Unit 1 Changing English in a Unit 1 Changing English in a Changing WorldChanging World

REQUIREMENTS

1. explain why languages change as people change

2. recognize and describe examples of changes

3. understand some of the special English vocabulary used in talking about language

4. explain what is meant by varieties of English

READING GUIDEREADING GUIDE Three elements we must master:Three elements we must master:

1.1. Languages change as time passes by.Languages change as time passes by.2.2. Languages change as people change.Languages change as people change. There are between 4000 and 5000 languagesThere are between 4000 and 5000 languagesin use in the world today. But nobody can give the exactin use in the world today. But nobody can give the exactnumber because it depends on what counts as a dialectnumber because it depends on what counts as a dialectand what counts as a language. Besides, some languagesand what counts as a language. Besides, some languageshave disappeared, and we know nothing about them. Thehave disappeared, and we know nothing about them. Thedisappeared languages are called “dead” because no one is usingdisappeared languages are called “dead” because no one is usingthem now.them now.

3. Languages have different varieties in different3. Languages have different varieties in differentplaces.places.

Language have not only historical variations but also Language have not only historical variations but also regional or geographical variations. The differences regional or geographical variations. The differences in regional variations exist chiefly in speaking.in regional variations exist chiefly in speaking.

Generally speaking, languages changes Generally speaking, languages changes for many reasons. The changes are also for many reasons. The changes are also related to many other languages.related to many other languages.

Important conceptsImportant concepts

1.dialect:1.dialect: A dialect is a variety of a language A dialect is a variety of a language

spoken by an identifiable subgroup of spoken by an identifiable subgroup of people. Geographically, dialects are people. Geographically, dialects are the result of settlement history, and the result of settlement history, and they develop primarily as a result of they develop primarily as a result of limited communication between limited communication between different parts of a community that different parts of a community that share one language.share one language.

2.Educated English and 2.Educated English and Uneducated EnglishUneducated English

Educated English is sometimes used Educated English is sometimes used as a synonym for Standard English.as a synonym for Standard English.

Uneducated English is that naturally Uneducated English is that naturally used by people whose schooling is used by people whose schooling is limited and who perform the limited and who perform the unskilled labor in country and city.unskilled labor in country and city.

3. Accent3. Accent

Accent refers to the way of speaking Accent refers to the way of speaking that identifies a person with a that identifies a person with a particular country, region, language, particular country, region, language, social class, or some mixture of social class, or some mixture of these.these.

It refers to features of pronunciation, It refers to features of pronunciation, variations from standard grammar variations from standard grammar and vocabulary are dialects.and vocabulary are dialects.

ACTIVITY 1Language Change and Language Use

1. All the languages we know about change with time.

2. There are, at present, between 4000 and 5000 languages in use in the world.

3. Just how many, depends what counts as a language and what counts as a variety or dialect.

4. Your individual language changes with time too.

5. Older people usually doesn’t like the changes they notice.

6. We need to be careful about talking about language as if it were a living thing.

Activity 2Activity 2Variation in English Different Variation in English Different

PlacesPlaces►1. There are different varieties of 1. There are different varieties of

English that is spoken and understood English that is spoken and understood in different parts of the world. These in different parts of the world. These are regional varieties or regional are regional varieties or regional dialects.dialects.

►2. Both native speakers and second 2. Both native speakers and second language users of English find some of language users of English find some of these hard to understand. The English these hard to understand. The English of writing—Standard English—is similar of writing—Standard English—is similar throughout the English speaking world.throughout the English speaking world.

►3. Two varieties—Educated British and 3. Two varieties—Educated British and Educated American English—are Educated American English—are widely taught and learned. They are widely taught and learned. They are used and understood wherever English used and understood wherever English is in use.is in use.

►4. There is no single Authority for the 4. There is no single Authority for the use of English.use of English.

Activity 3Activity 3Observing Vocabulary Change in Observing Vocabulary Change in

EnglishEnglish 1. New words are invented, or borrowed to 1. New words are invented, or borrowed to

match new meanings. Or old words are used match new meanings. Or old words are used with new meanings.with new meanings.

2. Words in use are dropped when they are 2. Words in use are dropped when they are no longer needed.no longer needed.

3. The rate of change in language is uneven.3. The rate of change in language is uneven. 4. As people grow older, they notice change-4. As people grow older, they notice change-

and they often don’t like it! In fact the rate of and they often don’t like it! In fact the rate of change is not so fast that people living at change is not so fast that people living at the same time fail to understand each other.the same time fail to understand each other.

Activity 4Activity 4Language and Dialects in Language and Dialects in the United Kingdomthe United Kingdom

1. Compared with China, English is a 1. Compared with China, English is a small country.small country.

2. Communications are good, and it is 2. Communications are good, and it is usually possible to reach every part of it usually possible to reach every part of it quickly.quickly.

3. If you expect to find that the same 3. If you expect to find that the same language is spoken in a very similar way language is spoken in a very similar way in different parts—you would be wrong.in different parts—you would be wrong.

4. There are many different languages spoken 4. There are many different languages spoken by minorities in the United Kingdom.by minorities in the United Kingdom.

5. English is spoken in different parts in very 5. English is spoken in different parts in very different ways—that is, there are many regional different ways—that is, there are many regional dialects.dialects.

6. Regional dialects generally are not so well 6. Regional dialects generally are not so well respected as the Standard English you have respected as the Standard English you have studied.studied.

7. Most native speakers can understand 7. Most native speakers can understand several dialects—and have difficulty with several dialects—and have difficulty with others.others.

Activity 5Activity 5Experiencing Some Experiencing Some

Regional Varieties of Regional Varieties of EnglishEnglish 1. Only some speakers in each of these 1. Only some speakers in each of these

places speaks in this way all the time. places speaks in this way all the time. Some can speak in this way when they Some can speak in this way when they want to—and quite differently when want to—and quite differently when they choose. They are bi-dialectal.they choose. They are bi-dialectal.

2. The speakers who use only the 2. The speakers who use only the accents you heard tend to be the older accents you heard tend to be the older and the less well educated people in and the less well educated people in the community.the community.

HOMEWORKHOMEWORK 1. What is social dialect and how 1. What is social dialect and how

does it come into being?does it come into being? 2. What is your knowledge of 2. What is your knowledge of

regional dialect?regional dialect? 3. What is a “dead” and “living” 3. What is a “dead” and “living”

language?language? 4. How is English changing lexically?4. How is English changing lexically?

Unit 2 English in the Past

REQUIREMENTS1. to identify the place of English among other related languages2. to identify Standard English among other varieties3. to understand and explain what is meant by structural differences among languages4. to understand and explain how users of English as a second language can use knowledge about English

READING GUIDE•1. How to define Standard

English?• When we speak of Standard

English we mean the English of writing.

2. How to define Received English?

• Received Pronunciation is a pronunciation used by educated people in every part of Britain.

3. What’s the relationship between Standard English

and Pronunciation? Standard English can be

pronounced in many different ways. People often think that Standard English can be pronounced only using a Received Pronunciation of British English.

4. How to describe receptive and productive knowledge of vocabulary?• If you recognize a word and know what

it means, you have a receptive knowledge of it. That is the knowledge of words which you use when you read. If, in addition you use it—you say it or you write it when you have a productive knowledge of it. Productive knowledge includes receptive knowledge.

5. How did English come into being?5. How did English come into being?

At the very beginning, Irish Gaelic and Welsh At the very beginning, Irish Gaelic and Welsh were the main languages in English. Later, were the main languages in English. Later, when Roman invaded the lands of this when Roman invaded the lands of this countries, they brought Latin there. Next, countries, they brought Latin there. Next, Scandinavian conquered the lands and gave Scandinavian conquered the lands and gave the name of England to this country and the name of England to this country and brought their own language there. Mixed with brought their own language there. Mixed with different languages, English came into being.different languages, English came into being.

IMPORTANT CONCEPTSIMPORTANT CONCEPTS

1. LANGUAGE FAMILIES1. LANGUAGE FAMILIES The Oxford Companion to the English The Oxford Companion to the English

Language defines language families Language defines language families as different groups of languages as different groups of languages which are assumed to have arisen which are assumed to have arisen from a single source.from a single source.

2. Indo-European Language Family2. Indo-European Language Family

The Indo-European languages are the The Indo-European languages are the most widely spoken languages in most widely spoken languages in Europe, and they also extend into Europe, and they also extend into western and southern Asia. The western and southern Asia. The family consists of a number of family consists of a number of subfamilies or branches.subfamilies or branches.

3. Sino-Tibetan Languages3. Sino-Tibetan Languages

Sino-Tibetan Languages are included Sino-Tibetan Languages are included in the family of languages spoken in in the family of languages spoken in China, parts of Southeast Asia, and China, parts of Southeast Asia, and along the Himalayas, a mountain along the Himalayas, a mountain system in south central Asia. It is the system in south central Asia. It is the world’s second largest language world’s second largest language family in number of speakers, family in number of speakers, surpassed only by the Indo-European surpassed only by the Indo-European language family.language family.

ACTIVITY 1ACTIVITY 1 LANGUAGE FAMILIES LANGUAGE FAMILIES

1. Languages belong to large groups, 1. Languages belong to large groups, usually called language families.usually called language families.

2. English belongs to the Indo-European 2. English belongs to the Indo-European family of languages; Chinese belongs to family of languages; Chinese belongs to the Sino-Tibetan group.the Sino-Tibetan group.

3. It is harder to learn a new language if it 3. It is harder to learn a new language if it belongs to a different group from that of belongs to a different group from that of your mother tongue.your mother tongue.

4. Inside each group or family, some languages 4. Inside each group or family, some languages are near relations and some are distant are near relations and some are distant relations. Inside the Indo-European group of relations. Inside the Indo-European group of languages, English belongs to the Germanic languages, English belongs to the Germanic group.group.

5. The first languages we know about spoken 5. The first languages we know about spoken in the British Isles were related to modern in the British Isles were related to modern Welsh, and to Scots and Irish Gaelic.Welsh, and to Scots and Irish Gaelic.

6. Scandinavian invaders—Angles, Saxons 6. Scandinavian invaders—Angles, Saxons and Jutes settled in England and brought with and Jutes settled in England and brought with them the dialects they spoke.them the dialects they spoke.

ACTIVITY 3ACTIVITY 3Standard English and Other VarietStandard English and Other Varietiesies 1.Standard English is written English 1.Standard English is written English

used worldwide.used worldwide. 2. Standard English differs only in 2. Standard English differs only in

superficial ways in different parts of superficial ways in different parts of the English speaking world. It the English speaking world. It changes with time.changes with time.

3. Standard English is in origin the 3. Standard English is in origin the English of South-east England.English of South-east England.

4. It is the English used for all 4. It is the English used for all educational and official purposes.educational and official purposes.

ACITVITY 4ACITVITY 4Changes and Additions to the EChanges and Additions to the E

nglish Lexionnglish Lexion 1. Speakers of English often make an effort to 1. Speakers of English often make an effort to

pronounce a word in the way that it is pronounced in pronounce a word in the way that it is pronounced in its country of origin unless that its just too difficult.its country of origin unless that its just too difficult.

2. Borrowed words in English change as the language 2. Borrowed words in English change as the language changes.changes.

3. Words that were borrowed recently are often 3. Words that were borrowed recently are often unstable in pronunciation, some people try harder unstable in pronunciation, some people try harder than others to pronounce them as they think they than others to pronounce them as they think they should be said.should be said.

4. Words that have become well established in the 4. Words that have become well established in the language are regarded simply as English words by language are regarded simply as English words by most speakers. Only students and people particularly most speakers. Only students and people particularly interested in language know about their origins.interested in language know about their origins.

ACTIVITY 5 Received Pronunciation—RP for Short 1. The pronunciation of British English which is not

associated with a particular region is that of educated people, and has high prestige, is called Received Pronunciation.

2. Accent change just as vocabulary and grammar change, but until tape recorders were invented it was not easy to record the changes.

3. Changes in vocabulary happen quickly: Grammar resists change.

4. They are important because they mean we can continue to read with understanding what was written a long time ago. Grammar gives us the clues we need.

5. Language study may be prescriptive, productive or descriptive.

6. When a teacher corrects a students mistakes he is doing prescriptive teaching. When a teacher asks a student to practice his English by speaking or writing, that is productive teaching. A Unit of study like this one, which tells you about how English has changed and come to be as it is now, is descriptive teaching.

HOMEWORK

• DISCUSSION:• 1. What is Standard English?• 2. What is Received Pronunciation?• 3. What is language family?• 4. Which langage family does English

belong to?

UNIT 3UNIT 3The Spread of English Beyond BritainThe Spread of English Beyond Britain • REQUIREMENTSREQUIREMENTS• 1. give examples of national and international 1. give examples of national and international

languages.languages.• 2. explain how it happened that English came to 2. explain how it happened that English came to

be widely used as a second language and some be widely used as a second language and some of the different ways in which it is used.of the different ways in which it is used.

• 3. understand the advantages of invented 3. understand the advantages of invented languages for international use and some of the languages for international use and some of the reasons for their failure.reasons for their failure.

• 4. explain the uses of this information to teachers 4. explain the uses of this information to teachers and students of Englishand students of English

READING GUIDE

1.What does it mean by language attitudes? There are a number of important things to

know about languages of different kinds and some these have to do with how people feel. Sometimes the whole topic, which is recognized as important , is labeled language attitudes.

2. How does English act as an international language?More people who were not born in Britain use

English than use other international languages. That is partly because the British Empire, at its height was very large, and very widely spread. It is the dominant language of science and technology, and that means that very many people, like you, have very good reason to want learn it, and make it their own. It’s not just an international language, it is, in this century, a global language.

3. How did English come to be the established language in North America? In 1775 the War of Independence, North America

was independent from Britain, when the United States of America was set up. From that time, there was a second English-speaking nation. In 1790 the new nation organized the first census—that is the first official count of its population. Nearly 90% of the population at that time traced their descent to British settlers. And English is the dominant language. Nobody would question that—English is also the official language, the language of education and government—the national language.

ACTIVITY 1

National Boundaries and National Languages

1. Language may be regional—used only in a restricted area.

national—used within national boundaries.

international—used outside national boundaries.

global—used for communication world wide.

2. English is one of several international languages, but it is the only language used worldwide, in places where there were never colonial settlements.

3. The fact that Standard English varies only in superficial ways in different places makes its global use possible.

4. Governments sometimes try to bring about language change deliberatelly. There is often angry resistance.

5. The reason for this is that people often feel a strong emotional bond with the language they learned as their mother tongue.

ACTIVITY 2ACTIVITY 2English in the New WorldEnglish in the New World

1. Between the early 17th century 1. Between the early 17th century and the 18th century, the USA and the 18th century, the USA became the second English speaking became the second English speaking nation, and is in the 20th century nation, and is in the 20th century much more powerful and influential much more powerful and influential than the United Kingdom.than the United Kingdom.

2. The English language had a 2. The English language had a special role in making a large special role in making a large population, from different parts of population, from different parts of the world, into a single nation.the world, into a single nation.

3. Although British English and American 3. Although British English and American English are in some ways different, English are in some ways different, speakers of British English and American speakers of British English and American English understand each other without English understand each other without difficulty. It is also true of second language difficulty. It is also true of second language users who have learned from British and users who have learned from British and American teachers.American teachers.

4. A more formal way of saying this is to 4. A more formal way of saying this is to say that British English and American say that British English and American English are mutually intelligible.English are mutually intelligible.

ACTIVITY 3ACTIVITY 3English Extends Across the WorldEnglish Extends Across the World

1. The establishment of colonies and 1. The establishment of colonies and empire spread the use of English empire spread the use of English worldwide between the sixteen century, worldwide between the sixteen century, and the first half of the twentieth century.and the first half of the twentieth century.

2. Every one of them began with 2. Every one of them began with exploration, but the circumstances in exploration, but the circumstances in which colonies were settled were very which colonies were settled were very different.different.

3. English remains very important in India 3. English remains very important in India after independence—but as a second after independence—but as a second language learned for a variety of language learned for a variety of purposes, including international purposes, including international purposes.purposes.

ACTIVITY 4ACTIVITY 4After the Empire:English in Today’s After the Empire:English in Today’s

WorldWorld 1. The number of users of a language is 1. The number of users of a language is

important, but who the users are, and what important, but who the users are, and what they do with English, is just as important.they do with English, is just as important.

2. The label Information Age is often given 2. The label Information Age is often given to the end of this century.to the end of this century.

3. It means(1) that much more information 3. It means(1) that much more information is available than ever before;(2) that is available than ever before;(2) that information can be stored and transferred information can be stored and transferred in ways never possible before.in ways never possible before.

4. The most important language for 4. The most important language for communicative use at the time of these communicative use at the time of these developments is English. Computer developments is English. Computer developments have reinforced the global developments have reinforced the global importance of English.importance of English.

ACTIVITY 5ACTIVITY 5Alternatives to EnglishAlternatives to English

• 1. The world of the late 20th century needs an international language.

• 2. English is not ideally suited to international use.

• 3. No natural language can be politically and culturally neutral. An artificial language can be.

• 4. Artificial languages can be designed to be easily and quickly learned. They too have serious drawbacks and so do simplified versions of natural languages.

• 5. Although interest in Basic English is not high at present, a simplified version of English, perhaps Nuclear English offers promises for the future.

HOMEWORK

• 1. Write short pieces on the following topics:

• (1) The international role of Standard English

• (2) The different features between British English and American English

• (3) The ideal international language• (4) A brief description of 3 circles of

English

2. Explain the following concepts in English

• 1. Language attitude• 2. Black English• 3. Official language• 4. Global language• 5. International languge• 6. Esperanto• 7. Basic English

UNIT 4UNIT 4Social Varieties of EnglishSocial Varieties of English

REQUIREMENTSREQUIREMENTS 1. recognize what are statements about langua1. recognize what are statements about langua

ge, and what are statements about personal tage, and what are statements about personal tastes or judgments about society and social diffstes or judgments about society and social differenceserences

2. know what is mean by social or educational 2. know what is mean by social or educational variation in English accentsvariation in English accents

3. recognize what different varieties you and ot3. recognize what different varieties you and other users control; how you increase their numher users control; how you increase their number and range, and how the fact that users can ber and range, and how the fact that users can do this drives changedo this drives change

READING GUIDE 1. Is English widely used just because it better

fits in the international circumstances than other languages?

It seems irrational to give an affirmative to the question. Just as all human beings are endowed with equal rights in every respect, all human languages also have shared equality, in other words, no language should be considered more developed or primitive. The spread of English was absolutely caused by political, economics and cultural factors rather than linguistic reasons.

2. Different stages in language learning There are two distinct stages in the study

of a language. However, the stages are not clearly marked sometimes. The first stage is the study of sound system and grammar system of a language; while the 2nd is enlarging one’s vocabulary steadily. The formal learning will make the learners able to read and write. They get familiar with a variety, or the standard version of the language.

ACTIVITY 1ACTIVITY 1Differences of Prestige and PrefeDifferences of Prestige and Preference amongLanguagesrence amongLanguages

1. The idea of equality or parity among 1. The idea of equality or parity among languages is important, and it needs to be languages is important, and it needs to be carefully understood.carefully understood.

2. No languages that we know about, are 2. No languages that we know about, are undeveloped or primitive.undeveloped or primitive.

3. Languages change with time, as the needs 3. Languages change with time, as the needs of their users change, but change does not of their users change, but change does not mean evolutionary progress.mean evolutionary progress.

4. Languages and dialects are valued 4. Languages and dialects are valued differently and used differently for historical, differently and used differently for historical, political, economical and cultural reasons.political, economical and cultural reasons.

ACTIVITY 2ACTIVITY 2Social and Educational Social and Educational

VarietiesVarieties 1. It is possible to learn to read the 1. It is possible to learn to read the

English of a past time. The further back English of a past time. The further back in the past the more difficult it is and the in the past the more difficult it is and the longer it takes.longer it takes.

2. Most people don’t find learning to use 2. Most people don’t find learning to use another variety very easy, but some are another variety very easy, but some are very good at it.very good at it.

3. A social variety is the sort of English 3. A social variety is the sort of English use which is associated with a part of use which is associated with a part of society, that is with rich or poor, well or society, that is with rich or poor, well or poorly educated.poorly educated.

4. Social and regional varieties are 4. Social and regional varieties are connected. You can tell what region connected. You can tell what region someone who uses the English of the someone who uses the English of the poorer and the less well-educated poorer and the less well-educated comes from. The way the better-off comes from. The way the better-off use English tells you little or nothing use English tells you little or nothing about where that person was born.about where that person was born.

ACTIVITY 3An Expanding Range of Language Uses

1. English differs with the user, and also with the different uses that speakers have for English.2. Learning about these differences belongs to a second stage of learning—for native speakers and for users of English as an additional language .3. Spoken English differs from written English. The topic, or subject, makes a difference to the way that English is used. English is used in different circumstances with different degrees of formality.

4. We have named three different ways in which English differs with use. They are similar to the regional and historical and social varieties we looked at earlier. They are however different in that they vary with use. They are available to all practised and experienced users. You can use the terms variation with user and variation with use.

ACTIVITY 4ACTIVITY 4Used Variation and the Used Variation and the

International User of EnglishInternational User of English 1. English varies with the topic or 1. English varies with the topic or

subject that is spoken about or subject that is spoken about or written about. This is true of written about. This is true of academic subject and of others, not academic subject and of others, not usually studied in schools and usually studied in schools and universities.universities.

2. This partly a matter of the special 2. This partly a matter of the special vocabulary that students learn as vocabulary that students learn as part of learning about the subject.part of learning about the subject.

3. It is partly a matter of style—and that 3. It is partly a matter of style—and that means avoiding words and phrases which means avoiding words and phrases which are acceptable only within the family, or are acceptable only within the family, or among close friends, or in light-hearted among close friends, or in light-hearted contexts.contexts.

4. Style has to be consistent—not uneven. 4. Style has to be consistent—not uneven. Competent writers and speakers avoid Competent writers and speakers avoid mixing some words that are suitable for mixing some words that are suitable for serious contexts and those that are not.serious contexts and those that are not.

HOMEWORK

• Explain the following concepts in English• 1. Sociolect• 2. Inflected• 3. Context• 4. Standard and non-standard• 5. Prestige varieties• 6. Intermediate language

ACTIVITY 5Trade Within and Across Lan

guage Barries• REQUIREMENTS• 1. Define what is meant by pidgin, creole, and ling

ua franca and give examples• 2. Understand what is meant by creativity or inven

tiveness in language• 3. Recognize the importance of faxed English to int

ernational trade proceedings• 4. Use this information in discussions of the prese

nt position of English as the major language of international business

READING GUIDEREADING GUIDE

► 1. What are the differences between Englis1. What are the differences between English-based crecoles and Standard English?h-based crecoles and Standard English?

► Crecoles are languages for some users or tCrecoles are languages for some users or the language of a speech community to cohe language of a speech community to communicate. Their purposes are to do with mmunicate. Their purposes are to do with trade. And Standard English is written Engtrade. And Standard English is written English. It is an international language and glolish. It is an international language and globle language. ble language.

2. What’s business like in today 2. What’s business like in today and in history?and in history?

► (1)similarity: There are still buyers and sellers; T(1)similarity: There are still buyers and sellers; There are still commodities; There has still to be shere are still commodities; There has still to be some sort of currency exchange; There has to be some sort of currency exchange; There has to be some means of tansferring ownership from one tome means of tansferring ownership from one to another.o another.

► (2)difference: The scale of trade today is much la(2)difference: The scale of trade today is much larger than before. Traditionally, the essentials of trger than before. Traditionally, the essentials of trade are buyers, sellers, commodities, markets, rade are buyers, sellers, commodities, markets, currency and communication. This is still true tocurrency and communication. This is still true today. But the essentials of present day internatioday. But the essentials of present day international trade between Asian countries and the rest onal trade between Asian countries and the rest of the world are more than those above.f the world are more than those above.

3. Features of faxed Engish3. Features of faxed Engish► It can be shorter than the same meanings It can be shorter than the same meanings

in Standard English. It is concise and not in Standard English. It is concise and not a word is wasted. Besides, information is a word is wasted. Besides, information is condensed and abbreviations are often condensed and abbreviations are often used. The headings of a fax signal used. The headings of a fax signal changes of topic. Both the sender and the changes of topic. Both the sender and the receiver of the fax take it for granted that receiver of the fax take it for granted that the fax conveys shared knowledge the fax conveys shared knowledge between them. between them.

4. What are the differences and sim4. What are the differences and similarities between faxed language anilarities between faxed language an

d creole?d creole?Similarities: Faxed English can be shorter thSimilarities: Faxed English can be shorter th

an the same meanings in Standard English.an the same meanings in Standard English. It is concise and not a word is wasted. Bes It is concise and not a word is wasted. Besides, information is condensed and abbreides, information is condensed and abbreviations are often used. The headings of a viations are often used. The headings of a fax signal changes of topic. Both the sendfax signal changes of topic. Both the sender and the receiver of the fax take it for graer and the receiver of the fax take it for granted that the fax conveys shared knowlednted that the fax conveys shared knowledge between them. Superficially faxed Englige between them. Superficially faxed English is similar to a creole.sh is similar to a creole.

► Differences: As a matter of fact, faxed busiDifferences: As a matter of fact, faxed business English is not like a pidgin or a creole.ness English is not like a pidgin or a creole. A Pidgin is restricted to buying and selling A Pidgin is restricted to buying and selling or to the giving and taking of orders while or to the giving and taking of orders while a creole is a language that can serve as a na creole is a language that can serve as a national language. Faxed English is just a vaational language. Faxed English is just a variety used when the topic seems to requirriety used when the topic seems to require it, or when the level of formality makes ie it, or when the level of formality makes it suitable.t suitable.

ACTIVITY 1ACTIVITY 1Markets, Trade , Markets, Trade , LanguageLanguage

1. Trading is a fundamental human activity, nec1. Trading is a fundamental human activity, necessary to all except the most undeveloped sociessary to all except the most undeveloped sociaties.aties.

2. Trade deals, large or small, have similar com2. Trade deals, large or small, have similar components.ponents.

3. Communication is essential to all trade deals.3. Communication is essential to all trade deals. The most satisfactory means of communicatio The most satisfactory means of communication is a language equally well known to the buyer n is a language equally well known to the buyer and the seller.and the seller.

4. It is possible to arrange to do some 4. It is possible to arrange to do some deals with minimal language, but hardly deals with minimal language, but hardly possible to do without it altogether.possible to do without it altogether.

5. English is currently the most 5. English is currently the most commonly used language of international commonly used language of international deals between Asian and other countries. deals between Asian and other countries. This situation may change in the future.This situation may change in the future.

ACTIVITY 2Communicating Somehow Across Language Barriers

1. Pidgins are languages for a very narrow range of purposes—those that have to do with coastal trades.2. Pidgins develop wherever traders went to do business (a) with people with whom they do not share a common language and (b) where there is no lingua franca for them to use.

3. Most pidgins are mixtures of Asian or African languages and those of major European trading nations—Spain and Portugal, Holland, France and Germany, and Britain.

4. In general the sound and grammatical systems of a pidgin are those of the language used locally: The vocabulary is supplied by the voyagers.

5. Pidgins were not as a rule written down: they changed rapidly, they were quickly learned by those who needed them, and when trading stopped they were discarded and soon forgotten. There must have been many pidgins of which we have no record.

6. They are makeshift languages, and evidence of human inventiveness.

7. They have very low prestige. Users of the language that provides the vocabulary hear them as fumbling attempts to speak as they do! People of every race tend to think of foreigners as childish, and the use of pidgins tends to stangthen or reinforce, that idea.

ACTIVITY 3ACTIVITY 3New Languages in the MakingNew Languages in the Making

1. Differences between a pidgin and a creole: A 1. Differences between a pidgin and a creole: A pidgin, but not a creole, has only some of the fpidgin, but not a creole, has only some of the functions of language.unctions of language.

2. Ways in which pidgins and creoles are simila2. Ways in which pidgins and creoles are similar: Pidgins and creoles are both mixed languager: Pidgins and creoles are both mixed languages—usually mixtures of languages belonging to s—usually mixtures of languages belonging to different families.different families.

3. What is meant by saying that English has so3. What is meant by saying that English has some creolised features?me creolised features?

Some varieties of English include some, but noSome varieties of English include some, but not all the features of a creole.t all the features of a creole.

4. Why do speakers of varieties of English that 4. Why do speakers of varieties of English that have features sometimes have difficulties in an have features sometimes have difficulties in an English-using educational system?English-using educational system?

Their difficulties arise from the differences betTheir difficulties arise from the differences between their mother tongue and the Standard Eween their mother tongue and the Standard English used in schools.nglish used in schools.

5. Give an example of a creole currently used a5. Give an example of a creole currently used as a national language:s a national language:

Tok Pisin is a Creole, with English and German Tok Pisin is a Creole, with English and German vocabulary, currently in use as a national langvocabulary, currently in use as a national language.uage.

ACTIVITY 5ACTIVITY 5Faxed English for Faxed English for

International BusinessInternational Business 1. Faxed English is a major means of 1. Faxed English is a major means of

communication in international communication in international business.business.

2. At present it is learned on the job, 2. At present it is learned on the job, rather than deliberately taught.rather than deliberately taught.

3. It works well for several reasons:3. It works well for several reasons: (1) Users are highly motivated to (1) Users are highly motivated to

make it work. Their livelihoods make it work. Their livelihoods depend on it.depend on it.

(2) Users have what is needed—detailed (2) Users have what is needed—detailed knowledge of the context, which knowledge of the context, which increases as they gain experience.increases as they gain experience.

(3) Users for whom English is an (3) Users for whom English is an additional language find it easy to use additional language find it easy to use because mistakes are expected and because mistakes are expected and ignored, not criticized. It is informal. ignored, not criticized. It is informal. Nobody expects or wants polite Nobody expects or wants polite indirectness! Headings show changes of indirectness! Headings show changes of subject, and abbreviations make it brief.subject, and abbreviations make it brief.

HOMEWORK

• Explain the following concepts:• 1. Pidgin• 2. Creole • 3. Slang• 4. Black English