unit -1 apiculture project 2

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CHAPTER 1

HONEY BEE

Honey bees (orhoneybees) are a subset ofbees in the genus Apis, primarily distinguished bythe production and storage ofhoney and the construction ofperennial, colonial nests out ofwax.

Honey bees are the only extant members of the tribe Apini, all in the genus Apis. Currently, there

are only seven recognised species of honey bee with a total of 44 subspecies,[1]

thoughhistorically, anywhere from six to eleven species have been recognised. Honey bees represent

only a small fraction of the approximately 20,000 known species of bees. Some other types of

related bees produce and store honey, but only members of the genus Apis are true honey bees.

Subgenus Micrapis:

Apis andreniformis Apis florea

Subgenus Megapis: Apis dorsata

Subgenus Apis: Apis cerana Apis koschevnikovi

European honey bee carrying nectar back to the hive, with pollen attached

Scientific classification

Kingdom: Animalia

Phylum: Arthropoda

Class: Insecta

Order: Hymenoptera

Family: Apidae

Subfamily: Apinae

Tribe: ApiniLatreille, 1802

Genus: Apis

Linnaeus, 1758

Species
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Apis mellifera Apis nigrocincta

APIS MELLIFERA

It is also called the European honey bee or the Italian honey bee and was introduced in India

in 1962 by Prof. A.S.Atwal. Initially, the bee was introduced into Himachal Pardesh and

Punjab but now it has acclimatized and spread to almost all the state of India. The behavior

and appearace of A. mellifera is similar to A. cerana. It makes its nest in enclosed spaces in

parallel combs and is endowed with all the good quality of hive bee, i.e. has a prolific queen,

swarms less, gentle tempered so domesticable, good honey gatherer and can guard its nests

against enemies. The average honey yield of A. mellifera is 20-25 kg per colony, but elite

beekeepers have obtained an average yield of 50 kg per colony. Prof. A.S. Atwal is called the

father of Modern Beekeeping in view of the remarkable success of Apis mellifera in india.

The Colony and Its Organization

Honey bees are social insects, which means that they

live together in large, well-organized family groups. Social insects are highly evolved insects that

engage in a variety of complex tasks not practiced by the multitude of solitary insects.

Communication, complex nest construction, environmental control, defense, and division of thelabor are just some of the behaviors that honey bees have developed to exist successfully in

social colonies. These fascinating behaviors make social insects in general, and honey bees in

particular, among the most fascinating creatures on earth.

A honey bee colony typically consists of three kinds of adult bees: workers, drones, and a

queen. Several thousand worker bees cooperate in nest building, food collection, and brood

rearing. Each member has a definite task to perform, related to its adult age. But surviving and

reproducing take the combined efforts of the entire colony. Individual bees (workers, drones,

and queens) cannot survive without the support of the colony.

In addition to thousands of worker adults, a colony normally has a single queen and several

hundred drones during late spring and summer (Figure 1). The social structure of the colony is

maintained by the presence of the queen and workers and depends on an effective system of

communication. The distribution of chemical pheromones among members and communicative

dances are responsible for controlling the activities necessary for colony survival. Labor

activities among worker bees depend primarily on the age of the bee but vary with the needs of

the colony. Reproduction and colony strength depend on the queen, the quantity of food

stores, and the size of the worker force. As the size of the colony increases up to a maximum of

about 60,000 workers, so does the efficiency of the colony.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_melliferahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_nigrocinctahttps://agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec/honey-bee-biology/the-colony-and-its-organization/https://agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec/wp-content/uploads/2010/04/HBB08_Queen_dark1_.jpghttps://agdev.anr.udel.edu/maarec/honey-bee-biology/the-colony-and-its-organization/http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_nigrocinctahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apis_mellifera


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1.BEEKEEPING

Two species of honey bee, A. mellifera and A. cerana indica, are often maintained, fed, and

transported by beekeepers. Modern hives also enable beekeepers to transport bees, moving

from field to field as the crop needs pollinating and allowing the beekeeper to charge for thepollination services they provide, revising the historical role of the self-employed beekeeper,

and favoring large-scale commercial operations.

Thus, beekeeping can be divided into primitive and modern methods

1.Primitive or Indigenous Method

These methods can be divided into two categories

i. Fixed type:-providing a receptable in the wall of the house with an entrance andobservation holes.

ii. Movable Type:-providing a basket, empty box, hollowed logs, bamboo, mudpipes,earthen pots etc.-anything that can protect bees from sun and rain.

2.Modern Method or Frame Hive Method

Frame hives are fitted with movable on which the bees are persuaded to build their combs.

They are usually composed of several boxes, one on top of the other, in which frames are

suspended. The lower boxes (1-2) are used for holding the brood and the upper ones (1-2) are

used for collection of honey, pollen and propolis.

1.1 COLONY COLLAPSE DISORDER (CCD)

Frame removed from Langstroth hive

Beekeepers in Western countries have been reporting slow declines of stocks for many years,

apparently due to impaired protein production, changes in agricultural practice, or

unpredictable weather. In early 2007, abnormally high die-offs (3070% of hives) of European

honey bee colonies occurred in North America; such a decline seems unprecedented in recent

history. This has been dubbed "Colony collapse disorder" (CCD); it is unclear whether this is
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simply an accelerated phase of the general decline due to stochastically more adverse

conditions in 2006, or a novel phenomenon. Research has so far failed to determine what

causes it, but the weight of evidence is tentatively leaning towards CCD being a syndrome

rather than a disease as it seems to be caused by a combination of various contributing factors

rather than a single pathogen or poison.

2. LIFE CYCLE

A queen bee: a coloured dot, in this case yellow, is added to assist the beekeeper in identifying the

queen.

Honey bee eggs shown in cut open wax cells

Drone pupae
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Emergence of a black bee (Apis mellifera mellifera)

Eggs and larvae

As in a few other types ofeusocial bees, a colony generally contains one queen bee, a fertile

female; seasonally up to a few thousand drone bees or fertile males;[8]

and a large seasonally

variable population of sterile female worker bees. Details vary among the different species of

honey bees, but common features include:

1. Eggs are laid singly in a cell in a wax honeycomb, produced and shaped by the worker bees.

Using her spermatheca, the queen actually can choose to fertilize the egg she is laying, usuallydepending on what cell she is laying in. Drones develop from unfertilised eggs and are haploid,

while females (queens and worker bees) develop from fertilised eggs and are diploid. Larvae

are initially fed with royal jelly produced by worker bees, later switching to honey and pollen.

The exception is a larva fed solely on royal jelly, which will develop into a queen bee. The larva

undergoes several moltings before spinning a cocoon within the cell, and pupating.

2. Young worker bees clean the hive and feed the larvae. When their royal jelly producing

glands begin to atrophy, they begin building comb cells. They progress to other within-colony

tasks as they become older, such as receiving nectar and pollen from foragers, and guarding the

hive. Later still, a worker takes her first orientation flights and finally leaves the hive and

typically spends the remainder of her life as a forager.

3. Worker bees cooperate to find food and use a pattern of "dancing" (known as the bee dance

or waggle dance) to communicate information regarding resources with each other; this dance

varies from species to species, but all living species of Apis exhibit some form of the behavior. If

the resources are very close to the hive, they may also exhibit a less specific dance commonly

known as the "Round Dance".

4. Honey bees also perform tremble dances, which recruit receiver bees to collect nectar from

returning foragers.
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5. Virgin queens go on mating flights away from their home colony, and mate with multiple

drones before returning. The drones die in the act of mating.

6. Colonies are established not by solitary queens, as in most bees, but by groups known as

"swarms", which consist of a mated queen and a large contingent of worker bees. This group

moves en masse to a nest site that has been scouted by worker bees beforehand. Once they

arrive, they immediately construct a new wax comb and begin to raise new worker brood. This

type of nest founding is not seen in any other living bee genus, though there are several groups

of Vespid wasps that also found new nests via swarming (sometimes including multiple

queens). Also, stingless bees will start new nests with large numbers of worker bees, but the

nest is constructed before a queen is escorted to the site, and this worker force is not a true

"swarm".

2.1 WINTER SURVIVAL

In cold climates honey bees stop flying when the temperature drops below about 10 C (50 F)

and crowd into the central area of the hive to form a "winter cluster". The worker bees huddle

around the queen bee at the center of the cluster, shivering in order to keep the center

between 27 C (81 F) at the start of winter (during the broodless period) and 34 C (93 F) oncethe queen resumes laying. The worker bees rotate through the cluster from the outside to the

inside so that no bee gets too cold. The outside edges of the cluster stay at about 89 C (46

48 F). The colder the weather is outside, the more compact the cluster becomes. During

winter, they consume their stored honey to produce body heat. The amount of honey

consumed during the winter is a function of winter length and severity but ranges in temperate

climates from 15 to 50 kg (30 to 100 pounds).[9]

Foragers coming in loaded with pollen on the hive landing board

2.2 POLLINATION

Species of Apis are generalist floral visitors, and will pollinate a large variety of plants, but by no

means all plants. Of all the honey bee species, only Apis mellifera has been used extensively for

commercial pollination of crops and other plants. The value of these pollination services is

commonly measured in the billions of dollars.
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Pollination by a honey bee

2.3 HONEY

Honey is the complex substance made when the nectar and sweet deposits from plants and

trees are gathered, modified and stored in the honeycomb by honey bees as a food source for

the colony. All living species of Apis have had their honey gathered by indigenous peoples for

consumption, though for commercial purposes only Apis mellifera and Apis cerana have been

exploited to any degree. Honey is sometimes also gathered by humans from the nests of

various stingless bees. In 1911 a bee culturists estimated that a quart of honey represented

bees flying over an estimated 48,000 miles to gather the pollen needed for the nectar to

produce the honey.

A Natural Beehive ofApis dorsata, The Giant Honey Bee. The bottom right part of the hive

shows a few unoccupied honeycombs

2.4 BEESWAX

Worker bees of a certain age will secrete beeswax from a series of glands on their abdomens.

They use the wax to form the walls and caps of the comb. As with honey, beeswax is gathered

for various purposes.
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Bee (Apis)

A forager collecting pollen

2.5 POLLEN

Bees collect pollen in the pollen basket and carry it back to the hive. In the hive, pollen is usedas a protein source necessary during brood-rearing. In certain environments, excess pollen can

be collected from the hives of A. mellifera and A. cerana. It is often eaten as a health

supplement.

2.6 PROPOLIS

Propolis or bee glue is created from resins, balsams and tree saps. Those species of honey bees

that nest in tree cavities use propolis to seal cracks in the hive. Dwarf honey bees use propolis

to defend against ants by coating the branch from which their nest is suspended to create a

sticky moat. Propolis is consumed by humans as a health supplement in various ways and alsoused in some cosmetics.

3. SEXES AND CASTES

There are two sexes of honey bee: females (workers and queens); and males (or drones). A

caste is a different form, morphologically or reproductively, within the same sex of a species. In

sum, there are three types of honey bees: drones, workers and queens; two sexes: male and

female; and two female castes: queens and workers.
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3.1 DRONES

Males or drones are typically haploid, having only one set of chromosomes. They are produced

by the queen if she chooses not to fertilize an egg; or by a non-fertilized laying worker. Diploid

drones may be produced if an egg is fertilized but is homozygous for the sex-determination

allele. Drones take 24 days to develop and may be produced anywhere from summer through

autumn. Drones have large eyes used to locate queens during mating flights. Drones do not

have a sting.

3.2 WORKERS

Workers are female and have two sets of chromosomes. They are produced from an egg that

the queen has selectively fertilized from stored sperm. Workers typically develop in 21 days. A

typical colony may contain as many as 60,000 worker bees. Workers exhibit a wider range of

behaviors than either queens or drones. Their duties change upon the age of the bee in the

following order (beginning with cleaning out their own cell after eating through their capped

brood cell): feed brood; receive nectar; clean hive; guard duty; and foraging. Some workers

engage in other specialized behaviors, such as "undertaking" (removing corpses of their

nestmates from inside the hive).

Workers have morphological specializations: including the corbiculum or pollen basket,

abdominal glands that produce beeswax, brood-feeding glands, and barbs on the sting. Under

certain conditions (for example, if the colony becomes queenless), a worker may develop

ovaries.

3.3 QUEENS

Queen honey bees, like workers, are female. They are created at the decision of the worker

bees by feeding a larva only royal jelly throughout its development, rather than switching fromroyal jelly to pollen once the larva grows past a certain size. Queens are produced in oversized

cells and develop in only 16 days. Queens have a different morphology and behavior from

worker bees. In addition to the greater size of the queen, she has a functional set of ovaries,

and a spermatheca, which stores and maintains sperm after she has mated. The sting of queens

is not barbed like a worker's sting, and queens lack the glands that produce beeswax. Once

mated, queens may lay up to 2,000 eggs per day. Queens produce a variety of pheromones that

regulate behavior of workers, and helps swarms track the queen's location during the migratory

phase.

4. DEFENSE
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Apis cerana japonica forming a ball around two hornets. The body heat trapped by the ball

will overheat and kill the hornets.

4.1 DONER

All honey bees live in colonies where the workers will sting intruders as a form of defense, and

alarmed bees will release a pheromone that stimulates the attack response in other bees. The

different species of honey bees are distinguished from all other bee species (and virtually allother Hymenoptera) by the possession of small barbs on the sting, but these barbs are found

only in the worker bees. The sting and associated venom sac of honey bees are also modified so

as to pull free of the body once lodged (autotomy), and the sting apparatus has its own

musculature and ganglion, which allow it to keep delivering venom once detached. The worker

dies after the sting is torn from its body. Despite common belief, it is the only species of bee to

die after stinging.

4.2 WORKERS

It is presumed that this complex apparatus, including the barbs on the sting, evolved specifically

in response to predation by vertebrates, as the barbs do not usually function (and the sting

apparatus does not detach) unless the sting is embedded in fleshy tissue. While the sting can

also penetrate the flexible exoskeletal joints in appendages of other insects (and is used in

fights between queens), in the case of Apis cerana defense against other insects such as

predatory wasps is usually performed by surrounding the intruder with a mass of defending

worker bees, who vibrate their muscles so vigorously that it raises the temperature of the

intruder to a lethal level.[11]

It was previously thought that the heat alone was responsible for

killing intruding wasps, but recent experiments have demonstrated that it is the increased

temperature in combination with increased carbon dioxide levels within the ball that produces

the lethal effect.[12][13]

This phenomenon is also used to kill a queen perceived as intruding or

defective, an action known to beekeepers as balling the queen, named for the ball of beesformed.

In the case of those honey bee species with open combs (e.g., A. dorsata), would-be predators

are given a warning signal that takes the form of a " Mexican wave" that spreads as a ripple

across a layer of bees densely packed on the surface of the comb when a threat is perceived,

and consists of bees momentarily arching their bodies and flicking their wings.

5. COMMUNICATIONHoney bees are known to communicate through many different chemicals and odors, as is

common in insects, but also using specific behaviours that convey information about the quality

and type of resources in the environment, and where these resources are located. The details

of the signalling being used vary from species to species; for example, the two smallest species,

Apis andreniformis and Apis florea, dance on the upper surface of the comb, which is horizontal

(not vertical, as in other species), and worker bees orient the dance in the actual compass

direction of the resource to which they are recruiting.
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6. Bee Equipments

Hive: It is a simple long box covered with a number of slats on top. The rough measurementsof the box should be around 100 cm of length, 45 cm of width and 25 cm in height. The box

should be 2 cm thick and the hive must be glued and screwed together with entrance holes of 1cm wide. The slats (top bars ) must be as long as the hive is wide in order to fit across and the

thickness of about 1.5 cm is sufficient to support a heavy honey comb. The width of 3.3 cm

needs to be given to give the bees the natural spacing they need to easily build one comb toeach separate top bar.

Cloth: to protect our eyes and nose from stings at the time of work near the apiary. Knife: It is used to loosen the top bars and to cut of the honey bars. Feather: To sweep the bees from the comb. Queen Excluder Match box

1.Bee Hive:- various types of bee hives are available for beekeeping. They are wooden boxes having

two parts: upper comb chamber and lower brood chamber. The following two types of bee hives

are more popular in India:

(a) Ghos box36 cm x 21.5 cm

(b) Newton box20.2 cm x 14.0 cm


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Langstroth box (American hive)

Some other familiar boxes are as follows :

i. Langstroth box (American hive) 42.2 cm x 31.1 cmii. Pant, Kanje and jeolikote No.1 42.2 cm x 12.3 cm

iii. Dadant box (Russian hive) 47 cm x 28.6 cmiv. Thompson box 30.5 cm x 15.2 cm

A movable frame hive is composed of the following parts.

Stand:-it is a 4 legged structure, 15-20 cm high, with dimensions to support the floor board.

Floor Board:- The floor board is a tray with all its 4 sides raised by side runners and a piece 12.5 x

1.0 cm is removed from the middle of the front side runner to allow entry to the bees.

Alighting Board:- Sometimes, the front side runner of the floor board is replaced by a projectingpiece called the alighting board. This is unnecessary, particularly if the hive is kept on a stand.

Brood Chamber:- It is a rectangular box without top and bottom. The number of brood boxes could

be increased to 2 when the colony becomes strong.

Hive Frames:- These are wooden frames with their sides named as top bar, two side bars and abottom part. The ends of the top bar extend beyond to rest on the rabbet scooped on the long sides of

the brood box and its undersurfaces is grooved to receive the edge of comb foundation.

Queen Excluder:- To obtain pure honey free from extraneous matter, it is necessary to separate the

brood chamber from the supers where honey is stored. This is done with the help of a zinc or wire

frame with 2.3-3.5 mm perforations to enable the workers to pass through but not the queen whosethoracic width (4.3-4.5 mm) is more then that of the perforations. The queen would be obliged to stay

within the brood boxes and spare the supers of eggs and brood.


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Supers:- The supers are like brood boxes but shallower and are placed over the queen excluder. Theyare fitted with frames which are similar to those of the brood boxes except in their shorter hives. A

hive could have 2-3 supers depending on its strength.

Covers:- There are 2 covers, an inner and an outer.

2.Comb Foundation Mill For Apis melliferra and Cerana Indica

This hand operated Comb Foundation Roller is an economic way to produce your own bee wax comb

foundations. An essential beekeeping equipment for small and medium sized beekeepers.

3.Smoker

Stainless steel smokers with heat guard and insert for longer life and better smoke. Our smokers are

very popular among beekeepers due to long burning time.

It is the second important piece of equipment. This can be made from a small tin .We use the smoker

to protect ourselves from bee stings and to control the bees.

4.Honey Extractors

This a combination of an extractor, strainer and honey tank. Extremely practical for the small scale

beekeeper with little space. This extractor is able to take almost any frame size. The extractor has

holes in the bottom, so that honey can flow off easily through the filter screen.


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5.Queen Excluder

Precision spacing of wires that insures that each of our excluders has correct placement of each

individual wire. Ready to give you years of dependable service.

6.Wax Sheet

Our wax sheet foundation provides a deeper cell and higher definition that encourages bees to work it

faster. And that spells increased honey yields.

7.Hive Tool

Our hive tools are and made of high quality steel especially well suited to wooden hives. This die

forged, heavy duty hive tool is great for separating supers and scraping frames. Used by many

professional bee keepers through out India.


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8.Grafting Needle Set

Stainless steel grafting needle set.

9.Frame Gripper

A helpful tool for removing frames from bee hives.

10.Queen Cage

Our queen cages are less work to prepare, cost less to ship, easy to place in hive, and have improved

acceptance.

11.Queen Gate

Brass queen gate.


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12.Queen Cell Protector

Cell protector made out of high quality brass. Protects against chew down .

7. SYMBOLISM

Both the Atharva Veda[15]

and the ancient Greeks associated lips anointed with honey with the

gift of eloquence and even of prescience. The priestess at Delphi was the "Delphic Bee". The

Quran has a chapter titled The Bee.

A community of honey bees has often been employed throughout history by political theorists

as a model of human society:

"This image occurs in Aristotle and Plato; in Virgiland Seneca; in Erasmus and Shakespeare; in

Marx and Tolstoy."

Honey bees, signifying immortality and resurrection, were royal emblems of the Merovingians,

revived by Napoleon.http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee - cite_note-18The bee is the heraldic

emblem too of the Barberini.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharva_Vedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharva_Vedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharva_Vedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An-Nahlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barberinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Barberinihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Honey_bee#cite_note-18http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Napoleon_I_of_Francehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Merovingianshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/An-Nahlhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Delphihttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharva_Vedahttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Atharva_Veda


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CHAPTER 2

REFERENCES

1. Michael S. Engel (1999). "The taxonomy of recent and fossil honey bees (Hymenoptera:Apidae: Apis)". Journal of Hymenoptera Research 8: 165196.

2. Deborah R. Smith, Lynn Villafuerte, Gard Otisc & Michael R. Palmer (2000)."Biogeography of Apis cerana F. and A. nigrocincta Smith: insights from mtDNA studies" (PDF).

Apidologie 31 (2): 265279. doi:10.1051/apido:2000121.3. Michael S. Engel, I. A. Hinojosa-Diaz & A. P. Rasnitsyn (2009). "A honey bee from theMiocene of Nevada and the biogeography of Apis (Hymenoptera: Apidae: Apini)". Proceedingsof the California Academy of Sciences 60 (3): 2338.

4. Maria C. Arias & Walter S. Sheppard (2005). "Phylogenetic relationships of honey bees(Hymenoptera:Apinae:Apini) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequence data".Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 37 (1): 2535. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2005.02.017. PMID 16182149.Maria C. Arias & Walter S. Sheppard (2005). "Corrigendum to "Phylogenetic relationships of

honey bees (Hymenoptera:Apinae:Apini) inferred from nuclear and mitochondrial DNA sequencedata"". Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution 40 (1): 315. doi:10.1016/j.ympev.2006.02.002.

5. Nathan Lo, Rosalyn S. Gloag, Denis L. Anderson & Benjamin P. Oldroyd (2009). "Amolecular phylogeny of the genus Apis suggests that the Giant Honey Bee of the Philippines, A.

breviligula Maa, and the Plains Honey Bee of southern India, A. indica Fabricius, are valid

species". Systematic Entomology 35 (2): 226233. doi:10.1111/j.1365-3113.2009.00504.x.6. Charles F. Calkins, "Beekeeping in Yucatn: A Study in Historical-Cultural

Zoogeography (PhD diss., University of Nebraska, 1974), as quoted in Crane, World History ofBeekeeping, p. 292. Calkins cites the original translated source as Hernn Corts, Letters ofCorts: The Five Letters of Relation from Fernando Cortes to the Emperor Charles V, trans. and

ed. Francis A. MacNutt (New York: Putnam, 1908), 1:145.7. Horn, Bees in America, p. 8081.

http://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/publications/review/?vol=20&num=1&id=694#_ednref308. James L. Gould & Carol Grant Gould (1995). The Honey Bee. Scientific American

Library. p. 19. ISBN 978-0-7167-6010-8.

9. http://www.bees-online.com/Winter.htm10. "A Quart of Honey Means 48,000 miles of flight" Popular Mechanics, December 1911, p.

889.11. C. H. Thawley. "Heat tolerance as a weapon". Davidson College. Retrieved June 1,

2010.12. Michio Sugahara & Fumio Sakamoto (2009). "Heat and carbon dioxide generated by

honeybees jointly act to kill hornets". Naturwissenschaften 96 (9): 11336. doi:10.1007/s00114-

009-0575-0. PMID 19551367.13. Victora Gill (July 3, 2009). "Honeybee mobs overpower hornets". BBC News. Retrieved

July 5, 2009.14. http://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080909204550.htm
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_S._Engelhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_of_Hymenopterists#Journalhttp://www.culturaapicola.com.ar/apuntes/revistaselectronicas/apidologie/31-2/m0209.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Document_Formathttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apidologie&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1051%2Fapido%3A2000121http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proceedings_of_the_California_Academy_of_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proceedings_of_the_California_Academy_of_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Phylogenetics_and_Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2005.02.017http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16182149http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Phylogenetics_and_Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2006.02.002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_Entomologyhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-3113.2009.00504.xhttp://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/publications/review/?vol=20&num=1&id=694#_ednref30http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-6010-8http://www.bees-online.com/Winter.htmhttp://books.google.com/books?id=-t0DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA889&dq=Popular+Mechanics+Science+installing+linoleum&hl=en&sa=X&ei=y4zsT9OSGMriqAGU1PW8BQ&sqi=2&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=truehttp://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/animalphysiology/websites/2001/Thawley/defense.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davidson_Collegehttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturwissenschaftenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-009-0575-0http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-009-0575-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19551367http://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8129536.stmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Newshttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080909204550.htmhttp://www.sciencedaily.com/releases/2008/09/080909204550.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/BBC_Newshttp://news.bbc.co.uk/2/hi/science/nature/8129536.stmhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19551367http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-009-0575-0http://dx.doi.org/10.1007%2Fs00114-009-0575-0http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Naturwissenschaftenhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Davidson_Collegehttp://www.bio.davidson.edu/people/midorcas/animalphysiology/websites/2001/Thawley/defense.htmhttp://books.google.com/books?id=-t0DAAAAMBAJ&pg=PA889&dq=Popular+Mechanics+Science+installing+linoleum&hl=en&sa=X&ei=y4zsT9OSGMriqAGU1PW8BQ&sqi=2&ved=0CDYQ6AEwAA#v=onepage&q&f=truehttp://www.bees-online.com/Winter.htmhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/978-0-7167-6010-8http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://maxwellinstitute.byu.edu/publications/review/?vol=20&num=1&id=694#_ednref30http://dx.doi.org/10.1111%2Fj.1365-3113.2009.00504.xhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Systematic_Entomologyhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2006.02.002http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Phylogenetics_and_Evolutionhttp://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/16182149http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/PubMed_Identifierhttp://dx.doi.org/10.1016%2Fj.ympev.2005.02.017http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Molecular_Phylogenetics_and_Evolutionhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proceedings_of_the_California_Academy_of_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Proceedings_of_the_California_Academy_of_Sciences&action=edit&redlink=1http://dx.doi.org/10.1051%2Fapido%3A2000121http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Digital_object_identifierhttp://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apidologie&action=edit&redlink=1http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Portable_Document_Formathttp://www.culturaapicola.com.ar/apuntes/revistaselectronicas/apidologie/31-2/m0209.pdfhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Society_of_Hymenopterists#Journalhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Michael_S._Engel


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15. "O Asvins, lords of brightness, anoint me with the honey of the bee, that I may speakforceful speech among men! Atharva Veda 91-258, quoted in Maguelonne Toussaint-Samat(Anthea Bell, tr.) The History of Food, 2nd ed. 2009:14.

16. Virgil, Georgics, book IV.17. Bee Wilson (2004). The Hive: The Story Of The Honeybee. London: John Murray.

p. 14. ISBN 0-7195-6598-7.18. "The symbols of empire". Napoleon.org. Retrieved June 1, 2010.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgicshttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Murray_%28publisher%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-6598-7http://www.napoleon.org/en/essential_napoleon/symbols/index.asphttp://www.napoleon.org/en/essential_napoleon/symbols/index.asphttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Special:BookSources/0-7195-6598-7http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/International_Standard_Book_Numberhttp://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/John_Murray_%28publisher%29http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Georgics

unit -1 apiculture project 2

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