unlock chap21 2

7/29/2019 Unlock Chap21 2

1/36

A Global ChronologyGlobal Chronology

Scientific/cientific/Technologicalechnological

British author GeorgeOrwell writesAnimal Farm.

1945 Jackie Robinson becomes firstAfrican American major-league

baseball player.

1947

Jonas Salk discoversvaccine against polio.

1954

Politicalolitical

Social/Culturalocial/Cultural

Cubanmissile crisis occurs.

1962KoreanWar begins.

1950 Six-Day War isfought in Middle East.

1967

United States landsastronauts on the moon.

1969

1945 19551950 19651960 1970

1968 The film 2001:A Space Odyssey is released.

1945Present

The ContemporaryWorldChapter 21

The Cold War

Chapter 22

Asia and the Pacific

Chapter 23

Africa

Chapter 24

The Middle East

Chapter 25

Latin America

Chapter 26

The World in

Transition

International tension continued after World War

II. Two blocs of nations aligned themselves behindthe United States and the Soviet Union to dominate world politics.

The two sides fought a cold war using economic powers, diplomacy,

espionage, and the threat of nuclear war. When the cold war ended,

leaders struggled to address the long-standing problems of national-

ism, poverty in the developing nations, unequal distribution of

resources, and environmental damage.

The pace of scientific and technological change quickened.

Satellite communications and computers linked in a global network

offered undreamed of challenges and opportunities. When you turn

on your computer, remember that it has been just a few years since

this technology was invented. No one can guess the nature or

degree of change it will bring to your future.

hen

Now

634

Uni t 6

See pages 802803 forprimary source readingsthat accompany Unit 6.


2/36

John Paul II becomesfirst pope from Poland.1978

U. S. troopsleave Vietnam; oilembargo begins.

1973 BerlinWall falls.1989 Soviet Union

breaks up; cold warends.

1991

Disaster at USSRs Chernobylnuclear power plant leaks radiation intothe atmosphere.

1986Invention of themicroprocessor launchescomputer revolution.

1971

Czechoslovakiadivides into CzechRepublic and Slovakia.

1993

1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 20

1999 The worldpopulation reachessix billion.

Computer Pentium chip

In the twentieth century, the space race devel-oped as a competition between countries toexcel in developing space technology, resultingin the landing of a man on the moon.

To better understand this time period,view videodisc Chapter 8: The Moon Landingin Turning Points in World History.

and

635


3/36

The United States

Satellite Communications

In October 1957, a special announcement interrupted radiobroadcasts across the United States. Listen now for thesound which forever separates the old from the new, said the

broadcaster. Then a transmission from outer spacean eeriebeep beep beep.

The former Soviet Union had taken the lead in spaceexploration by launching a tiny communications satellitenamed Sputnik I. A crudely simple device by todays stan-dards, the first satellite could do little more than beam backradio signals. In the cold war era, however, it sent shockwaves through American society.

Three years later, the United States launched Echo andCourier. Instead of beeps, these satellites relayed telephonecalls between Europe and the United States. In 1962, theUnited States launched Telstarthe first satellite to relay livetelevision programs from one place to another. By the 1980s

people around the world with satellite dish antennas couldtune in to hundreds of television programs. The effect was rev-olutionary. Repressive governments in Eastern Europe andelsewhere could not legislate against free speech beameddown from the skies.

The invention of writingreshaped history. So didJohannes Gutenbergs

use of movable type. Today electronicstechnology is moving communicationsforward at a startling rate. Two of thebiggest changes have been the linkingof people around the world via satellitebroadcasts and the creation of a vastcomputer network known as the Internet.

Telstar

SpreadThe

of

The

ofSpread

IdeasIdeas

United States

Africa

China

Communications

636 Unit 6

Scientist and Soviet

Sputnik I


4/36

China

Satellite Dishes

In the 1990s, satellite dishes sprouted likemushrooms across the Peoples Republic of China.Star TV, a pan-Asian satellite service, boomed

down Mandarin-speaking rappers out of HongKong, English broadcasts of CNN News, NFLfootball games, and movies from Japan. Theuncensored broadcasts enraged government offi-cials. However, a 1993 ban against satellite dishesproved nearly impossible to enforce. Even whileofficials tried to dismantle the thousands of largedishes, kits for smaller dishes were being smug-gled into the country.

The example of China was repeated in othernations with repressive policies. Iran, Myanmar(Burma), and other countries tried and failed to

ban satellite reception. Even free governments,such as India, expressed concern about the cul-tural invasion, but satellite television, a part ofthe information age, was here to stay.

LINKING THE IDEAS

1. How did the revolution in satellite communi-cations get its start?

2. How has this revolution affected nondemo-cratic political systems?

Critical Thinking

3. Drawing Conclusions How has the revolu-tion in communications made our world moreinterdependent?

High school students accessing the Internet

Satellite dish

Africa

The Internet

A telephone line, a modem, and a personal computerthatis all someone needs to jump on the information super-highway.Internet Web sites can be accessed globally, connecting computer

users on every continent.In Africa, UNESCO is helping thePan-African News Agency to link to theInternet. The project will help Africans over-come one of the legacies of imperialismacommunications system that linked Africannations with European capitals rather thanwith each other. The driving force behindthe project, a Senegalese journalist namedBabacar Fall, sees the Internet as one of thekeys to unlocking Africas economic poten-tial. Without information, explained Fall,there can be no development.


5/36

John F. Kennedy becomes

President of the United States.

1961

The United States and

the Soviet Union conclude theSALT I agreement.

1972

Democracies in NorthAmerica and Western Europeform NATO.

1949

Treaty of Rome

establishes the European

Common Market.

1957

1975196519551945

21Chap t e r

19451979

The Cold War

> Conflict A cold war developsbetween the United States and the

Soviet Union, the two superpowers

after World War II. Section 1

> Change The Soviet Union tries tomove away from the legacy of Stal-

in while maintaining its control

over Eastern Europe. Section 2

> Regionalism Western Europeandemocracies develop closer region-

al unity. Section 3

> Cooperation The United Statesand Canada build strong economiesand forge closer ties. Section 4

SThe

toryteller

In 1948 the city of West Berlin was an island in the middle

of a hostile sea. The Soviets had cut off all land routes into the

German city in the hope of driving out the Western Allies. For

11 months the United States airlifted food to 2 million stranded

residents in West Berlin.One day while his plane was on the ground in West Berlin,

an American pilot, Lieutenant Gale S. Halvorsen, met a group

of German children. Although they had received few sweets to

eat during the blockade, they did not beg. He told them to wait

for his plane at the end of the airport runway the next day. The

children came, and, to their delight, packets of gum and choco-

late showered down from Halvorsens plane.

Soon other pilots joined Operation Little Vittles, and thecrowds of children grew. The children named Halvorsen the

Chocolate Pilot.

What developments led to a cold war between the

Western democracies and the Soviet Union? How did this

East-West split affect world affairs during the next 40 years?

Historical Significance

638

Chapter Themes


6/36

Chapter 21 The Cold War 639

Interview people who can rememberthe early period of the cold war. Evaluatethe reliability of their accounts by ana-

lyzing their background, biases, andcloseness to the events.

Your History Journal

During the Soviet era, vast numbers of military vehicles andmarchers paraded past Soviet leaders in Moscows famous Red

Square to celebrate May Day (May 1st), the Communist workers holiday.

HistoryVisualizing

Chapter Overview

Visit the World History: The Modern EraWeb

site at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and clickon Chapter 21Chapter Overviewto preview

the chapter.


7/36

The United States and the Soviet Unionemerged from World War II as theworlds two superpowers. No other

countries were equal to them in military power orpolitical influence. Differences in political beliefsand policies soon pulled the two superpowersapart and led to a struggle between them known as

the cold war. In the cold war, each superpowersought world influence by means short of total war.This was because the possibility of nuclear warmade the costs of a hot war too high. Theweapons used in the cold war included the threatof force, the use of propaganda, and the sending ofmilitary and economic aid to weaker nations.

The United NationsIn the closing months of World War II, the

Allies started planning for the postwar world. Tohandle future global problems, they had agreed atYalta to replace the League of Nations with theUnited Nations, a new, permanent internationalorganization. The purpose of the United Nations(UN) was to maintain peace by guaranteeing thesecurity of member nations. It would foster goodrelations among nations based on the principles ofequal rights and self-determination. It would alsoencourage cooperation on economic, cultural, andhumanitarian problems.

In April 1945, representatives from 50 nationsgathered in San Francisco to draft the Charter of

the United Nations, which was completed andsigned in June. The United Nations, headquarteredin New York City, held its first sessions in 1946.

Although the UN Charter provided for sixmajor bodies, it assigned the bulk of power to onlytwo of themthe Security Council and the GeneralAssembly. The Security Council, established todecide diplomatic, political, and military disputes,was made up of 11 members. The five permanentmembers were Great Britain, China, France, the

640 Chapter 21 The Cold War

The United Statesannounces the Truman Doctrineand the Marshall Plan.

1947 Soviets andEast Germans buildthe Berlin Wall.

1961West Germanyjoins NATO.1955

1945 19651955

Nikita Khrushchev recalled the beginning of

the arms race: We are surrounded by American

air bases. For many years after the war,

bombers were to represent the major threat in our

enemys arsenal of weapons. It took time and a

great deal of work for us to develop a bomber force

on our own. Two of our famous designers

developed the MiG-15, which

in time was acknowledged as

the best jet fighter in the

world. However, our supe-

riority was short-lived.

During the Korean War the

U.S. started making a jetfighter that was better than

the MiG-15, and soon the

Americans ruled the air over

Korea.

from Khrushchev

Remembers, The Last

Testament, translated and

edited by Strobe Talbott,

1974

S e c t i on 1

The East-West Split

SThe

toryteller

Nikita Khrushchev

> Terms to Define

superpower, cold war, satellite, iron

curtain, containment, arms race,

ideology, bloc

> People to Meet

Joseph Stalin, Harry S Truman,George C. Marshall

> Places to Locate

San Francisco, Greece, West Berlin

Read to Find OutMain Idea Key events caused andheightened the cold war.


8/36

United States, and the Soviet Union. Each wasgiven the right to veto any Security Council deci-sion. The other six members served two-year terms.The General Assembly, the policy-making body,was made up of representatives from all UN mem-

ber nations. Each nation had one vote.The third body, the Economic and Social Coun-

cil, oversaw the fights against poverty, ignorance,and disease. The fourth, the International Court of

Justice, handled international legal disputes. Thefifth, the Trusteeship Council, promoted the welfare

of people in colonial territories and helped themtoward self-rule. The sixth, the Secretariat, handledthe UNs administrative work.

During the postwar period, the UN effectivelyresolved many crises. However, the right of vetogiven to the Security Councils permanent mem-

bers made the UN powerless to resolve any disputeinvolving the United States and the Soviet Union.The United Nations became deadlocked. It wascriticized as being a debating societyfar fromwhat the signers of the Charter had hoped itwould be.

From Allies to Arch EnemiesAfter World War II, the Western Alliesthe

United States, Great Britain, and Francebelievedthe best way to achieve security was to strengthendemocracy and to build prosperous economies inEurope. The Soviets, however, had different goals.Historically, they had well-justified fears of inva-sion and had lost more than 20 million people in

World War II. The Soviet dictatorJoseph Stalin want-ed to establish pro-Soviet governments in EasternEurope not only to prevent any future attacks but alsoto expand his empire. He made sure Eastern Europe'sCommunist parties were loyal to him and worked tostrengthen their position throughout the region.

President Franklin D. Roosevelt had believedthat postwar cooperation with Stalin was possible,although he was starting to change his mind short-ly before his death in April 1945. In the monthsafterward, Roosevelts successor, President Harry S

Truman, and other leaders adopted a much darkerview of Stalin. They concluded that the Sovietdictator wanted to control Eastern Europe with thesame ruthlessness that he used to govern theSoviet Union.

The Iron CurtainEastern Europe thus became the first region

where Soviet and Western interests came into con-flict. In Albania and Yugoslavia, local Communistparties, which had led the resistance against Axisforces in their countries, took control with little helpfrom the Soviets. In Poland, Romania, and Bulgaria,where Soviet troops were in full command, theSoviet Union made sure that government ministriesincluded Communists. Later, breaking his promisemade at Yalta, Stalin refused to allow free elections.Non-Communists were ousted from governments,and Communists took charge. By 1947, most ofthe nations of the region had become Sovietsatellites, controlled by the Soviet Union.


All seemed well

when American

and Soviet forces met at the ElbeRiver in April 1945. What events in

Eastern Europe changed the American

attitude toward the Soviet Union?

HistoryVisualizing


9/36

Stalins actions in Eastern Europe convincedPresident Truman that the United States had to resistfurther Soviet moves. Truman was backed by Britishstatesman Winston Churchill. In March 1946,Churchill had first used the phrase iron curtain ina speech in Fulton, Missouri: From Stettin in theBaltic to Trieste in the Adriatic an iron curtain hasdescended across the continent of Europe.Thereafter, iron curtain referred to the Soviet-madedivider that split Europe into non-CommunistWestern Europe and Communist Eastern Europe.

Containing CommunismTo counter any expansionist threat from the

Soviet Union, the United States developed a new

foreign policy in 1947. The idea for the new policywas presented in early 1947 by George Kennan, aState Department expert on the Soviet Union.Believing that the Soviets sought to expand theirterritory without war, he suggested a policy ofcontainmentholding back the spread of commu-nism. By standing firm, the United States hoped tokeep communism inside its existing borders.

The Truman Doctrine

In the spring of 1947, President Truman appliedthe containment policy for the first time in the east-ern Mediterranean. In Greece, local Communistswere fighting a guerrilla war against the pro-Western monarchy. They were aided byCommunists from neighboring Yugoslavia andAlbania. The West feared that the fall of Greece to


Black Sea

NorthSea

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

Balt

icS

ea

Adria

ticSea

Mediterranean Sea

Casp

ianSea

60N

50N

40N

15W30W 45E 60E30E15E0

NORWAY

SWEDEN

UNION OF SOVIETSOCIALIST REPUBLICS

FEDERAL

REPUBLIC OFGERMANY

GERMANDEMOCRATIC

REPUBLIC

FRANCE

DENMARK

SPAIN

POLAND

ROMANIA

TURKEY

HUNGARY

ALBANIA

AUSTRIA

BULGARIA

BRITAIN

ICELAND

FINLAND

REPUBLIC OFIRELAND

ITALY

SWITZER-LAND

NETHER-LANDS

BELGIUM

LUXEMBOURG

GREECE

Lambert Conic Conformal Projection

0 250

250

500 mi.

0 500 km

N

E

S

W

Warsaw Pact member

Communist nationoutside Soviet bloc

Neutral nation

NATO member

PORTUG

AL

NORTH AFRICA

Corsica

Sardinia

Crete Cyprus

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

YUGOSLA

VIA

Europe 19451955

After World War II, Europe became divided between the Soviet and Western

spheres of influence.

Place What nations of Europe remained neutral?

MapStudy


10/36


In 1961 Soviet Premier Nikita Khrushchev (left)and United States President John F. Kennedy helda cold war meeting. Khrushchev insisted thattroops of the Soviet Unions former World War II

AlliesFrance, Great Britain, and the United Statesmust leave West Berlin. The Allies part of Berlin wasentirely inside East Germany, a nation separate fromWest Germany and an ally of the Soviet Union.Kennedy refused, believing that the Soviets would takecontrol over West Berlin if the Allies departed. Twomonths later the Soviets shocked the people of both

Berlinsand the worldby building the Berlin Wall.The Berlin Wall became an important symbol of the

cold war. For nearly a half century after the end of WorldWar II the worlds two superpowers, the United Statesand the Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, dominat-ed the world and fought a cold war. In fact, it was notalways cold. The two powers fought a number ofregional conflicts either directly or through allies,including the Korean and Vietnam Wars. In 1989 theBerlin Wall was torn down; in 1991, the Soviet Unioncrumbled and the cold war came to an end.

Cold War

PICTURING HISTORY

C o r n e l l C a p a

M a g n u m


11/36

communism would endanger Western influence inthe eastern Mediterranean region.

Great Britain was the traditional defender ofthe eastern Mediterranean. Economic weaknesses,however, prevented the British from continuingtheir commitment. In February 1947, Great Britainasked the United States to assume British responsi-

bilities in the area. A month later, Truman asked

Congress for a $400 million aid program for Greeceand Turkey. In asking Congress for support,Truman made a new statement of foreign policythat became known as the Truman Doctrine:

I believe that it must be the policy of theUnited States to support free peopleswho are resisting attempted subjugationby armed minorities or by outside pres-sures. [W]e must assist free peoples towork out their own destiny in their ownway.

Congress approved Trumans aid request. Withthe Truman Doctrine, the United States took on

international responsibilities as the leader of theWestern world. American military aid would now

be available to any nation threatened by commu-nism. As a result, Greece was able to defeat theCommunist guerrillas and the spread of commu-nism in the eastern Mediterranean was blocked.

The Marshall Plan

Conditions in Europe posed immediate andlong-term challenges for the United States. WorldWar II had severely weakened Europeaneconomies. The Truman administration feared thata European economic collapse would open Europeto communism. It believed that the military andeconomic security of the United States dependedon a strong and democratic Europe.

Therefore, the United States governmentdevised a new approach to aiding Europe. On June5, 1947, Secretary of State George C. Marshall pro-posed an aid program known as the Marshall Plan.

Its purpose was to restore the confidence ofEuropean people in the economic future of their

of theof the

Rebuilding EuropeFearing the spread of communism, the

United States adopted strong economic programsto rebuild Europe after World War II. The Sovietsresponded with a rival plan in Eastern Europe.

644

Devastation in thedivided city of Berlin

challenged the resolve ofthe West to restore notonly the structures butthe spirit of the people.


12/36

own countries. For the plan to work, Marshallurged a united effort to determine Europes eco-nomic needs and how the United States could help.

Western European countries responded enthu-siastically to the Marshall Plan; however, the SovietUnion refused to participate in the plan and forcedits Eastern European allies to do the same. Despitetheir great need for economic aid, the Soviets felt

they could not afford to give out information abouttheir economy. They also opposed linking theirCommunist economy with capitalist ones.

The Marshall Plan was a great success. WesternEuropean nations worked together to boost pro-ductivity, reduce trade barriers, and use resourcesefficiently. They received about $13 billion in aidduring the next four years. By 1951, WesternEuropes economies were prospering, and Com-munist prospects in these countries had declined.

The Marshall Plan extended American influ-ence in Western Europe and helped unite the region

into a single economic group to counter the Soviets.In reaction to the Marshall Plan, in 1949 the SovietUnion set up a rival plan known as the Council for

Mutual Economic Assistance, or COMECON.Eastern Europe was thus formed into a competingeconomic group led by the Soviet Union.

Germany DividedIn 1945, Germany had been divided into four

zones, controlled by Great Britain, France, theUnited States, and the Soviet Union. The zones ofthe Western Allies included the western part ofGermany, while the Soviet zone encompassed east-ern Germany. The city of Berlin, deep within theSoviet zone, was also divided into four sectors.

REFLECTING ON THE TIMES

645

1. Why was it difficult for the United States tosend supplies into Berlin in 1948?

2. What is the purpose of the large sign on therailway car delivering goods in Greece?

3. Why did the Soviet Union prevent its alliesfrom participating in the Marshall Plan?

Threatened by revolt, Greecereceived economic aid under theTruman Doctrine until the MarshallPlan went into effect.

Modern Warsaw finallyemerged from behind theiron curtain when Polandoverthrew its Communistgovernment in 1989.

Student Web Activity 21

Visit the World History: The Modern EraWebsite at worldhistory.me.glencoe.com and click onChapter 21Student Web Activitiesfor an activity

relating to the Marshall Plan.


13/36

Zones of Occupation

The Western Allies and the Soviets could notreach agreement on a final peace treaty forGermany. As relations with Stalin soured, the

United States, Great Britain, and France decided toinclude their zones in the Marshall Plan as means tocontain communism.

While the Soviets stripped their German zoneof its industrial resources and equipment, the threeWestern powers aided their zones toward econom-ic recovery. Free elections for local governmentswere held in the Western zones. The United States,Great Britain, and France also agreed to combinetheir sectors of Berlin to form what became knownas the city of West Berlin. They also planned toform an independent West German state by joiningtheir zones of occupation.

The Berlin Blockade

In June 1948, the Soviets tried to block thismerger plan by cutting all land access from theWest into West Berlin. Two million Berlinersdepended on the Western Allies for all their food,fuel, and other needs. The United States and otherWestern countries considered and rejected the ideaof using force to regain access to Berlin. Instead,they came up with a plan to airlift needed supplies

to the isolated city.To keep the city alive,

at least 4,000 tons of sup-plies were needed everyday. Airplanes surpassedthis goal by landing everythree minutes at WestBerlins two airports. At

the peak of the airlift,13,000 tons were landed inone day. The airlift wouldcontinue for 11 months. Itssuccess finally forced theSoviets to lift the blockadein May 1949.

That same month, theWestern Allies went aheadwith their plans to forman independent West Ger-man state. A constitution

was approved that set upa federal system of 10states. In the fall of 1949,the Federal Republic ofGermany, or West Germany,was proclaimed. Its capi-tal was Bonn. The Sovietsthen set up the German

Democratic Republic, or East Germany, with itscapital East Berlin. Thus, Germany was dividedinto two separate countries.

New AlliancesJust before the Berlin blockade, another crisis

had occurred in Europe. In February 1948,Czechoslovakia was taken over by Communistsand incorporated into the Soviet alliance system.The Czechoslovak and Berlin crises heightenedWestern concerns about military defense. In April1949, shortly before the end of the Berlin blockade,the North Atlantic Treaty Organization (NATO)was formed by the United States, Great Britain,France, Belgium, the Netherlands, Luxembourg,Italy, Portugal, Denmark, Iceland, Norway, andCanada. NATO expanded to include Greece andTurkey in 1952 and West Germany in 1955.Members of this military alliance agreed that anattack on one would be considered an attack on all.In response to NATO, the Soviet Union and itsEastern European allies signed a military agreementknown as the Warsaw Pact in 1955.

Later events showed that the purpose of theWarsaw Pact was as much to strengthen the Soviet


North Sea Baltic

Sea

Lambert ConicConformal Projection

0 200 mi.

0 200 km

FRENCH

BRITISH SOVIET

AMERICAN

0 4

4

8 mi.

0 8 km

N

E

S

W

50N

47N

53N

BELGIUM

NETHERLANDS

FRANCE

GERMANY

AUSTRIASWITZER-

LAND

ITALY

Breslau

Berlin

Dresden

Leipzig

Vienna

Munich

Stuttgart

Frankfurt

Bonn

Bremen

Hamburg

Berlin

EASTGERMANY

CZECHOSLOVAKIA

POLAND

U.S.

BRITISH ZONE

BRITISH ZONE

U.S. ZONE

SOVIETZONE

SOVIETZONE

U.S.ZONE

FRENCHZONE

FRENCHZONE

POLISH

ADM

I

NISTRAT

ION

10E 20E

Occupation of Germany and Austria 1945

Germany and Austria were divided into zones.

In 1955, Austria reunited as a neutral country.

Place What zone surrounded Berlin?

MapStudy


14/36

hold on Eastern Europe as to defend it. Soviet troopsstationed in Hungary under the terms of theWarsaw Pact were used to suppress a 1956 uprisingthere. In 1968 the Soviet Union appealed to thetreaty to justify its invasion of Czechoslovakia,which had introduced a liberal form of communism.

Worldwide StruggleThe cold war soon turned into a global strug-

gle. In 1949, the Soviets successfully exploded theirfirst atomic bomb. International tensions furtherincreased as the two superpowers engaged in anarms race, or a competition to strengthen theirarmed forces and weapons systems.

Meanwhile, communism made rapid advancesin Asia. In the late 1940s, Communist governments

came to power in China and North Korea. In 1950,the North Koreans, allied to the Soviet Union andCommunist-ruled China, attacked South Korea, apro-Western republic. Although the North Koreanswere forced back to their territory, the Korean con-flict fed Western fears that in communism, it faceda single, powerful enemy seeking world conquest.

Beginning in the 1950s, the cold war also cameto be not only a test of military strength, but also atest of the superpowers competing ideologies, orpolitical and economic philosophiesdemocraticcapitalism on the part of the United States, and

communism on the part of the Soviet Union.Military buildups, space exploration, and local andregional conflicts around the globe became entan-gled in the cold war as the two superpowers soughtto win support and to block gains by the other.

GermanyGermany became a critical flashpoint in the cold

war during the 1950s and 1960s. Nikita Khrushchev(krushCHAWF), who became Soviet leader in the

mid-1950s, set out to test the resolve of the newUnited States President, John F. Kennedy, in 1961 bythreatening to force the Allies out of West Berlin.Stating that the West would defend West Berlinsfreedom, Kennedy bolstered the United States mili-tary presence, and Khrushchev did not act on histhreats.

Meanwhile, large numbers of East Germans

were fleeing to West Berlin, which was easily acces-sible to them. In an effort to halt the drain of itsworkforce, the East German government, withSoviet backing, built a concrete wall across thedivided city in August 1961. The Berlin Wallstemmed the flow of East Germans fleeing commu-nism and raised East-West tensions. It became asymbol of the cold war and the hostile confrontation

between democracy and communism.

The Developing WorldAfter the early 1960s, superpower competition

directly affected developing nations in Asia, Africa,and Latin America. In most areas, such as in Africaand the Caribbean, the superpowers provided aidto their allies in the particular region. Sometimesas in the case of the Soviet Union in Afghanistanand the United States in Vietnamthey becamemilitarily involved themselves.

By the late 1970s, however, the division of theworld into two blocs, or groups of nations, eachheaded by a superpower, was coming to an end.The United States, wary of military involvements,faced growing challenges to its hold on world mar-

kets. Western Europe and Japan, less dependent onthe United States, were prosperous economic pow-ers in their own right. The Soviet Union, falteringeconomically, was facing internal pressures forchange. Finally, many smaller nations, aligned withneither superpower, were following their ownpaths of development. All of these events markedthe move away from a world dominated by thesuperpowers to one in which there were manycompeting groups of countries.


Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify key eventsthat caused and intensified thecold war.

Recall2. Define superpower, cold war,

satellite, iron curtain,containment, arms race,ideology, bloc.

3. Identify Joseph Stalin, Harry STruman, George C. Marshall,the Marshall Plan, NATO,Warsaw Pact.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

What geographic factor madethe Berlin blockade possible?

Understanding Themes

5. Conflict What were some ofthe weapons of the cold war?What did the superpowershope to accomplish with them?

SECTION 1 ASSESSMENT

Cold War


15/36

The cold war affected the internal policiesof the Soviet Union and its EasternEuropean satellites. During the late

1940s and early 1950s, Joseph Stalin believed that a

full-scale conflict with the West was inevitable. Toconfront the West, the Soviet leader increased hiscontrol over the Soviet Union and Eastern Europe.He purged Communist parties of officials suspect-ed of disloyalty. He also forbade writers and artiststo use Western ideas in their works.

The Soviet UnionAfter World War II, Stalin worked to rebuild

the Soviet Unions heavy industry and to boost its

military strength. The Soviet Union surpassed itsprewar rates of production in several major prod-ucts, including coal, steel, and oil. It continued ahigh level of military spending and exploded itsfirst nuclear bomb. In spite of the countrys militaryprestige, life for the average Soviet citizen was dif-ficult. Towns and cities destroyed by the war wererebuilt but consumer goods, food, and clothingremained in short supply because of high militaryspending.

Stalin died in March 1953. He was succeededby a collective leadership of top Communistofficials. Nikita Khrushchev, who served asCommunist party secretary, emerged as the domi-nant leader in 1955.

De-Stalinization

In the following year, the 20th Congress of theSoviet Communist Party was held in Moscow. At asecret session, Nikita Khrushchev gave a controver-sial speech about Stalin. He denounced the Sovietdictator for the purges in the 1930s, in which thou-sands of loyal party members had been tortured


Nikita Khrushchev becomes thedominant leader in the Soviet Union.

1955 The Soviets invadeCzechoslovakia.

1968 Soviet and Americanleaders hold summit meetingin Moscow.

1972

1955 19751965

Peter Hauptman and Willi Pfeiffer had been

best friends since childhood. Although their homes

were only two blocks apart, they lived in different

sectors of Berlin. Now, literally overnight, their fre-

quent visits ended. The Soviet sector was walled

off. Not just a barricade or a lowered gate, it was a

wall, protected by barbed wire and concrete blocks.

Peter stood on the western side of the wall, strain-

ing to catch a glimpse of Willi.

But it was to no avail. Everyoneliving near the walls eastern

side had been forcibly relocated,

and the nearby apartment doors

and windows were sealed shut.

adapted from People and

Politics: The Years 19601975,

translated and edited by Strobe

Talbott, 1974

S e c t i on 2

The CommunistBloc

SThe

toryteller

Children play near

the Berlin Wall

> Terms to Definepeaceful coexistence, intercontinental

ballistic missile (ICBM), dissident,

detente

> People to Meet

Nikita Khrushchev, Leonid Brezhnev,

Josip Broz Tito, Alexander Dubcek

> Places to Locate

Yugoslavia, East Germany, Poland,

Hungary, Czechoslovakia

Read to Find OutMain Idea The Soviet Union continuedCommunist policies after the death of Stalin.


16/36

and condemned to death or sent to labor camps.He also accused Stalin of creating a cult of person-ality, in which he boosted his own image at theexpense of the Communist party.

Khrushchevs anti-Stalin speech was part of a

broader program of de-Stalinization, which heundertook from 1956 to 1964 to reverse some of thepolicies that had existed under Stalin. Khrushchevunderstood that many Soviet citizens wanted arelaxation of government controls and an improvedstandard of living. While keeping Stalins Five-YearPlans and collective farms, he promised betterwages and more consumer goods. He gave artistsand intellectuals more freedom. He also reducedthe terror of the secret police and freed many polit-ical prisoners from labor camps.

Cold War ThawBy the mid-1950s, both American and Soviet

leaders were interested in reducing cold-wartensions. Khrushchev called for a policy ofpeaceful coexistence in which the Soviets wouldcompete with the West but avoid war. He stated theSoviet Union would surpass the West economicallyand encouraged other countries to follow theCommunist model.

To make the Soviet Union more economicallycompetitive, Khrushchev tried to boost production

by improving working conditions. Hesought to improve housing and toincrease the production of consumergoods. The Soviet leader also put newemphasis on technological research.This paid off in 1957 with the launchof Sputnik I, the worlds first spacesatellite. Sputnik stunned the United

States and boosted the prestige of theSoviet Union and its leader.

Despite the cold war thaw, bothsuperpowers continued a massivemilitary buildup. In the late 1950s, theAmericans and Soviets successfullytested long-range rockets known asintercontinental ballistic missiles, orICBMs, and added them to their arse-nals. ICBMs for the first time couldtarget locations in both countries. Anuclear war would result in what was

known as mutual assured destruc-tionthat is, the certain destruction of

both nations.Even as they pursued this deadly

race, United States and Soviet leaderssought to maintain peace. Summitmeetings were the most visible of

many contacts between Soviets and the UnitedStates. United States President Dwight Eisenhowerand Soviet Premier Khrushchev met in Geneva,Switzerland, in 1955 and again in 1959 at CampDavid, in Maryland. They recognized the deadly

threat of nuclear war and agreed on the need to endthe arms race. They planned a four-power summitfor Paris in May 1960 and Khrushchev invitedEisenhower to visit the Soviet Union later in theyear. But shortly before the Paris summit, theSoviets shot down an American U-2 spy plane overtheir territory and captured its pilot. Facing criti-cism from the Soviet military, Khrushchev strongly


President Eisenhower (right) hosts Premier NikitaKhrushchev in Washington, D.C., in 1959. What

prevented the four-power summit meeting planned for May 1960 from

taking place?

HistoryVisualizing

The Kitchen Debate

In 1959 Vice President

Richard M. Nixon, on a

tour of the Soviet Union, visited an exhibition of

American products with Soviet leader Nikita

Khrushchev. The two leaders soon got into a

heated argument on the merits of capitalism ver-

sus communism. The argument became known as

the kitchen debate because the two men were

standing in front of a model kitchen display.


17/36

denounced the United States and canceled Eisen-howers visit. Relations soon worsened further.

The Cuban Missile Crisis

The Soviet Union and the United States came tothe brink of nuclear war in 1962. In 1961,Eisenhower was succeeded as United StatesPresident by John F. Kennedy, who adopted a

dynamic foreign policy to impress the Soviets withAmerican strength and boost American prestigeabroad. Testing Kennedys resolve, Khrushchevused pressure to try to remove the Allies fromBerlin. Then in 1962 he secretly began to installnuclear missiles on Cuba 90 miles (145 km) fromFlorida. In his gamble, the Soviet leader hoped tooffset American missiles based in Turkey that wereaimed at the Soviet Union. He also wanted to getfrom Kennedy a promise not to overthrow CubasCommunist government. Devising a strongresponse short of attack, Kennedy blockaded Cuba.

Khrushchev then agreed to withdraw the missiles;and in return, Kennedy pledged not to invade Cuba.

The Cuban missile crisis was one of the mostsignificant events in the cold war. Having come soclose to nuclear conflict, the superpowers decidedto establish a better relationship. In 1963, a tele-phone hot line linked Washington and Moscowto provide instant communication. That sameyear, the Soviets and the Western Allies also signeda treaty banning nuclear weapons tests in theatmosphere.

Meanwhile, Khrushchevs position within the

Soviet Union weakened. In addition to his poorhandling of the Cuban missile crisis, relations withChina had soured, and Khrushchevs economicpolicies were in trouble. Heavy spending on tech-nology, defense, and heavy industry had left littlefor improving agriculture and consumer goods. Farfrom surpassing the United States, the Soviet Unionwas forced to import grain from the United States.Sharply rising meat and butter prices provokedangry public demonstrations. In October 1964,Khrushchev was removed from office.

The Brezhnev Era

The Communist party chose a new collectiveleadership: Aleksei Kosygin (kuhSEEguhn) waspremier and Leonid Brezhnev (BREHZHNEHF)was general secretary of the party. By the mid-1970s, Brezhnev emerged as the dominant leader.He remained in control until his death in 1982.

Cautious and traditional, Brezhnev reversedKhrushchevs de-Stalinization policies. He clampeddown again on intellectuals and dissidentsthosewho criticized the party or regime. Two prominent

dissidents refused to be silenced. AlexanderSolzhenitsyn (SOHLzhuhNEETsuhn), author ofmany works including The Gulag Archipelago, anaccount of the horrors of Soviet prison camps, waseventually deported and settled in the UnitedStates. Dr. Andrei Sakharov (SAHkuhRAWF), sci-entist and developer of the Soviet hydrogen bomb,later denounced the arms race and was sentenced

to internal exile in Gorki.Brezhnevs military and economic policies

were similar to Khrushchevs. Concerned that therewas a missile gap with the United States, he greatlyincreased the Soviet nuclear arsenal and its sup-plies of conventional weapons. He felt that militarypower gave the Soviet Union a stronger position inworld diplomacy.

Under Brezhnev, economic conditions, howev-er, worsened in the Soviet Union. Heavy militaryspending stifled growth in other sectors of theeconomy. Soviet workers had to make do with out-

dated equipment. Technologically, many industrieswere at least 20 years behind the times. Consumergoods were shoddy and in short supply. Farmerswere only one-sixth as productive as theirAmerican counterparts. Poor harvests forced theSoviet Union to again import grain from the West.

Detente

By 1972, Brezhnev was ready to reduce ten-sions with the West. He hoped to find a way to cutmilitary spending without falling behind theUnited States militarily. He also needed access to

Western technology, grain, and consumer goods.The United States was ready for Brezhnevspolicy of detente. Derived from the French wordmeaning relaxation, detente referred to animprovement of American-Soviet relations. A 1972summit meeting between Brezhnev and UnitedStates President Richard Nixon in Moscow began aperiod of detente that lasted seven years. TheBrezhnev-Nixon summit led to the signing of theSALT (Strategic Arms Limitation Talks) treaty,under which both sides agreed to limit the numberof nuclear warheads and missiles each countrycould maintain. SALT did not reduce the number ofweapons or end the arms race; it did slow it signif-icantly.

Detente did not end the rivalry between theUnited States and the Soviet Union. The countriescontinued to compete for influence in various partsof the world. In 1979, the Soviets invaded neigh-

boring Afghanistan to reinforce local Communistcontrol. The move shocked the West and markedthe end of detente. It also drew the Soviet Unioninto a 10-year guerrilla war against tough Afghan



18/36

nationalists. The occupation of Afghanistandrained the Soviet national treasury, brought about

the deaths of thousands of young Soviet soldiers,and became extremely unpopular at home.

Soviet SatellitesFor most of the cold war, the Soviet Union

maintained tight control over its Eastern Europeansatellites. The peoples of these nations resentedSoviet domination, but were largely powerlessagainst the secret police and Soviet troops.

YugoslaviaAfter World War II, Yugoslavia became the

only large Communist state in Eastern Europe toresist Soviet control. Its leader,Josip Broz Tito, hadparticipated in the resistance against the Nazis. Asmuch a nationalist as a Communist, Tito insisted ondeveloping his own national policies. Angered byTitos independence, Stalin expelled Yugoslaviafrom the international Communist movement.Throughout Eastern Europe, Stalin waged a propa-ganda war against what he called Titoism, or the

tendency of some Communists to place theirnational interests above those of the Soviet Union.

With the support of his people, Tito resisted Sovietpressure, developed his own form of communism,held together the different religious and ethnicgroups of the country, and won aid from the West.He led Yugoslavia until his death in 1980.

East GermanyAlthough it recovered from World War II more

slowly than West Germany, East Germanybecamethe most prosperous of the Soviet satellites. Its peo-ple deeply resented Soviet controls, however. In theaftermath of Stalins death in 1953, East Germanworkers went on strike and rioted when the gov-ernment tried to lengthen the work day without anincrease in wages. Soviet troops and tanks easilyput down the revolt.

In the years that followed, nearly 3 million EastGermans migrated to West Germany, by way ofWest Berlin, the only safe access available once theSoviets sealed the East German-West German bor-der. A large percentage of the migrants were well-educated professionals who were attracted by WestGermanys higher standard of living and greater


While the Soviets constructed the Berlin Wall in 1961, Russian

and American tanks maneuvered within sight of each other.

What was the real purpose of the wall?

HistoryVisualizing


19/36

freedoms. This brain drain was an embarrass-ment to the Soviets and an economic blow to thenation.

East Germanys problems contributed to a newcold war crisis in 1959. By then, West Germany hadrecovered from the war and was fully armed withtanks, bombs, and guns. It also had nuclearweapons on its soil under the control of NATO

command. Alarmed at this development, Khru-shchev called for negotiations on European securi-ty and on a nuclear-free Germany. He also demand-ed that the Western powers withdraw from Berlin.

Frustrated by the lack of a settlement and thecontinuing flight of East Germans, Khrushchevordered the construction of what became the noto-rious Berlin Wall. In 1961, East German soldiers

began work on the wall, a massive concrete struc-ture 26 miles (42 km) long and up to 15 feet (4.6 m)high, topped with electrified wire.

The stated purpose of the wall was to keep

Westerners out, but its true purpose was to halt theexodus of East Germans from East Berlin. To escapeto West Berlin, people now had to get past minedtrenches, guard dogs, and self-activating guns.Then they had to scale the wall itself. Storiesreached the West of heroic escapes, but scores ofEast Germans died trying to run to freedom. TheBerlin Wall halted the flow of East Germanrefugees, and it became the most visible andpowerful physical symbol of the iron curtain.

Poland

Under Communist rule, Poland industrializedand, among the satellites, became second in manu-facturing only to East Germany. Poles, however,resented Soviet controls. They were angered by thegovernments efforts to collectivize farms and byits anti-Catholic policies. In June 1956 workersdemanding better wages rioted in the city ofPoznan. Upheavals in other cities forced PolandsCommunist leaders to remove hard-line officialsfrom office.

Polands new leader was Wladyslaw Gomulka(VLAHdeeslah gohMULkuh), a popularCommunist who had been accused of anti-Sovietactivities and jailed during the late 1940s. Gomulkafreed political prisoners, ended forced collectiviza-tion, and eased relations with the Catholic Church.He retained close ties with the Soviet Union, how-ever. By the mid-1960s many of the Polish freedomshad again been lost.

In the 1970s, there was a new wave of anti-gov-ernment strikes, with workers demanding betterliving conditions, and political and economicreforms. Gomulka resigned under the pressure.

Continued economic problems led to food riots in1976 and the growth of an underground anti-Sovietmovement, aided by the Catholic Church.

HungaryHungary, a largely agricultural nation, experi-

enced harsh Communist rule after 1947. TheHungarian government required peasants to join

collective farms, and nationalized banking, trade,and industry. Central planners emphasized heavyindustry, at the expense of consumer goods. TheCommunist leadership silenced or disbandedpotential opposition groups, such as trade unionsor other political parties. Catholic Church propertywas seized, and Church schools were taken over bythe government. Opponents within the Communistparty were purged and executed.

After Stalins death in 1953, HungarysCommunist leaders eased controls for two yearsand then reimposed them when the economy did

not reach its goals. Bitter opposition turned into fullrevolt in the fall of 1956. As in Poland, workeruprisings brought a liberal Communist govern-ment to power. However, Imre Nagy, the newHungarian prime minister, went further than thePolish leaders. He announced Hungarys neutralityand its withdrawal from the Warsaw Pact. Thisraised the danger the Soviet Union feared mostthe loss of Soviet control over Eastern Europe.

Two days after Nagys announcement, Soviettanks and troops poured into Hungary to crush therevolt. Realizing that intervention could cause

World War III, the West sympathized with theHungarians, but did nothing to help. Order inHungary was restored under a Soviet-controlledgovernment led by Jnos Kdr. More than 200,000Hungarian refugees fled to the West.

During the 1960s and 1970s, HungarysCommunist government tried to increase produc-tion, sometimes tightening controls, while atother times encouraging initiative through smallprivate enterprises. Support of economic reformwould eventually spur political reform efforts inthe 1980s.

CzechoslovakiaCzechoslovakia, with its developed industry

and democratic traditions, was the last EasternEuropean country to become Communist. After theCommunist takeover in 1948, the country wasforced to conform to the Soviet model, like Hungary.Purges against officials in Czechoslovakia werethe bloodiest outside of the Soviet Union.The Czechoslovak leader, Antonin Novotny,kept the country under such rigid control that



20/36

de-Stalinization did not begin in Czechoslovakiauntil the 1960s.

At this time, public pressure for reform finallygained strength because of Czechoslovakias eco-nomic stagnation. A liberal Communist reformer,Alexander Dubcek (DOOBchehk), replacedNovotny as leader in 1968 when Brezhnev signaledhis approval. For a brief time, known as the

Prague spring, reform was allowed. Dubcek easedpress censorship and began to allow some politicalgroups to meet freely.

Although Dubcek assured the Soviets thatCzechoslovakia was still loyal to the Warsaw Pactand to communism, the Soviets became alarmed atthe direction the reform movement was taking.Many Czechoslovak thinkers wanted more freedom,and there were hints that opposition parties might

be allowed to operate. To the Soviets, their hold onEastern Europe again seemed threatened.

On August 20, 1968, about 500,000 troops fromthe Soviet Union and its Warsaw Pact allies invad-ed Czechoslovakia. They took control of Pragueand sent Dubcek and other Czechoslovak leaders toMoscow. Most of Dubceks reforms were with-drawn and a new constitution was put into effect.

In April 1969, Dubcek was replaced as party leader.In 1970 he was expelled from the party entirely.

The Soviet Union declared its right to intervenein Communist states to counter any opposition thatthreatened communism or the unity of the Soviet

bloc. This principle, called the Brezhnev Doctrine,was the basis for relations between the SovietUnion and its Eastern European satellites for thenext 20 years.


Czech citizens reacted in anger and defiance when Soviet and

other Warsaw Pact troops invaded Prague. How did the Soviets

justify the invasion?

HistoryVisualizing

Main Idea1. Use a diagram like the one

below to identify how theSoviet Union carried outCommunist policies.

Recall2. Define peaceful coexistence,

intercontinental ballistic missile(ICBM), dissident, detente.

3. Identify Nikita Khrushchev,Leonid Brezhnev, Josip BrozTito, Alexander Dubcek, theBrezhnev Doctrine.

Critical Thinking4. Analyzing Information

How did Communist ruleaffect religion in EasternEurope?

Understanding Themes

5. Change What impact didde-Stalinization have in thesatellites of Eastern Europe?

Soviet Unions

Communist

Policies



21/36

After World War II, the non-Communist nations of WesternEurope were concerned about two

major issues: economic recovery and military secu-rity. They came to realize that only through unitedaction would they be able to improve theireconomies, strengthen the Western Alliance, and

contribute to world affairs.

Great BritainAfter World War II, Great Britains position as a

world power further declined. The British hadbankrupted themselves to win the war. Therefore,they had to sharply reduce their worldwide mili-tary, political, and economic role.

A Reduced Role

Even with financial cutbacks, Great Britainsrecovery was slow. Many British industries weretoo inefficient and outdated to compete successful-ly in world markets that were increasingly domi-nated by the United States, Japan, and otherWestern European nations.

Because of economic weakness, the Britishpassed on many of their international obligations tothe United States. To maintain its pride and a levelof independent security, Great Britain, however,developed its own nuclear force. It also maintaineda close relationship with other members of theWestern Alliance.

Loss of Empire

The British also could no longer afford to sup-port a vast global empire. During the 1950s and1960s, many of Great Britains important Asian andAfrican colonies became independent. Most ofthese new nations joined as equals with GreatBritain in the Commonwealth of Nations, an orga-nization that promoted cooperation among thenations of the former British Empire.


Spain introducesa new democraticconstitution.

1978Konrad Adenauerretires as West Germanchancellor.

1963Great Britain elects aLabour party government.

1945 Charles deGaulle heads FrancesFifth Republic.

1958

1945 1955 19751965

Jacques LeMoine nervously held the rifle

issued to him just that morning. Like many othercitizens of Paris, the 17-year-old had been pressed

into service, guarding the citys perimeter.

President de Gaulles announced plans to guide

Algeria to independence had

aroused furious opposition.

In reaction to the indepen-

dence policy for Algeria, a

threat had been received:

Paris would be invaded.

Paratroopers under the lead-

ership of four retired Frenchgenerals had seized key over-

seas bases and planned to

bring citizens like Jacques

LeMoine to defend the city.

adapted from The 1962

World Year Book, France,

Fred J. Pannwitt, 1962

S e c t i on 3

Western Europe

SThe

toryteller

Paris street

disturbance

> Terms to Define

welfare state, coalition

> People to Meet

Clement Attlee, Charles de Gaulle,

Valry Giscard dEstaing, KonradAdenauer, Willy Brandt

> Places to Locate

Rome

Read to Find OutMain Idea Western Europe movedtoward greater political and economicunity during the period of the cold war.


22/36

The Welfare StateInternally, Great Britain underwent many

changes after World War II. In 1945 Churchill andthe Conservatives were voted out of office. Theywere replaced by the Labour party, which appealedto many Britons who wanted greater economicequality. Under Prime Minister Clement Attlee, theLabour government continued wartime restrictions

to improve the economy. However, it also promiseda better standard of living for all British citizens.

Carrying out a moderate Socialist program, theLabour government nationalized the coal, steel,and transportation industries. Greater freedom wasgiven to labor unions to strike and to participate inpolitical activities. Like many other WesternEuropean governments, Britains Labour govern-ment created a welfare state, a system in which thenational government provides programs for thewell-being of its citizens. Social security wasexpanded to provide lifetime benefits for the needy.

Free education was provided to all children up tothe age of 16. The government also introduced anational health service that provided free medicalcare for everyone.

As the economic situation improved in theearly 1950s, the Conservatives returned to powerand ruled until 1964. Although they ended manygovernment controls over the economy, Conser-vative prime ministers, such as Winston Churchill,Anthony Eden, and Harold Macmillan, did noteliminate the social welfare programs introduced

by the Labour party.

The MonarchyIn 1952, the popular wartime monarch, George

VI, died and was succeeded by his elder daughter,Elizabeth. As queen, Elizabeth II had little, if any,power. But, for many Britons, she served as a reas-suring symbol of traditional British values during aperiod of rapid, and sometimes discouraging,change. For other Britons, however, the monarchyrepresented all that they believed was wrong withGreat Britainits preoccupation with past imperialglories and its failure to discard the trappings of anoutdated class system.

FranceGermanys occupation of France during World

War II had ended the Third French Republic creat-ed in 1870. After the war, a new constitution estab-lished the Fourth French Republic. Like the ThirdRepublic, it had a strong legislature and a weakpresidency.

The Fourth French Republic

In spite of economic growth, France in the1950s was plagued with domestic and internationalproblems. The existence of many political partiesundermined hopes for a stable government. No sin-gle political party was strong enough to obtain aworking majority in the National Assembly.Cabinets were formed by coalitions, or temporaryalliances, of several parties. When one of the partiesdisagreed with policy, the cabinet members had toresign and form a new government.

Overseas, Frances Asian and African coloniesdemanded their independence. Unlike GreatBritain, France at first clung to its empire. It fought,and lost, expensive and bloody wars in Indochinaand North Africa.

The Fifth French RepublicIn 1958, the threat of civil war in the North

African colony of Algeria resulted in the downfallof Frances ineffective Fourth Republic. Charles deGaulle, leader of the French Resistance duringWorld War II, was called from retirement to head anemergency government. De Gaulle asked the


Riots between Hindus and Muslims

led to the division of British India in

1947 into two nations: India and Pakistan. Both

joined the Commonwealth of Nations. What was the

Commonwealth of Nations?

HistoryVisualizing


23/36

French people to approve a new constitution pro-viding for a strong presidency. French voters over-whelmingly responded to de Gaulles appeal. Thus,the Fifth French Republic was born.

De Gaulle became the first president of theFifth Republic. His political party, the GaullistUnion, formed a working majority in the NationalAssembly. As president, de Gaulle recognized that

France could not stubbornly hold on to its empireagainst strong nationalist opposition. In the early1960s, he allowed Frances African colonies, includ-ing Algeria, to become independent.

With the loss of Frances empire, de Gaulleworked to strengthen French cultural and economicinfluence in Europe and throughout the rest of theworld. His strongly nationalistic policies angeredFrances allies, especially Great Britain and theUnited States. In 1963, de Gaulle blocked GreatBritains application for membership in the Euro-pean Common Market. Three years later, the French

president decided to withdraw all French troopsfrom NATOs military command and requested thatall NATO bases and headquarters be removed fromFrench soil. At the same time, he insisted on main-taining Frances political ties to NATO. De Gaullesultimate expression of nationalism was the buildingof an independent French nuclear force.

De Gaulles successor, Georges Pompidou(PAHMpihDOO), by contrast, worked to build

closer relations with Great Britain and the UnitedStates. He also focused on economic growth ratherthan on nationalistic projects. After Pompidousdeath in 1974, Valry Giscard dEstaing (zhihsKAHR dehsTAN) was elected president. Giscardcontinued Pompidous domestic and internationalpolicies. He set out to lessen state economic con-trols and to encourage the expansion of French pri-

vate enterprise. Giscards pro-business policies,however, were crippled by the worldwide econom-ic downturn of the 1970s.

GermanyDuring the postwar years, West Germany

rebuilt its economy and became Western Europesleading industrial nation. Many experts called WestGermanys reconstruction an economic miracle.New industries used the latest in modern equip-

ment, and industrial production more than tripledin the 1950s. Prosperity enabled West Germany tocreate a welfare state closely resembling those inGreat Britain and France. West Germany alsoabsorbed 10 million refugees from Eastern Europe.Another 1 million people settled in Germany fromother parts of the continent.

The Adenauer YearsWest Germanys democratic political system

was dominated by two parties: the ChristianDemocrats and the Social Democrats. In 1949, the

Christian Democrats, led by Konrad Adenauer(AduhnOWR), formed the first West German gov-ernment. They created a capitalist economy withclose ties to the West. In 1955 West Germany joinedNATO and developed its own armed forces.

As chancellor, Adenauer was known as astrong leader devoted to the Western Alliance,European unity, and the reunification of Germanyunder a democratic government. During his tenure,West Germany became one of the worlds most sta-

ble democracies. Adenauer retired in 1963. He wassucceeded as chancellor by the economic ministerLudwig Erhard, who served until 1966.

Willy BrandtDuring the 1960s, the Christian Democrats lost

support to the Social Democrats, a moderate social-ist party led by West Berlins mayor, Willy Brandt.The Social Democrats maintained strong supportfor NATO while seeking improved relations withthe Soviet bloc.

Brandt became chancellor of Germany in 1969.During the 1970s, he worked to reduce tensions


France gave Charles de Gaulle broad

presidential powers and election bydirect popular vote. How did de Gaulle solve the problem

of nationalist opposition in Algeria?

HistoryVisualizing


24/36

between West Germany and the Soviet bloc. Thispolicy, known as Ostpolitik (German for Easternpolicy) led West Germany to reach agreements tonormalize relations with the Soviet Union andPoland in 1972. Brandts initiative eventually led tothe establishment of diplomatic ties between WestGermany and East Germany a year later.

European UnityThroughout Europes history, local disputes

between two or more nations often drew the entirecontinent into war. In the twentieth century, devel-opments in technology, such as nuclear weapons,made it clear that future wars could lead to globalcatastrophe. This possibility prompted leaders toseek regional solutions to European issues.

As World War II ended, European leaders dis-cussed plans for the postwar unification ofEuropean countries. These plans included organi-

zations for economic cooperation and the resolu-tion of disputes. Some even raised the idea of aUnited States of Europe. Others proposed that eachnation retain its national identity but hand overcontrol of defense and foreign policy to an all-European government. This arrangement, it wasfelt, would prevent European nations from wagingwar on each other.

To coordinate economic policies, six nationsFrance, Italy, West Germany, Belgium, theNetherlands, and Luxembourg established theEuropean Coal and Steel Community in 1952. The

organizations goal was to create a tariff-free mar-ket for European coal and steel products. By endingtrade barriers and developing uniform standards,the European Coal and Steel Community wouldfurther European industrial growth.

The Community was so successful that thesame countries decided to bring together the rest oftheir economies. In 1957, representatives of the sixnations meeting in Rome, Italy, signed the Treaty of

Rome. This agreement created the EuropeanEconomic Community, also known as theCommon Market. The six members of the CommonMarket planned to abolish all tariffs among them-selves and form a single economic market by 1970.During the 1960s and 1970s, Great Britain, attracted

by the Common Markets success, ended its tradi-tional aloofness from European affairs and soughtmembership in the European organization.

The Common Market benefited WesternEurope in several ways. By promoting economic

cooperation among individual European nations, itreduced the threat of conflict and contributed toEuropean prosperity. It also enabled WesternEurope to pursue cooperative technological pro-grams in fields such as space research and nuclearenergy. These programs were too expensive for anyone nation to pursue on its own. Finally, it enabledEurope to compete on an equal basis with NorthAmerica and East Asia in world markets.


Main Idea1. Use a chart like the one below

to show how Western Europewas united economically duringthe cold war.

Recall2. Define welfare state, coalition.3. Identify Clement Attlee,

Charles de Gaulle, Valry Gis-card dEstaing, Konrad Ade-nauer, Willy Brandt, Ostpolitik,European Economic Community.

Critical Thinking4. Synthesizing Information

What factors contributed toWestern Europes postwareconomic recovery?

Understanding Themes5. Regionalism Explain advan-

tages and disadvantages of aUnited States of Europe.

NEPAL

TIBETMountEverest

Edmund HillaryClimbs MountEverest

Nepal-Tibet, 1953

Located in the Himalayas, on the Nepal-Tibet

border, Mount Everest is the worlds highest peak.A British expedition set out in 1953 to scale the

south slope, which was considered unclimbable.The climbers established a series of camps as theyadvanced up the mountain. The last camp was set

up by Edmund Hillary of New Zealand and TenzingNorgay of Nepal. On May 29, 1953, they became

the first climbers to reach

the top of MountEverest. Queen

Elizabeth IIknighted Hillary

for his achievement.

ARO

UND THE

Economic Unity


1.

2.


25/36

Because they were spared the destruc-tion of their territory in World War II,the United States and Canada both

emerged from the war with prosperous economies.

During the postwar era, the stunning technologicalachievements of the United States, its high standardof living, and business success were admired andenvied around the globe.

In the 1960s and the 1970s, however, the UnitedStates was shaken by domestic political crises, eco-nomic difficulties, and its involvement in the Viet-nam War. By the 1980s other nations were catchingup economically, but the United States retained itsrole as the leader of the non-Communist world.

During this time, the United Statess northernneighbor, Canada, sought to maintain unity

between its French-speaking and English-speakingpopulations. It also attracted immigrants from allparts of the world. Moving away from its tradition-al British connection, Canada sought a new identi-ty in international affairs and developed closereconomic ties with the United States.

American ProsperityAfter World War II, the United States entered

an era of economic growth that brought materialwealth to a larger group of Americans. Demand forAmerican goods was high, and business respondedto meet this need. Production soared, and newindustries appeared. Higher wages and better ben-efits gave Americans more money to spend.American shoppers pushed up demand as theyeagerly purchased consumer goods that had beenscarce during the war. Future prospects were also

bright. The postwar baby boom, or soaring birth-rate, added to the potential number of consumersand promised increased economic growth.


Richard M. Nixonbecomes the first UnitedStates President to resignhis office.

1974Canadacelebrates 100thanniversary ofnationhood.

1967U.S. Congress conductshearings on Communist influencein American life.

1947 Martin LutherKing, Jr., begins nonviolentcivil rights campaign forAfrican Americans.

1955

1945 1955 19751965

By the time President Eisenhower began his

first term, 33,629 Americans had been killed in the

Korean War. Then on March 5, 1953, Joseph Stalin

died. Hearing of Stalins death, Eisenhower asked

his associates, Well, what do you think we can doabout this? He was advised to seek improved

relations with Russia. The new Soviet leaders

also wanted reduced tensions. As a result, a

truce ending the war in Korea was signed

on July 28th.

adapted from The Glorious Burden,

Stefan Lorant, 1968

S e c t i on 4

The United Statesand Canada

SThe

toryteller

President Dwight D. Eisenhower

> Terms to Define

automation, racial segregation, imperial

presidency, stagflation, embargo,

double-digit inflation, trade deficit,middle power, multicultural, separatism

> People to Meet

Dwight D. Eisenhower, John F. Kennedy,

Lyndon B. Johnson, Richard M. Nixon,Martin Luther King, Jr., Gerald R. Ford,

Jimmy Carter, Lester B. Pearson, Pierre

Elliott Trudeau

> Places to LocateVietnam, Cambodia, Washington, D.C.,

St. Lawrence Seaway, Toronto, Montreal,

Quebec

Read to Find OutMain Idea The United States and Canadaexperienced a number of political and socialchanges during the cold war years.


26/36

Science and TechnologyDuring the postwar years, the United States

made spectacular leaps in the field of science andtechnology. With more money to spend, an increasein the number of university-trained scientists, and agrowing commitment to the future, the United Statesled the world in new technological developments.

During the 1950s and 1960s, American factories

and industries began to use automation, the tech-nique of operating a production system usingmechanical or electronic devices. With automatedmethods of production, goods could be producedmore efficiently than with human workers.

Beginning in the 1950s, the use of computersbegan to revolutionize American industry.Businesses used computers for many purposes,including billing and inventory control. Computerswere also used for such things as making hotelreservations, sorting bank checks, tracking spacesatellites, forecasting weather conditions, and set-

ting type for printing. Automation and computersin the workplace caused many workers to lose their

jobs. In the long run, however, computers andautomation created more jobs than they eliminated.In addition, the new jobs usually demanded a high-er level of education.

American technological skills brought theUnited States into competition with the Soviet Unionin space exploration and missile development. Thetwo superpowers experimented with moon probes,weather and communications satellites, and extend-ed flights of humans orbiting the earth. The grand

prize of the space race was putting a human on themoon. United States astronaut Neil Armstrong wonthat honor on July 20, 1969.

Social ChangesMany social changes came to the United States

during the period from the late 1940s to the late1970s. In the 1950s the automobile changed the faceof America. No longer did people have to live neartheir places of work. Those who lived and workedin the city could move to less-crowded places. Thismigration of city residents caused the rapid growthof suburbs.

In the years after World War II, American citiesbecame ringed by seemingly endless housingdevelopments carved out of the less densely settledcountry land. Shopping centers with vast parkinglots were built to serve the new suburban population.Businesses and factories also began relocating fromthe cities to the suburbs, where their workers nowlived. The Highway Act of 1956 contributed to thegrowth of the suburbs by adding 41,000 miles(66,000 km) to the interstate highway system.

In addition to the automobile, another symbolof American prosperity was the television set. In1945, fewer than 1 in 20,000 people had a television.But within a few years, televisions were every-

where, and they were almost as common as tele-phones. Some critics worried that television wouldmake Americans desire entertainment more thansolid information. However, other experts pointedout the positive impact of television in making peo-ple directly aware of national and internationalevents.

The Cold War at HomeDespite this time of prosperity, the cold war

created deep political divisions in the United States.During the late 1940s and early 1950s, conserva-tives blamed President Harry S Truman and StateDepartment officials for allowing the Communiststo make gains in Eastern Europe and Asia. Theyalso charged that Communists were serving in highgovernment positions. A red scare swept thecountry. The growing fear of the enemy withinof subversion within the United States governmentand societyhelped to launch a controversial anti-Communist crusade to discover and expose


Cold war tensions and fear of

nuclear attack led to duck and

cover drills in public schools. How did the government

react to the fear of the enemy within?

HistoryVisualizing


27/36

C

ONNEC

TIONS

C

ONNEC

TIONS

suspected Communists. The search focused ondiplomats, intellectuals, labor leaders, and enter-tainers believed to be tolerant of communism.

Congressional InvestigationsA congressional body, the House Committee on

Un-American Activities, investigated Communistinfluences. Alger Hiss, a former government offi-

cial, denied that he had tried to pass secrets to theSoviets in the 1930s. Brought to trial, Hiss was notprosecuted because too much time had passedsince the events had occurred. However, he wasfound guilty of lying and was sent to prison. Later,

Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, both Communists,were accused of spying. They claimed innocence

but were tried, convicted, and executed.In the early 1950s, Senator Joseph McCarthy of

Wisconsin charged that Communists were conspir-ing within the federal government. The SenateCommittee on Investigation, which McCarthy head-

ed, called government workers to testify. McCarthynever proved his charges, but the public mood wassuch that even the accusation alone was enough tolabel someone a Communist, and many lost their

jobs. The term McCarthyism came to mean makingcharges of disloyalty without regard to evidence.

Forming AlliancesBetween the 1950s and the 1980s, the cold war

influenced national political campaigns, and manyaspects of domestic policy, as well as most majorforeign policy decisions of the United States. In itsdealings with Eastern Europe, Africa, the MiddleEast, Latin America, and Asia, the United Statessaw its diplomacy as an extension of the struggleagainst communism.

During the 1950s, the United States expandedthe nations network of alliances in order to containcommunism. In Western Europe, the Americanstook a leading role in NATO. In Southeast Asia, theUnited States helped to create the Southeast AsiaTreaty Organization (SEATO). In the Middle East,the United States counted on the cooperation of theCentral Treaty Organization (CENTO), and in LatinAmerica, the United States promoted theOrganization of American States (OAS). Thesealliances created a formidable counterbalance to the

influence of the Soviet Union.

Military BuildupWhen necessary, American Presidents also

used espionage and military power to fight thecold war. During the 1950s, the effort to contain


Abstract Painting

Abstract expressionism was a move-ment in American painting that flourished

from the mid-1940s to the mid-1950s. Abstract expressionistartists rejected many of the rulesof earlier art. Instead of showingrecognizable subject matter intheir works, they emphasized thetechniques or basic elements ofpainting, such as color, brush-strokes, lines, and shapes.

One of the importantabstract expressionist painters was JacksonPollock. His usual painting techniqueinvolved placing a huge canvas on the floorand then dripping paint from above onto it.The drippings formed sweeping, rhythmic

patterns that seemed to move across the

surface. About his highly unusual method ofpainting, Pollock said, I feel nearer, more apart of the painting, since this way I canwalk around it, work from the four sides,and literally be in the painting.

Although abstract expressionist stylesdiffered, all of the artists in the movementbelieved that art should express immediatepersonal feelings and attitudes toward life.Their nontraditional, revolutionary approachto art has influenced painters throughoutthe world.

Out of the Web byJackson Pollock

Explain how abstract expres-sionist painting differs from tradi-tional forms of art. Why do youthink abstract expressionist artdeveloped in the United Statesduring the cold war era?


28/36


communism, stronglybacked by the Americanpublic, caused the UnitedStates to send troops tofight Communist forces inKorea. It also ledPresident Dwight D.Eisenhower in 1954 to

agree to shoulder Francesefforts to stop Communistmilitary activity inVietnam. The UnitedStates engaged in anunprecedented military

buildup during this time,even during the cold warthaw in the late 1950s.

By the closing monthsof his presidency, DwightD. Eisenhower, though a

proponent of a strongmilitary, was deeply con-cerned about the globalarms race, or the competi-tion between the super-powers for new and betterweapons. On leavingoffice in 1961, he warnedof a growing military-industrial complex in theUnited States. Accordingto Eisenhower, the super-

power rivalry, the com-petition for sophisticatedweapons, and the role ofarms production in sup-porting economic growthhad created a built-inincentive to increase mili-tary spending.

Battle of Ideas

John F. Kennedy, ayoung senator from Mas-

sachusetts, succeeded Eisenhower as President in1961. During the 1960 presidential race, Kennedyhad campaigned on the theme of restoring thestrength and prestige the United States had lostafter the embarrassments of the U-2 spying incidentand Sputnik.

Kennedy engaged in cold-war maneuvering onseveral fronts. He acted quickly to create the PeaceCorps, a program that sent young American volun-teers overseas to help impoverished countries that

were open to Communist influence. Kennedyscold-war views influenced his actions in severalmajor foreign policy crises, including the buildingof the Berlin Wall and the Cuban missile crisis.

The Vietnam War

Kennedys assassination in 1963 broughtLyndon B. Johnson to the White House. Johnsonsupported civil rights laws and reforms ineducation and social welfare to achieve what he

Stereographic Projection

0 500

500

1000 mi.

0 1000 km

UNION OF SOVIETSOCIALIST REPUBLICS

CANADA 30W

10W

90E 70E

170E

150E

130E 110E

170W

150W

130W

UNITED

STATES

DEWLine

radars

CadinPinetree Line radars

PACIFIC

OCEAN

PACIFIC

OCEAN

ATLANTIC

OCEAN

ARCTIC

OCEAN

North Pole

Arc

ti

c

Circ

l

e

40N

60N

80N

90W 70W

50W

20N

110W

10E

30E

50

E

Nuclear Battlefield

By the 1980s the United States and the Soviet Union each hadmore than 12,000 ICBMs aimed at the other. The Distant EarlyWarning Line (DEW Line) was a radar system built in 1957 todetect incoming missiles. It was replaced in 1994 with a moresophisticated North Warning System.Region Why were DEW Line radars placed in northern Canadarather than along the east and west coasts of the United States?

MapStudy

ABM (antiballistic missile) Sites

ICBM (intercontinentalballistic missile) Fields

Nuclear Production Sites

Radars


29/36

called the Great Society. However, the consumingissue during Johnsons five years in office becamethe Vietnam War, in which the United States assistedSouth Vietnam in resisting a Communist takeover.

American involvement in Vietnam, describedin Chapter 33, began under Presidents Eisenhowerand Kennedy and grew out of their desire to keepcommunism from spreading throughout SoutheastAsia. During the Eisenhower and Kennedy years,American civilian and military advisers hadarrived in Vietnam to aid the South Vietnamese.The role of the United States in the Southeast Asiannation was later expanded into full-scale participa-tion by President Johnson. During Johnsonsadministration, large numbers of American combatsoldiers were sent to fight in Vietnam.

Opposition to the WarBy 1968, large-scale American intervention had

not been able to overcome the Communist

Vietnamese forces. As a result, domestic oppositionto the war became widespread, and Vietnam

became the central issue in the presidential race ofthat year. President Johnson, condemned for hishandling of the lengthy, costly, and indecisive war,decided not to run for reelection. Former VicePresident Richard M. Nixon, a strong anti-Communist, won the election with his pledge to stopthe war and bring the American people together.

President Nixon soon found that ending the warwas difficult. As he struggled to find a politicallyacceptable solution, his administration was besieged

by the antiwar forces that had overwhelmedJohnsons presidency.Although many young Americans believed

that it was their duty to serve in the military if theywere called, others stated that they would refuse toserve. Some young men eligible for the draftthemandatory enrollment in the United States armedforcesburned their draft cards, which was an ille-gal act. Others fled to Canada to avoid the draft,choosing to spend years in exile from their countryrather than fight in the war. Demonstratorsmarched in front of the White House, carryingsigns and shouting antiwar slogans. College profes-sors cancelled classes and held antiwar protestscalled teach-ins. Most protests across the countrywere peaceful, but many incidents of violenceoccurred, including the bombing of military facili-ties and other institutions that symbolizedAmericas political and military power.

Ending the WarPresident Nixons plans for ending the war for

the United States was called Vietnamizationa

gradual withdrawal of American troops whilehanding over control of war operations to SouthVietnam. In a November 1969 speech, the Presidenttried to counter the antiwar protests by appealingto what he called the silent majority of Americanswhom he said supported his policies.

Simultaneously with the American withdrawalfrom Vietnam, Nixon ordered fierce bombing raids

on neighboring Cambodia. The bombings prompt-ed renewed protests, creating a superheated atmos-phere of anger and distrust between supportersand opponents of the war. The situation explodedtragically in May 1970, when National Guard sol-diers fired into a crowd of demonstrators at KentState University in Ohio, killing four students.

In 1973, the last of the active American forceswithdrew from Vietnam, and the Paris Accordswere signed. Of the 2,700,000 Americans whoserved in Vietnam, about 58,000 died and morethan 300,000 were wounded. The war cost the

United States $150 billion. In addition, it made thenation more cautious of foreign involvement.

Struggle for Civil RightsDespite the general economic prosperity of the

United States after World War II, millions ofAmericans continued to live in poverty. The poorincluded members of all ethnic groups, but the

plight of the nations poor in the African Americancommunity seemed especially critical. Ever sinceemancipation in the 1860s, African Americans in

both the North and the South had faced discrimi-nation in jobs, housing, education, and other areas.After World War II, an increasing number ofAmericans realized that continuing poverty andracial discrimination were at odds with the basicAmerican values of equality and justice for all. Acivil rights movement begun by African Americansin the early 1900s gained momentum and affectedmany areas of American life.

Changing Social AttitudesChanging social attitudes helped civil rights

advances. The war against Germany played a part.The horrifying racism of the Nazis helped to makesome Americans more sensitive to racism in theirown country. They began to realize that not onlyAfrican Americans, but also Asian Americans,Hispanic Americans, and other ethnic groups had

been treated unfairly and denied social and educa-tional opportunities.



30/36

Court DecisionsDuring the 1940s and 1950s, African Americans

worked hard to gain civil rights. The war years sawthe membership of the National Association for theAdvancement of Colored People (NAACP) increasefrom 100,000 to 351,000. In the late 1940s, theNAACP hired teams of able lawyers to bring aseries of lawsuits to the federal courts to end viola-

tions of the constitutional rights of AfricanAmerican citizens.

This effort resulted in several United StatesSupreme Court decisions that attacked discrimina-tion. In the best known case, Brown v. Board ofEducation of Topeka, Kansas (1954), the United StatesSupreme Court ruled that racial segregation, or theseparation of the races, in public schools was ille-gal. President Eisenhower used federal agencies toenforce the Courts

unlock chap21 2

Documents