Unit 7: Reconstruction and Politics

Goals of this Unit• To understand that after the soaring ideals and tremendous sacrifices of the

Civil War, the post-war era was generally one of disillusionment with rampant political corruption, regional animosity, rapid industrialization, ethnic conflict, and a disparity of wealth in America.

• To realize that while Reconstruction did address difficult issues of reform and racial justice for in the South and achieved some successes, it was ultimately abandoned, leaving a deep legacy of racial and sectional bitterness.

• To be able to explain that cultural differences, different constituencies, deeply felt local issues, and controversial economic policies fueled intense party competition and unprecedented voter participation, led to several unsuccessful reform movements.

• To recognize that the Compromise of 1877, which put an end to Reconstruction, allowed for an oppressive social and economic structure to return to the South, leading to racial supremacy and segregation for decades to come.

The Reconstruction• “Freedmen” – freed slaves in tough

situation:– Most stayed (either by choice or force)

on plantation• U.S. Army freed all slaves eventually

– Some fled North– Some rioted against former masters

• New social structure for blacks is shaky– Churches grow and become pillar of

black community• Freedman’s Bureau created to help

blacks adjust to free life – provided food, clothing, education– Improved literacy, failed in most other

areas– Disliked by Southerners, Pres. Johnson

President Andrew Johnson

• Tennessee Democrat chosen by Lincoln to balance ticket in 1864 election– Was only Southern Congressman

to not secede• Disliked by both North and

South• Stubborn, confrontational,

short-tempered white supremacist

The Reconstruction Plan

• Lincoln’s plan: “The 10% Plan”– Southern states could rejoin the U.S. after 10% of

the voters take oath of loyalty and respect for emancipation

• Plan seen as very forgiving• Radical Republicans wanted to punish South

– Propose Wade-Davis Bill – up to 50%, add laws to protect freed blacks

– Lincoln vetoes – why?

The Reconstruction Plan

• Lincoln assassinated• Johnson adds some changes:

– Former Confeds cannot vote– Secession ordinances repealed– U.S. repudiated Confed debts– States must ratify the 13th amendment

• Outlaws slavery

• South’s social structure & workforce demolished and disassembled

The Black Codes• White Southerners pass

“Black Codes”– Laws designed to keep freed

blacks under control of their white employers

• “Contracts” forcing blacks to work for whites

– Very discriminatory• Blacks given little rights,

punishable offenses

• Northerners outraged

Battle for Congress• North dominated Congress during war

– Passed many major bills during war• Dec 1865 – Johnson allows all Southern states

to rejoin the U.S.– Southern politicians return to Congress

• Could gain more representation now than before– Three-Fifths Compromise eradicated now

Johnson vs. Congress

• Johnson vetoed all Republican bills– Civil Rights Bill – grants blacks citizenship, weakens Black Codes

• Congress creates 14th Amendment – Blacks get citizenship

• Didn’t guarantee suffrage– States lose Congressional representation if blacks were denied

voting– Confederate leaders banned from federal offices

• Johnson battles Congress with “round the circle” speeches – backfires

• Ratified by states in 1868

Congressional Reconstruction• Republicans now in control of

Reconstruction– Split: Radicals vs. Moderates

• Radical Reps:– Led by Sen. Charles Sumner and

Thaddeus Stevens• From Sumner-Brooks Affair (1856)

– Wanted a slow Reconstruction to institute major social and economic changes to South

• Moderate Reps:– Wanted a more “hands-off”

approach to Reconstruction• Both groups wanted black

suffrage

The Reconstruction Act• Passed March 1867• Divides South into 5 military districts

– Army occupied each to maintain order• Southern states not fully readmitted to U.S. until:

– 14th Amendment is ratified– Black suffrage guaranteed

• Radical Reps pass 15th Amendment in 1870 to ensure suffrage cannot be removed

Progression of Black Rights

• 13th amendment – abolishes slavery• 14th amendment – makes ex-slaves citizens• 15th amendment – protects black suffrage

14th Amendment

• “The right to vote at any election… is denied to any of the male inhabitants of such State, being twenty-one years of age, and citizens of the United States, or in any way abridged… (if violated) the basis of representation therein shall be reduced in the proportion which the number of such male citizens shall bear to the whole number of male citizens twenty-one years of age in such State.”

15th Amendment

“The rights of citizens of the U.S. to vote shall not be denied or abridged by the U.S. or by any state on account of race, color, or previous condition of servitude”

What is controversial about the language used in the 14th and 15th amendments?

Women Suffrage

• 14th amendment refers to citizens as “males”

• 15th amendment claims voting can’t be denied by race, color, or previous servitude– Women outraged, feel left out, see

opportunity• Elizabeth Cady Stanton, Susan B. Anthony

lead women’s movement– Fought to keep these amendments from

entering Constitution without guaranteeing women’s suffrage

• Failed – amendments passed

Reconstruction in Action• Blacks begin to organize, create

Union League– Web of associations working

together to help black communities, consolidate political power, etc.

– Many white southerners temporarily unable to vote leads to blacks gaining power politically

– Hiram Revels becomes first black Senator (1870)

• White Southerners infuriated– Blacks freed, serving over whites in

Congress and state legislatures– “Scalawags” – whites who were

sympathetic towards North– “Carpetbaggers” – Northerners who

moved to South after the war• Some came to help, some came to

profit, some swindled• Underground movement among

White Southerners gaining strength…

Southern White Retaliation

• The Ku Klux Klan– “The Invisible Empire of the South”– Formed in Tennessee (1866)– Thrived on fear, unknown membership– Threatened, lynched, murdered blacks– Effective in slowing down black

progress• White Southerners use political tricks

to disenfranchise blacks– Started “literacy tests” as requirement

to vote• Targets illiterate blacks – problem?

– Add “grandfather clauses” to protect illiterate whites

• Allows voting rights to any citizen who’s grandfather could vote

Congress vs. Johnson

• Johnson impeding Congressional Reconstruction– Radical Reps plot to impeach Johnson

• Pass Tenure of Office Act (1867)– President needs Senate approval to fire anyone

who had been previously appointed to him– Rational: Senate approves appointees when hired,

thus should approve when fired– Johnson wants to replace Sec. of War Edwin

Stanton• Appointed by Lincoln• Conspiring against Johnson with Radical Republicans

– Lose-lose for Johnson, Win-Win for Congress:• Allow Stanton to stay – Radical Reps happy• Fire Stanton – breaking the law, could be impeached

Impeachment?

• Johnson fires Stanton in 1868• Congress votes to impeach Johnson on “high crimes and

misdemeanors”– Generally due to all of Johnson’s misdoings during Reconstruction,

specifically due to firing Stanton• Impeachment trials:

– Johnson remains silent– His lawyers argue he was acting under Constitution, not Tenure of Office

Act– Senate needs 2/3 to support impeachment, fall short by one vote– Johnson remains in office– Radical Republicans claim the non-guilty verdict as a “dangerous

precedent”

Purchase of Alaska• Russia willing to sell Alaska• William H. Steward – Johnson’s Sec. of

State– Expansionist, pushed for purchase of

Alaska• Unpopular campaign

– “Seward’s Folly”, “Seward’s Icebox”– Eventually gains enough support in Senate

• Purchased for $ 7.2 million– Seward scorned for purchase– Adds to Johnson’s unpopularity– Vindicated long after death – gold and oil

discovered

Legacy of Reconstruction• Reconstruction just as bad as the war for South

– Loss of infrastructure, economy, political power, massive physical destruction

• Causes decades of animosity– South felt beaten down, humiliated– Civil War referred to as “War of Northern Aggression”

• Emancipation gives somewhat false hope to blacks– Progress made with 13th, 14th, 15th Amendments– But in some cases, had it better in “antebellum” times– Violence, tricky politics keep blacks down

• Significant progress not made again until the 1950s and 60s

“The Gilded Age” (1870-1900)“Gilded” – Covered thinly with gold paint

Times appeared great…– Railroads– Industry booms– Westward Expansion– Relative Peace– Wealth

…but numerous problems:– Corruption– Crooked business

practices– Tight and chaotic

political races – Ethnic conflict– Wealth Gaps

Political Division of the Gilded Age• Republicans:

– Supported in North and West– Grand Army of the Republic (G.A.R.)

• Military veteran group devout to Republican party– Allude to Puritan ancestry– Most political power after Civil War

• Democrats:– Supported mostly by the South– Supported by Lutherans and Catholics– Very little political power after Civil War

• Various political parties emerge during era in response to problems of the Gilded Age: corruption, economy, labor rights, etc.

Election of 1868Ulysses S. Grant

vs.Horatio Seymour

• Grant and the Republicans (Radical):– Radicals needed a strong president to enforce their policies– Grant had no political experience – Reps. relying on what?– War-hero, slogan: “wave the bloody shirt”

• Hoping military heroics would be enough to win election• Seymour and the Democrats:

– Seymour a former Governor from NY– Party extremely disorganized

• Agreed on only one thing:– Dislike of military Reconstruction

• Grant narrowly wins election – what does this imply?– Political campaigns now tightening up, more efficiently run

Grant’s Reconstruction• Implemented Radical Rep policies of Reconstruction• Protection of equal rights for blacks

– Civil Rights Act (1875)• Creates Dept. of Justice

– Helps prosecute KKK leaders, members• Used military to:

– Enforce fair voting practices– Quell KKK violence

• Grant’s support would slowly decline during terms:– Why?– Mission already accomplished: many felt Reconstruction

was largely complete by 1870– Corruption…

Corruption• Time period AKA “The Era of Good

Stealings”• Widespread corruption after Civil War• “Jubilee”Jim Fisk & Jay Gould:

– Caught with scheme to cornerstone gold market

• Boss Tweed:– Ran “Tammany Hall”, a political organzation

in NYC– Bribes, rigged elections, cronyism– Prosecuted by Samuel J. Tilden

Corruption• Credit Mobilier scandal:

– Railroad company caught fixing hiring process to get paid double

– Bribed Congressmen and VP Schuyler Colfax with stocks

• “Whiskey Ring”:– Revenue from liquor tax being stolen– Large ring of government workers & Grant’s

secretary– Grant: “Let no man escape” – doesn’t

prosecute secretary• William Belknap:

– Grant’s Sec. of War caught swindling $24,000 from Indians

Grant’s Presidency• Grant a very honest man – not

involved in any scandals…• But still condemned as corrupt:

– Major corruption in administration– Failed to recognize it– Failed to deal with it properly

• Reformers form own party to combat crooked Republicans: Liberal Republican Party– Included both ex-Reps and ex-

Dems– Main goal: clean up government

corruption

Election of 1872Ulysses S. Grant

vs. Horace Greeley

• Republican Grant tries for second term• Horace Greeley nominee for Liberal Republicans• Editor of NY Tribune, little political experience

– Stubborn abolitionist, and harsh critic of Democrats– Still gets support from Southern Dems – why?

• Soft on Southern Reconstruction• Dems desperately eager to gain office

• Extreme mudslinging:– Greeley called an atheist, communist, vegetarian, Confederate

sympathizer– Grant: drunk, stupid, swindler

Effects of Election of 1872

• Popular vote was close enough to scare Reps• Republican Congress begins to reform:

– The Amnesty Act (1872)• Removed voting and office-holding restrictions on many

ex-Confederates– Efforts to reduce tariff rates

• Would help Southern economy– Clean up the corruption in Grant’s administration

• Fired any workers involved in any past scandals

Panic of 1873• Industrialization of U.S. caused over-growth

– Railroads & manufacturing boom• Economic downturns every twenty years in 1800s:

(1819, 1837, 1857, 1873, 1893)• Panic of 1873: What caused it?

– Over-speculation• Overspending, overinvesting with borrowed money• Railroads and factories specifically

– Banks giving too-easy credit• Young American industry hit hard• Black communities hurt especially – why?

– Economic downturn → less jobs → last to be hired• Debate ensues on how to fix economy…

“Soft Money” vs. “Hard” Money

• AKA “Cheap Money”• Policies call for forced inflation• Paper currency – fluctuating

value• Would ease debt payments of

masses• Supported by middle and lower

classes

• Policies keep amount of money stable by keeping it correlated with amount of gold

• Coin currency – defined value• Inflation unfair: lent money

would be less valuable once paid back

• Supported by wealthy, banks

SOLUTION: • Grant supports hard money policy, passes Resumption Act:• Aimed to lower paper money in circulation & phase it out• Backfires: starts “contraction” – amount of money in circulation decreases → worsens recession → value of dollar bill increases• “Greenback” Labor Party emerges in 1878 – main goal:

CHEAP MONEY POLICIES

Election of 1876• Grant’s two terms complete• Republican split redevelops:

• “Stalwarts” (Radicals) led by Roscoe Conkling• “Half-Breeds” (Moderates) led by James G.

Blaine– Agree to nominate Rutherford B. Hayes

• The “Great Unknown”• Neutral Republican• From Ohio (important swing state)

• Democrats nominate Samuel Tilden– Famous for prosecuting Boss Tweed

Election of 1876Rutherford B. Hayes

vs. Samuel Tilden

• Tilden gets 51% of popular vote, but falls one electoral vote short of winning election

• But 20 votes disputed due to questionable process of return and handling

• Near chaos ensues:– Both Reps and Dems send officials to investigate…

• Both sides claim victory– Recount called for – but who in Congress would count?

• Democratic majority in House, Republican majority in Senate– Congress creates “Electoral Count Act” which sets up

commission of 15 men to solve crisis – problem?• Uneven number: 8 Republicans, 7 Democrats

– Republicans claim victory, Democrats filibuster to stop process…

Compromise of 1877• North gets:– Hayes elected as Republican

president• South gets:

– Removal of military occupation• Reconstruction now officially over• Effects of Compromise of 1877:

– Southern blacks unprotected now– White Southerners regain more

political power• Civil Rights Act of 1875 significantly cut

back• Pass Jim Crow Laws

Jim Crow Laws• Many laws created to keep blacks in subservient role

in South– Many blacks were sharecroppers:– Farmed land they didn’t own, paid landlords with crops– System abused, designed to keep blacks poor

Jim Crow Laws• Many states had begun to legalize segregation –

constitutional?• Forced segregation in all public facilities:

– Schools, theaters, restrooms, transportation• Violation could result in fines, imprisonment,

violence• Mob lynchings peak during this era• 1896 – Plessy v. Ferguson – Supreme Court ruled it

legal – “separate but equal”

Separate Yes… but Equal?

Class Conflict• 1877 – 4 largest railroad

companies agree to cut wages by 10%– Workers strike, railroads shut

down– Cripples industry, transportation– Hayes uses federal troops to

suppress violent strike – Several weeks pass – workers

lose• Shows weakness of labor

movement

Ethnic Conflict• Chinese immigration– Many young, poor Chinese men

emigrate to California– Find jobs building railroads– Job competition with Irish– Chinese willing to work for lower

wages• San Francisco – Denis Kearney

forms Irish gang– Terrorizes Chinese community

• Chinese Exclusion Act (1882)– Immigration from China cut off– First immigration restriction in

America• Why were the Chinese

targeted?

Election of 1880

• Reps nominate James A. Garfield– “Dark horse” from Ohio– Running mate: Chester Arthur (a Stalwart)

• Dems nominate Gen. Winfield Scott Hancock– Civil War veteran, no political experience

• Popular vote close, but electoral vote gives Garfield the win

Garfield’s Presidency• Heated feud between

Stalwarts and Half-Breeds– Hindered any progress for

Garfield• July 1881 – Garfield

assassinated– Shot by Charles J. Guiteau

(Stalwart)– Dies in September– VP Chester Arthur (Stalwart)

takes over

President Chester Arthur

• A Stalwart, but more reform-minded than other Stalwarts

• (1883) – Pendleton Act passed– Political reform calling for merit

based hiring for government jobs– Civil Service Commission created

to enforce act– Effects: Only applied to 10% of

federal jobs but…• Stopped worst offenses of cronyism• Stepping stone to future reform

Election of 1884

• Reps nominate James G. Blaine – Half-Breed leader– Blaine not very reform minded– Reps wanting reform abandoned and supported Dems

• “Mugwumps”

• Dems nominate Grover Cleveland– From New Jersey, but supported by South– Seen as a man of principle, honest

• Extreme mudslinging• Cleveland wins very close election

President Grover Cleveland• First democrat elected since 1857 (James Buchanan)

– Democratic majority in Congress • Believed in “laissez-faire” capitalism

– Pleased big businesses, upsets working class• Names two former-Confeds to cabinet

– Aims to mend North and South• Wants to follow merit system

– But pressure mounts from Dems– Replaces 40,000 Reps with Dems

• Military pensions– Powerful G.A.R. pushing bills to raise already high pension– Many passed – seen as exploitation – Cleveland (not a veteran) in tough spot:– Doesn’t want to disrespect and outrage veterans– Vetoes many pension bills

President Grover Cleveland• Budget surplus

– Extra money in government budget from high tariff• Two options to use it:

– Invest it– Lower taxes

• Chooses to lower the tariff• Reps, Dems, businesses – Who supports this? Who

doesn’t?– Dems support lowered tariff– Reps and business owners support higher tariff

• Debate ensues, leads into election of 1888

Election of 1888

• Dems nominate Cleveland• Reps nominate Benjamin Harrison

– From Indiana– Grandson of Old Tippecanoe

• Benjamin wins very close race

Return of a Republican Congress• Republicans win back power in Congress• Elect Thomas “Czar” Reed as Speaker of the House

– Ran House like a dictator– Tall, tough debater, vicious rhetoric– Dems resist, refuse to answer roll call– No roll call = no quorum = no meeting

Return of a Republican Congress• Republicans win back power in Congress• Elect Thomas “Czar” Reed as Speaker of the House

– Ran House like a dictator– Tall, tough debater, vicious rhetoric– Dems resist, refuse to answer roll call– No roll call = no quorum = no meeting– Reed changes role call stipulations

and proceeds with meetings• With no opposition in the House:

– More hard money policies enacted– Military pensions increase

• 1890 – McKinley Tariff– Increases tariff to 48%

Political Discontent• 1892 – Populist Party emerges

– AKA People’s Party• Demanded:

– Mostly inflation and “cheap money” policies– Graduated income tax– Higher salary = higher income tax– More government regulation on big business– Direct election of U.S. senators– “Initiative and Referendum”

• The people can propose laws, vote to pass them– Shorter working day– Immigration restrictions

• Who does this party represent?– Farmers, working class, common people

Election of 1892

• Dems nominate Cleveland again• Reps nominate Harrison again• Populist Party nominate James B. Weaver

– Southern support – why?• Farmers, targeted Northern business

– South withdraws support from Populist ticket – go back to Dems – why?– Populist party tried to help blacks vote – upsets white Southerners

• Cleveland wins election• Populist Party does relatively well in election• Threatened white southerners tighten black voting rights

– Literacy tests and grandfather clause

Cleveland’s 2nd Presidency• Depression of 1893 hits – ironic?

– Cleveland now has budget deficit, not a surplus– Gold supply dangerously low

• Cleveland makes deal with J.P. Morgan and other bankers– Loan U.S. $65 million in gold to fix problem

• Cleveland loses popularity– Image of “common man’s president” takes hit with JP

Morgan deal– Promises to lower taxes fail with weak Wilson-Gorman

Tariff• Looked like Cleveland was helping rich, not the poor