UHS 3052LEADERSHIP IN ORGANIZATION

Contingency theories of leadership 2

NUR SYUHADA & SITI SARANORFAZILAH & HAZARINA

KHAIRUNNISA & IZZATI

Multiple-Linkage Model(developed by Yulk)

The managerial behavior and situational variables determine the performance of organization.

Leader Intervening Group

behavior variables performance

Situational variables influence at three points:1) Constraints managerial behavior and moderate its effects.2) Directly influence intervening variables.3) Determine the relative importance of the intervening

variables.

2.Ability and Role Clarity

Understand their job responsibility well

4.Cooperation and Mutual Trust

-Sharing information and ideas, helping each

other

6.External CoordinationWork unit activities are in

line with the interdependent activities of the parts of the organization

and other organization

3.Organization of the Work

Use effective performance strategies

1.Task Commitment--Struggle to attain

high performance and commits to tack

objectives

•These variable interact with each other to determine the effectiveness of a group or organizational subunit

5.Resources and SupportOther units also provide necessary resources and information needed to do

work

Situational Influences on Intervening Variables

The situation can influence the intervening variables independently of anything done by leaderTwo situational variable that can influence task commitment

1.Formal Reward System

- Provides attractive rewards dependent on performance

2. Intrinsically MotivatingProperties of the Work itself- Provide work requires varied skills

is interesting and challenging, and provides automatic performance

Situational Variables Affect the Ability of Group Members

2.Ability and Role ClarityAffected by task structure, prior member experience

and external dependenciesSimple task, easier to

understand

4.Cooperation and Mutual Trust

Influenced by the size of the group, members similarity

values and background, reward system and the

organization of the work

6.External CoordinationAffected by the formal

structure of the organization, High lateral interdependence

increases the amount of coordination needed among subunit of an organization.

3.Organization of the Work

Affected by type of technology used to do the work and the competitive

strategy of the organization

1.Task CommitmentProviding effective

recruiting and selection procedures and high

salaries is more likely to attract qualified people

with high ability

5.Resources and SupportInfluenced by the

organization’s budgetary system, inventory system,

changes in policy

Short-Term Actions1.Task

CommitmentCommitted

2.Ability and Role Clarity

Clear confusion

3.Organization of the Work

Matching people with task

4.Cooperation and Mutual

TrustInvolvement of group members

6.External Coordination

Seek assistance

from outsider

5.Resources and Support

Seek and provide enough

resources

Long-Term actions

Modifying formal

structure of the work unit

Alter culture of

the organization

Initiate long-term

improvement programs

Initiate profitable activities

Gain control over demand for the unit’s product and

services

Gain control over

acquisition of resources

Evaluation of the Multiple-Linkage Model

• First contingency theories to emphasize leadership processes at the group level

• Weakness :Not specify how different types of leader behavior interact with

each other in their effect on intervening variableLong –term actions of managers are too general-specific

hypothesis are neededFails to identify common interaction among situational variableThus, this model is still more a general (theoretical) framework

than a refined (experienced) theoryBased on few studies made on leader behavior found that

situational variables yielded weak, inconsistence result

• COGNITIVE RESOURCES THEORY, by Fiedler et. All

Deal Cognitive Abilities of Leaders

Cognitive Resources- Intelligence - Experience

Related to the group performance

Cognitive Resources Theory Propositions

Interpersonal stress Nature of group task

A.Interpersonal Stress

1. Relation between Leader Intelligence and Subordinate’s Performance

Under Low Stress - High intelligence - Goods plan and

decisions- Leader relies on intellectual ability

to analyze the problem and find the best solution

Under High Stress - No relationship

between intelligence and decision quality

- That stress interferes with

information processing and

decision making- Leader being distracted and

unable to focus on the task

2. Relationship between Leader Experience and Subordinate Performance

Under High Stress - Positively related

to the quality of leader decisions

Under Low Stress - Not related to the

decision quality

A Leader’s Cognitive Resources and Group Performance

- Intelligent leaders devise better plans

and action strategies for doing the work, especially when the

task is complex

- Leader’s plans and decisions are communicated to subordinates through

directive behavior

B. Nature of Group Task

Research On Cognitive Resources Theory

• Study of Coast Guard officer and study of fire department officers

• A creative task Under low stress conditions, intelligence was positively

related to the production of creative ideas by leaders and followers alike, and the more intelligent leaders had more productive groups

Under high stress conditions, leader intelligence was not related to the production of creative ideas by followers

• Intellectual ability is related more to performance for directive leaders

Limitations of the Research

• Results from the validation research are inconsistent

• Methodological problems make it difficult to interpret some of the results

• Some aspects of the theory have not been adequately tested

Conceptual Weaknesses

• No explicit rationale is provided for use of general intelligence rather than specific cognitive skills- It should identifying specific aspects of intellectual ability relevant to the task

• There is only one leadership behavior, its to general to capture the complexities on participative leadership- More precise explanation of the influence of cognitive resources on leader behavior and effectiveness should be concern

General Evaluation Of Contingency Theories

Contingency theory

Leader traits Leader behavior Situational variables

Intervening variables

Validation results

LPC Contingency Model

LPC Score None Task structure L-M relations

None Many studies, some support

Path-Goal Theory None Instrumental, supportive, participative, achievement

Many aspects Expectancies, valences, role ambiguity

Many studies, some support

Situational Leadership Theory

None Task and relations Subordinate maturity

None Few studies, few studies, little support

Leadership Substitutes Theory

None Instrumental, supportive

Many aspects None Few studies, few studies, inconclusive

Multiple-linkage Model

None Many aspects Many aspects Effort, ability, organization, teamwork, resources, external coordination

Few studies, few studies, inconclusive

Normative cognitive Resources Theory

Intelligence & experience

Directive Stress, group ability

None some support

Decision Theory None Decision procedures

Many aspects Decision quality and acceptance

Many studies, good support

Evaluation of Research on Situational Theories

• Type of situational effect– High level of the situational variable will reduce the

impact of leader behavior on the dependent variable

– Situational variable that make leader behavior more effective but do not directly influence the dependent variable

– Subordinate is more likely treated as a mediator than as moderator

APPLICATION

FOR ADAPTI

VE LEADER

SHIP

Maintain situational awarenessUse more

planning for long

and complex

taskConsult

more with people

who have relevant

knowledge

Provide more

direction to people

with interdependent rules

Provide more

direction and

briefings when a crisis

occurs

Monitor a critical task or

unreliable person more

closely

Provide more

coaching to an

inexperienced

subordinates

Be more supportive

to someone

with a highly

stressful task

ABSTRACTEarly contingency theories of effective leadership

such as LPC Contingency model, Path-Goal theory, Situational Leadership theory, Leadership Substitutes theory, Multiple-Linkage model, Cognitive Resources theory, and Normative Decision theory can be guideline for leader to be more effective by adopt it in the organization’s situation that leader are in. Even though the contingency theories have limitation that have been questioned by many researchers about their utilities, but the contingency theories are play important role to serve leaders that is essential to monitor changes in the situation and adjust their behavior in appropriate ways.

REFERENCESWebsite

• http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Contingency_theory• http://sacbusiness.org/marketing/john%20materials/Bus%2012

0/Fiedler.pdf• http://managementstudyguide.com/fiedlers-contingency-model

.htm• http://changingminds.org/disciplines/leadership/theories/conti

ngency_theory.htm• http://www.12manage.com/methods_contingency_theory.html• http://www.stfrancis.edu/content/ba/ghkickul/stuwebs/btopics

/works/fied.htm

Books• Adv Experimental Social Psychology, Volume 1,

edited by Leonard Berkowitz, page 149, A Contingency Model of Leadership Effectiveness , Fred E Fiedler

• Gary Yukl. (2010),Leadership in Organizations, Seventh Edition, Early contingency theories of Effective Leadership, Pg 240-256

Journal• Edström, Anders (1977), User Influence and the

Success of MIS Projects: A Contingency Approach, Human Relations, 30(7), 589-607

• Franz, Charles R. (1985), User Leadership in the Systems Development Life Cycle: A Contingency Model, Journal of Management Information Systems, 2 (2), 5

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