIll::l'" ONI( ' '1')

mon fur 1I\t.~m ; in Iht.' sense Ih,.t 'ht,y pn.'Sl' 11 I sOIlh'thing lollil'r , nubll'r, mUI'l.' _""ls lalhlinK, mort' pidufl'sque; sOIlH'lhillf~ Silting .....

mo~~' t'Ut' rt;l'lh '" , CII mOlt' hr"t'" iulis. mun' ,I);n'l',lhh' " (l -U. pp , ) -4) , IIH' S.HlH' dutlllh' d.'fi"ili"" i ... 10rllllll,ll ... 1 in hi ..; IIWI\ 1I1·.Ili .... , .;

"The fi~url's uf JisH lurSt! are till" Il'aturl's . the 11Irms (lr thl.· turns of phr~st' III~I an" murt" nr It'sS rt~markahlt' and ",UH' ur !t·ss privj . 1t,'6l',1 In Iht' lr dh', I. "n,,' IhruuJ;h whid •. in till' (·xpn·ssillil ul itll'as, Ihuu~hl s . . lIhl (t'('lings. tlisnlurs(' dl'vi .llt·s mun' ,Ir It-ss frum wh,ll wuulll h.lv,· h,·,·,. lilt· si mp'" ... hl ' "01111111111 l"Pft'~~ IUII '" ' (rD. p. M).

Th~ ,Iuplidly of s lruchlfl.' anti hllldioll - of which t:ulIl ,lI1h'f

1~~~l'S skillful .~dvailt'lbt!-is nul the unly UllL' pn·st.'nl in Ihi s Jdi ­rullun : lIu.' re IS ,."olht'r, ,II lilt' ht'.ul tl( Ih(' slnh'h l f,ll d e lll,'ul i~self, aUtl il is embtkfied in Itlt' two terms "simpll'" {Uf urdinary) an~ " nllnIllUII , " "'IIl' Iwu tit) nut IU'ft·ss.Irily t-o ill.-hl, ·: tht' ~iml'lt­derives frum a '1'lo1lil 'lhve nih'rion, II".' t'" lImllHin frum a 'lualllil;' '" , liv~ HlIl' _ This .lIl1hi.;uily has It'll ill tl llr ,I<ly hi (ulilrovt'rsy .I",un)!, ·

' :onl;\IIil'f'S i"li .. ·rprt.'lL'rs," In I.ld . hlllt .. "j,·r's h' :\1 is slIUid,'nlly clear: Ihe cxpn'ssiuns Ihal nnt' "CUUlll sul1slilllh'" (IIr fi)!,un's Inll s t Ix: "~KIVl.' all !'iml'il-r, mure tllft'd ; fl l" llIt' Ut'" y lhlt, ~ 11111 pl.ly .1 tli ~ ­(nmmalnry rull' ht'n' ," EVt'u though lilt' formlll,I "mon' 1)1 k's~"

.ppea,s Ihrec limes ill Ihe tlefinilioli of Ih" fil:urc . Ihe Jiffercl1l·e belween Ihe Idlle, anJ Ihe nnnligure is Ihe JiHerenn' belw~~ 11 a ll 4Ind nolhin).; . nul Ilil' Jiffercnn' Ilt.'twl.'(,11 mOrt' .Intllt'ss: eilhl'r til t' simple and dirccll'Xrrt'ssinn ('xisls ':Ir t'ISt, it ,tIft'S nul. and il il dill

nul ('xist, IIll' fi,.;uu· wuultl nil I"n";"r r,'s tlil Irul1I I ,·huil't' ," Now. for Fonlanier. nn nt't.'"l'ssary fi~Ufl' t'.isls : "Th., (i'~'ht' S . how ­rver (ummCln 'ht.'y m.lY be anti hUWl'Vt'r iamiliar 11t,·y 1II.IV h"",-' ~(lIlIIe IhruuJ-;h USilt;l', Cdn nnly tlt·st·rvt· .lnl. ~l't' P IIIl'ir 1111t' tlf 11.~IIfI· inasmllrh .1S Iht'Y au' in (r, ... • IIS.I):", .,ntl .u,· l1ul in sOlin'

way imp .. s~tI by Ih~ langua.:,· ·· (/V. p . M) . lh,· fi";lIr~ is h.lst·tl nil Ihl' t'liI.isll'lKt' 'If nunt' xis h'II, 't' lIf .1 din'd

t'xl'rt.'ssinn . This "I"'rnaliv~ is ht'sl t'unVt'yt'lt It)' FOIII.lni,·, in .tI' uppusitiun Ihal ht· lintls amung Ih~ h"pt's: Ih.' t1pposi liull Itt.' ­l\\'"~· ~.~n 1.'",II.u-hl"l'sis ,lIhl ligures ," Wt' must u'm"",I,,'r Ih,ll, , 'V t ' " hlr

B(.'~II1.re. fill.lehrt'sis \Vas nnl a Irl1l'ot' lik.· lilt' "th,'rs , hul a \v.lY 0' uSing illly 01 1Ill' IfUPl.·S ," I:onl.l"il'r nnw n,HlWS IlIl' "lilt'r, ('0111 _ ph''''''nl;IIY asp"'" 01 .rupl·s : il b. ill f.ld , lilt' tiglllt' , TI,,' II .. I" '~ .Jlt· ,Idin,'" by dl.lII~t· in 1II",·.lIlill,~ ; Ihi:-. It, i ...... "'. dl"- ':-' util 111.16.." .1

'i~llrt' . Uut IIwy m.I), . in aJdilillu. bt.' U~t',1 ill two W.lYS: 10 fum · Ill·II .... III· lUI" lilt' ,It'li, 'i"nt'il's III Iht' I' '''h".lgt' (illl' t '.lh'(hrt'lil' u ~ l')

w OJ

100

m In r('pi3", alr~"dy ,'xlslil11: ,1I,~d ~xrr~"i .. n", "'lit Ihl. ",'Cond use alone gives rise 10 lir,ures . The lrupe is • slgnifi~r with Iwo ~if~nUicds. nne primitive ilnct tile other tropic; the fi)~'ne presup­poses a ~ir,niri{''' Ihil' ~ '01n ht' tlt'!"ignatt'cl by IWIl si)~nificr!lt. nnr rroper and Ih~ .. Ih~r lil:uralivr . Th~ "ilk'~I1'~ bclw"l'll Ihl'se rclalinn;e;hip!C>, ami Ihe cu rnplt:x nature nf 111(> hnpc -figure may bfo schemali7.cd ns shown.

hUll_ 11M .,

SIQnihcl A ~tf1rullf" 0 signilie, 9

(Jllopcl) 1I~I!:!!.ahvc l 1 L S'O"lfK!fl ,1 s;gn;hed b

slqnlhcd ... (trOPIC) (fuiloilive)

Int .... ·Ftr.I,", [."""U

s'Hn, llcl A sl~,,"IIf' 1 n ~klVC - -h",,'-

l 1 l ===i stQnll,cd if SIQ,ul1cd h ""'. name

Tht' lrope l>ecnm('s ~ lif-me .. winr. 10 Ih(' re lalinn ('slal>iishN bel ween signilied nand 'ignilier 0; meaning Q 01 word 0 musl have ii, oli,ecl name II , and wo,ol 0 musl have a rruper meanlnK bin mde, lor n In be a I'''re-lig",e (melarhor, .ynecdoche, ond sn on); tropes and fi~lIres are intersectinr, sets.

Annlher Wily lu n'pn'~c'nt Ihi~ rclatiun~hir wuul,1 lle through Ihe 10l1nwlng diar.ram (in which we a,e no Innr-er concerned with reialions among signilie,s and 'ignilieds bul wilh s,,!xllvisio", within Ihese cI.sse,) .

nonllOpcs

Fonlanier forIt\1I1;lh~5 tlwse Iwo distinct inns in s~rarale pas­s"P'("s of his ilrr."I1l("nl , Iln(" he .t('"ls wilh lilt' suhdivision of tropes , "Either 'ropt's cOI1 ~i~; lil1,t uf il sill,~I(' word nUl'r 41 fi,;ur.,lh'f' nleaning. or £'1st' IIlPy nff('r tlnlv a purely exlensivt., me41ning. In the fir sl (tlS(". nwy cut' Irtlt' figufC's , In IIH' sl'(tlml GISt:' th('\·

Cil f1 Ill' (tl lI ,'d I 11"lrI"l' C;f~ " (I P . p , 77 ).

TilE (hi) UF IItIlETORIC lOt

Anll hen' i$ till' .. thl·' !Ilul .... livisk,n. ;""nt1~ IInnh ,Irk fi~un'~ .nd trupes: "In wUfll ligures ...• ~ilh~r Ihe words are lahn in 50(0" """ .. ', IIrnlll;".'\ . Ihilt is, in \tnt! (If Ihdr wiII,,1 "nd ofdin,,,y 'i~nifkalinn~ . wlU'ilU'f p .. imiliv,' (If n"I ; IIr IIwv iHt' I"'-,'n in " Jil~rxc.·'" IIIl·JninJ;. l1ul .t pru~lt.'r ItIc .. nin~. tit .... is, in ,I signilil"illiun Ih,'1 is purdy a Icmp",ary b"n"win,;" (rn, p . (6) .

In Ihis rassal;' , w" nole Ihal Ih" tr0r ... -figure exisl. only in discuurse, wilhin a particular ullerann' (mnreuvl'r, hmtanier in ~

sisls un Ihis: "lilt' /;,,\,m,';,,,' "''''''';'','\ is nt.'Vl·r pn's,'nt \"xn'pl till loon, and is allach,'d 10 Ih(' wo,d .. nly by Ihe very circum,l.nce Ihal led I .. ils bmrnwing" ICR, p . 3HSII.

Thus it is int.lt."4..·J a relationship uf all -tlr -nulhint; Ihal t;rnunds thr figure. ant' nol lme of Rreatf"r or less('r frequ('ncy. i1!11 Fnnl~ni('r

rrmilllb us in (lInncclion with ~'vcr,ill examples: "'ntis synl'c­doche, in lo,ingll ... b .. ldness Ihal il had in ils nnvdly, has never­Iheless nol losl all of ils ligurolive character. and il musl not be rtgardcd as a fII,,,d,n-s;!O. sinn' Ihl' it.fl'a Ihal is its nbi"'d coulJ .hvays be expressell by Iht' rroper and 'p"cilic si,;n 10 which il .. os originally allach"d" (CR, p . 54).

1'0 be sure, UlR' p;lssage of Iht." Cm"mru'airl' p ':l"sl'nls all inlc, ~

prrl.lion 01 Ihe lil:"'" Ihal seems In gn in Ih(' nrl""il~ direrlion : ·One could prove by 0 Ihousand examples Ihal Ihe lir,"'''s Ihal .ppeor boldesl al Ih" beginning slop being reg.rded as ligures when Ihey become '1"ile common and mdina,y" (rr. 5-6). nlll wr shuuld probahly he mure attentive lu tht.· expn'ssiun funlanier U5CS: "stup bt.'in~ "X .. "k., ;IS fit;lIu's." ,lilt' nut "slup hdnJ~ li.~ ­urrs." Familiarity anll frequt'ncy of nrrllrrt'nc(, (ausc us In s lup nollring Ihe lill",.live characler ul Ih" lil\u,,,- bul .In nol Ihereby tliminale it .

Even il his "dinilion 01 Ih(' lig"'(' i, '1"alll.liVl'. Fonlanicr is nol indille,enl III Ih" rrobl"m .. I I\r ... ler .. , Il'sSt'r I"~luency . ·n,e prool lies in Ihe lact Ihal h" lakes up again enlirely on his own .ccounl Ihe di,linctinn pror""ed hy Ihe Ab~ de Raolonvillie" belween trupes nl "Mge and Irnpes of inwnlinn (Ih~ sam~ s ub­didsinn cuuld I", applied 10 Ih" ligu,e) :

5umc. in r~"lity. ,'11" ev('n mnc;l . a~ Iht,,'y M., ~t'nt'rally "cc('ph.·d . having nn novelty whalsoever. are rar. l,I the loln~uage at ils "('ry foul. Wht'H',I'" 'lthcr~. 't'w,'r ill l1umht'r. 'Ut· nol p.ut til 1"(' l'ln.~U;,r." 011 .. 11 . t'illH"r ht'l-,'II~t' 'IH'Y .Ut' It~1 IWW. tlr 1"" "lll ~t' 11.,' only authtlfity tllt'y have in ,hc.'if '.1\1'(1' is 111(' wrilt'f whit .~tlVC IlwlI1 lilt , lif~hl tit d.w , Ntlw is th.ll t.lifft'rt'IIt ' t," I~ ' hv"t'n Iht'1II 11\11

('~~ enli.111'11t1l1gh It .. us 10 mtlk(' it tilt' ·;uhjt·t:' .111" II,,· h.Hic; 'or .1

102 TIIE O MIES Of T ilE SYMBOL

Jislinr liuu? Ld Wi l" ;IIIII", ,j, :-. I typt' " l l''' '~ III U~IS" or "I" .. ·.'; "/"11'

ItJIIxuaXt. and Ihe 5t,.'cunJ Iypc ItcII"':; "/ """''''11111 ur ""''''!> "/ "'t' wriler. If 0 , p. 1641

The diHcrcllcc i~ Ihus "l'sst'nli,,1 (,IUHI,;h. " loll. ncvt'rlhdess suix)((.Jjnalc 1(\ 1Iu.' ,liUl' n'un' 1lt'lwl't'n ri~lIn: anti nHnri~uu.· .

The absence nf Ihe prupt'r wurtl In l'vulo..e lilt' .. u.-,mill}; ()f cal­achrcsis obscures 1I11.' pussihilily (If ml.'.lstlriuh Ih,' I~'lp hdwl'cn Ihe proper word and Ihe fi.:uraliw word, and IlllIs il annihilales lhe figure . 111e s.,nu.' is IrUl' 01 annllwr ~rutlp '" ti~IIH·S. uhtin.uily classified among Iht.' ti~urt.· !') uf Ihuu~hl. ilnd whkh art.' nul true fiJ;urcs. ;lccortiin.,; lu Funtimit·c, fur nn Jill'f .,1 ,·xpn·ssinn exists (nune morc "prorer" than Iht"y arc tht'tnsdvcs) lu whirh they mi.:hl be compared. "Wuuld il Iherefore he Ihe parlicular ohjecl of language, or Ih" fcc ling, 1Ill' passinn 1I;i1llangudge ""p,,'sses, Ihol would make Ihe figure here? Jlul Ihen Ilhere wlluld bel as many new ligures as there ar(" ltivl'rs(" ft"t.'linJ~s nr p.lssiuns. ur as thert Arc lliverse mmlOl'rs in whit-h h·4.' lin,:s anll p,assiuns .:an burst forlh" (fD, pp. 434-415) .

If il sufficed, for a figure 10 exisl, Ihal Ihe signified be a feeling or a passion, the notion tlf figure wuuld lust., its interest Uolh Cundillac and Fonla n ier use this ar~llmcnt, bul the y base op­pusint;. pHsiliuns nil it lIu.' furllll'r ai:HJiis lu.'s lIu,.' li~lIn' , till;' laller allempls 10 slabilize it. "Shall we say Ihal Ihcsc are fiSI/rts of OWl/X"/?" Oul fo r It,ere III he a figure, Ihcre musl be deviation: here, for example, a gap belween whal words seem 10 say and whal Ihey really .flY, belw('en Iheir Irulh and Iheir falseh<K>d­which would be the improper eJl:pressiun of a sil~nified thai is alway. idenlical 10 ilseIf. Now Ihe same cannol be said of II", pseudllfigures, whirh fllnl"ni", "limin"h's for Ih,'1 ,,'aslln . "I. il possible Ihal Ihpse sentimenls "lIered wilh so much force and energy may nol be sincere and .:enuine7" (rD, 1'. 435).

Such is Fonlanier's Iheory; we shll have 10 ask whelher hi' own practice con'orms lu his Iheory, whether figures arc always idenllfied Ihrough Iheir opposition 10 a simple and direcl expres· siun , II~re we mllsl rl'vit,w the varinus classes III figures U, •• Fonlanler eslabll,h"d, whose articulalion we 61,all examine .horl· Iy . The nnllclpilted CtlmpMlsun bt'lwt'cn "prupcr" .ulli "figurative" furms is rel.llivcly easy 10 m'lke (even if it is nul .Ilways Vf'f~'

revealing) for SHUll.' (It Ihl'm: lur example. the lruJlt:'S, prup~dy

and Impropt'rly so-calktl, ami Ihl' fi':lHl'S of didion, in whkh Iht phonic form of words i. alt('red, (If Ihe fi.:ur~. of mnslructiun, in

TilE ENO OF KIIl:TUMIt: It))

wlaidl II ... ~·vul . ,,, til IIIl' I.m.~II,al:" is lIul •• I\\I,I\'~ II "1" " It'll , II IlIu!'-1

b~ uuled oil til t." uubt'l I.h." Iht,~, I.alll'r hvo l ·.a~· !'t .Ul' lIut l' lIlill' lr alike: only trupes anti figures 01 di(:lion d ... 'v ia lc from dlWlht'r c x­P,u:SSi"Ul thaI is as spt'cific and C(lncrt' I{~ ilS Iltt' figurative f'l(pH'S­sum; IIt;un's ul ,:un~ l .. udiun ll,' vi.a'" utli hUlia .anull,," t' Jl:p ... s~ illn lmt frum .1 rull' til thl' I.'n.;u,l~l· (th" St' _au' liglll'l'!" ill Ik'.HIJ, l~ l"S senst·) . hH'I~ni"r is " wart' ul lIais : "TL,' u'lI'r,m,,' 01 whal hfilnl -

mar and lut;1t' wHuld secm In rcjerl .I S supl'rfluuus, thc umission ul wl~al Ih,'y wnliM S,'t'lJl tn ,It'mantl as Ih·n'ss.II'Y , o r linally II", ordt'nllt-; 01 an lIlh-r.mn' in a IN .ay "ntirdy dill,'u'ul 'Him II", IIlh'

~mmmar anti , 'uhit: wuuM St't.'m III flU sl·rih, '- Ih.al is wh.II gi\lt'~ fist.' In IIU'Sl' 'I.~tlrl· ~ " (,.0, p, "S.l) .

, Uut it is in Ih~ lIuee r~m.'inillh d .Iss(:'s uj lig'Hl's thai a rt.'.ll .. hUt'n'lh '" "IUI'q;"s: 1."1'" hml.IU't,,. tlllUl"ddy ,l,l,lIIdllns I,i:. ,Idi . nitiun 01 Ihe li~u((' as a devia tinn from a lilt' ral l' )( pr t'ssitHI, anti has lu call upun lilt' St't'un'" hall 01 his iui'i.llth"illil;uu. till' lultc­liUliitl h.aU , l :i.~lIft 's I""'un~in~ 10 Ih.,s.· d.lsst· ... ,Irt ' li, ~ I1 .. ' ·s {t.n ',III~I' Iht'Y imprt"'" dis"4111"St'!

It is Ihe dUlin ', 11.,· a rrangen1t'nt 01 words .lUd their mtH" or less It'licilulis U s&.' in the sculL-'kl.' 11..11 givl.' lI ~l' 10 /1I,IIIf," II/ "" .... Ii"" . IrD. I' 2241 ' f;'I('''f:> ,I, :-1.111,' tli'lI-.. (rom li~.m ' s 01 l'Iuntfltlll ill 111.11 lIu'V n, ' lend lu Ihc e)(pn'~sitln of a nmapll'll.' 1I",u,.;I .... HtJ Ilh' Y e.Hn~ I :-. 1 of a group nl Wtlr,ts Ihat conslilul,'s i t nul a whole s,'nh,'uo' ,II lea~1 a good pari uf une, and an esSt.'nli.ll rail , Tht,y afe ch.uac­(crlled by a cerli.in livdiness, IUI~ilily . Ilr ,lllr, .. 'li\lt'l1l'SS Ih,,' !Iu ... y i~nl'-'fl . lu ,'ny t'''11rl.'!'isiun. wh,Ih-,'",' ih IIh',"'iH.~, wlu 'llt"1 .. be hsur.,hyc IIf nonligurali\ll.' , II', 22(.1

Aultwltli,' Ii.~'m·s ttl 11111,,"':',' "unsist !n Slid. ,'I ,"dl'ul ill 1I11' " ,1 ... 1 of I,he illl"l;il"'liHI~ ... u..l in the.' sl'l.'dlk lI"'I",,'r ul Hunki,,); or ft!dlll~ Ih.ll e.'V"1I ., thl.' wor,ls USt 'J III 1' l( PH'S~ Ihl ,lIt Wt'fI ' Itl Ch.ll1hl', IIll'y wuultl remain "ss"uti,ally tlU' S.Ulh' IIl1l1t'lhd,'s s , Ip· 22HI

And _g_ill :

Whdht'r I,hl.' IIll ·.U, lill~ is bt,rruw,',1 ur nul. Wlll.'lhl'f.t is s ill.~h' Of duulll,' , ,1"",, '1 ur, IIId.fl.·cl, Clbst·rv,· in Iht' lol,alt" l'h' ~ .. illll ,.1 IIH ' Iholl,.;hl hHW sln'dllM ,lIhl tH11 ulll", tlftli, ... ,\, if IS 10 ih I,,',wl\l , ,;r.,cl.' , Of Itlrn"ullU' S~! "(",w, ':> ,I, ,..;11//, ' , Ip, :!Kill

If hmdiun •• 1 iU~lilil'.lliul1s (lin' h'lidly ... hl IIII' dq~,ant 't" Illl' N-.lllly and ).;fi1t't. nf IIw dir.cullrs,· . , , ), .1f,' SI'I .ls itil· hPH' , lilt'

104 TIlEOltiES OF TilE SYMBOL

It("rinlllnn~ th,,' n'm .. in e: .111 in flU way l't, (unne:'dt'''' wilh IIw ~en . ('rOll principle . fur from what ,lut'S unt' .It'vi;tl£' in flit .. ,!';".'! w()rds~ ". h e (tr fil1iliul1 of flgllff'~ of Ihtlur,ht prnpu~w(t helf' hrinr,!i us (Ii· rectly hack 10 DII Marsai" point "f d"part""" fir.torl" are "man­m' rs" Of pa .. lkular "'urns." II Wt' iU!"ist 011 all ,'u s l Ih.1I 11u.' riJ;lI~

continue In be ('prUSt'''' Itt slimp ulh~r l'xpn'ssiun. Wt' mi,~hl S3Y 111;'11 it dl'vii'l'es from anoliwf II I h'lilnn.' ill whit-h . all dst.· b....inR cquOll, this ri.~tlrc w(luhl Il\.' abs('nl. Ihll litis is ohvitlusly ;1 false solution: the two orpositions have .titrefrnl nH'al\in,~s, we hilvr moved hum a relation uf nmharies 10 a relalinn of nmlradiclories.

'In the riguralive frupe. one expression diverr,es from anuther; in ! lhe elocutionary hope (~uch ilS rcpt.,tilinn , f:;rOlft01tion . (lr polyp­, lolon). an expression diverr,l's from its own .,hsrncp, frum any­~ thin~ Ih .. t i~ nnt itseU , nul then- is nulhinH in lin- wuritt , and

cer tainly no linguislic e'pre"i"n, th.t cannol he opposet! to its own absence: such a definition of Ihe figure is meaningless _

Thus we musl bow II) Ihe ri1c1~: we c,'ol1ul ;'1cn-p' il' une Olnd Ih~ S;'1l1le tiOll' f(mlani",'r's tlwttry illl,1 hi~ pr;'1(1in' , his ,h-finilinn of Ih e figure and his lis t of figures _ The situation, in shml, is quile like the one we encc11lntrred with 0(' .. \I 7.c>e , IJuth 1I1('urit·s ;'1re per­fcr tly consis lenl In themselves (unlike nu Marsai,sl; hut neilh .. crea tor succccds in using his uwn .henry. ilm' t'af h resorts, in prOlclicc, 10 another J,~ finilion uf the rigu.c- wilhout {'vt'r formu­latin,; iI- which leads him linally 10 ,Ical wilh a never-changing lis t uf fip,ur('s- prf'cisely 11u..' one bt'qllcalhed In him by tradition , As if. 1o return tn Du Mars.,is, tilt' fi'~lnt' s Wt'fl' n()lhin,~ other than what is called figurr ,

II is timc now In S:1Y il '(Ow wuuls ;'1 hu II I tilt' d"~!';f;I 'n';"'.!' 0' ligures , Uu Marsais proposes Ihe oute rinr. o;;lwwn in thc diilJ;ram ,

{

o llhooghl '

01 wflld ,,;

{

o i fltclion 01 cnllsIJur:IN'"

liQu,r.s as If ~pchhon

hOfW!S

Tlw 'ir~1 oppo~ilitln is a ctll1l1nnnplacc 0' rlwturi<"al tradition; Ihe s ubsequenl distrihu lion i ~ ill dd,'n,I"",' "Ihl pu's(' ''I('t.l with little explilnillion. TIH' third l ' :111'J~'lr)' is fl:1rlkllli1rly o~ld; "hunt it nil Milr~ilis SilyS only II1;ll. in ii , " wnrd s k,'"J' their pnlp('r sir.ni­fi cation" (I J" , 1' , Itl) -- <1 II',IIt"t.' , IIIHvl'vl'r, Ihill ,h,lr.lr h'ri l.t,s all

TilE END Of IUlfiTU'",C 105

fi~tJrt,~ Ih.,' iUt' nul In'J't"!1, i h' W.tS nn d"'01n'r in Ih .. - "'I;igun'" .,tirlc h~ 1"""a",.1 lor the tlln/'·"',"';'I. Ilc,"" is his t!cscription of Ih,,' ~;tnU' myst""rinu~ cla~s :

Iht' t"tllih ~~,,' ,,' li,~tlfI'S Itl w'lrtl .... 11'1' II ...... " 111.11 , .. "m4,1 I~' ind",f",f in Ih,' d,ISS ul tropt'~, ~inn' in this ~I'I ttl 'i'~lIn' wOfd~ h'''''p Ih..ir first s i,~"itk.llilln ; nur , ',In mil ' ",.11 11,, 'm fi~lI" 's Ht IhtUtl~111. s it"',, IIU'y au,' 'i~tln's I,y ,·i, .. ", pt w""I~ .m.1 ~ylbl'I,'s alone, anti 1101 Ily virlue uf 'hu1l~hl ; Ihey arl' li'~\Hl' S, that is, IIH'y ltilV,· Ih.ll p.ulicul.u um'o,.n_Ilinll whidl di " lin'~lIi .. IH'~ them frum other ways of sp<'okinl\. 10,'11"'''', VI, 2h1>1

Civen such a ",h'finitiun," (mt" mOlY pre-fer C mulillac's more honesl approach . lie is nol concerned with classifyil1~ the figures nor CVt'n with t'nllml'r .. din~ tlu' m --4'V('n h 's..; SU, in '.1fl , 111t'1l hl'

had been for Ihe tropes: "The rhduricialls havc i",lcl't.! it!c ntilied variuus surls uf figures. bul nUlhing i~ ",Ufl' tlSl'll'SS. your Lord ­ship, anti 1 havr not bolhered It. r.0 into s"ch .Irlails" (Ar., 1' . 57~) .

Ik'aII 7.c .. • Jiv it.l\.'~ Iht" figurt's inln fiVl' ~rtltlp s ~in Ihl' ilrtirh.:

.ntilled "Fir.urr," rM, "and in Ihr "Tahlra" mrlhodique, " at the

.nd of II ... third vol .. m~l ·

( of thc holl

t 01 synf".

hOIllf'!S 01 Of all()ll (I, {'Jf)e S I uf cl(x:"fl()f1

01 style

'Ie has t"(' ~;'1nU' numllf'r .,f J;ruups ;u Du M,1r~ i1is, :1l1d .lp­proximately Ihe s..,mc categuries (his "slylc" furn'spnnds In lJu ~ .. ·brsai~'s "Ihlltlf~hls," and " .. 'Iueulitm" is tlU' nam,' of DII M.u­sais's anunymous rI:1ss) , We must a,td , first. tI,." 1\t.,.,UlC(' tries tn (ouple;'111 aH",'c liv,' (Ir :1t"slhl'lit.: rl'ahn (l'lIphuny, enl'r.~y, imagin:1 -tion, harmony , ,lIlll feeling respectively) with pach of these lin ­guistic 'tlrllls . and, second. Ih31 within each of Ih('~e groups , he pUKCC&c; In m .. k(' 'urther ~utxtivision~ . aCf(lrdinr, tn more ohvious rrinciplc~ : it is nrdin.uily a m.l'h'r (If hin."y pilirs such ilS ".,ddi · tion/subhartiun" (Ir " lInily/di~unity" and ~n on,

funlani,'r t.ll·VUh'S mtJr~ span' 10 rl.,s~ifit'.'li(lI1~ , .1111.1 1H00liiil'S Ih(,01 slir,ltlly ,,,,nt Oll(' ,Iisru~ .. inn tn :1nolll('r , Tltt' d .1Ssi(k.,linns

are his fl'al 11,hl,' .'lhl iny, as wt-" l'an ilUl'~l' 'null Ih, ' r.,lsl'ly moJ ­cst llcdMatioll Ih,'11 lollows till' p,,,,'sl'n,.,lioll of SOI1H' olher drtlrls : "II is tlHI ~ IIHI'" .1pprupri"", I" St.IV wilh Ih,' ('f1lirdy ~i mplr, nill"'o1l , "n'ds,', d,',If, .,ml (""'pit'll' ll.ISs ilil'.llino Ih.II Wl' h .Wl'

106 TltEORIES UF TilE SYMBOL

ndoph:d . l)Ul'!'l it nul surpass alithL' nllwrs? anti , .lllt'r Ihl' ilUJin'd

comparis()n that we have iust made uf it wHh tilt.' til hers, do its adv.lnlagc5 nol "PP"".H Ihe more dcarly!" (fI) . p . 451

)) , Th~ classi­fi cation so highly pmi!'{"(1 is shown in Ih .. dii\f~r;Hn .

{

'''Ifl'l'

nOfllftlllC S

{

0' wo,lIs

ollhoughl

{ 0' d'cli"" ()I conslruclO\ of ek)Cu~ion 01 slvlo

This chart is obviuusly murt! (umr1e)( than till! pu..'cl'llin.,; ones. Oeauzee's five classt"s rCOlrpt';U ht'H", hutlhe hUpt.·s .1rl.' subtlivided into two groups, .. nd Ihl.' ri)~lIrc~ of Ih(ltlJ~hl arl.' ."l~ain th.'Ii1cheti hom the fiE;llrfS of slyll' , hlrllwrmort' , a ("eflain hi"rarrhy is in­IrlJ(lu ( cd, as we can set' ,\~ Ihe inh'rl1H'di.lle Glh'goril.'s. wOIdsi Ihou(\hls and lropes/nonlr"!,,,s. Finally, an" ""'51 imp",lan!, Fon­lanic r is the first tn scek tn illslify his classifiration, 10 explain why Ihere are so many classes and nul morl', "uti 10 Ol("(ollnl fur their mutual relalions . Yel ('V,,' f' he tint'S lIul go vt~ ry foU in this direc­tion . One 01 Ihe calegories he uses in Ihis schcmatizalion is Iht d;mension of the di::;linclivc linJ;lIistic s<'r,ment : Ihis is whal allows him 10 oppose figur~s nf si~nific"tiun (wurds) 10 'i.~"res (I' cXP'tS­sinn (prnposilinns), fi,;lIrt's tlf t·I"',,'lItion In fiJ-;un's ut slyl~ (tht same crilcrion), ilnd finilily. li,;lIrt's ,,' clh,:tiull In rigllrL's tlf (on'

struclion . Anolher opposition, bel ween siJ;nificr anti si(\nili.d, seems In come inlu pl.IY .11 s\.' vt'r.tl puinl~, Tlu.' fi~lIn's ul Jidion and (unstrudion have In ,10 wilh th .. m(lln;"J;'" of I.lnguage (St"f

fD, p .. 45J); in lI,is Ih.,y M" "ppos~.1 I" Ihe "1I,,,r ",,"1"'1'" fig ­lues . I hat would nuk(' it possible to orHal1ilC the different classes of wurtl · fir.ur('~ Ihal au' nul Itopt·~ ill il I(lf~i, 'al JII.lhi:..: .

lIul the same calegnry comes inlo play in yet annlher lashioll: in order fur a fit;llr\" lu ('xisl. lin' sil;nifk,t alun\.' IH.'lY 1-"..' I1txessary. or lhe signHied and Ih\.· signWt'r m,lY hUll! be [('clnirclt (Ihis is lilt

WUtll f'.IIII'(¥.',IIH)H

s'!J"",er .hUN)fl cl"lslfuc hon

5t9'I,',ed Ck ~IJIt(M1 slyte - --

'rilE l::NU UF 1t1lt:'fOMU": IU7

trilllilim",1 opposiliun 1--." .... ·,,·u Ihl'Il.~hl · lil~lIh·s ,Hul wI1ul · ligIlU·:-') 1 his Wl)ult,l ~lIuw tiS lu artiful.ltc ~hl" rd,lIiullsitil's ,1111011.; Ih .. · t"rcc .cm.ll1un.; d"S St ' S uf fiJ;url"s .

------w, •• ' I', ... ~ I' .111< ",

1 ~ ·r"CSSI(",

thoughl

Wl' I1l',-,,1 to fl'l·ognil.l.' Ih.11 Ihb sdu'II1.1 n'II1.Iin:-. 1'llIh'yonil' ,HId anl·xplidl. Till.' rlU'lnririans nt'v,,'r n'ilSL' I .. d.lssily. bul Ihey d&\~sify h"JI,V. or rOllhl' r tlH'y .Ut' ul1ahll' 1,1 "n'olllli (,)r tlwir d ,ISsifil'.l linl1s ,

I tt:dUIlIl"i\I . I'I ·.W;I 'I·.I ItVI ·.

We C.1II now rdurn tn IIU' St·(Ulh.1 IIf II'L' pl'rspt .. 'dives .111 · nouncl',1 011 Iht, bq;inninJ; uf Ihis .m.llys is : alh'r ClIIC look .11 Illl' thcoretic.ll i SSUl'S, w,' .... 'cd In "xamiilt' Ihdr hbhlril'al signific.mt'l' .

first, Wt~ are J~alinK here wilh IwtI s~raratl' traditiun s , 1101

iust nne, The first is cmllt.klied hy Uti MarsOlis , IJt·au7.l"l..', and Fo~~anier (even Ihtlugh there an' im.~.rl.Htl diHert' llfl'S a 1ll01l~ Ihem); the st.>cund by Condillac alun~.'-hlll hl' i:-> link"lt It) eerlain manifeslalinns of rhl'ltlrical tlluu~hl al Ih\.' "-'fh.l til Il\t' St'vl'llh:c'nlh

ctnltary. mos l nOlahly in the l.A~;'lllr ou I'nr' de" It('fI~l' . by Antoine Arnauld and Pierre Nicole, and in Ihl.' R/,e'l"r;'I"I' (III ",lrI "c' IIt,rla by Oernant (, ... amy . Th .. · diUt,rt'nn's .1ppt',U mos' d,·.uly lUI IwCl

poinls: lhl' IIhi,'d III rhl'lurk .lIhl 11.1' ddinili,," til till.' liJ:llrt· , 1\

rhetoric stich as CUlhlillac's gf.,Uls all impurlan' plal'l' lu Ihe study of fiJ~tlfI's (IIr "tllrns"). hulltu,,'S nlll ,'Iimiu,l'" .,11 till' It'S' (lh.I' is, {onsidcratinns fe~aHling the (nnstrartion 01 discoursl' in general) . f\ .hduric Slid, as I>u Mars-lis's, tin thl' utlwc h.,,,d, ,1 111011 Ills In a simple SIUtly uf figUrt.'N (ur eVt'lI, in Ilu Milcs.,is·s partif ulili' (,ISl',

of hop('s alune) . Mllfl'UVer. in till" DII M,lfS.lis .. lll';Hl/t'l' ·Folll,lnicr Iraditiull. the lit;IIlf.' is t!efint'll thrt1ll~h lilt" sibnifit'r: it is " 1n1.'ailS of ('xpressinH Uill'sdf (a less simpt,'. ll'sS ,lltrarlivt' nwalls ) thai differs frum SUIn(' uUll'r exprt.-ssitll1 with 1Ill' santi' llU'anillg . It is drfim.'d thrtnlHh Iht· sit;nili\",l in lilt' Irmliliol1 ""pu's\"" lcd by ("ntlill.l"": fiHuH'~ .1ft' ~xf1rt.'ssi,'ns Ih.ll tit'Si,.;H.' .... ~it'ntil11,,- lIls Ilr rmotions, as npt'ust·tt In Ihnst' Ih<ll tft.'si~l1all' PUrl' thuughts , One ~i1!hl also say Ih.11 Iht' firsl lll'finititlil is t'rl'illw'oL,1 Ih" su:u.u,tl ~ffr(livc,

'1IH:sL' diUl.'n'jU'l·s ,Ill' imp"cl<lnl. Anti vel Ihev p.lh- in 'lie 1.U't'

A N

lOB l "IIEOIUF.S OF TilE SYMBOl .

ur Ihl' re~c.·mhl."'u1('l'!" -whkh csl"hlish thill huI" Irittlitiuns bdon,; 10 Ihe broader Iradilion (II rheloric. and more parliclliarly 10 Ihr last crl1l1nir~ (If rhrloriC".11 .1divity in fromrr , Evrn if Cmu.iIIi\C'!

rhrloric (";Hlnul 1)(' ,, 'duCt'c' to Ihl' th'sniplitrll of fi'~lIrt·s alune, Ihf

,loluin;)l1! plan- giVl'11 Ih('111 twafs willh'SS In liti:-; ~.1I11(' It'II,lrflq IlIfll we h.lve seen in Iht, ultWf hatlilinn . t:VPII if CUl1dillac's rhetoric d(locS Hul descrih(' ., figur"Uve f"xrrf'ssiult Ihat ctivefgrs fnun another, prnpcT expression. the cliverp,t'llcf" helween Ihouf,hl and (t'ding, ide., ,tIld l'fllotion. is m;-einlaifWII . rI", n .. Marsais· • nCil tllce· Fontanier vflriant takes 10 the ("xlrem£' a 'rlh.lf'ncy thai is likewise pr('senl in " .. ft,'div(''' rhplnric Anti it is this cummon honlt Ih"1 explains lin' tlis.tl'pt·arann' IIf .Iwturic frtll11 the be-r;in­ning 0' the ninelernth c('ntllry on- nnl only in ils r)(trell1e form, that is. in lilt' v.uianl rquesl'nlt.'ll hy 1)11 MiHsais .1Ilei hi~ !l;U(­

c{'ssors. but also in its mo(lt·rfll(' - alld. itt II", last "nOllysis. its rnodt'rn- fnrm , cl11hndi(,tI lor U~ hy Cuntlill;lc.

·1 hc disappear"nc(' uf Ihetoric may intlcc (1 S('('111 pcrplexing. The qua lily of the wurk w(' h.tve just surveYf'(1 is undcniablr.

Ev"n il on a ~iven poinl Ih" de"·riplion of Ih~ li"r,lIi,lic I.cls Ihal tlll~S(, Ir('atise s propose Ius I .... · .. ·n surr.l!1;sed tc)(l;,y (al1tl thilt is not ollen Ihe case, preCisely ht 'r.luse nf Ihe ahnlpl inlcHuplinn of all work in this area), the wlH1lt' is impressive: fur accuracy 0' oh!.er­vation. for preci s ion fl' fnrmulalirm, for the ahundance of pht­nomen a considerrd (.lntl I have left the tre4ltmf'ltts aC"fordcll earh separale figure complelely asid~) . How ca" one acrollnl lor Ihis aherration in the evoltllion nf knowledge, whirh leiUJ9 tn tht nh .. ndnnment of such a rkh, wdl ·surveyetl fidd?

The answer lies in Ihr fa cl Ihal Ihe lurninr, poinls in Ihe his­lory Ilf science (pnha!,s. Ill .. ,,· modeslly ... I rhdurk) arc nol dr-· t('rminrd hy internal cnn(lilinns of m:thtrity nr fccundity . AI Illf "'nl of ~II Ihe s[,<',-ilic rl",luri,.,1 rcsearch we lil1.1 a Irw r.ene,.1 principles that wo1l1t1 hil\'(' to br discu~~c(t unth'r thl' heading not uf ritl'luric btll (If idt·oloJ;Y . Wltt'n a radical (h<lI1~(, ()c(ur~ in Iht hkolngi("<ll :Hrlltl . In the valllC~ ami r,clIlise9 thai ilrc generally taken rur r,rantrd . the tlt1illily (1' uh!,,{Orvaliun tlntl {'Xl'lillliltion or

"cl~il COllnls lor lillie: Ih"" arr swel'l aw,y alnnr, wilh Ihe prirl­cirles Ihal Ihey imply . I\n" nil one worries aboul IIw baby being Ihr~~n out ~lLlh(' h.ll" walt-t.

Now it is pH'("i",'ly ;1 (1I111ltH' IIf thi" ~orl Ihal WI' ""iflu'ss il1lh\' p.'rimt w(' .lle loo .... ing .tl 111'11 ', .1 h,, ·.lk whus\' W<ly was prl'parl'tI in lilt' C'ighlt ' I'nlh Il'ulul v .md whn:-·w filII \"(I"~I'tllU'IH ·t'S "PJ")(.'ar in IIH' cf"lllllry that (n!low .. . IIH' ( .l lf o;; l' -~ If · II\O!l~ hilI utHl1i s 'ak;lble- or

TilE Ef>,;U UF RllfTOIUC 109

thi~ Ji5rtlpliol1 is thl' riS4! or HIt.' butlrg\.·( ·lisil". anti ollhl' ItJ\.·ulo~i(al values Ihal Ihe bourgeoisie brings along. In Ihe area Ihal runcern. us. here, this hreak nmsists in the abolition of a wnrld -view Ih"t rc\~~t's~wll .lits"lo,," .uul unh',' rs.,1 \' .1111 ':;, Hr. 10 I.' ..... · Hnly IIU' m,.,,1 (>1(H111("nl {·xOll11plt" 11tt' In~s uf pft'stigt' slIH"rt',tl hy Chrisli;lIlity; am' in th(' rcpl"(TlI1cnl ur Ihis wurlcJ ~ vicw by nottlhl' r that rdu sl's In .lssign a lIuicll1e place In l'a(h vOlhll', {lilt' Ih,,1 n'f(lgni 7.1~s anti >ccepls Ihe exisknce of individual lacl_lh~ laller nn lon~cr beinr, (uns i Jt~rl'll Int'rdy ,IS impt.·r'{'d t')(;unpit's 01 .UI •• I' ''; t1111It· nun,, _

The id"olor,ical hasi. Ihal is ""Idrnly rl'vr.led In ",. <0 Ira~ile . IhfUtl~h which tlU' whul(" t',Hfin' t·,l" I", alt.lt-knt ,111\1 sh;lllt'rctl, (uincidc!J, in Ihe d"milin uf rltdl'rif. with tilt' IHltiHIl (If figure. 1\11

I d rheluric. ur nrarlv ~II. b"ils down. in Ihis rcriod. 10 a Ihenry nf \figu",s. N"w Ihis ",.Ii"n (Iik" 'Illy "Ih"r) is "",,"Iy ,ld,'rn.in"J , by

an empirical consit.lcfation- Ihe thcnry uf (ir.nres cnrresponds tn Ihe observahlt' linJ~lIi~tic fad~.ln\1 hy " theon'tifal {(Hlsiril"r,, ­lion-it can be inll'J!.rtlted intn ., cuherent system chara(lni7.inJ~ a particular world-view . 11 is in this lasl respect Ih"t Ihe 'igure- an,I wilh il all 01 rheloric- ."rs in Ihe eyes nl Ihe ~dvocalrs 01 Ihe new ideology . For Ihe "nlir" rhclurical I",Jililln f"'IIl \)lIinlili;1Il III Fontanirr. the fi,~ure is sumdhin~ ~'Ibuntinal(' . superimposed , ornamental (and it mailers lillie whether tlr nut the orname nts Ihemselv"s are admired); Ihe ligure is. as we have lusl seen. a d('vialiun with respcct to the norm . Rhetoric is no longer pussible

lin a world Ihal lakes Ihe pluralily 01 norms as a norm in it sel f; and the fJn.,lily of a fnnt;anicr's .oh~t·rv"li_"n~ cuun1s for lillie , .l.~ does even Ihe fad that hl~ prafh(t'- by vlI·hlt' e,f IIH' pial'" Ih,lt " .11015 10 ~II Ihe rhenomen. nf lanr,uar," - IIlay .. ,pH contradicl his

Ihcury . U we ("(lO'in\' tlIlrsdv('s 't1r the.' mt1mt'nt In ohst ' r\'ill~ thr inl r r

nat rvoltllil1n (If t'll' tli9ciplilll', wt.' nole.' Ihal rlwltlric disappt';us for two prindpal U'OIsonS-- f('olsuns who~c "tlttUmmy, nmr(' tl v('r , is murt' appan'nt tholll w,ll .

(I) .",., "',,,liIim, II/ II,.' l'r;p;I.-,',,I" S"""("'.' ,·.','"i" O",,'\,,;:-: ti.-l ("'''':' n~ 111', .. )~rl' '1) 'I"''''~ . ThE." fi~lIrf' could ~ \Idint,.t only tt~ a <kvi.l ­tion: deviation in tlt4o· si~"ifie.·r (.t" irufiu"ct, or IItlfOmmOn, Wily 01 r)(pn's~ il1'~ om'sl' lf); tlt'vi.lli"n in 'IU' " iglfifi",1 ("'dit1.~s ;IS Clpptl o.; ~ ' (1 In Ihotl,;"' :--; ). Ilill III P"fft'i,'" li,:lIfl'S . 1!-' t ... d.tti,m" illlpli" S .1 ild,I'I in II", t'xbl\·",·t· (It .1 norm, "' ••• ;t'",' r.11 .lIh' •• I'solulc.' ide.ll . In " \\,lIfhl wilhntlt (;nd , in whit h ' ·, 11 h ill~lividu." j o...: 11"""1('11 It I nm · sWol\.' Ido;; own nnrm . tlwH' is 111' h1ngn ,IIlV rOtlOl for tl ... (on~id ·

110 TIIEURIES Of nil! SYMnUI.

eralion of deviant expressiuns . ECIII;tlily rci~ns tlllwng expressions a s among men . Ifugo, a rom'lUlie, knew this well when he de­clare .... "war on rheloric" in II", name tlf (-'()uillily .

And I said: nul ~ word un whkh till' itlc •• in pun' Hihhl Cannol illighl. aU "miSI wilh .IZurc; ( .... 11 decluf:d wurJs l-'tlual, Iret..', .... lull.

Rhetoric is from this pt'rs!",clive a vidilll 01 Ihal '.nll' Fr~nch V Revolulion which, paradmically, brealh~d II~W lift- illio elu·

quence.

(2) 1''', u"uls;oll '>/ "";111'"/;5'" "" t"'I';,;e;5'". "",/ "f 5,"·1I/.,;.1t COlIs',uc,ious "y Iris'ell"; .. al s'.,,(y. Ilere, rhl.'luric- whirh wt..· have secn to be "general .md rcastlnctl" - shares Ihe 'alt· uf (philo­sophical) grammar. General IIrammar aimed 10 ennstrucl a single model. Ihe universal struclurl! uf language; the same is true of rheluric, whuse ubject is nul synchrunic bul ralh~r panchronic: il seeks 10 eslablish Ihe syslem 01 .'pressive devices in all periods, in all languages; hence Ihe conlinuing perlinence ul Ciceronian rheloric. even Ihoullh il deals wilh Lalin illId is .illhll'!'n hundr~d years old; hence, lou, Ihe explicil debale belween lleauzt'e and Dalleu • .

These two movemenls, rejeclion 01 Ihe "mm/deviance pairing and rejeclion of panchronic constructions in favor of history, have a common source, as it is easy tn see: tlie disappearancC' of abso­lule and transcende" 1.1 valll~s, with whieh one collid con"unl (and boil down) individual lacls . In a wurld wilhulIl God, every man is God . So, Ion, sentences are no lonl;er measured against an ideal sentence, nor are languages romp.ued wilh all abstract "deep" slruclure.

The entire debate on till' contemporary vallH~ uf .heluric, on the signification 01 Ihis old ductrine lor "' loday, Ihus depends on Ihe way we respond 10 Ihe loll owing queslions: Tu wh.1 exlenl is

'- a body 01 knowledge reducible lu ils ideolugical premises1 To what extent can a diSCipline built on a fmuu.lalion th.I' we our­selves--inherilors 01 bourgeuis and fIlmanlic ideulogy- rejecl, nonelheless include nolions "nd ideas Ihill we are slill prepared 10 accepl loday?

Out perhaps Ih(' rum.lnlirs iue nnly ollr fallU'r~, Ollht pl.'rhaps people are sometimes prep.lred In sQcrifkc their 'ilther::. to Iheir grand/alhera?

4

The Misfortunes of Imitation

Aeslhetics begins precisely where rheloric l'",ls . The 1,," realms du nol coincide complelely; n~'~rlhclcss, Ihey ha ve enough in cnmmnn 10 prevent II\lom hum exisling simultaneously . The r(>alily ul a s,u:n.~ssiun lholl W'IS nul uul)' his lnril'.ll hut ron ­ceplu.-I was pt.'rn.·ivctJ by (unlcmpurary "hSl.'(Vl.'rs ut Iht.' (,:h.111);l" : lhe first at'!oi"'t'I;( project, A. G . Uaum~arl~n·s. W.lS lUudt..' lcd 011

rheloric . An inlerpulaled remarl. by 1'. 11. . W .. U pmvi,I,'s ad,li · tional teslimuny: "Rheturic, or. as we say amun~ uursdves. at'S ­

thelics, ... '" ·n,l.' substitutiun uf at.·slhl'lks fur rlwlurir l"oil\cides. by and larg~. wHh the pas~age frum d.1SSir.11 I .. rumantic idl:'ol · ugy . In lact, il wuld be said Ihal in .-Iassieal d .. e lri",: arl a"d discoursl.! are subUHlinateJ In an exll'nl.,1 uhjl."flivl.'. wht.·n·as fOf

lhe rnmanlirs t11t.·y cnnslih.h.' ~n autullnmuus (I·alm . Nnw "VI.' have secn Ihat rht.~luric could nut endurse Ihe id .. , ... thai Jiscuur :-. l.' millhl find ils jllslilkalinn in ilsdl; .",sllwait's, in hun, ( ;11111111

fume inln i>t!iog until its ubicCl, lilt' ht·illilifui. is n',,:n";lIi7.ed ,IS

h'Iving .1ulnnunulUS l'lCish'nn', ,tlhf unlil Ihi .... "hil'd is ilhl~t.·J i. ,

I ,: A Willi , "Il,u~lt·lIun,.; tl.·, Ahl·'hunwis:....·lIst h,ll1 n,ll h Ik·~'iII . Umt.lll): . 1WI'l" tlml \\",,1," ill J'. 1\ . WI'" ,InJ I' Uullm,lnn. , ..... , .\1"· .. ·"'" .Iff , 1It","UfW 'I.'

Of'II:.dfllJI Uk',Un, 1t4U71. '0 ~) ...