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Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
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Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained Teachers’ Discourses on Bilingualism within the context
of Professional Development
Jennyfer Paola Camargo Cely
Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas
Facultad de Ciencias y Educación
Maestría en Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza del Inglés
Bogotá, 2017
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
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Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained Teachers’ Discourses on Bilingualism within the context
of Professional Development
Jennyfer Paola Camargo Cely
This research work is presented as a requirement to obtain the degree of Magister in
Applied Linguistics for English as a Foreign Language
Tutor
Pilar Méndez Rivera
Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas
Facultad de Ciencias y Educación
Maestría en Lingüística Aplicada a la Enseñanza del Inglés
Bogotá, 2017
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
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Note of Acceptance
_________________________________
Pilar Méndez Rivera
Tutor
________________________________
Harold Andrés Castañeda Peña
Juror
_______________________________
Carmen Helena Guerrero Nieto
Juror
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
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La Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas no se hará responsable por las ideas expuestas
en este trabajo. (Acuerdo 10 de 1998, Artículo 177)
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I acknowledge the Universidad Distrital Francisco José de Caldas; specifically to the Master in
Applied Linguistics for English as a Foreign Language. Special thanks to my family for the
support they provided us through our entire lives. I would also like to express my gratitude to
Professors Pilar Méndez, Harold Castañeda, and Carmen Helena Guerrero whose expertise,
understanding, and patience, added considerably to my graduate experience.
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Table of Contents
INTRODUCTION 10
Justification 12
THE STUDY
Statement of the Problem 14
Research Question 27
Research Objectives 27
LITERATURE REVIEW 28
Background to the Study 29
Theoretical Framework 34
INSTRUCTIONAL DESIGN
Visions of Language and the Educational Process 48
A Social Theory of Language, Learning and Teaching 49
A Social Theory of Learning within a Professional Development Context 53
Schedule and Materials 58
RESEARCH DESIGN
Type of Study and Research Paradigm 59
Context 61
Participants 64
Data Collection Instruments and Procedures 65
DATA ANALYSIS
Data Analysis Methodology 69
First Category: Bilingualism as a Phenomenon of Social Control 77
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Second Category: The Art of Questioning, Reflecting, and Visioning 93
CONCLUSIONS, PEDAGOGICAL IMPLICATIONS
AND FURTHER RESEARCH 105
REFERENCES 108
LIST OF FIGURES AND ANNEXES 120
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List of Figures
FIGURE 1: Graphic 1 “Survey#1Q:6” 21
FIGURE 2: Graphic 2 “Survey#1Q:7” 21
FIGURE 3: Graphic 3 “Survey#2Q:2” 22
FIGURE 4: Graphic 4 “Survey#1Q:6” 22
FIGURE 5: Graphic 5“Survey#3Q:4” 23
FIGURE 6: Graphic 6 “Purposes and Reasons (Seedhouse’s scheme, 1995)” 24
FIGURE 7: Graphic 7 “Ways of Learning (Seedhouse’s scheme, 1995)” 26
FIGURE 8: Graphic 8 “Topics and Contents (Seedhouse’s scheme, 1995)” 26
FIGURE 9: Graphic 9 “Components of a Social Theory (Wenger, 1999)” 51
FIGURE 10: Graphic 10 “Instructional Design Stages” 55
FIGURE 11: Graphic 11 “Participants’ Proposal” 57
FIGURE 12: Chart 1 “Schedules and Materials” 58
FIGURE 13: Graphic 12 “Discourse Domains” 60
FIGURE 14: Chart 2 “School’s exposition to English as a foreign language” 62
FIGURE 15: Chart 3 “Qualitative Content Analysis Approach” 72
FIGURE 16: Graphic 13 “QCA Data Analysis Stages (Zhang & Wildemuth, 2009)” 72
FIGURE 17: Graphic 14 “Data Management- Labelling Data Atlas.ti” 74
FIGURE 18: Chart 4 “Final Categories” 76
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List of Annexes
Annex A: Survey # 1 122
Annex B: Survey # 2 123
Annex C: Survey # 3 124
Annex D: Survey # 4 (Seedhouse’s 1995) 125
Annex D: Participants’ Consent Form 126
Annex E: Protocols 1 and 2 127
Annex F: Teacher Reflective Journal Sample 129
Annex G: Axial Coding 130
Annex H: Data Reduction Process 131
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Introduction
The following document reports a research experience aiming to answer the question-
what discourses do EFL and self-contained teachers draw on when participating in the
construction of a bilingual curriculum-. The aspects that motivated this research study are based
on my concerns regarding teachers’ discourses towards bilingualism and bilingual education in
the school I work at, which according to empirical observation seem to have not only an
incidence in the L2 teaching-learning process, but in both EFL and self-contained educators’
professional development. After backing up this hypothesis through a needs analysis process and
literature review, three main constructs constituting the basis of this proposal arose: Teachers’
Discourses, Bilingualism, and Teacher Professional Development.
In order to evidence and give account on the research process I followed, this document
is organized by chapters. The first chapter entitled Statement of the Problem describes the
pertinence of this research after analyzing institutional documents such as the PEI and the EFL
syllabus. Likewise, I display there the results obtained through three different surveys applied to
EFL, self-contained, and sixth graders in order to back up the initial analysis, which were crucial
to design the leading research question and objectives. Then, the chapter labelled Literature
Review echoes some post-structuralist theories and researches regarding how discourses around
bilingualism and bilingual education have framed and limited the L2 teaching-learning process in
terms of curriculum and methodology design; pedagogical practices; and professional growth.
In the Instructional Design chapter, I draw on Wenger’s (1999) ideas in regards of
communities of practice and I illustrated how by reflecting, sharing, working together, and
relying upon colleagues, is that both EFL and self-contained teachers can resist hegemonic and
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colonial discourses and can have an active participation in themes such as bilingualism and
bilingual education. By doing so, participants were able to vision a bilingual curriculum that
aimed not only at addressing learners’ proficiency in the foreign language but also at endorsing
their professional growth.
Afterwards, I describe the process followed to analyze the data collected throughout the
pedagogical intervention via protocols, teachers’ journals, and transcripts from the discussion
group sessions bearing in mind the Qualitative Content Analysis approach in the light of Zhang
& Wildemuth (2009), and Mayring (2014). In this sense, I was allowed to reduce the data to two
final categories in order to accomplish this research’s objectives. Finally, the conclusions,
implications, and the pedagogical practices resulting from this study are displayed along with the
References, the List of Figures and Annexes.
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Justification
Considering Wenger’s (1999) ideas, throughout history, teaching and learning have been
assumed as single processes with a beginning and an end. Under this assumption, an asocial and
linear view of approaches and methodologies has been embraced, leaving aside individuals’
realities and experiences at the time of denying collectivity. This view has been reflected in
policies, metrics, training programs, and curriculum designs aiming at outlining and controlling
the society (Popkewitz, 2000).
In view of the above, language has been a determinant factor in the construction of that
“pre-conceived” society as it dynamic nature, has allowed some nations to take control over
others and assure a privileged position in regards to economy, politics, and sociocultural issues
(Fairclough, 2003). As a result, English as a foreign language was quickly spread, serving as a
means by which certain practices and ideologies have been perpetuated and reproduced
worldwide at the time of nulling or overshadowing other languages (Tollefson, 2007; Ryan,
2010).
Subsequently, the conception and definition of bilingualism held not only in Colombia
but also in most of the countries, was reduced to the fact of speaking English (Guerrero, 2008,
2009; Usma, 2009; De Mejía, 2011; Ordoñez, 2011; Escobar, 2013). Hence, language policies
adopted by governments from monolingual contexts as ours, meant to spread English under
foreign standards under the premise of allowing learners to access to better and qualified
educational and professional lives (Usma, 2009; Valencia, 2013), an imprecise statement as
stressed in this study.
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In the same line of thought, bilingual education practices as evidenced throughout this
research, aim at increasing the learners’ exposition to the foreign language. To do so, the
language of instruction used for contained subjects is English. This has led to negative
implications, not only for the learners, but also for both EFL and self-contained teachers, whose
professional development is limited to study and apply what others have designed and
established.
Therefore, this research aims at unveiling EFL and self-contained teachers’ discourses
when envisaging a bilingual curriculum by means of dialoguing and sharing pedagogical
practices and experiences as a way to endorse their professional development. In this sense, their
roles as designers, decision-makers and collaborative coaches were evidenced as they were
invited to propose, reflect and take a stance towards educational policies and practices in defense
of their right to be part in the construction of a suitable educational system.
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The Study
Statement of the Problem
The influence of Great Britain and the United States on international relations, political,
and economic systems for the last decades, has ensured acceptance and spread of English as the
main language spoken worldwide (Guerrero and Quintero, 2009). In this sense, English has been
mostly promoted as the language that allows people to build society and to fetch better economic
and academic prospects (Barkhuizen, 2002), and having a certification in this language, is
considered essential for personal and professional development worldwide. (Song, 2006).
Considering this premise, the Colombian Ministry of Education launched the program “la
Revolución Educativa” (Education Revolution) and within it the subproject Colombia Bilingüe
(Bilingual Colombia), under the vision of offering Colombian students the possibility of
becoming bilingual so they could increase their productivity in a globalized world (González,
2007; Guerrero, 2009). However, its implementation does not recognize the complexity of
students and teachers’ realities, leaving aside internal and external factors that play an important
role within the teaching-learning practices, a fact that seems to have been disregarded (Fandiño,
2014).
Consequently, English is considered as an imposition in the Colombian context, where
the teaching and learning process became standardized and assessed through rubrics, limiting
both students and educators’ discourses and practices as foreign bilingual educational
programmes which do not rely upon local policies nor teachers’ experience, have been adopted
(De Mejía, 2004). Hence, there is a need of reflecting and assuming a critical stance about the
adoption of policies and foreign models as well as on relying upon teachers’ experiences and
knowledge when developing a bilingual curriculum, which in González’ (2007) view, has to be
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“sensitive to the context and constructed collaboratively” (p. 315), allowing teachers’
development and enacting social transformations.
In view of the above, one of the main problems teachers in Colombia face in relation to
bilingual education, is the gap between policies and curriculum and their influence within the
educational process (Pineda, 2001; Ordoñez, 2011). Although curricula must integrate diverse
viewpoints and histories as well as to promote meaningful and engaging learning for all students,
it must also be constructed by both English language and Self-Contained teachers and be
developed within a bilingual environment (Anne Marie Truscott De Mejía, personal
communication, May 15, 2015).
By working collaboratively and relying upon various teachers’ experiences and beliefs is
that inquiries and new proposals arise, influencing decisions about the teaching practices
(Gabillon, 2012). Subsequently, it seems essential to me to unveil teachers’ discourses,
attributable to the fact that this social practice as stated by Norton (2010), shows how we build
images of ourselves and our beliefs through language. Based on that premise, researching about
both EFL and self-contained teachers’ discourses towards bilingualism is an opportunity to
understand the way participants’ educational practices have been shaped in relation to the
bilingual policies adopted by the Colombian government.
Moreover, this study is an opportunity to acknowledge local expertise as indicated by
González (2007) when asserting that “once we can get our voices heard, our concepts taken into
account and debated, we will be ready to truly engage in the construction of a professional
development model more suitable for our local needs” (p. 324). Hence, this research establishes
an opportunity to conceive professional development beyond formal training but as an ongoing
process of reexamining beliefs and practices to transform the inside and outside of the classroom
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by means of sharing and relying upon colleagues. Hence, self-contained teachers’ voices
regarding bilingualism and bilingual education in Colombia will be visible since it is a topic that
has not been widely explored as revealed in Chapter II.
So as to support the hypothesis previously mentioned, a needs analysis process was
carried out. In this way, it was important to first revise school documents such as the PEI
(Proyecto Educativo Institucional) and the syllabus of the English class to understand the way in
which the language and the teaching-learning process were conceived. As stated in the PEI, the
school’s curriculum is said to be constructed under the light of a Critical Methodological Model
that allowed educators and administrators to understand and to get closer to the school and
community’s reality and needs (PEI, 2002, p. 27). In this sense, weaknesses and strengths were
identified and balanced so as to decide the educational model the school will adopt.
Concerning the academic and co-existence dimensions, three problems were identified:
first, that many concepts which were meaningless for the students were taught; second, that it
was necessary to join methodological criteria, and third, that there was a gap between the
school’s philosophy and the academic areas development (PEI, 2002, p.36). All these problems
seemed to have a relation to the teachers’ lack of sense of belonging and students’ lack of respect
and acceptance for differences, so working under the principles of Teaching for Understanding
Approach was decided.
The principles, referenced in the document as “the human dimensions of feeling, thinking
and acting that allow a harmonic and balanced development within the theory-analytic; critical-
research; and poetic-creative thoughts” (PEI, 2002, p. 91), constitute the school’s purpose
reached through the concepts and thematic proposed in each area syllabus. This last one is built
and evaluated mainly by the teachers from the same area and revised by the academic
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coordinator at the end of the year. It must contain detailed information of the justification,
learner profile, general and specific objectives, methodology, assessment process, materials and
references.
Regarding the EFL syllabus, the school states that the process of teaching-learning
English as a foreign language seeks for generating and developing working skills that enable
students to compete within a globalized world (English Area Syllabus, 2015, p. 1). Therefore, its
general objective aims “to strengthen English in order to obtain high scores in the standardized
tests which are acknowledged worldwide, offering students the possibility to be part of the
industrial world” (English Area Syllabus, 2015, p. 2).
Hence, it could be affirmed that, the school conceives language from an instrumental
perspective, meaning explicit grammar is necessary to be taught, and language learning is
achieved by separating and assessing skills, as the way standardized tests are designed, which in
Cook’s (2003) view, it is not necessary, since we do not need to know about language to use it
effectively. As referenced by Tudor, (2011), educators teaching under this premise believe that
“language is a system, and mastering this system is a prerequisite for any meaningful form of
communication” (p.50).
Likewise, the EFL learning process is said to be understood as an analytical process,
which in Tudor’s (2011) words, “emphasizes the explicit study of the target language as a
linguistic and communicative system” (p. 86) meaning, linguistic elements are combined with
communicative messages as announced in the first specific objective: “to work on language
skills: listening, speaking, reading, and writing; which will allow learners to communicate in
English and that are [the skills] requested in different situations in the daily life”( English Area
Syllabus, 2015, p. 2). Simplifying, the EFL learning process as a four skill- learning process
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funds language itself as a set of goals that can be easily achieved if rules and instructions
(previously determined by the CEFR) are followed.
In the same line of though, González (2007) affirms that by approaching and
understanding the EFL teaching-learning process according to what was set by foreign entities
and measured through standardized tests, is that conditions of inequality in the knowledge are
prolonged, as they do not measure what we really know and perpetuate the idea of encapsulating
the knowledge. Therefore, learners are conceived as having the same characteristics, abilities and
aptitudes and they are not able of conveying meaning unless the teachers, who have been
previously trained in approaches, methods and processes that reinforce this vision, present it to
them (González, 2009).
Also, the classroom is seen as a controlled learning environment, “where students work
on the language according to a carefully designed learning program under the supervision and
guidance of a trained teacher” (Tudor, 2011, p. 105). This classroom conception, I believe, lefts
aside and limits both learners and teachers, since it doesn’t allow them to naturally interact and
construct meaning by relying on their experiences, which in regards to Goodman (1998), allows
students to develop themselves as whole persons by stimulating reflection about life and social
issues.
Hence, it could be surmise that there is a meaningful relation given by bringing the past
experiences to the present time. Similarly, Mendez & Piñeros (2005) affirmed that, when
learners find a good atmosphere to share their dreams, fears, hopes, and expectations, a
connection to the social environment development arises.
Another fact calling my attention, is that both materials and methodology are linked to
the assessment given by the British Council, and it is assured that by reinforcing each language
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skill with the thematic and exercises provided by the books “meaningful knowledge is reached”
(English Area Syllabus, 2015, p. 3). In this sense, the EFL syllabus does not merely reflect the
way knowledge and concepts are organized in a scholar year, but how the teacher’s role is
relegated to implement what has already been designed by external entities.
In this sense, it could be implied that the term bilingualism is reduced to first, learning
English (even though subjects as Science, Math and Social Studies in the foreign language from
2nd up to 7th grade are taught), and secondly, as a process that can be measured under foreign
standards. As a result, neither teachers nor learners have voices in the design and implementation
of the EFL syllabus, which has to be assumed as an opportunity of transforming their practices,
starting first by examining, designing and creating a syllabus that emphasizes as suggested by
Pineda (2001) on “the communicative nature of language and acknowledges that it has meaning
when it is embedded in a context” (p. 14).
In order to gather information about the way these subjects are being approached, a
survey based on Graves’ (2000) ideas (see annex A) was applied to EFL teachers. Their
responses did not only corroborate the fact that bilingual education is understood as teaching
other areas subjects in English and that it is measured under foreign standards (as previously
described), but that there is not an established bilingual curriculum other than the books’ scope
and sequence.
Extracts 1 and 2 are samples of some of their answers. Although they were originally
written in the foreign language, English equivalent is provided in the first sample for an accurate
understanding.
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Extract 1
Q1: How are the bilingual policies stated by the government implemented in the
school?
A1: according to the new policy, we have been implementing into have more
numbers of hours in the teaching language and now we started from last year the
bilingual school in preschool, first, etc.
A2: the school takes in account the European Frame to evaluate the level of
English of the students
English Equivalent:
Q1: How are the bilingual policies stated by the government implemented in the
school?
A1: The amount of hours of the English classes have increased, and since last year
we have implemented the bilingual education in preschool, first grade, etc.
A2: Students’ English proficiency is measured taking into account the Common
European Framework
Extract 2
Q2: Are you familiar with the “bilingual programme” implemented in elementary
school? (If your answer is affirmative please briefly describe it)
A1: students learn science, math and geography in English
A2: no. I don’t know. I just follow the book that is established by the school
What is more, they revealed they rely most of the time on the textbooks as they are not
familiar with the concepts and that there is barely discussion or sharing experiences with self-
contained teachers. Hence, neither educators nor students’ experiences are being part of the
classes. Graphics 1 and 2 display their answers.
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Q6: Do you constantly rely upon teachers in
charge of teaching Science or Math in the
mother tongue in order to plan these classes in
English?
Q7: the resources you use in the science or math
class are (be free to select more than one answer
Graphic 1: Survey #1Q:6
Graphic 2: Survey #1Q7
Subsequently, results were confronted with the literature in order to structure a second
survey (see annex B) that could provide deeper answers. It is important to mention that this
survey was conducted with the same nine EFL teachers. From here, it was corroborated the fact
that teachers’ do not participate in the curriculum design as this one is assumed as the scope and
sequence provided by the textbook (as revealed in Survey#1). Thus, this might not have only
limited their practices but their professional growth in the sense that they do not have a visible
voice in terms of making decisions and designing. Graphics 3 and 4 are presented to evidence
this analysis.
0
2
4
6
EFL teachers
0
2
4
6
8
10
Textbook Materialdesigned
by you
TICS
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Q2: Teachers’ experiences and practices
are taken into account to develop the
bilingual program or curricula
Q5: In our school, teachers examine and rethink
their practice
Graphic 3: Survey#2Q:2
Graphic 4: Survey#2Q:5
At this point, it was important to consider students’ perception due to the fact that they
are integral parts of the teaching-learning process, and from them new ideas could emerge
(Barkhuizen, 2002). Hence, a third survey grounded on Graves’ (2000) ideas was conducted with
28 students from 6th grade (see annex C). Their responses reaffirmed the fact that the textbook is
mostly the material used in science or math classes and that it has a direct incidence in their
engagement with the classes, since it makes them boring.
In this sense, it seems evident the need to revise and reflect upon the bilingual practices
and conceptions carried out until this moment in terms of materials and curriculum design in
order to understand them as “one relevant element within the larger concept of teachers taking
responsibility for what happens in their classes” (Block, 1991, p. 216). Graphic 5 shows sixth
graders’ answers.
STRONGLY DISAGREE
0%
DISAGREE22%
NEUTRAL45%
AGREE22%
STRONGLY AGREE
11%
STRONGLY DISAGREE
22%
DISAGREE45%
NEUTRAL11%
AGREE22%
STRONGLY AGREE
0%
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Q4: Consideras que aprender inglés a través de diferentes asignaturas es:
English Equivalent:
Q4: Do you think learning English through different subjects is:
Figure 5: Survey#3Q:4
Similarly, learners’ answers suggested to inquiry about the “why”, the “how” and the
“what” they learn English, so as to recognized elements that need to be included when designing
a bilingual curriculum that addresses educational actors’ needs. Hence, a survey based on
Seedhouse’s scheme (1995) was applied not only to the same 28 learners but to 9 EFL and 5 self-
contained teachers who were asked to answer, as a way to understand their personal perspective
regarding the learning process. This instrument (see annex D) was requested and submitted
digitally by teachers and carried out in a printed version with the students. Seedhouse’s scheme
(1995) consisted on three items: 1). Purposes and reasons (why are you learning English?);
2).Ways of learning (how do you like to learn?); and 3). Topics and Content (what do you like to
learn through English?).
As shown in Graphic 6, the most common answers among the participants were C (so I
can travel to other countries), D (so I can speak a foreign language) and E (so I can get a better
job when I leave school), evidencing the beliefs about getting better educational and professional
chevere e interesante
46%
interesante pero no
necesario23%
aburrido pero
necesario19%
otra12%
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opportunities if English is spoken. What is more, answers G (because English is an important
world language) and B (so I can pass an international tests) corroborated not only that language
is seen from an instrumental perspective but also reflect ideas of exclusion, manipulation and
stratification, aiming to spread the idea of English as a neutral language while narrowing the
teaching-learning process under the Transmission model. (González, 2007; Guerrero and
Quintero, 2009; Escobar, 2013).
Graphic 6: Purposes and Reasons (Seedhouse’s scheme 1995)
In relation to the second item, ways of learning, diverse responses arose because each
person makes use of different strategies to learn a foreign language. As expected, responses
concerning specific skills B (conversation), E (listening), F (writing), and G (reading) by being
chosen differently, evidenced participants assumptions on giving more importance to one of
them instead of understanding them as a whole. Explicit grammar activities (option A), was
selected as relevant by all self-contained teachers and half of EFL teachers but not by students,
which demonstrates an instrumental view on the teachers’ side. Another fact within this item was
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
A B C D E F G H I J K L M
LEARNERS
EFL TEACHERS
SELF-CONTAINED TEACHERS
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
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the option L (group work), selected by most of the participants as a preferred way of working
even to solve grammar-based tasks. This choice contradict the previous analysis, as it reflects
language as a social practice instead of as an isolated one. Besides, this could reveal teachers’
willingness of working together and learning from others as well as an indicator of the need of
acknowledging teachers as knowledge constructors (Cárdenas, González, & Álvarez, 2010).
Graphic 7: Ways of Learning (Seedhouse’s scheme 1995)
As shown below in Graphic 8 regarding the item Topics and Content, option G (real-life
related) was selected by most participants corroborating the importance of involving
contextualized and genuine aspects to the EFL teaching-learning process. Option A (the ones
proposed by the book) by having a low percentage could also be an indicator that the textbooks
used in the school present contexts and situations different from the ones lived by the
participants which make them meaningless as they do not allow participants to make connections
or reflections to sociocultural practices within their immediate context. Option D
(interdisciplinary topics) had also a significant number of responses, indicating that there is a
0
5
10
15
20
25
30
A B C D E F G H I J K L M N
LEARNERS
EFL TEACHERS
SELF-CONTAINED TEACHERS
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need of integrating real and contextualized knowledge instead of only using the interdisciplinary
concepts provided by the books.
Graphic 8: Topics and Contents (Seedhouse’s scheme 1995)
In view of the above evidences, it could be surmise that there is a need of examining both
EFL and self-contained teachers’ discourses towards bilingual education so as to understand the
way certain ideas and notions in relation to this phenomenon have shaped or transform
participants’ educational practices. Likewise, it displays teachers’ opportunity of growing
professionally by first, relying upon colleagues and secondly, by assuming an active role in terms
of curriculum design.
0
5
10
15
20
25
A B C D E F G
LEARNERS
EFL TEACHERS
SELF-CONTAINEDTEACHERS
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Research Question
The main question that emerged considering the fact that language development is
inevitably tied to the learners, and the situations learners are involved in as pointed out by
Norton (2010), is:
What discourses do EFL and self-contained teachers draw on when envisaging a bilingual
curriculum within the context of professional development?
Research Objectives
1. To unveil EFL and self-contained teachers’ discourses on bilingualism when envisaging a
bilingual curriculum within the context of professional development
2. To describe the EFL and self-contained teachers professional development process when
envisaging a bilingual curriculum
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Literature Review
In view of De Mejía (2004), the influence of English as a Foreign Language in socio-
economic systems has led to changes in the Colombian Educational field regarding teaching and
learning this language. These changes, introduced first in the Constitutional Reform of 1991,
have been the basis for the adoption of bilingual policies that intent to measure proficiency and
that have concentrated in the classroom (Herazo et al.; 2012). The latest effort under the name of
Programa Nacional de Bilingüismo (PNB) promotes being bilingual as means of communicating
and getting the appropriate knowledge to be more competent and competitive so as to improve
all Colombian’s citizens quality of life (Ministerio de Educación Nacional, 2006).
As a result, the EFL teaching-learning process in Colombia has been framed under
foreign standards disregarding local contexts and realities (Guerrero, 2009). Likewise, the
concept of bilingualism, as denounced by some researchers (González, 2007; Guerrero, 2008;
Sánchez and Obando 2008; Usma, 2009), has been narrowed to English-Spanish, denying and
oppressing the indigenous and Afro-American languages that there exist in Colombia. Also, EFL
teachers’ role under this policy has been relegated as of trainers or/and facilitators of knowledge
as avowed by Pineda (2001). Thus, teachers’ decisions on methodology, curriculum and syllabus
design aiming to fulfill learners’ particular needs while promoting professional development
become limited.
Therefore, it is critical to take a stance on the way bilingual policies are being conceived
and implemented in our country by means of reflecting, and designing methodologies, curricula
and materials that fit into our monolingual context and respond to the educational actors’ needs
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as intended in this research. In these order of ideas, three main constructs supporting this chapter
will be approached: discourses, bilingualism, and teacher professional development.
Background to the Study
As assured by Lindblat and Popkewitz (2000, p.14) “new ways to govern education and
the modernization of the school as an institution, demand changes in curricula and new
constructions of students and teachers”, meaning taking part in the design of a bilingual
curriculum must be seen as opportunity to reflect and assume a critical stance about bilingual
policies within a monolingual context, and the way these have shaped and limited not only
educational practices but educators’ professional growth.
Concerning this last item, Cárdenas, González, & Álvarez (2010) affirmed that this field
has received emergent attention by researchers in Colombia due to the bilingual program carried
out by the government in the latest decade. Nevertheless, this process has not fulfilled teachers’
needs as it has been focused on achieving proficiency and evaluating scholars under echoed
colonial and traditional discourses as showed in González’ (2007) research, such as taking
standardized tests, following a pre-established methodology, or organizing the syllabus in
accordance to their book’s scope and sequence. Consequently, educational foreign models have
been adopted without considering local circumstances and contexts, making even wider the gap
between policies and practices (Ayala Zárate, & Álvarez, 2005; De Mejía, 2011).
Similarly, De Mejía (2004) stated that this division has also disregarded local research
into bilingualism and bilingual education programs, implying that teachers’ concerns and
insights about the way the teaching and learning of a foreign language should be conceived in a
monolingual country, have not been taken into account. This affects “not only the treatment of
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children and adults learning the foreign language, but also the careers of English language
educators in schools and universities” (Guerrero and Quintero, 2009; p. 137).
This last aspect, supports González and Sierra’s (2005) findings about the way EFL
teachers’ expertise and knowledge, by being exposed to foreign models of training and
education, have been overshadowed by the common believe that native speakers are the ones
who can be tagged as the source of understanding and capability in terms of EFL educational
practices worldwide.One evidence of it, is the Immersion Classroom Program, where a foreigner
(not necessarily a native speaker of English nor a teacher); and a Colombian EFL teacher,
stimulate the development of the four skills: speaking, listening, writing and reading within a
dynamic and participatory environment (Mora, 2015). It is important to state that the colombian
teacher (tagged as supportive teacher), despite its expertise and knowledge, is in charge of
controlling the discipline and, of course, maintaining the dynamic environment, while the
foreigner, despite its non-expertise, leads the class by following the Linguaventuras curriculum
designed by the British Council.
These practices and discourses, as assured by Guerrero and Quintero (2009, p. 148), limit
the English language to “a vehicle to broaden the ideological and cultural practices of the Anglo
North American countries” while voiding teachers’ role as designers, managers and evaluators of
curricula and materials that address the particularities of the learners and its contexts. Parallel
results have been found by researchers in countries with bilingual policies similar to the ones
imposed in Colombia. For example, Muthanna and Karaman (2011) investigation of prospective
teachers’ beliefs concerning EFL Education stated the lack of clear standards and philosophy
statements due to academic and administrative problems.
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What is more, it was reported that education policy-makers paid little attention to
teachers’ ideas and strategies for improving the EFL program in Yemen. In the same line of
though, Jóhanneson et. al (2000) affirmed in their report entitled Curriculum, management, and
self-evaluation in Icelandic primary and secondary schools that, when teachers teach towards the
goals and objectives that have already been defined, the notion of expertise gets narrowed as
“teachers themselves are not the chief players in the self-evaluation process, rather the principal
and external evaluators are to inspect the model” (p.103).
Alike, Barkhuizen’s (2002) study about the Language Education Policy in Africa and the
way students perceive Xhosa (one of their native languages) and English, revealed that not only
teachers but students’ voices are “often ignored in decision-making about educational matters”
(p. 511). What is more, students in this study indicated that they have a preference for studying
English over the native language since it has been said, would give them better life opportunities.
This last aspect I think, must lead scholars to wonder about the status and the importance given
to the mother tongue in places where foreign language policies are adopted without considering
the incidences in the community.
In view of the above, the professional development required in Colombia regarding
bilingual practices and guidelines must not be focused only on methodology and curricula design
aiming language proficiency, but on awareness in the way the educational field is molded and
permeable by economic factors (González and Sierra, 2005). Likewise, by raising attentiveness
about the way the EFL education is conceived under a context of knowledge economy as pointed
out by Usma (2009; p. 137), it is hope changes can be generated by the way external discourses
and realities are adopted and carried out, as well as local teacher-researchers’ voices are to be
heard.
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Another important aspect to look at-which constitutes the novelty of this study - is that
self-contained teachers are invited to be part and take a stance on bilingual policies as they are
required by some institutions, to teach specific concepts in the foreign language and to take up
proficiency tests in order to give continuity to their jobs otherwise,they are being relegated by
EFL teachers, who do not have the necessary expertise to do so as would be referenced in this
study.As revised, self-contained teachers’ role and perspectives regarding bilingual policies in
Colombia have not been widely explored. Research related to different knowledge areas has been
mainly instrumental since their focus is on the way specific concepts are used as mediators to
present the foreign language. These methodologies, known as Content Based Approach (CBI)
and Content and Language Integrated Learning (CLIL), have been advocated as an initiative for
developing bilingual programs.
Referring to CBI, Leung (2005, p.248) has said that this methodology “relates the general
idea of language learning to more specific demands and opportunities”. Likewise, Corrales and
Maloof (2011) concluded from their research with Colombian university students that the CBI
increases motivation since the topics, materials, and activities are relevant, meaningful,
interesting, and useful to them, as the content information serves to activate students’ prior
knowledge. In reference to CLIL, Arnó-Macià and Mancho-Barés’ (2015) study showed that
participants perceived this methodology as “a real communicative context for discipline-oriented
language use” (p.72). Equally, McDougald (2009) claims that by teaching content in English,
input in the foreign language becomes more comprehensible at the time of being an approach
that “can be easily adapted to current educational and bilingual programs in Colombia” (p.47).
Opposite of this, self-contained teachers more than the contents per se, are essential in the
development of bilingualism in monolingual countries as ours, since by establishing a process of
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reflecting, dialoguing, and sharing practices and experiences, teachers conceive language of as a
whole and comprehend the way learners establish truly interdisciplinary relationships (Ordoñez,
2011). In this sense, it could be affirmed bilingual education must not only intent to reach L2
proficiency or to fulfill government’s guidelines, but to raise awareness in both teachers and
learners in relation to their personal and educational growth .
With this in mind, research in Colombia regarding professional development and
bilingual policies needs to be conducted bearing in mind: a). stances on the implementation of
bilingual policies; b). development of curricula and educational programs sensitive to the
contexts and the educational actors’ needs; and c). relying upon self-contained teachers’
knowledge and expertise.One reviewed attempt concerning this idea is Ordoñez’ (2011) work
which focused on Spanish-English teachers’ collaboration on bilingual curricula design. The
author concluded that by working together, teachers helped students to see and use the
similarities and differences between the two languages in order to learn them both.
What is more, teachers’ professional development in terms of curriculum and practice
changes were possible by relying on their colleagues, a beneficial fact that encourages reflective
dialogue, the de-privatization of practice, and the collective focus on student learning(Meyer,
2002; p.39).Nevertheless, little research about bilingualism in regards of foreignlanguage and
self-contained teachers’ views has been conducted. This study presumes to be an opportunity for
endorsing professional development by means of envisaging a curriculum design at the time of
creating an environment for participants’ voices to be heard in relation to bilingual policies and
practices. Similarly, it aims at unveiling teachers’ discourses so as to understand the way this
phenomenon has shaped their practices inside and outside the classroom.
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Theoretical Framework
As previously explained, the theories behind teachers’ discourses; bilingualism/bilingual
education and professional development were the pillars sustaining this study. Each one of them
will be addressed with the intention of providing the necessary support to frame the study within
a critical view.
Teachers’ Discourses
Understanding the world and the relationships given on it, implies understanding
language per se. As assumed by Fairclough (2003, p. 2), “language is an irreducible part of
social life, dialectically interconnected with other elements from that social life”. In that sense,
language seems to be corroborated as a social practice where discourses, both written and oral,
are created, understood, shaped, and validated within a community in a specific context by
means of interaction. This statement is supported by Gee (1999), who defines them as:
“different ways in which we humans integrate language with non-language “stuff”
such as different ways of thinking, acting, interacting, valuing, feeling, believing
and using symbols, tools, and objects in the right places and at the right times so
as to enact and recognize different identities and activities, give the material
world certain meanings, distribute social goods in a certain way, make certain
sorts of meaningful connections in our experience and privilege certain symbol
systems and ways of knowing over others” (p.13).
In this sense, discourses are not static, rather they are always transformed by people
through the use of language that is simultaneously generated by contexts and are those contexts
the ones that validated discourses. Thus, discourses can be defined as doing, reflecting, and
interacting not only with the others, but also with ourselves and the world to enact change. In the
same line of though, Kumaravadivelu (2003) designated them as a conceptual territory where
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knowledge is produced and reproduced-that is- they reflect a fragment of the world that is only
understood by addressing the context where it is producedin relation to the participants and their
intentions.
Considering the context this study took place, it seemed urgent to unveil EFL and self-
contained teachers’ discourses so as to first, research on how the meaning-making of texts
regarding bilingualism was given and the way these have shaped and limited pedagogical
practices and professional growth, and secondly, to make visible their voices in terms of
making decisions about bilingual education processes in Colombia since from a social
perspective, teachers not only possess knowledge but are creators of it (Jhonson & Golombek,
2002).
In keeping with this idea, it is relevant to state that the bilingualism discourse as stated
by different authors (Fairclough, 2003; Guerrero, 2008; Usma, 2009) draws upon the new
capitalism notion, an economic system based on the production of goods and services
characterized by competition and unlimited consumerism. As a result, environmental, political,
labor, medical and social transformations (for naming a few) have arisen. In the word of
Fairclough (2003), these systems of knowledge [discourses] exercise social control, therefore, it
is impossible to ignore the changes this socio-economic model has produced in the education
field and the pervasive effect on our lives as the emphasis has been framed on the global
economy expansion (Humes, 2000).
Consequently, the EFL teaching and learning process has been portrayed worldwide as an
instrumental one, as the only solution through which citizens can access to a “qualified”
education to then obtain a well-paid job, better economic opportunities, and of course, a better
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life. Despite this marvelous description, inequality, as denounced in Guerrero’s (2010) article,
has gotten deeper since the division between poor and rich, power and powerless, native and
non-native, is getting broader as foreigner practices are receiving more attention than the local
ones.
In this manner, education by being controlled and limited, becomes into the main tool to
practice power, which is exercised less through brute force and more through the systems of
knowledge described by Foucault (2005). Hence, the principles of what should be known
(didactics and learning theories) and the way it should be learned (curriculum) are consequences
of power that enclose not only the possibilities of the present as stated by Popkewitz (2000) but
of the future, as they serve as foundations for shaping teachers and learners’ view of the world.
In view of the above, I consider relevant to bring about González (2007); Guerrero and
Quintero (2009); and Escobar’s (2013) work in terms of participants and intentions behind
bilingual discourses in Colombia in order to provide enough information to an accurate
interpretation. Referring to these elements, researchers agreed on the fact that the MEN (Ministry
of Education) have enforced discourses of exclusion, manipulation and stratification through the
adoption of bilingual policies and models, as socio-cultural considerations have been
disregarded, colonial ideas privileged, and particular interests protected.
What is more, society has been trained to assume those standards as the ruling factor that
defines EFL education reproducing de idea of language as a linguistic system of signs and
symbols, which establishes a barrier between language and learners. These discourses in view of
Foucault (2005), circle under pre-stablished circumstances and are camouflaged under varied
ways.
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Discourses concerning bilingualism in Colombia indeed, have been reconstructed and
deconstructed along the years. Nevertheless, Colombian teachers have always been blamed,
questioned, and even replaced (Adriana González, personal communication, June 6, 2015).
Sánchez and Obando (2008) reported two main beliefs around these discourses: a) local
educators are not well prepared to teach a foreign language thus, it is not necessary to invest in
them but to replace them; b) English native speakers [regardless of their professional
background] will ensure the learning process, as the native accent is a determinant factor to learn
the language.
In this sense, the government is privileging foreign entities over local practices and
research as the only materials and tests used and approved to certify the foreign language
proficiency, are the ones designed and sold by these entities. Similarly, the idea of English as a
neutral language is perpetuated under the transmission model, where teachers adopt and follow
models and approaches and learners are forced to memorize and reproduce someone else’s
knowledge in order to fit into the system and be able to get a better job.
Opposite to this, it is my intention to fight against naturalized discourses (Fairclough,
2003) since as discussed along this research study, we learn through language instead of learning
a language. What is more, it is important to make people aware of the discourses given in terms
of education and construction of society so as not to perpetuate unequal ideas. Therefore, it is
important to spread the word and redefine understandings related to bilingualism so as to value
the teaching profession.
In addition, it is essential to involve all teachers notwithstanding of the knowledge they
help learners to built, due to the fact that is our responsibility as educators to help towards the
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creation of a more tolerant society instead of providing an ideal way to obtain better jobs, as
everything related to community in terms of language aims at understanding and transforming
hierarchy, power and social injustice (Gee, 1999). In that sense, teachers’ discourses need to be
focused on “why” questions instead of “how” ones, as our job goes beyond operational matters
within a pre-established curriculum.
To sum up, by having clarified the concept of discourses in terms of development and
intentions, it was evident the implications within the educational field, and that the discourses in
terms of bilingualism expressed by the government, companies, textbooks, school boards, and so
on, have not only affected Colombian teachers’ professional growth, but their identities and
subjectivities. Subsequently, the understandings of bilingualism and bilingual education within
monolingual contexts will be addressed with the intention of backing up this last statement.
Bilingualism and Bilingual Education
In the word of Guerrero (2010), the field of Bilingualism is a very complex practice
because it is related to language, which constitutes a wide range of points of view from where it
can be perceived and analyzed. Hence, its definition is allied to the emphasis placed by
disciplines such as Sociolinguistics (bilingualism concept regarding contexts); Psycholinguistics
(how languages are learned); Education (how languages are learnedregarding educational
settings), among others.
In order to broaden the scope of bilingualism, it is essential first, to understand some
factors that have contributed towards a bilingual\multilingual society. As reported by Hoffman
(1991), some of those include military conquests, political marriages, succession arrangements,
colonization, migration and immigration, and language promotion; all of them as evidenced,
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grounded on societal changes. Nevertheless, research in bilingualism as supported by Baker
(2001) has been mainly focused on determining parameters and establishing tests to measure
language proficiency.
In this sense, the study and importance given to the understanding and conceptualization
of this phenomenon have resulted in multiple categorizations based on different factors. As
reported by Butler and Hakuta (2004), individuals can be classified as bilinguals based on the
proficiency in L1 and L2 (balanced or dominant); the mental process of organizing linguistic
codes (compound, coordinate or subordinated); age (early [simultaneous or sequential] or late
[incipient, receptive or productive]); the effect of L2 in L1 (additive or subtractive); the language
status(elite or folk); context conditions (circumstantial or elective);and cultural identity
(bicultural, monocultural or accultural).
These distinctions as affirmed by these authors, do not constitute definite premises but a
continuous and interrelated hypothesis which not only corroborate bilingualism as a multifaceted
phenomenon, but as a “socio-cultural behavior that has multi-dimensional aspects” (Butler and
Hakuta, 2004, p. 114). Still, conceiving bilingualism as an interdisciplinary field implies
deliberating about how well languages need to be mastered in order tobe considered as bilingual.
Considering the above, the conception of language this proposal dealt with, lays upon the
Constructivist Theory. For this reason, language is understood as a social practice given in terms
of interaction among individuals, contexts and experiences. Consequently, the purposes for
learning a foreign language should go beyond academic and linguistic reasons, and closely tied
to the learner’s desire of learning through meaningful and “communicative objectives and
processes” as pointed out by Richards (1983; p. 111).
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In this sense, bilingualism should be understood as using more than one language for
communicating and interacting with others. This definition implies indeed, that cannot be
measured given that depends on social conditions, and simple categorization is subjective
(Baker, 2001). Nevertheless, and pertaining to the criteria selected to classify bilinguals along
time, it can be inferred that language has been conceived merely as a linguistic system composed
of receptive (listening and reading); and productive (speaking and writing) skills (Baker, Ibid; p.
4). Based on this distinction, bilingual individuals have been measured regardless of factors such
as settings, L2 exposition, and background to name a few.
This fractional view, as affirmed by Grosjean (1984), aims to compare bilingual with
monolingual individuals, seeking to describe the acquired level of linguistic systems, taking for
granted that foreign languages are learned in isolation. In relation to this, Hoffman (1991, in
Baker, 2001; p. 22) affirmed that “if we accept that there are degrees of bilingual competence,
this implies that bilingualism is measurable”; meaning language is not developed by means of
interaction but by means of following grammar rules, and that there is any connection between
the mother tongue and the foreign language. Drawing from the concepts presented, I will limit
this discussion to the Educational view so as to understand the way bilingualism is assumed in
Colombia and how bilingual programs arose.
Bilingualism and Bilingual Education in Colombia
To be bilingual in Colombia, as in many other countries, has been understood as to the
fact of speaking English (Guerrero, 2008, 2009; Usma, 2009; De Mejía, 2011; Ordoñez, 2011;
Escobar, 2013). Consequently, the language policies adopted by the government meant to spread
English as a foreign language under structured standards having as a result more constrains than
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advantages (Ayala Zárate & Álvarez, 2005). In relation to this, De Mejía (2011) affirmed that the
adoption of the Common European Framework for References (CEFR) as a guiding model has
generated criticisms from some Colombian scholars. I consider relevant to point out some of
them so as to frame the bilingual practices in the educational settings and the effects of it within
society.
The first constrain refers to the fact that this foreign model has been perceived as an
imposition rather than as an adoption. Guerrero (2008, 2009) and Guerrero and Quintero’s
(2009) work, has revealed that the documents supporting the bilingual policies carried out by the
government, favored and recognized English as the language of modernization and progress,
taking no notice of Colombia’s diversity in terms of languages (e.g. Creole and Indigenous).
Indeed, a similar situation is being evidenced with Spanish, which as claimed by De Mejía and
Fonseca (2008), and Ordoñez’ (2011), has been relegated by educational institutions as the focus
of bilingualism is on achieving a high level of proficiency in English.
The second one- refers to the implementation of foreign models unrelated to Colombia’s
geographical conditions, learners’ characteristics, and the particularities of the educational
system. As reported by Ayala Zárate & Álvarez (2005), this has led to negative implications for
the EFL teaching and learning processes since the foreign language is conceived as a
standardized linguistic system, reinforcing the idea that bilingualism can be measured and
validated through rubrics.
In keeping with this idea, Romaine (1989, p. 18) declared, “tests which rely heavily on
performance measures, where limitations of memory and time can affect the results should not
be regarded as adequate estimates of competence”. Though, they seem to have increased and
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42
updated as educational programs and work settings rely upon these examinations regardless of
people’s study choices or job positions. Subsequently, materials as training textbooks, CDs,
DVDs, virtual platforms, etc., are being developed at great speed to fulfill users’ need to be
recognized as bilingual so they can access to high quality education and better life style as
promoted by governments (Ryan, 2010).
I consider relevant then, to draw attention to the fact that by selling the language learning
process as a set of recipes to be followed; creativity, previous knowledge and experiences are not
only rejected, but language learning goals have been limited to scoring tests as reported by De
Mejía and Fonseca (2008); where the main aim is to get a job and continue with the capitalist
discourses, instead of assuming a critical stance towards social-related issues.
Thirdly, the EFL teaching process, as denounced by Escobar (2013); has been outshone
given that teachers were not part of the making-decision process or the design of language
policies, and that the foreign entities in which the government trusts, bring under control the
professional growth as they determine “who is competent to teach the language and how these
individuals should teach” (Escobar, 2013; p. 47). In this sense, EFL teachers are also obliged to
certify their language knowledge.
Alike, González (2009) criticizes the fact that even though EFL professional growth has
been limited to high cost programs (e.g. Master programs, Ph.D. programs, etc.); local practices
and research carried out by these professionals have been relegated widening the gap between
policies and practices. Besides, EFL teachers have been overshadowed by the government as
English native speakers have been brought to work as teachers under the idea that “proper”
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pronunciation is what will guarantee the foreign language learning, perpetuating the idea of
English as a neutral language (Guerrero and Quintero, 2009).
The fourth concern deals with the breach bilingual policies broaden between private and
public education. In view of De Mejía (2002, p. 37), “education has been seen as a powerful
means of providing access to valued symbolic resources, such as bilingualism or multilingualism
in prestigious world languages”. Public education is left behind as the infrastructure, materials,
and L2 exposure demanded in order to reach bilingual standards is not provided by the
government, and the economic resources of these students are not enough to access to them
(Miranda and Echeverry, 2010). Hence, it can be affirmed that the adoption of bilingual policies
in Colombia does not just make the gap wider in terms of education, but regarding social strata
and economical conditions; where less favored students will continue having restrictions and
fewer opportunities to access to quality education programs.
Hitherto, by having discussed the conceptualization of the term Bilingualism and backing
up Colombian researchers’ concerns about the adoption of foreign bilingual policies, it was
demonstrated that professional growth got affected and limited, and that there is an urgent need
to take a critical stance concerning bilingualism so as to co-construct bilingual curricula that met
students, EFL and self-contained teachers’ realities. Subsequently, theories regarding
professional growth will be discussed.
Teachers’ Professional Development
To have a clear conception of what the term Professional Development within the
Educational field entails, I consider relevant initially, to attempt to define it. As studied by
Jhonson & Golombek (2002), the term Professional Development within the EFL field has dealt
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with the conceptions of teacher-training programs aiming to increase teachers’ proficiency in the
foreign language. This understanding, grounded in the Transmission Model, implied that the
knowledge an educator had regarding the teaching of a foreign language, was passed or delivered
to someone wanting to teach, following naturally, a pre-established structure. Henceforth, this
idea was reinforced in the classroom where the “updated knowledge” was transmitted to the
learners.
Similarly, Gabillon (2012) reviewed that this term was associated with programs aiming
grammar teaching and literacy instruction since both skills have been awarded some attention.
According to Díaz-Maggioli (2012), these perspectives correspond to the look-and-learn and
read-and-learn traditions in teacher education, in which the emphasis was on reviewing and
memorizing approaches, methodologies or theories that others had developed. In doing so,
educators’ understanding of the teaching process per se was limited at the time of restraining
their professional growth as this validates the idea that there is one way of teaching
notwithstanding of contexts, realities and learners.
However, as time went by, other views regarding Teachers’ Development Processes
arose. On the word of Murray (2010, p. 10) for example, is meant to be an ongoing process of
assessing and reexamining beliefs and practices, which denotes self-reflection on educational
theories and perspectives and the way these are carried out. Besides, it comprises an invitation
for not taking for granted what has been defined as the teaching-learning process regardless of
time and society evolution.
Alternatively, Díaz Maggioli (2004, p. 5) understands it as a “job-embedded
commitment that teachers make in order to further the purposes of the profession while
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addressing their own particular needs”; meaning this is not only implemented for professional
but personal reasons, and that even though this is decided and carried out by the teacher itself, it
has incidence in the students and the community, since educators reflect on the effects that
teaching has on learning by rethinking their practices so as to introduce changes.
This tradition, think-and-learn (as referenced by Díaz-Maggioli, 2012), balances the
theory-practice dichotomy and encourages educators to continue growing professional and
individually. Nonetheless, teachers were not able to provide or receive critiques and support
from others as being limited to individual growth, missing venues for Professional Development.
Thus, sharing and relying on colleagues became essential. As understood by Johnson &
Golombek (2002), making teachers’ ways of knowing public and able to be reviewed by others is
essential-, since not being able to write, show and share with others what has been reflected and
transformed inside-and-outside the classroom, has denied teachers’ role as theorizers.
Moreover, by sharing experiences, teachers become active participants in the teaching-
learning process, exploring and learning new ideas and concepts, and making decisions based on
their own and others’ experiences and understandings as demonstrated in Ordoñez (2011) and
González’ (2007) studies with Colombian teachers. Considering Wheatley’s (2002) work about
teachers’ efficacy doubts- a term that fosters teacher learning by reflecting and promoting
collaboration- exchanging ideas with colleagues also help teachers to confirm, reject or suspend
judgments of new interpretations and encourages teachers to become aware not only of their
practices but of the effect of those. Therefore, teaching is not just a practice developed within a
society, but a responsibility with it.
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In keeping with this idea, Wenger (1999; p. 4) declares that learning by means of sharing
and participating with others, “shapes not only what we do, but also who we are and how we
interpret what we do”; implying that both learning and teaching are social practices embedded
and developed within a group. From a constructivist perspective, the construction of meaning is
the process of either relating new and old information when exchanging ideas orally or written
(Goodman, 1998). In this sense, knowledge emerged, is built and co-constructed within a
community. Thus, both teachers and learners’ outcomes of this process may take a variety of
forms, ranging from new semantic or lexical knowledge of the L2, to changes in attitudes, values
and beliefs, as supported by Wenger (1999; p. 53) who claims that “the negotiation of meaning
may involve language, but it is not limited to it”.
When talking about Communities of Practice, Wenger (Ibid; p.48) defined them as “the
places where we develop, negotiate and share ideas”, and assured they are an essential part of our
lives as we are social by nature. Certainly, personal and professional commitment is required as
thinking, shaping, and acting as regards of participants’ experiences is embraced. In this sense,
belonging to a community of practice does not entitle the merely fact of “doing”, but the process
of understanding the purpose and the importance of getting involved within it.
Based on this distinction, the EFL Professional Development process should not be
understood only as to formal education programs but as an opportunity of getting involved in
new networks of professional growth, where initiatives concerning bilingual policies, standards,
curricula and materials, are developed to promote not only meaningful and contextualized L2
learning but a space for both EFL and self-contained teachers to “appreciate the diversity and
value of professional engagement” as claimed by Nielsen, Clarke, & Collins (2010, p. 863).
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So far, it has been highlighted the importance of going beyond the idea of conceiving
EFL teaching-and-learning as a transmission process but as a continuous one, where contexts and
experiences are considered, and teachers are actively involved in it .As well, reasoning upon the
way this process is carried out, the purpose of it, and the relevance of sharing with others and
creating communities of practices, allows teachers to redefine their practices, to get engage in the
construction of knowledge and to improve their and their learners realities at the time of
endorsing Professional Development .
In summary, I have discussed the importance of conceiving language as a social practice
by announcing how knowledge is given by means of interaction. Indeed, the examination of
diverse definitions and theories about bilingualism and bilingual education led me conclude that
both EFL and self-contained teachers must be involved in the development of curricula and
making-decision process in order to help learners to construct meaningful knowledge by relying
upon their experiences. What is more, by sharing knowledge and practices, teachers also self-
empower to grow both personal and professionally. Finally, it was demonstrated the need of
making teachers’ voices visible about bilingual policies and practices as well as the importance
of resisting discourses that prolonged social inequality and injustice so as to enact change.
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Instructional Design
As previously discussed, there is a need of relying upon teachers’ experiences and
knowledge as to develop curricula and programs that are “sensitive to the context and
constructed collaboratively” (González, 2007, p. 315). Therefore, it seems relevant for the EFL
community to reflect and assume a critical perspective about the adoption of policies and foreign
models as well as the way they are reflected within the teaching-learning process. The
curriculum, understood as a means to organize experiences and educational practices that take
place in a specific context, “entails the process of making programmatic decisions and revising
the results of such decisions” (Pineda, 2001, p. 7), which entails an opportunity to endorse
teachers’ professional growth.
Subsequently, both educators and learners’ principles, views and experiences, have to be
taken into consideration and adjusted to the setting in which the foreign language takes place. In
this sense, the pedagogical intervention proposed for this study and carried out with both EFL
and Self-Contained teachers aiming to stimulate professional development while envisaging a
bilingual curriculum is described in detail.
Visions of Language and the Educational Process
When talking about teaching and learning it is commonly defined as individual processes
with active and passive participants: teachers, the active ones, as they possess knowledge from a
specific subject or domain, and learners, the ones who receive it. It also comprises the fact that
the knowledge decided to be worthwhile of being taught (neither by teachers nor learners) is
determined by political and economical reasons. For that reason, changes in curricula,
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constructions of students and teachers, and new ways of working are demanded (Lindblat and
Popkewitz, 2000; p. 14).
This statement comprises an invitation for not taking for granted what has been defined
as education and to understand the role and responsibility not only of teachers and learners but
also of all educational actors (government, administrators, principals, parents, etc.) with this
process where diverse backgrounds, settings and realities converged. In this sense, this
pedagogical intervention is grounded in a social perspective involving teachers’ commitment to
rethink and reevaluate their practices to engage learners and colleagues in doing the same. What
is more, it allows participants to assume learning and teaching as an opportunity to reflect upon
the world and its dynamics to enact change.
In order to have a clear conception of the way teaching and learning are approached from
a social standpoint, Wenger (1999) ideas are presented. Hence, the methodology and objectives
proposed for each stage of this pedagogical intervention were set bearing in mind a professional
development context in which participants were active and committed members.
A Social Theory of Language, Learning and Teaching for Teachers
In regards of Wenger (1999), the main problem when addressing learning is the belief
that it is the result of teaching, and so, it happens in the classroom without the outside world
influence. The assumption he expressed, has had an effect not only in the way classrooms are
arranged and classes designed but also on learners’ desire of learning, as it is perceived as a
boring, monotonous, and individual practice. This last aspect is what he problematized in order
to propose a social theory of learning.
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To begin with, he stated that the central aspect when defining learning is the fact that we are
social beings, and as such, participation and interaction become key elements when doing so.
Thus, what we do, who we are, and the way we interpret, is shaped when learning from and with
others through language. Bearing this in mind, I consider relevant to mention the principles set
by Wenger (1999) to ground his theory so as to better understand it.
1. We are social beings. Therefore, it must be a central aspect of learning
2. Knowledge is a matter of competence on valued enterprises (singing, writing, fixing,
discovering, etc.)
3. Knowing is a matter of participating in the pursuit of such enterprises, that is, of active
engagement in the world
4. Meaning- our ability to experience the world- is ultimately what learning is to produce.
In the light of this perspective, learning is a social practice given in terms of
communication where real experiences and contexts converged in order to construct meaning. It
is crucial to state that the interaction is not only given among their main participants (teachers
and students) but contexts and experiences through interdisciplinary concepts and notions.
Subsequently, the teaching-learning process must be understood as a practice rooted in teachers
and learners’ personal experiences and immediate contexts, where discussions concerning socio-
cultural issues and facts take place to construct knowledge. Henceforth, the classroom must be
seen as the space where meaning and knowledge is co-constructed, and all participants are
empowered as language learners and users.
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Clearly, learning from a social theory must integrate some elements so as to first,
characterize it as a collective practice and secondly, to comprehend how knowledge is
constructed. About this, Wenger (Ibid) pointed out four main aspects: meaning, practice,
community, and identity; interrelated and essential components within learning, which also give
account on how this social practice is set: by experiencing, doing, belonging, and becoming.
Graphic 9 shows this relation.
With the intention of appreciating this interrelation in-depth, I consider relevant to
initially, provide Wenger’s (1999, p. 5) definition for each one of its components. Meaning refers
to the ability to experience our life and the world; practice deals with the shared historical and
social perspectives or assumptions that sustain mutual engagement; community states for the
social configurations in which our knowledge is defined as worthy, so we can participate, and
identities are the changes experienced by learning.
Learning
learning as
belonging
learning as
becoming
learning as
experiencing
learning as
doing
community
practice
meaning
identity
Graphic 9. Components of a Social theory of learning
(Wenger, 1999; p. 5)
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Successively, I understand learning as the process of defining and understanding the
world around us and the issues that emerge from it by means of interacting with the world itself
and the ones living in it. Evidently, we learn as long as we experience and do things by means of
sharing and relying upon others, and when doing so, our thoughts and assumptions are either
transformed or ratified: we become by belonging to a social group, to a “community of practice”
in Wenger’s words.
Community of practice then, entails working collaborative with others who share similar
conditions as professions or jobs to assure engagement with certain mutual goals. This practice
indeed, connotes individual actions such as reflecting or analyzing to then, be able to participate,
share, etc.; which constitute collective actions. It is important though, to understand that this
process is given first, by choice (its participants decided to be there) and that it takes place within
historical and social contexts (they do not and cannot be executed without bearing in mind the
outside world) as it gives “structure and meaning to what we do” (Wenger, 1999; p. 47). In this
sense, the communities of practice that might exist within a school context are not delimited by a
specific area of knowledge (language, science, math, etc.), but to the desire of participating by
doing, that is, to go beyond the mere fact of doing per se by reflecting about the purpose of
getting involved and the social responsibility this implies.
Under this conception, this pedagogical intervention design aimed at inviting both EFL
and self-contained teachers to reflect upon their ideas and practices when envisaging a bilingual
curriculum to not only improve learners’ proficiency in the foreign language but to allow
educators’ professional growth. Subsequently, I will discuss the social theory of learning already
presented within a Professional Development context.
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A Social Theory of Learning within a Professional Development Context
As discussed in the Literature Review chapter , most traditions related to professional
growth balance the theory-practice dichotomy and encourage educators to continue growing
professional and individually. Nonetheless, teachers were not able to provide or receive critiques
and support from others as being limited to individual growth. Thus, sharing and relying upon
colleagues became essential, since by being involve within this social practice, teachers become
active participants in the teaching-learning process, exploring and learning new ideas and
concepts, and making decisions based on their own and others’ experiences and understandings.
Jhonson and Golombek (2002) support this statement by claiming professional
development means to reshape knowledge, beliefs, and practices both individually and
collectively. Similarly, Ortlieb and Lu (2011) affirmed that we are all knowers who reflect on
experience, confront the unknown, make sense of it and take action; therefore, we as teachers do
not only possess knowledge but can also be creators of it by being engaged in relationships with
others and with society.
Based on this distinction, teachers’ Professional Development process should not be
understood only as to formal education programs, but as to the pedagogical spaces of sharing and
discussing initiatives concerning bilingualism; bilingual policies and standards; bilingual
curriculum and materials, are developed to promote not only meaningful and contextualized L2
learning, but a space for both EFL and content teachers to “appreciate the diversity and value of
professional engagement” as claimed by Nielsen, Triggs, Clarke, & Collins (2010, p. 863).
This pedagogical intervention, envisaged under the belief that bilingual education in
Colombia must be conceived beyond the premise of just learning English or achieving the goals
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proposed by the government, is seen as an opportunity to listen to educators’ voice in relation to
bilingualism policies and the way they are being carried out as well as a chance of transforming
and repositioning the curriculum by means of embracing concepts, and being concerned as to
what students can do with the foreign language as claimed by De Mejía (2011).
Incidentally, the aim embrace individual and collective opportunities to growth
professionally at the time of addressing issues which have had an incidence in the social,
political and educational fields (see the Theoretical Framework chapter). In this sense, the
importance of bringing EFL and Self-Contained teachers together so as to rethink, evaluate, and
renovate their practices by positioning themselves as active members of the teaching-learning
process was highlighted. Within this process, it was evidenced that participants’ desire and
commitment of belonging by doing- was regulated by related aspects such as interaction,
negotiation of meaning, and collaboration.
Likewise, the stages proposed supported the idea of professional development as a
cyclical and reciprocal process of learning by drawing upon participants’ immediate context and
experiences, a condition that in view of Díaz-Maggioli (2012), can positively affect what
happens in and outside the classroom as the teaching process is the result of personal,
professional, knowledge, institutional, and curriculum factors. Graphic 10 displays the way this
pedagogical intervention was conceived.
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As seen in the graphic above, the stages of this pedagogical intervention elucidate a process of
reflecting upon pedagogical and personal practices in regards of bilingualism and bilingual
education with the intention of first, making both EFL and self-contained teachers aware of this
phenomenon and second, to enact active participation in the development of a curriculum
addressing both learners and teachers’ needs. By doing so, teachers have an opportunity of
empower themselves and others via sharing and discussing as affirmed by Murray (2010).
Graphic 10. Instructional Design Stages (Personal Construction)
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In this sense, the first stage – Images of a Bilingual Society- aimed at revising the
conceptualization of the terms bilingualism and bilingual education to then analyze the way these
notions have been institutionalized and assumed in our context. Listening and debating were key
aspects to either shape or reject previous ideas. The second one, entitled- Exploring
interdisciplinarity- focused on endorsing participants’ professional development by highlighting
the practices of dialoguing and sharing personal and professional experiences so as to generate
new ways of thinking about bilingual practices in Colombia.
This stage was also essential in terms of transforming and enlightening pedagogical practices
since by peer coaching (Díaz-Maggioli, 2003), participants realized about the importance of
relying upon colleagues to integrate knowledge. Visiting the classes of the other participants
seemed highly valuated as new methodologies, activities, and how to monitor learners’
knowledge was learnt.
Opposite to the traditional vision described by Richards & Farrell (2005), the peer coaching
strategy did not intent to supervise or evaluated teachers’ knowledge but to learn from each
other. This was possible as non-hierarchical social relationships among participants were
established, so the principles supporting this strategy were reliance, learning, and transformation.
Hence, both teachers- who observed (coach) and who was being observed (coached)- were
encouraged to reflect and to link their own pedagogical practices to what had been discussed in
the first stage, constituing then, a collaborative peer coaching which in Fahim’s (2013) view,
allows teachers to be more creative and aware of new teaching styles.
In addition, this tool allowed participants to reinforce the idea of approaching bilingual
practices from a social perspective as well as making them understand and assume and active
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role within this practice nonewithstanding of their area of knowledge, either EFL or self-
contained by means of dialoguing.
This last argument then, was examined and evidenced in the last stage -Envisaging a Bilingual
Curriculum-, where the teachers had the opportunity to picture a bilingual curriculum aiming not
only language proficiency, but awareness on sociocultural issues. Their proposal considered
naturally the school identity and PEI (see the Statement of the Problem Chapter) and the ideas
that result from discussing and interacting. Graphic 11 displays the bases of this proposal
considering the information obtained in the discussion group sessions and protocol 2.
As seen, participants’ envisaged curriculum draw on the idea of assuming education as a
social practice in which teachers, regardless of their area of knowledge have a role and a
Constructivism Theory
Teaching for Understanding
Teaching and Learning from the Social
perspective
- Interdisciplinarity
- Learning by questioning &
interacting with peers, teachers & the world
Emphasis on Social Studies and Science
Instruction in Spanish- English
Peer Collaboration for designing communal materials & classes
Linking information with the outside
Graphic 11. Participants’ Proposal (Personal Construction)
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responsibility. Likewise, by bearing in mind the principles of questioning and interacting with
themselves, the others and the world, evidences self-awareness and commitment not only with
the teaching-learning process but with their professional growth. A deeper analysis on how this
pedagogical intervention encouraged participants to assume their role as decion-makers and
curriculum designers is presented in the Data Analysis Chapter. Finally, Chart 1 summarizes the
schedule and activities developed along this pedagogical intervention.
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Schedules and Materials
Stage
General Goal Objective Session Activities
Images of a
bilingual society
To develop a
critical
understanding of
the terms
bilingualism and
bilingual
education
-To identify the conceptualization of the
terms bilingualism and bilingual
education
1
April 25th
- Protocol #1 - Sharing insights
2
May 2nd
- Cartoon gallery
-To revise the current bilingual policy
and its influence within the educational
field
3
May 16th
- “Colombia Very
well”guidelines
socialization
- Protocol #2
Exploring Inter-
disciplinarity
To take a stance
upon bilingual
education in the
school
-To promote professional development
by sharing practices and visions
-To generate new ways of thinking
about bilingual practices in Colombia
4
May 31st
- Sharing protocol #2 - Peer coaching strategy
5
June 7th
- Peer coaching strategy 6
June 21st
7
July 18th
Envisaging a
bilingual
curriculum
To be involved in
a teacher support
network aiming to
envisage a
bilingual
curriculum
-To rely upon colleagues in order to
find meaningful connections between
the foreign language and other areas of
knowledge.
8
July 22nd
- Current areas syllabus
analysis
9
August 5th
- Brainstorming about
bilingual curricula
- Envisaging goals,
objectives and
methodology
10
August 19th
-To envisage a bilingual curriculum
considering social conditions and
language needs
11
Sept. 9th
12
Sep. 27th
Chart 1. Instructional Design Schedule (Personal Construction)
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Research Design
In this chapter, I present the methodological information used to develop this study and
the decisions made in terms of research methods and data collection procedures. This chapter
starts by describing the type of study and the paradigm this investigation fits in. In addition, the
setting where the study was carried out and the participants are described along with the data
collection instruments and procedures.
Type of Study and Research Paradigm
With the intention of unveiling EFL and self-contained teachers’ discourses about
bilingualism within the context of professional development, this research was framed within a
Qualitative Discourse Study. The discursive nature of the data allowed me to analyze the way
participants’ discourses were constructed, shaped and related to their own reality when sharing
with others as this type of studies “can be used to explore many different social domains”
(Jorgensen and Phillips, 2002; p. 1).
In the same line of though, McCarthy (1991) affirmed these studies deal with the
relationships between language and the contexts where it is used. Thus, they must go beyond the
purpose of merely describing and interpreting sequential patterns but on analyzing discursive
practices within a context. Having these ideas in mind, it was important to explain what these
participants as teachers did in relation to bilingualism and the pedagogical networks they
established to make sense of the phenomenon under study.
Under this vision, Wetherell, Taylor, and Yates (2001) stated discourse studies could be
approached from three domains: the study of social interaction; the study of minds, selves, and
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sense-making; and the study of culture and social relations (see Graphic 12). The first domain
deals with the organization of the talk, that is, the interactional order of it while the second one is
concerned with how throughout this social practice participants construct identity; make sense;
and their collective and individual minds emerge. The last domain is interested in analyzing the
historical and institutional features of the discourse and the relationship between power and the
organization of social relations.
As presented in the graphic above, the researcher’s interest in going beyond the
explanation of pattern and order evolves until unveiling and theorizing the constitution of social
reality. Under this vision, the researcher understands and assumes discourses as dependent and
dynamic structures, therefore the analysis takes into consideration both the agent (s) and the
context where it is produced.
Considering the above, this discourse study was analyzed from the second domain
perspective, since the discursive practices about bilingualism in which educators participated
within a context of professional growth were fundamental for understanding the nature of these
Constitution of Social Reality
Explanation of pattern and order
1
2
3
Graphic 12. Discourse Domains Wetherell, Taylor, & Yates (2001) (Personal Representation)
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practices [bilingualism and professional development], so as to be able to envisage a
contextualized bilingual curriculum. In that sense, both the making-sense process and educators’
professional identity was explored through the discourse tradition of Qualitative Content
Analysis, which can be used as a “useful technique for allowing us to discover and describe the
focus of an individual, group, or social attention” (Weber, 1990). Likewise, Patton (2002)
affirmed that qualitative methods facilitate the study of issues in depth and detail and the
responses obtained from participants are neither systematize nor standardized.
Thus, it could be assert this is a qualitative research as it explained and illustrated in
detail the context where it was carried out as well as its participants’ voice (constituted by their
thoughts, ideas, opinions and experiences) in relation to a phenomenon. Likewise, the researcher
by having direct interrelation with the participants was the primary instrument for data collection
and analysis.
Context
This research study took place at a female private school in an upper-middle-class
neighborhood in the Usaquen location in Bogota. As mentioned in the Statement of the Problem
section, the school’s educational proposal must be “oriented to make aware, both rich and poor,
of solidarity through an education for justice” (PEI p. 47). Therefore, the principles, criteria,
mission, vision, educational objectives, and both educators and learners’ profiles are established
under the light of the Catholic religion. At the time this research project was carried out, the
school was going under a series of changes in terms of name and some school facilities due to
the inclusion of male population.
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In account of De Mejía and Fonseca (2008), this school is classified as having intensive
English program instead of being bilinguals, despite the fact of having some classes taught in the
foreign language (math, social studies, science), not more than the 50% of the curriculum is
covered. Besides, it does not have a bilingual curriculum other than the books scope and
sequence as problematized in the first chapter. In addition, students from seventh up to eleventh
grades are classified into three groups: low intermediate, upper- intermediate and advanced. In
relation to subjects taught in English, the books are mainly the material used by the EFL teachers
in charge of teaching these areas. Chart 2 displays the amount of hours in the foreign language
students from different grades are exposed to.
English Science Math Social Studies
Pre-k 10 2 2 1
Kinder 10 2 2 1
Transition 10 2 2 1
First 6 2 2 1
Second 6 2 2 1
Third 6 2 2 1
Fourth 5 1 1 X
Fifth 5 1 1 X
Sixth 5 1 1 X
Seventh 4 1 X X
Eight 4 1 X X
Ninth 4 X X X
Tenth 4 X X X
Eleventh 4 X X X
Chart 2.
School’s Exposition to English as a Foreign Language
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As seen in the chart above, the hours of exposure to the foreign language decrease as
learners move from one grade to other. Similarly, the contained subjects taught in English are not
available from ninth grade up, and the English class hours are reduced considerably in high
school. These results could be associated to the common belief that the learner [within formal
education settings] will acquired faster and better the foreign language if s/he is exposed from a
young age, a theory that does not have final or unique results as described by Grosjean (1984).
Likewise, the fact of not continuing teaching the contained subjects in the foreign
language as expected [this considering the IB schools’ curricula that serve as examples], might
evidence that the link among these subjects and the foreign language was limited to learning
specific vocabulary instead of developing the skills and abilities needed to understand processes
with a higher degree of difficulty. It could also give account on the fact that nor the EFL neither
the self-contained teachers are well prepared to teach these subjects in the foreign language as
analyzed in the Statement of the Problem chapter.
Hence, this study was considered as an opportunity to understand and describe the way
both EFL and self-contained educational practices have been shaped [if so] in relation to
bilingual policies as well as an opportunity to acknowledge local expertise in terms of curricular
development at the time of promoting professional growth.
Participants
Belonging to a community of practice is a personal decision involving commitment and
collaboration. Nevertheless, it is necessary that the members of a community share or possess
communal characteristics (Wenger, 1999) In the light of the research process, the communal
characteristics among the participants of this study was first, their profession: educators; and
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secondly, their experience in teaching classes in the foreign language. It is important to state that
they were not paid for their participation, though they were highly committed as they had the
opportunity to practice the foreign language with the researcher within the school’s breaks. Four
high-school teachers and one elementary school teacher agreed voluntarily to participate in the
study and signed a consent form as mentioned in the piloting process. They will be referred to by
the pseudonyms of Mrs. L., Mrs. P., Mrs. C., Mrs. N., and Mrs. J. All five were females, ages
ranging 25-44. The first three are self-contained while the last two are EFL teachers.
Mrs. L, who holds a bachelor degree in Biology from the Universidad Pedagógica
Nacional, was in her 11th year of teaching, five of them in the school this project was developed.
She was in charge of teaching biology to 6th to 8th graders; Mrs. P., in charge of teaching Spanish
to 6th, 10th and 11th graders, holds a degree in Literature from Universidad Javeriana and was
currently studying a Master in Literature at the Universidad Nacional. She has been teaching in
this school for about three years out of four of her teaching experience.
Mrs. C., in charge of teaching chemistry to 9th, 10th and 11th graders, holds a Chemistry
title from Universidad Pedagógica Nacional and started to study Industrial Chemistry at Sena.
She was in her 5th year of teaching, three of them have been in the setting this study was
conducted. Mrs. N., who was in her 3rd year of teaching, holds a Modern Languages degree from
Universidad Javeriana and was in charge of teaching French and English to 3rd to 5th graders. She
has spent the last two years teaching in the school. Finally, Mrs. J., who holds a bachelor degree
in EFL Teaching from Universidad Distrital, was in charge of teaching English to 8th to 11th
graders at the intermediate level. She was in her 10th year of teaching, three of them in this
school.
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As an EFL teacher-researcher, I am aware I am in a position of responsibility and trust.
Therefore, I carried out this research following ethical standards. In this sense, integrity
regarding data gathering was maintained, and the information provided by participants was
reported with their consent. Plagiarism was avoided as I fully acknowledge the work of others to
which I have referred in this report. Similarly, the findings, which I consider worthwhile and of
benefit to my colleagues, were reported with honesty. Also, I have complied with all the ethical
protocols outlined here.
1. Research was designed, reviewed and undertaken to ensure integrity and quality.
2. Research participants and the principal of the school where this research was carried
out were fully informed about the purpose, methodology, and findings of this study
3. Participants’ information was supplied by research subjects and the anonymity
4. Participants agreed to participate in a voluntary way, free from any coercion.
5. Harm to research participants was avoided.
Data Collection Instruments and Procedures
The data collection process was done within the natural setting of the case (Shagoury &
Miller, 1999). Data was collected within a 12 week period (see Figure 12) where both EFL and
self-contained teachers met for about an hour mainly on Mondays. Considering this study is
qualitative in its nature, data were collected through three means: discussion group sessions,
teachers’ reflective journals and protocols.
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Discussion group is a technique in which meaning is constructed among participants from
a particular setting (Martin, 1992). In this sense, the researcher’s role is not limited to post a
topic to be discussed or to structure the conversation but to participate and react towards the
ideas generated in there. This technique according to the author previously referenced, has three
parameters: 1) the topic must not be told to participants before-hand to avoid that their discourse
and ideas are pre-established; 2) researcher must not be considered the group’s director but a
participant; and 3) avoid hierarchical relations.
As a result, the conversation flow depends on participants’ interventions not on
researcher’s pre-established questions. Nevertheless, the topic is expected to be well known by
the researcher. With a view to assure the comments and ideas spawned in each one of the
sessions, an electronic tape recorder was used. As stated by Freeman (1998) audio-recordings
help the researcher to capture the oral interactions produced among participants.
Thus, factors such us background noise, volume, and device’s memory spam were
considered. A consent form (see annex B) was signed by each participant before the recording
took place. In addition, two protocols were proposed for the first and third session in order to
capture participants’ ideas before and after discussing about bilingualism and bilingual education
as well as to identify if participants had developed a critical understanding of those terms. Both
protocols (see annex C) were taken and adapted from Barkhuizen and Wette’s (2008) work on
narrative frames.
In regards of the reflective journals, Freeman (1998) states that they aim at identifying
the issues, puzzles or questions in teaching. In this sense, they address inside and outside factors
that might have an incidence in the teaching-learning process. Similarly, Díaz-Maggioli (2004)
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states that this strategy provides a way for professionals to focus on and document their own
development in specific concerns, constituting then, an excellent tool to showcase participants’
professional development. In that sense, participants’ journals (see annex G) were not given any
particular structure or guidelines to follow other than being written and collected at the end of
each session so as to assure that the ideas emerging from the discussion group were
communicated in a spontaneous manner.
The instruments’ piloting process displayed that the conversation given in the discussion
group progressed as expected, as the researcher stated the topic and then participants intervened
naturally. It was also useful in the sense that it displayed that the conceptualization of the terms
bilingualism and bilingual education were constructed by relying upon professional and personal
experiences instead of formal definitions. The protocols were piloted with some colleagues from
the university Master’s program who helped me assembling the questions which were then asked
to a fifth grade EFL teacher who was not a participant of this study. Her answers let me know
that the sentences used were clear enough to be filled out and that they provide the necessary
information about teachers’ ideas on bilingualism and on how bilingual education could be
imparted in the school this study took place.
In relation to the reflective journals, an aspect when piloting the first entry was that this
instrument provided not only teachers’ own ideas about bilingualism but information on how it
might have been constructed or shaped by the fact of sharing and dialoguing with colleagues
from different subjects. It was also displayed that this instrument provided an opportunity for
self-contained teachers to practice and hone their writing skills in the foreign language. As data
was analyzed using the computer software Atlas.ti, teachers were asked to write their reflections
and send them via e-mail since the third session.
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It is important to state that all the used instruments had an emic perspective and were
second order data because as a researcher, I was able to capture what participants expressed from
their own experiences and points of view. What is more, the piloting of the instruments process
was a crucial element for structuring this study research design as it established whether the
sampling frame and instruments were suitable for collecting the data required to answer the
question leading this study. It was also useful in the sense of increasing trustworthiness to the
research study at the time of demonstrating coherence with the decisions made along the study.
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Data Analysis
In this chapter, the description of the process used to analyze the data and the categories
that arose from that analysis are presented. Thus, I consider relevant to remind the research
question- what discourses do EFL and self-contained teachers draw on when envisaging a
bilingual curriculum within the context of professional development?- and the objectives
proposed to answer it, which aim at unveiling participants’ discourses in regards to this
phenomenon and at describing their professional development process when envisaging a
bilingual curriculum. Afterwards, the method followed to manage, reduce and analyze data is
describe in detail. Subsequently, the categories analysis and samples used will be discussed.
Data Analysis Methodology
Considering this research is framed within a Qualitative Discourse Study, data could be
approached from different perspectives. In regards to Jorgensen and Phillips (2002), discourse
analysis as a method, aims at an understanding of discourses as a social phenomenon. Therefore,
both the participants and their discursive practices were analyzed with the intention of
understanding the way meaning in relation to bilingualism was constructed and mediated. As this
research aims at unveiling EFL and self-contained teachers’ discourses on bilingualism within
the context of professional development, it became necessary to implement the Qualitative
Content Analysis (QCA) in order to describe the meaning of data and to establish insightful
relationships among it that could contribute to both research fields: Discourse Studies and
Teacher Professional Development.
Besides, it was relevant to understand participants’ social reality by going beyond the
merely fact of counting words or extracting objective content from texts. As a result, I was able
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to examine not only the relationships among concepts in a text but to reveal the means through
which individuals recognize and experience themselves as members of a community. In order to
understand this methodology and the way it fit within this study, a brief summary of its
philosophical basis and characteristics are introduced.
Qualitative Content Analysis
As presented by Stemler (2001), Content Analysis was firstly defined as a technique to
determine the presence of certain words or concepts within texts. These words were quantified,
analyzed by its frequency, and then grouped into categories, so inferences about the messages of
the text (mainly mass media texts and war propaganda) could be made. Nevertheless,
anthropologists, psychologists and sociologist started using this “technique” when conducting
qualitative studies and claimed meaning was a complex, holistic, context-depended and socially
constructed practice so it must be analyzed beyond the fact of merely counting and grouping
words (Schreier, 2012). In other words, frequency was considered important to determine
categories based on the speaker’s preferences but these categories needed to be contextualized in
more complex meaning relations.
Subsequently, two perspectives arose: conceptual analysis, that establishes the existence
and frequency of words, making it suitable for quantitative studies; and relational or qualitative
content analysis, which examines the relationships among the concepts found in a text (Schreier,
2012). This last advocate for the understanding of the way participants’ social realities,
knowledge, and identities converged. Hence, the distinction between both standpoints relies first,
on the degree of interpretation the researcher gives to texts and second, to texts’ context-
dependent meaning. Thus, it is reasonable to state that considering this study’s nature, discourses
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are individual and collective expressions that shape realities, individuals and vice versa;
therefore, it cannot be limited to the quantitative method.
Under this vision, Krippendorff (2013; p. 22) assures researchers using qualitative
content analysis “ focus in discourses but less to criticize representations than to understand how
reality comes to be constituted in human interactions and in language, including written text”,
meaning both the language and the subjects are concurrently studied from a social perspective.
Hence, to analyze EFL and self-contained teachers’ discourses regarding bilingualism from this
perspective is to understand the relationship among discourse, social practices, and the teaching-
learning process. Similarly, participants’ professional development construction through the
exercise of sharing, reflecting and dialoguing could be portrayed by using this method as it
produces descriptions or typologies along with expressions from subjects reflecting how they see
and perceived themselves within the social world (Zhang and Wildemuth, 2009).
A number of key issues need to be addressed then to analyze data from this perspective.
Hsieh and Shannon (2005), for example, affirmed that the researcher needs to first decide the
qualitative content analysis approach from which data will be studied. They distinguish three
different approaches: conventional (inductive approach), direct (deductive approach), and
summative (deductive approach). Bearing in mind the purpose of this study is neither to test any
theory or previous research findings nor to establish the existence and frequency of concepts in a
text, data was analyzed from the conventional approach. Chart 3 presents each one of them in
detail.
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QCA Approach
Conventional Coding categories are derived directly and inductively from
the raw data
Direct
Initial coding starts with a theory or relevant research
findings. Then, by being immerse in data analysis, new
themes emerge.
Summative Starts with the counting of words. Then, extends to the
analysis to include latent meanings and themes
Chart 3
Qualitative Content Analysis Approaches (Hsieh and Shannon, 2005)
By using the conventional approach, I was able to look at data without bearing in mind
pre-established patterns from the literature review process and to establish complex relations
among concepts that were apparently unlinked but that give account on the way knowledge and
teaching practices were being experienced. With this in mind, participants’ discourses were
unveiled by following the process of data analysis described by Zhang and Wildemuth (2009).
Graphic13 displays the five stages of this process.
Graphic 13
QCA Data Analysis stages (Zhang and Wildemuth, 2009).
1. Preparing Data
2. Defining Unit of Analysis
3. Developing categories and a coding scheme
4. Drawing conclusions 5. Reporting Methods and findings
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1. Preparing Data
This initial stage denotes the processes and decisions I took in order to organize and
manage data. As this research dealt with a great amount of data, collected from three different
instruments (transcripts from the audio-recordings of the discussion group sessions, teacher
reflective journals and protocols), I decided to use the Atlas.ti software, which considering
Mayring (2014), assists the researcher into systematizing, controlling, and organizing step-by-
step a text analysis.
Therefore, protocols 1 and 2 (see annex F) were transcribed as well as the first three
teacher reflective journals. For the following sessions, participants were told to write them
digitally and send them via mail. In regards to the transcriptions from the discussion group’
sessions, these were copied out literally, avoiding sounds, pauses and other audible behaviors
that were not considered relevant for this study. The next step in managing data when using a
specialized software as suggested by Patton (2002) is to label them. Hence, a name for each
transcribed piece of information was used bearing in mind the instrument it came from, the
participant, and the session when it was collected. In this way, the data labelled as “rjMrs.P2”
refers to the reflective journal written by the participant Mrs. P in the second session;
“pro1Mrs.C” refers to the first protocol from Mrs. C. and “session 1 (April 25th)” to the
transcription from the first discussion group session.
Graphic 14 provides information of this process in the initial stage. By following this
step, data was not only practically organized but it provided a quick reference of a specific
participant discourse, which was essential at the time of achieving this study objectives.
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Graphic 14 Data Management- Labelling data Atlas.ti
2. Defining Unit of Analysis
As referenced by Zhang and Wildemuth (2009), the unit of analysis refers to the basic unit of
text to be classified in order to achieve the research objectives. As this study dealt with teacher’s
voices in regards to bilingualism when envisaging a bilingual curriculum, meaningful segments
obtained throughout the instruments were analyzed.
3. Developing categories and a coding scheme
Making an allowance for Krippendorff (2013), coding under the QCA method means to
name segments of the texts to then, group them in terms of categories. This process, as stated by
Cho and Lee (2014), entails a data reduction process and allows the researcher to focus on
selected aspects of the data that would naturally, give an answer to the research question.
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Considering the fact that I followed an inductive approach, data was coded line by line so
as to remain open to it. It is important to mention that the initial analysis process was somehow
parallel to the data collection process in order to assure validity. In that sense, the first instrument
coded was the transcription from the first session since it contained not only some information
concerning the first protocol, but also explicit information when discussing-sharing with peers.
The same process was followed with the others instruments also from this first session (the
protocol and teacher reflective journal), evidencing some of the codes already found. This
coding scheme was used with the data collected from each session, which assessed coding
consistency. As a result, sixty open codes emerged, being one of them in vivo, as it refer to the
exact words of a participant.
In order to validate the information given by the instruments separately, methodological
triangulation described by Freeman (1998, p. 96) as the process that means “including multiple
sources of information or points of view on the phenomenon or question being investigated” was
used. By having this done, I came to know that the results shown by each instrument were
addressing directly to the research objectives proposed in this study. Using this method also
helped me to determine that in order to avoid discrepancies, data needed to be reduced even
more so each one of the emergent codes was defined.
This process, which also showed coding consistency, allowed me to establish similarities,
differences and connections among them. As a result, 30 open codes and 1 in vivo code
remained, which were then related by using link nodes such as “is part of; is cause of; is
associated with; is property of; and contradicts”. This process, known as axial coding (Charmaz,
2006) allowed relationships among the open codes to be visualized. Annex H displays the way
this process was done using Atlas.ti.
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Considering the definitional theory ideas described by Mayring (2014), the codes were
grouped by considering the density each one had. The open codes with four or more connections
were selected as guiding codes and the remained- the ones with a lower density- grouped within
them by considering their relationship. Then, the eight codes with a higher density were
rearranged bearing in mind the research objectives, which allowed me to evidence a relation of
two of the remained codes with other two codes with higher density, reducing data even more.
In that way, it was concluded that three of them addressed directly to the first objective
as they dealt with participants’ thoughts and insights on bilingualism. The other three, gave
account on their professional development process as their names (to reflect, to question, to
vision), elucidate actions proper of this process, constituting the second research objective (see
Annex I). Subsequently, two main categories emerged with a view to give answer to the research
question leading this research. Graphic 15 presents them.
Graphic 15
Final Categories
Research Question Research Objectives Categories
What discourses do
EFL and self-
contained teachers
draw on when
envisaging a bilingual
curriculum within the
context of professional
development?
1. To unveil EFL and self-contained
teachers’ discourses on bilingualism
when envisaging a bilingual
curriculum within the context of
professional development
Bilingualism as a
phenomenon of social
control
2. To describe the EFL and self-
contained teachers professional
development process when
envisaging a bilingual curriculum
The art of questioning,
reflecting and visioning
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First Category: Bilingualism as a Phenomenon of Social Control
This category, as mentioned before, addressed the first research objective - to unveil EFL
and self-contained teachers’ discourses on bilingualism when envisaging a bilingual curriculum
within the context of professional development-. Its name describes how the phenomenon of
bilingualism in Colombia has been the result of the government and foreign entities efforts to
assure international links in regards to politics and economy through education: a practice that
has served to reproduce discourses aiming to safeguard some interests (González, 2007;
Guerrero, 2008; Escobar, 2013; Valencia, 2013).
Most of these discourses deal with the ideas of success, economic stability, access to
qualified education, trading, and the notion of participating in the mass consumer culture;
features of the well-known developed countries. As a result, educational actors and people’s
thoughts have been changed stratifying and excluding languages, institutions and communities
(Escobar, 2013). This conception, in regards of Fairclough (2003), is rooted in the economic and
political model of capitalism, which has had an impact that cannot be ignored on areas of social
life, especially the educational sphere, as it aims at achieving a global-knowledge economy.
In this sense, English has been designated as the language to be learnt and foreign
entities- mainly from North America or the United Kingdom-are the ones in charge of
developing the appropriate methodologies and materials to do so, influencing practices in
schools and universities (Guerrero and Quintero, 2009). The previous statement is evidenced in
the following excerpt, in which the participant enlightens how the educational practices in terms
of bilingualism, are limited to teaching English so as to access to industrialized technology and
qualified knowledge. Likewise, it reflects how some features in relation to the capitalism
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discourse [success, opportunities, and development], have become naturalized and are reinforced
in the classroom, where these discourses are kept and modified (Foucault, 2005).
MRS.N: “Pues yo diría q pues se trata sobre todo del comercio, de quien es el
país dominante y si tú quieres tener éxito en la vida, debes saber Inglés y por qué?
Entonces porque tú, porque todo lo que llega acá , todo lo que es conocimiento,
todo lo que se refiere a tecnologías y todo este tipo de cosas pues se desarrolla en
países donde se habla Inglés, entonces que pasa? Entonces en Colombia se
quiere, se quiere que los estudiantes hablen Inglés para que ellos vayan y se
formen allá y entonces para que nosotros podamos manejar la tecnología que se
hace allá para que nosotros podamos aplicarla”. (Discussion Group Session #2,
May 2, 2016; Mrs. N)
English Equivalent:
MRS.N: “Well, I would say because it is mainly about trading, about who the
dominant country is and if you want to succeed in life, you must know English,
why? because you, because everything that comes here, everything that is
knowledge, everything that refers to technologies and all these kind of things are
developed in countries where English is spoken, what happens then? Then in
Colombia it is wanted, it is wanted the students to speak English so they go and
get trained there so we can handle the technology that is done there so we can
apply it”
As noticed, the conditional statement “if you want to succeed in life you must
know English” gives account on how this EFL teacher conceives learning this language as
a vital aspect to do well in life, which is translated into having better incomes and getting
access to an advanced knowledge which of course, is only produced in the dominant
country. By asserting this, an opposite discourse in terms of the knowledge and the
technology developed or constructed in our country [or any that is not the dominant one],
is generated. In this sense, the participant is drawing on hegemonic discourses as the idea
supported is that people cannot succeed unless they reproduce what is done or said by
others, which in her words is to be “trained”, a concept that has assured the powerful
countries to exercise economic control over the retrogress ones (Kachru, 1992). Like this,
the knowledge of the foreign language is endorsed as a solution to many problems
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worldwide. Besides, English and general education are seen just as personal achievements
rather than as an efficient tool to construct society and be part of it.
Hence, the bilingualism concept has been narrowed to the ability of speaking
English, which in Guerrero´s (2008) view, represents a political issue to assure dominance
and control instead of being related to language per se. According to the data, it was
observed that the participants’ discourses in relation to the phenomenon under study-
bilingualism- circled around English prevalence and its importance over other languages,
including their mother tongue. This, as affirmed by Bonilla Carvajal & Tejada-Sánchez
(2016), deals with all matters pertaining to development, progress, richness, and
prosperity.
Similar results were found in the research conducted by Barkhuizen (2002) with African
learners, as they stated preferring learning English in the school over any African language due
to the status of the first one. This ideal, as described by Pennycook (1998), is rooted in colonial
discourses that served to be the foundation of some of the central ideologies of current English
language teaching, where it [the foreign language] is promoted under the premise of being
superior to other languages. The next excerpt, taken from the transcript of the 1st session,
displays the previous avowal.
MRS.C: “Yo considero que el bilingüismo como se ha visto desde hace varios
años si es como bueno, esa segunda lengua y se le ha dado esa fuerza al Inglés sin
desmeritar otro tipo de lenguas o de idiomas como se hace ver en varias
instituciones educativas cuando ya sea simplemente que el Francés, que el
Alemán, que el Mandarín, y se ha tomado como referente ese ese ese idioma o
ese Inglés para qué? Para precisamente hacer un intercambio no solamente de
conocimiento como un idioma base sino también un intercambio cultural visto
desde Colombia en donde son muchas las personas que vienen de otras regiones
del mundo en donde se habla precisamente el Inglés independientemente de si es
un Inglés Británico o…
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MRS.J: Americano?
MRS.C: O Americano entonces es como como ese ideal también no solamente
visto desde la política colombiana para volver una Colombia bilingüe desde los
más pequeños hasta los grandes en diferentes contextos sino también es como
buscar ese intercambio eh cultural, científico, y de otros ámbitos con esos países”
(Discussion Group Session #1, April 25, 2016; Mrs. C and Mrs. J)
English equivalent:
MRS.C: “I consider the way bilingualism has been seen for many years is good, that
second language, and English has been reinforced without diminishing other
languages as seen in many educational institutions when it is either French, German,
Mandarin, and it has been taken as a reference that language or English what for? To
precisely make an exchange not only in terms of knowledge as a language base but
also as a cultural exchange seen from Colombia, where there are many people
coming from other regions of the world where English is spoken regardless of
whether it is a British English or...
MRS. J: American?
MRS. C: or American then is as that ideal not only seen from the Colombian
politics to make a bilingual Colombia from the youngest up to the adults in different
contexts but also as a way to look for exchange eh cultural, scientific, among other
areas with these countries”
The first affirmative sentence implies that bilingualism is a concept that has been present
in our country for about a while and that this participant agrees with the notion given to it in the
Colombian context, which as previously discussed, is limited to the fact of speaking English.
This last premise is reinforced when acknowledging that even though there are more languages
being taught in different institutions, English is the one that allows citizens to have cultural and
scientific exchange and in that sense, the policies carried out by the government are acceptable.
This discourse of manipulation, as named by Guerrero and Quintero (2009), -where
English has been encapsulated and represented as the ideal of foreign languages due to the
economic and political links with nations as the USA or the UK-, has been promoted by the
Colombian government through educational material such as the Estándares (Standards).
Therefore, the spread of English as the language to be learnt to access to education, mass media,
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technology and business, has been easier and faster to be extent among educational institutions
and actors.
This will explain then, the fact that both participants restricted the linguistic variation of
English to the American and British one, a common phenomenon that in the light of Kachru´s
(1992) theory of the Three Circles of English, allows countries from the inner circle to exercise
economic control over the countries from the expanding circle. As a result, citizens are subjected
to learn and teach this language while being positioned as followers. The following excerpt taken
from a reflective journal evidences this assertion:
“…y es triste que sea solamente Inglés; que uno no diga no es que como a mí me
gustan las lenguas romances entonces yo voy a estudiar Francés y todo pero no,
uno dice no me importa, ¿por qué? Porque la mayoría del mundo habla Inglés”.
(Journal Entry #3, May 16, 2016; Mrs. P)
English equivalent:
“… and it is sad that it is just English; it is not that you say if I like romance
languages then I will study French and that, but no, we say I don’t care, why?
Because most of the people worldwide speaks English”.
As read in the first line, it seemed as if Mrs. P was somehow showing her disagreement
to the fact of having to learn English. Nonetheless, her words “I don’t care” suggest somehow
indifference and acceptance towards this circumstance, a contrast that could also be identified by
the use of the conjunction but. Hence, it could be said that she draws upon colonial discourses as
she holds strong views towards learning the foreign language due to its ideal status and the
worldwide acceptance; features that reinforce the idea of English supremacy, where its relevance
and influence is unquestionable and it rather turns out to be a common sense matter.
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As well, her statement considering Tollefson’s (2000) view, constitute hegemonic
discourses, as ideas, meanings and values- are experienced as absolute reality and are designated
to influence the decisions, thoughts and actions of others. The intention of reproducing these
discourses in relation to bilingualism then, will always favor English over other languages.
Participants’ assertion with respect to this matter, demonstrated that the importance given to this
language relies upon the success- given in terms of economic stability- of countries where it is
the mother tongue. In this sense, being bilingual in our country- that is to speak English- is
highly associated to first, an increase in the salary that turns out in having a better life style and
secondly, to have better professional opportunities, as displayed in the following fragment:
MRS. L: “Si uno no lo hace, si digamos yo digo o declaro que me opongo a esto
a los 27 años a no aprender Inglés porque yo entiendo y leo y ya soy bilingüe y
entiendo y punto, pero si yo hago eso toda la vida me voy a quedar en un colegio
de $1’500.000 es que eso, ósea, esa es la triste realidad es un capitalismo salvaje
y todo pero es la realidad”. (Discussion Group Session #3, May 16, 2016; Mrs. L)
English Equivalent:
MRS. L:“If one does not do it, if let’s say, I say or declare that I am against this
at the age of 27, to not learn English because I understand and read and I am
already a bilingual, and I understand and so on, but if I do that all my life I will be
stay in a $1’500.000 [pesos] school, is that, I mean, it is a sad reality it, is a
savage capitalism and so but it is the reality”
Block and Cameron (2002) asserted that people have always learnt languages for
economic reasons; nonetheless in a post-industrial economy, the linguistic skills of workers at all
levels take on new importance, as referenced by this participant when emphasizing in the
payment she will receive “all her life” unless she speaks English. This cipher, also used in a
lessen way to refer to a school category, seems to give account on the opportunities to grow
professionally and presupposes that these are given in accordance with the salary.
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In a like manner, her words “to not learn English because I understand, and read, and I
am already a bilingual, and I understand, and so on”, presume that her view in regards to
bilingualism is fragmented since despite the fact of identifying herself as a bilingual, a
distinction between skills is made. Hence, it could be asserted that the “savage capitalism”
changes the conditions under which language learning takes place at the time of overshadowing
teachers’ resisting discourses due to their economical remuneration and unrealistic expectations
of success.
Although bilingualism discourses aim at project the image of diversity and prospering
worldwide, the spread of English has led to inequality among the countries from the inner, outer
and expanding circles (Kachru, 1992). As reported by Tollefson (2000), the citizens who belong
to the inner circle, the economic value of having English as their mother tongue means
inordinate opportunities in education, business and employment. On the other hand, the ones
who have to learn the language- that is the ones belonging to the outer and expanding circles-,
the spread of English presents a huge obstacle in the same areas. In this sense, the treatment for
all the English speakers worldwide has not result evenhanded. This contradiction, as displayed in
the following journal entry-written originally in English-, evidences how the idealism portrayed
by the fact of speaking English is not as marvelous as presented by the government and foreign
entities.
“We discussed about the status given by a label such as bilingual and what it
represents to an institution and to a professional. Sadly, I have witnessed the great
worry of people around me (colleagues, graduates from diverse majors, the
school and parents of students) of being able to be bilingual with such a haste,
spending more and more money, time, resources, etc., because otherwise they
won’t be able to compete for a better paid job, a scholarship or simply more
professional and personal opportunities against those who speak English. The
feeling among them is that without English their studies and their effort aren’t
worthy, and I guess that is a generalized impression among Colombians,
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especially those who are looking to enter the “globalized” market and be
successful”.(Journal Entry #2, May 2, 2016; Mrs. N)
As stated by this participant in the introductory sentence, the “tag” of being bilingual is a
relevant issue among Colombian citizens as it has a direct relation with opportunities related to
education and professions. Nevertheless, she seems to draw on a resistance discourse as her
reflection also elucidates some adverse issues for the English learners such as spending great
amounts of money and time, reinforcing the idea that being bilingual is a privilege -not a right-
that not all the citizens can afford as it is restrained to payment (De Mejía, 2002). Besides, Mrs.
N´s words “the feeling among them is that without English their studies and their effort aren’t
worthy” suggest somehow that learners’ professional identity is being questioned, and in doing
so, her personal identity-that is, who he or she truly is- is being affected as well.
In the word of Calhoun (2012), identity refers to the conscious or unconscious thoughts
and emotions of the individual, its sense of itself, and its ways of understanding its relation to the
world, which means a person´s identity is always changing, struggling, or being redefined
through the wide range of discourses an individual is exposed to. Consequently, the term identity
thus always includes a relation to others and to a socio-cultural life even though it is generally
perceived as the relation of the singular human being to him or herself (Camargo and Orbegozo,
2011). The following excerpt displays Mrs. P drawing on hegemonic discourses as her identities-
both professional and personal- resulted affected by the conception of bilingualism held
nowadays.
MRS. P: “Mejoraría muchísimo porque aportaría la hoja de vida, y no solamente
a la hoja de vida en pro de tipo económico sino que uno podría conseguir un
trabajo en una universidad o haciendo investigaciones en Inglés o vincularse con
universidades, no solo en ese sentido, sino que también uno profesionalmente
sentiría que seguiría ascendiendo pues porque digamos que el hecho de dictar
clases en Inglés como Música o Arte, repercute para uno en un avance en un
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progreso de uno como profesional yo pienso que hasta mejor persona se sentiría
porque independientemente que estemos de acuerdo o no con el bilingüismo y
con que se aplique , el hecho que uno vea que está aprendiendo y está en su
carrera y eso pues no se lo beneficiaria y lo ayudaría psicológicamente lo sentiría
a uno a sentirse mejor; para mí emocionalmente me encantaría que uff yo diera
una clase de literatura en Inglés durante cuarenta minutos seguida,
independientemente de que me paguen más o que consiga un mejor puesto
emocionalmente eso sería muy grato”
(Discussion group session #4, May 31, 2016; Mrs. P)
English Equivalent:
MRS. P: “It would improve a lot because it would contribute to the curriculum
vitae, and not only in regards of economy but in the sense that one would get a
job in a university or in doing research in English or getting enroll in universities,
not only in that sense, but professionally one would feel as continuing ascending
because dictating classes such as arts or music in English has an incidence, it
means an improvement as a professional. I think that one would even feel as a
better person because despite the fact, we agree or disagree with the bilingualism
and the way it has been applied, the fact that one sees that it is learning and it is
practicing its major will be a benefit and would help it psychologically, it would
make it feel better. For me, emotionally, I would love that, wow, that I could give
a class of literature in English for forty minutes non-stop, regardless of whether
they pay me more or get a better position, emotionally that would be very
grateful”
Considering the sample above, it could be evidenced the influence of the participant’s
professional identity over the personal one, as being a better professional or ascending -by the
fact of speaking English-, would make her feel as a better person- that means to fit within the
concepts of quality and consumerism that lead society nowadays. These concepts, in regards to
authors such as Gee (1999), and Escobar (2013), have modified and standardized the personal
and collective identities regulating thoughts, individualism and inspiration in order to introduce
procedures, which seek to benefit specific social groups.
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Similarly, Guerrero and Quintero (2009) described in their research that the aim of
teaching-learning English is to reproduce homogeneity not only in language variety, but also in
social behavior. Hence, the different skills, knowledge or abilities a professional might have, are
being relegated to a second level. In this sense, the importance given to the fact of speaking
English notwithstanding of people’s profession- has become into the most valuable requirement-
even above a college degree or any other kind of knowledge, holding back the professional
development process.
With this in mind, it could also be asserted that not knowing the language would
presuppose a negative effect on an individual self-stem. However, the following sample, a
fragment of a journal entry, shows up how speaking English could also lead to a negative effect
on teacher’s personal and professional identities as aspects such as competitiveness and
language proficiency test have increased.
“Most of the people I have talked to since I was in the school, agreed on the fact
that speaking English will give us a lot of opportunities both professional and
personally, but now that I have had the opportunity to study it as a major, I realize
that the opportunities are not so great: our salary is not increasing as time passes
by; we have more competence than ever before, we are forced to accept teaching
other classes as social studies, math or science even though we were not prepared
for that and we have to take tests to demonstrate that we really studied and know
English”. (Reflective Journal Entry #1, April 25, 2016; Mrs. J).
As stated by this EFL teacher, speaking English does not constitute having mere
professional and personal advantages as promoted by governmental entities in Colombia; it does
indeed, presuppose new challenges as described by the participant (low salary, academic
overload and proficiency tests). These adverse effects can also be evident in Day, Elliot &
Kington’s (2005) study, who stated that educational policies as the ones of bilingualism, have
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had a great influence in teachers’ demoralization and an increase in the abandonment of the
profession, having as a result, poor quality in the education provided to the learners.
Sharkey, Clavijo, & Ramirez’s (2016), research also affirmed that the increase of
standardization and testing has undermined teachers’ professional judgement, while Escobar
(2013, p. 58) reported that local knowledge is “often made to appear archaic, silly or
untrustworthy”. The following excerpt exemplifies the previous discussion. The sentences in
bold refer to the frames established in the protocol.
“Después de debatir acerca de las concepciones de bilingüismo y educación
bilingüe con mis colegas, he concluido que hay demasiadas visiones en torno a
esta temática ligadas a intereses políticos y no educativos y que la propuesta
Nacional Bilingüe es un programa que tiene muchas debilidades en cuanto a
concepción y ejecución; limitando y desmejorando la calidad educativa en
términos de aprendizaje de una lengua extranjera Esta política ha influenciado
mis prácticas docentes de forma negativa ya que limita y de cierto modo
controla no solo las temáticas sino la metodología y objetivos de aprendizaje, es
decir, controla lo que sucede dentro del aula y fuera de ésta. Así mismo, mi
desarrollo profesional docente ha sido enfocado en educación formal y
desarrollo de estrategias que permitan obtener mejores scores en los exámenes
internacionales”. (Protocol #2, May 16, 2016; Mrs. J).
English Equivalent:
"After discussing about the conceptions of bilingualism and bilingual
education with my colleagues, I have concluded that there are too many
visions around this topic linked to political and non-educational interests and
that the National Bilingual proposal is a program that has many weaknesses in
terms of conception and execution; limiting and impairing the quality of
education in terms of learning a foreign language. This policy has influenced my
teaching practices in a negative way, since it limits and controls in a certain way
not only the contents but the methodology and learning objectives, that is, it
controls what happens inside and outside the classroom. Likewise, my
professional teaching development has been focused on formal education and
development of strategies that allow better scores in international exams”.
As concluded by Mrs. J, the fact that bilingual policies in Colombia are rooted in
economic and trading views has had an adverse influence in the teaching-learning process as
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well as in teachers’ professional development. Considering her assertion towards the control of
methodologies, contents and objectives, there are grounds for believing that these policies are
somehow denying and annulling experiences while privileging foreign entities. Similarly, it
might be asserted that the discourses in which the bilingualism concept is grounded, aim at
diminishing local teachers’ both personal and professionally, as they have been marginalized by
telling them what to do and how to do it (Johnson and Golombek, 2002). In this sense, they have
been positioned as followers by denying their creativity and collectivity.
In view of Valencia (2013), this strategy is set so as to give continuity to hegemonic
discourses to first, get the consent of the citizens about private and foreign entities intervention;
and second, the need to constantly evaluate and certify Colombian teachers’ knowledge in the
foreign language. On the contrary, Mora, Trejo & Roux (2014) research on EFL professional
development and identities concluded that language proficiency certifications can also serve as
instruments of empowerment, as both of their participants experienced a stronger desired to
pursue and improve their formal education after taking these tests.
This brings up the question of whether these practices seem to accentuate the inequality
between the ones who are English learners and the ones who have it as their mother tongue or
not. Considering Tollefson (2000) -this phenomenon deals with the idea that the English spoken
by the non-native speakers has some variations in regards to accent, which give it a different
status- a lower one-; therefore, the proficiency in the language- compared to the natives-has to
be certified.
This language standardization as described by Lippi-Green (1997) is grounded on
ideological structures aiming at preserving the perfection and purity of the language. Hence, this
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assumption could be affirmed to be somehow denying language and societal changes, at the time
of having an impact on teacher’s professional and personal identities as “the need to demonstrate
what has already been achieved presupposes insecurity or an inherent lack of self-confidence”.
(Tuteng, 1974; p. 9). On top of that, the continuous need to certify the language proficiency for
the non-native speakers can accentuate their deficiencies rather than their proficiencies as
affirmed by Baker (2001) whilst strengthens the idea that the language is nothing but a set of
grammatical rules measured through isolated skills. Thus, teachers’ emancipatory practices are
limited, as teachers seem to be condemned to be passive recipients.
Taking this into account, it could be asserted that either speaking English or not, citizens
for the expanding circle do not experience the same opportunities of triumphing in terms of
personal and professionally life than the ones belonging to the inner circle (Kachru, 1992).
Similarly, the way they are perceived -that is, the credibility each one has in terms of
professionalism- is uneven as well. The next piece of data evidence first, how the conception of
bilingualism under hegemonic and colonial discourses indulgence native English speakers within
monolingual contexts over local teachers and secondly, how this assumption has led teachers to
wonder whether or not continue being educators.
MRS.L: “es pensar que lo nativo es mejor, yo no sé si ustedes supieron hace
como dos años vino un extranjero, un gringo a dictar al colegio Science en
primaria y como él hablaba obviamente Inglés todo el mundo mejor dicho, Súper
Peter, y el tipo cuando llegaba al colegio no hacía nada, no preparada ni nada de
nada, pero igual como era nativo americano pues nadie decía nada, y pasa eso en
Colombia traen son unos profesores extranjeros gringos y que no saben nada de
pedagogía cero e igual están enseñando en los colegios bilingües”
(Discussion Group Session #2, May 2, 2016; Mrs. L).
English Equivalent:
MRS.L: “it is to think that the native speaker is better, I do not know if you knew
that two years ago a foreigner came to this school, a gringo, to teach science in
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elementary and obviously he spoke English so everybody though he was like
Super Peter, and when the guy arrived to the school he did anything, he did not
prepare [the lessons] or anything at all, but as he was an American native no one
said anything, and that happens in Colombia, they bring foreigner teachers,
gringos and they do not know anything at all about pedagogy but they’re still
teaching in bilingual schools”
As declared by Mrs. L, the fact of being a native speaker within a country as ours is
synonym of getting job opportunities regardless of having or not a degree. Likewise, it gives a
look at the way educational and governmental actors position them above local teachers, in terms
of expertise, which reinforces the idea of native English speakers’ superiority, as her words
“super Peter” denote. González and Sierra (2005) described parallel results in their study with
eighteen Colombian teachers who give account of their professional alternatives to achieve
higher standards in their jobs. Participants of this study displayed that since being exposed to
foreign models of training and education, native speakers-in spite of their profession- are viewed
as the source of knowledge and expertise, an understanding that has affected and shaped their
identities as teachers.
Alike, Wang (2013) investigation entitled Non- native EFL Teacher Trainees’ Attitude
towards the Recruitment of NESTs and Teacher Collaboration in Language Classrooms reported
that Taiwanese EFL teachers feel their professional roles are being threaten by the policy of
recruiting and hiring native speakers, yet, they are willing to work with them collaboratively as
long as they are qualified teachers.
One of the most striking features concerning this issue is the idea that the teaching
profession per se is not that relevant as people who do not have the necessary expertise and/or
vocation are legitimized to do it, producing an effect on the practices inside and outside the
classroom. Consequently, teachers nowadays aim at studying English so as to give continuity to
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their jobs or to be able to find new opportunities in different fields. The following extract from a
self-contained teacher who draws on hegemonic and colonial discourses, shows that one factor
when making the decision of continuing being a teacher or not, is mediated by the salary fee and
working conditions. Besides, the motivation of selecting an emphasis – either EFL or self-
contained- as well as the pedagogical discourse in terms of professional development, seem to be
regulated by the fact of speaking English.
MRS.P.: “si toca es cambiar de profesión, la verdad yo he buscado puestos en
otra cosa que no sea de profesor y en la mayoría miran que uno hable inglés o,
por ejemplo, yo aplique para un puesto que era para ser promotora de lectura de la
biblioteca Luis Ángel Arango, un súper buen sueldo, solo pedían que uno tuviera
posgrado y aun con eso yo llegue y preguntaron quien habla inglés. Por qué?
Porque así uno no sea profesor de inglés pues podemos tener un negocio con
gringos, pueden venir personas de otros países, a la biblioteca más importante de
Colombia y mejor dicho tú tienes que saber Inglés, hasta para corrección de
estilo, así diga que es corrector de estilo de Español ahí te quedas en cambio que
tú digas que eres corrector de estilo y de traducción te va a ir mejor
MRS.L.: sí, claro si tú eres un profesor bilingüe te ganas el doble, el triple, ahí no
hay nada que hacer”
English Equivalent:
MRS. P.: “yeah we have to change our profession, the truth is that I have looked
for jobs different from being a teacher and most of them look that one speaks
English or, for example, I applied for a position that was to be a reading promoter
of the Luis Angel Arango library, excellent salary, they only required a major and
even with that I got there and they asked who spoke English. Why? Because even
though one is not an English teacher, we can have a business with gringos
[Americans], people from other countries can come to the most important library
of Colombia and you must know English, even for copyediting, even though you
say you are a copyeditor of Spanish you got stuck in there but if you say you are a
copyeditor and translator it will be better
MRS. L.: yeah, of course if you are a bilingual teacher you will earn double,
triple times, there is nothing to do”
(Discussion Group Session #4, May 31, 2016; Mrs. P and Mrs. L)
To sum up, the discourses both EFL and self-contained teachers draw on in relation to
bilingualism are grounded on hegemonic, colonial and manipulation notions that circulated and
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are accepted naturally worldwide due to economical commodities. Henceforth, this phenomenon
has been limited to the English language, which has been consecrated as the language to be
learned in the light of imaginaries of better personal and professional opportunities, affecting
local institutions, people and pedagogical practices. In addition, it was discussed how these
discourses have had affected the personal and professional identities of educators and the
incidence of it inside and outside the classroom.
Henceforth, it could be stated that there is a mismatch between the reality promoted-
success, economic stability, apprehension and cultural exchange- and the one experienced by
teachers- great amount of investment, competitiveness, continuous certification, and controlled
and limited knowledge-. Alike, the false idea that the social and economic inequality among
countries from the inner and expanding circles has turned into a naturalized discourse, allowing
foreign entities to take control of human resources and thoughts while limiting the language to
serve simple instrumental purposes.
Nonetheless, by working together both EFL and self-contained teachers can resist the
discourses in which the concept of bilingualism is built upon. By doing so, practices inside and
outside the classroom can be transformed and our role as social beings can be recognized.
Therefore, I consider relevant to explore the way in which teachers empowered themselves and
others by means of sharing pedagogical and personal experiences.
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Second Category: The Art of Questioning, Reflecting, and Visioning
This category, aims at describing the EFL and self-contained teachers’ professional
development process when envisaging a bilingual curriculum, which constitutes the second
research objective proposed for this study. Its name designates the process in which participants
were involved in order to resist the hegemonic, colonial and manipulation discourses previously
identified, allowing them to be empowered and engaged in critical praxis (González, 2007). By
doing so, their voices in terms of curriculum design and bilingual education became visible. The
participants in this study showed that questioning, reflecting and visioning are main issues within
general education and professional growth, confirming this last one as a process that goes
beyond formal education, evaluation, and standards, since the goal is to facilitate teachers’
understanding and comprehension of the practice (Richards and Farrell, 2005).
Questioning, reflecting and visioning could be denominated as dynamical phases in
which both EFL and self-contained teachers were immersed. They also denote the means of
looking into the past and the present to picture a future; actions that in regards of authors such as
Jhonson and Golombek (2002), and Biesta and Tedder (2007), suggest reflecting on experiences,
making sense of a phenomenon and construct agency- that is- the capacity of acting and
transforming teachers’ educational practices. Participants’ insights with respect to this matter
revealed that reviewing and sharing present and past experiences in regards to bilingualism were
key aspects to envision a meaningful and contextualized bilingual curriculum.
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The following excerpts reveal first, the way the bilingualism concept is co-constructed by
means of interaction and secondly, the way this practice reshaped or confirmed educators’ beliefs
in relation to the phenomenon under study.
MRS.C: “Los colegios también deben ser claros en si son bilingües es el énfasis
intensivo en el Inglés porque se vende la idea de bilingüe cuando realmente se
maneja es un énfasis y en muchas instituciones pasa eso
MRS.J: Pero entonces ahí también tendríamos que mirar cómo es que se está
midiendo el bilingüismo
MRS.C: Exactamente
MRS.L: Si es que se mide el bilingüismo porque yo no puedo decir
MRS.C: Si se mide exactamente
MRS.L: Yo no puedo decir que aquí los bilingües realmente no son bilingües
porque como decía Pilar, se está omitiendo y se suprime el uso de la primera
lengua entonces ya no es bilingüe
MRS.C: Exactamente
MRS.J: Sigue siendo monolingüe pero en una lengua extranjera entonces el
concepto de bilingüismo está muy errado porque todo el mundo es ahí
bilingüismo es se asocia solamente con hablar Inglés
MRS.P: si
MRS.N: Lo que tu decías de los Wayuu porque no se reconoce eso
MRS.P: Ósea muchos niños hablan Wayuu y tienen que llegar a no ser por varios
motivos desplazamiento o bueno varias cosas varios factores llegan a una a una
como se llama? a una comunidad un colegio les imponen esa parte del Español ya
es traumático para ellos y el Inglés y no reconocen que ya es bilingüe por el
hecho de tener una lengua indígena
MRS.J: claro
MRS.N: Entonces realmente el concepto de bilingüismo pues no está, solamente
hay una es hablar Inglés punto no hay otra cosa”
(Discussion group session #1, April 25, 2016; Mrs. P; Mrs.L; Mrs.J; Mrs.N; Mrs.C)
English Equivalent:
MRS.C: “The schools have to be clear as well by saying whether they are
bilingual or if they have intensive English because they sell the idea of being
bilingual when they just have an emphasis and in many institutions this happens
MRS.J: but then we will have to look at the way bilingualism is being measured
MRS.C: Exactly
MRS.L: if it can be measured because I cannot say that
MRS.C: if it can be measured
MRS.L: I cannot say that here the bilinguals are not really bilinguals because as
Mrs. P. said, the use of the mother tongue is omitted and suppressed then it is not
bilingual
MRS.C: Exactly
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MRS.J: It is still being monolingual but in a foreign language, then the concept
of bilingualism is really wrong because everybody is [bilingual], here the
bilingualism is only associated with the fact of speaking English
MRS.P: yes
MRS.N: it is what you said about the Wayuu, because it [their knowledge] is not
acknowledged
MRS.P: I mean many children speak Wayuu and they have to arrive due to
different factors, for displacement, or well, different factors they arrive to a, what
is it called? To a community, to a school, and the Spanish is being imposed which
is traumatic for them and the English, and they are not acknowledged as
bilinguals because they have an indigenous language
MRS.J: of course
MRS.N: Then the concept of bilingualism is not there, there is only one, speaking
English and that is it, there is nothing else”
As evidenced, the process of co-constructing the concept of bilingualism was given by
means of interaction, that is, to relate previous ideas with the ones provided by the other
participants. To do so, elements from their immediate and common contexts [school and
country] were used so as to exemplify the practices regarding the phenomenon under study as
well as be able to establish a consensus. This, evidenced in Mrs. N.’s last intervention and the
use of inclusive and supportive statements along the interaction: “we will have to look”; “as
Mrs.P said”; “exactly”; “of course”; and “it is what you said”.
This peer dialogue, as established in Nielsen, Triggs, Clarke & Collins’ (2010) research,
encourages participants to generate new ways to think about the practicum and their work with
the other teachers. It also prompts the constructivist notion of learning proposed by Vygotsky,
which comprises socialization and individualization as mediators of the learning process
(Richards & Rodgers, 2001). Likewise, Wheatley (2002) reported it fosters reflection and
generates questions that might lead to induce disequilibrium and change while supporting
motivation to learn and promote productive collaboration. The following journal entry presents
how questions and considerations emerged after discussing with peers and how beliefs are either
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reshaped or confirmed. It also evidences this EFL teacher concerns about the way bilingual
education is conceived in Colombia and her personal and professional commitment with change.
“I guess most of us just believe what they say, that if we are certified or if we
achieve the Estándares or follow the methodology and books provided by the
publishing houses we will be better…but better for whom? What for? Certainly
not for the students nor the teachers…yes of course, some students like that and
learn that way, but other find it boring… I hate working on grammar or being
pressed by the international test scores…and I guess not all the teachers like
doing that, but I guess we do not have enough spaces to discuss these things, we
do not get together to talk about methodology or tools or government decisions
that of course affect us even though we are not “public schools” so we do not care
much about doing other stuff that are most of the time, time consuming. I like this
time with my colleagues, it feels refreshing and useful, I feel better and try to do
better my job based on what we have discussed and learn, I think we have an
excellent opportunity to make a change, at least for us since I suppose as always,
nobody is going to listen or appreciate what we are trying to do”.
(Journal Entry #3, May 16, 2016; Mrs. J)
Mrs. J’s first statement reveals her beliefs towards bilingualism, which as discussed in the
previous category, were based on manipulation and hegemonic discourses. After that, she posted
two questions with answers that seem to give account on the reflection process she followed after
dialoguing with her peers, as her words “certainly not for the students nor the teachers…” are
opposite to the success and benefits promoted through those discourses. Similarly, she
recognized the importance of working together and relying upon others so as to improve and
enrichen pedagogical practices.
In addition, the participiant acknowledged the fact of being aware of bilingualism policies
regardless of the school category- either public or private- a claim that has also been made by
Colombian researchers in order to create mechanisms of equal academic participation between
policy makers and teacher educators (González, 2007; Guerrero and Quintero, 2009; Usma,
2009; Escobar, 2013; Valencia, 2013; Chaves and Guapacha, 2016).
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On account of the fact that she used positive adjectives in the last lines to describe the
personal and professional impact of the discussion group sessions, it could be asserted that by
sharing experiences and knowledge that has been significant for each teacher during it, this
process became significant as well. Likewise, it gives account on how encountering constructive
experiences with colleagues is a powerful tool to encourage teachers to face discourses and
practices that aim at diminishing them as professionals, as stated in her final sentence.
This statement is reaffirmed in the next journal entry, in which the participant highlighted
not only the need of dialoguing and sharing with colleagues, but also the significance of peer
coaching (Diaz-Maggioli, 2003), a strategy suitable for teachers who need to implement a
foreign language and new pedagogical practices in the classroom (see Instructional Design
chapter).
“I love the fact of sharing more with my colleagues; I think is something we need
constantly be doing: discussing and even visiting others classes without the
intention of evaluating but learning from others is enlighten”.
(Journal Entry #5, June 7, 2016; Mrs. N)
As previously indicated, this excerpt focuses on the constructive and encouraging impact
of listening to the voice of the other, which corroborates the fact that understanding the
professional development process as achieving institutional goals is insufficient, a result that
was also evident in Mora, Trejo & Roux’s (2014) study, whose participants also revealed has a
close connection with teachers’ identities. Concerning this aspect, Harré (2003), argued we exist
as people for other people and for ourselves as individuals; thus, sharing, dialoguing and
witnessing others’ pedagogical practices heighten teachers’ personal and professional identities
as we became aware of the role of others, developing a sense of change contained by their
opinions and actions.
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This statement is supported by Mrs. N’s words “learning from others is enlighten”,
which denote a sense of connectedness to others beyond the self. Besides, it engages both EFL
and self-contained teachers in collaborative work, reducing the sense of isolation and being
emotionally supported to develop pedagogical strategies aiming at contributing towards the
teaching-learning process in regards to not only bilingualism, but general education too.
“¿Qué estrategias pueden implementarse entre nosotros de acuerdo con una revisión
previa de clases? Creo que cada uno de nosotros implementa estrategias y métodos
de enseñanza-aprendizaje, por lo que una de las maneras de ampliar la aplicación del
bilingüismo es compartiendo entre nosotros aquellas que han sido implementadas y
que puedan funcionar en una u otra clase”.
(Journal Entry #6, June 21, 2016; Mrs. C)
English Equivalent:
“What strategies can be implemented among us according to a class that has
previously checked? I believe each one of us implement teaching-learning strategies
and methods, so one of the ways to spread the bilingualism is to share among us
those [the strategies and methods] that have been implemented and that might work
in one or other class"
As seen, collaborative work among peers can be seen as a very fruitful interaction to
learn from. Besides, the particularity of having different emphasis- either EFL or self-contained-
stresses the importance of sharing and adapting pedagogical strategies in regards to bilingualism
that aim to meet learners and their contexts, as this collaboration in view of Wang (2013),
provides opportunities to develop teacher leadership, enhances student learning, and promotes
school success.
In this sense, the peer coaching strategy was an opportunity for teachers to learn and grow,
as they were able to explore new and contextualized methodologies, materials and strategies as
display in the following piece of transcription, in which the use of technology is seen as a means
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of clarifying and relating academic concepts with students’ real life, without substituting
teachers’ guiding role.
Mrs. N: “yo visite la clase de la profesora [Mrs.L] en la clase ella estaba
profundizando los conceptos de los elementos bio...los bioelementos y digamos
que me gustó mucho algo que creo no solamente sirve para un proyecto bilingüe
pero para otro, digamos otro contexto, y es el uso digamos de la tecnología,
porque ella puso un video en Inglés en donde se explicaba de manera muy
gráfica, muy clara para los estudiantes, cuáles eran los bioelementos y cuál era la
función en el cuerpo humano y todas estas cosas, entonces eso sería como lo que
más recalcaría, lo que digamos para cualquier tema es bueno utilizar recursos
audiovisuales que digamos que saquen pues ese sentido abstracto de los
conceptos, porque al decir bioelemento pues uno no necesariamente lo relaciona
fácilmente con lo que es, con la vida real y con el video que ella utilizó, pues si
se hacía, y obviamente la profesora ella hacia como la síntesis, la reflexión, la
retroalimentación de esto fue lo que vimos en el video y esto es lo que pasa en la
vida real y como pues eso se ubica en la tabla periódica y así, si? Es como esa
manera de unir, de ligar lo que conocen en la vida real los estudiantes con la
teoría” (Discussion group session #8, July 22, 2016; Mrs.N)
English Equivalent:
Mrs. N: “I visited professor´s [Mrs.L] class in which she was deepening in the
concepts of the bio… the bio-elements, and let's say that I really liked something
that I believe is not only useful for a bilingual project but for another, let's say,
another context, and it is the use of technology because she played a video in
English which it was explained in a very graphical way, very clear to students,
what the bio-elements were and their function in the human body and all these
things,so it will be the aspect I would emphasize the most, that for any topic it is
good to use audiovisual aids that take out the abstract sense of the concepts,
because when saying bio-element no one does necessarily relate it easily to what
it is, with the real life, and with the video she used, it was done, and obviously the
teacher, she did the synthesis, the reflection, the feedback about what we saw in
the video and this is what happens in the real life, and how that is located in the
periodic table, and like that, right? It is like that way of uniting, of linking what
students know in real life with the theory”
Likewise, this fragment constituted an opposite discourse towards the narrow conception
of bilingualism- and the way content areas are taught isolated in the foreign language where the
focus the is linguistic and it is not concerned with the students’ conceptual development,
resulting into an ineffective process of learning (De Mejía, 2002; Veliyeva, 2015). The
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
101
following excerpt reaffirms the previous excerpts’ analysis, as the next participant also
highlighted the process of reshaping and configuring ideas through dialoguing and interacting
with others. The original text is displayed in English as self-contained teachers were encouraged
to write in the foreign language throughout the study. Nevertheless, the equivalent is given for
an accurate interpretation.
“It was interesting to know in our meeting that [Mrs. L](the biology teacher)
change her opinion, because before she use to think that it was not useful to visit
other classes, but in our last meeting she told us that it was very important to
make classes like that, may be among teachers of different subjects teaching the
same class at the same time”. (Journal Entry #8, July 22, 2016; Mrs. P)
English Equivalent:
“In our meeting was interesting to know that [Mrs. L] (the biology teacher)
changed her opinion because before, she used to think that visiting other classes
was not useful, but in our last meeting she told us that it was very important to
have classes like that, maybe among teachers from different areas teaching the
same class at the same time”.
As manifest by this participant, the process of reshaping beliefs and ideas and be able to
share them with other teachers, is valued as it brings about new insights- that is- visioning.
Indeed, the practices of dialoguing and sharing pedagogical practices seemed to have enabled
the group to provide each other with the critique and necessary support to grow personal and
professionally, as being part of a community of teachers is one of the most productive ways to
contribute to the teachers’ growth (González and Sierra, 2005). In addition, the vision evoked by
Mrs. P in the last part of the fragment, “teachers from different areas teaching the same class at
the same time” might indicate teachers and students’ need of first, assuming knowledge as a
whole, and second, to integrate both the mother tongue and the foreign language in order to
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
102
achieve a truly bilingual education. The following piece of data reveals the issues previously
discussed.
MRS.P: “Debería ser lo contrario, debería ser como una felicitación porque le
niño está desarrollando su código, y lo está haciendo bien, entonces si al niño se
le empieza a reprimir en ese sentido la lengua materna, el español, que va a
pasar? El niño va a asociar el español como algo negativo, como un concepto
negativo, como un concepto prohibido y eso es lo que no se puede permitir,
primero, por efectos políticos pienso yo, porque eso ahí implícitamente es una
imposición política y segundo pues por su avance intelectual
ME: Si total, y la imposición no es solamente con los niños de regañarlos, con los
profesores
MRS.P: Profesores!
MRS.J: Ósea hay colegios en donde les quitan el sueldo o les dicen, por ejemplo,
les ponen multa porque usted porque usted habla en español entonces no sé,
personalmente me parece que es, ósea todo en el papel es muy bonito, que todos
tendremos oportunidades y que todos podamos hablar otro idioma pero realmente
es así? No se
MRS.L: No, no es así” (Discussion group session #1, April 25, 2016; Mrs.P;
Mrs.J; Mrs.L)
English Equivalent:
MRS.P: “It should be the opposite, it should be like congratulating him because
the child is developing his code, and he is doing well, then if the child starts to be
repressed in that sense [for using] the mother tongue, the Spanish language, what
will happen? The child will associate Spanish as something negative, as a
negative concept, as a prohibited concept and that is something that cannot be
allowed, first, because of political effects I think, because that implicitly is a
political imposition and second because of their intellectual progress
ME: Totally, and the imposition is not only with the children by nagging them,
with the teachers [as well]
MRS.P: Teachers!
MRS.J: There are some schools where their salary is taken away or they
[schools’ administrators] tell them, for example, they put a fine on you because
you speak in Spanish, so I do not know, I personally think it is, I mean,
everything in the paper is very beautiful, that we will all have opportunities and
that we can all speak another language but is it really like that? I dont know
MRS.L: No, it is not like that”.
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103
Considering the sample above, it could be affirmed that the restrain of using the mother
tongue in contexts where bilingual education is imparted has had an effect in both teachers and
learners. In doing so, it has not only privileged the spread of hegemonic and colonial discourses
as Mrs. P words denote “because of political effects I think, because that implicitly is a political
imposition”, but has also suppressed self-contained teachers- who mostly speak Spanish- to
participate or be involved in the design of bilingual curricula or programs. This fact, in view of
Ordoñez (2011), seems to be accentuated as believing that the mother tongue interferes in the
EFL teaching-learning process is still a flourishing idea in many Colombian schools. As a result,
English is taught as a “subject alone without a linkage with the rest of the curriculum that is
taught in L1” (Bonilla Carvajal & Tejada-Sánchez, 2016; p. 193).
Conversely, Belibi (2016) as well as Guevara and Ordoñez’ (2012) studies carried out
with EFL Cameroonian and Colombian learners respectively, showed that the freedom to use
their mother tongue facilitated the EFL learning process as students enjoyed and were motivated
to actually use English. Likewise, Vuorela (2008) research stressed its use strength the national
language identity, contributing to the development of citizenship and local sociocultural
awareness, concerns envisaged by the next participant, whose pillars for a bilingual proposal are
collective work, the assumption of language and knowledge from the social perspective, and the
use of the mother tongue. The sentences in bold refer to the frames established in the protocol.
“Pienso que en el colegio donde trabajo actualmente podríamos desarrollar
una propuesta bilingüe basada en la articulación de un currículo basado en el
desarrollo de la ciencia y la tecnología y su impacto en las sociedades y teniendo
en cuenta aspectos como planeación, organización y ejecución de la propuesta
desde un equipo de trabajo con docentes de todas las áreas del conocimiento y
con unas políticas claras frente a la implementación de un proyecto bilingüe. Esto
podría ser beneficioso para la institución, los docentes, los estudiantes porque
fundamentaría la creación de un proyecto articulado al currículo y fundamentado
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104
en las necesidades reales de la comunidad educativa y del país”. (Protocol #2,
May 16, 2016; Mrs. L)
English Equivalent:
“I think that in the school where I work at nowadays, we could develop a
bilingual proposal by articulating a curriculum based on the science and
technology development and its impact on societies and aspects such as
planning, organizing and executing the proposal with a team of teachers from all
the content areas should be considered as well as clear policies regarding the
implementation of a bilingual project. This could be beneficial for the
institution, the teachers, and the students as it would be the beginning of a project
articulated to the curriculum and based on the educational community and
country real needs”.
Considering the sample above, it could be avowed that by visioning a contextualized
bilingual curriculum in which different content area teachers are involved, the participant
believes that not only a significantly contribution in terms language development might be
given, but also to the learning about other areas, which indeed, will benefit not only learners and
educators, but the school itself. Above and beyond, teachers -regardless of their nature- are
acknowledged as designers, planners, evaluators, and agents of change, roles that considering
Johnson and Golombek (2002), have been denied by the fact of being perceived as objects of
study rather than as knowing professionals.
The following journal entry evidences how these roles were built up and assumed when
envisaging a bilingual curriculum throughout dialoguing and sharing experiences. Likewise, it
shows how by doing this, teachers encouraged themselves -and others-to act and not just
complain about their current dissatisfaction with the bilingualism concept and practice.
“Talking on how we could integrate subjects in a bilingual curriculum, we have
discussed polemical issues around it that have been discussed already; the age in
which students should start learning in English, the main or secondary subjects
that should be taught in English and Spanish, or the percentage of time that
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
105
English and Spanish should be used in the classes. These are the kind of questions
that the teachers related to the classes should gather to discuss and decide about,
as for sure there is no right answer to it. It is always necessary to discuss and
collaborate among teachers, even as complicated as it could be, but there is also
the question of the students’ participations on what a bilingual curriculum should
contain”. (Journal Entry #11, September 9, 2016; Mrs. J).
Overall, both EFL and self-contained teachers’ professional development when
envisaging a bilingual curriculum can be described as the process of enabling self- and others
reflection upon this phenomenon, which constituted an opportunity to reshape, contradict,
confirm and construct pedagogical beliefs and practices by means of dialoguing and sharing.
Besides, it was found to be framed within dynamical stages denominated questioning, reflecting
and envisaging- which gave account on their active thinking and decision-making process by
drawing on local contexts, learners’ needs, language status, and citizenship.
Hence, it was seen as a resistance practice towards the hegemonic, colonial and
manipulation discourses that have been perpetuated through the EFL teaching-learning process
in Colombia, as they acknowledged themselves as designers of curriculum and methodologies
dealing with sociocultural and scientific perspectives. Likewise, by being involved in
collaborative work, teachers developed individually and collective.
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106
Conclusions, Pedagogical Implications and Further Research
In an attempt to compile the outcomes of this study, it is important to first highlight that
the main purpose was to provide answers to the inquiry proposed since as educators, we must
understand the powerful linkage between political and socioeconomic forces in regards to
bilingualism and its influence inside and outside the classroom. The main question as well as the
research objectives by pointing directly to the discourse and professional development process
fields, caused a great impact in my research process since different perspectives, theories and
assumptions were consulted and either rejected or accepted when delimiting the educational
issue and at the time of analyzing data. What is more, having both EFL and self-contained
teachers as participants when envisaging a bilingual curriculum within a monolingual context,
allowed them to find their voices with respect to a specific concern that has been believed to be
exclusive of the EFL/SLA field, as claimed by Pennycook (1998).
Considering the outcomes of the categories discussed in the previous chapter, it can be
asserted that participants’ discourses in regards to bilingualism are grounded in hegemonic,
colonial and manipulation notions by being mostly linked to economical commodities, favoring
English over other languages. Among the different adverse results discussed in the Theoretical
Framework chapter, data revealed that this assumption has a direct impact in both EFL and self-
contained teachers’ personal and professional identities, since their world, language and
different roles’ understanding has been modeled and limited, influencing their classroom
practices (Piliouras, Plakitsi & Nasis, 2005).
Nevertheless, it was displayed that teachers resisted somehow these discourses by being
involved in a community of teachers as they were encouraged to reflect, question, and vision
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
107
new alternatives for bilingual education withstanding of learners, teachers, and school’ needs. By
doing so, they made decisions, contributed, and assumed responsibilities through dialogue and
peer coaching (Díaz-Maggioli, 2003); tools that served as an opportunity for de-privatizing their
pedagogical practices while supporting the group's individual and collective professional
development.
In this sense, the interaction among participants was perceived as a reciprocal act where
both EFL and self-contained teachers could assume different roles such as sharing, negotiating
and/or supporting each other’s positions and discourses when working collaboratively,
constituting a stance against the exposition of models of professional training as proposed by
González and Sierra (2005). Similarly, sharing and exchanging ideas constituted the basis for
empowering both EFL and self-contained teachers as designers and implementers of a bilingual
curriculum in which both, the mother tongue and the foreign language, were conceived as useful
instruments for communication and learning about the world by integrating different disciplines.
Bearing this in mind, this research calls attention to the decisive role and the social
responsibility of both EFL and self-contained teachers on taking a stance on the way discourses
and practices in regards to bilingualism are being carried out and the implications of these inside
and outside the classroom. Similarly, it alerts one regarding the hidden interests of the
discourses we as educators continue perpetuating so as to raise awareness about the
consequences of teaching-learning English based on what Fairclough (2003) has designated as
the knowledge economy.
In addition, this study highlighted the importance of all educational actors when being
involved in the making decision process of designing and developing curriculum and
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
108
methodologies sensitive to our monolingual context and on how language per se, therefore
bilingualism, is a social practice that cannot be measured as multiple factors converged.
Additionally, this research aimed at contributing to the field of professional development in
Colombia by providing an initiative to the way bilingual education in a monolingual context
could be addressed.
In view of the above outcomes, the first and most important note that can be made
concerning pedagogical implications is that both EFL and self-contained teachers need to be
considered as essential actors in the development of curricula and methodologies that address
learners and educators’ specific characteristics and contexts. As this has been a constant struggle
due to the view of native speakers as the source of knowledge and expertise, high commitment
and perseverance is required.
In this sense, it is expected that teachers by being involved in this practice, empower and
encourage themselves to systematize their experiences and insights in order to build
contextualized educational proposals that can also serve as example for others (Murray, 2010).
Thus, it is critical that the institutions support initiatives as the one described in here by opening
spaces for teachers to work collaboratively, as it was the main limitation this research presented.
Thereupon, it will be necessary to conduct more research on the impact of these curricula
proposals to continue working in effective education for bilingualism in monolingual
environments. Ultimately, it is necessary to intensify and facilitate the development of different
strategies to enhance teachers’ professional development built upon pedagogical premises such
as developing meaning construction and interaction.
Unveiling EFL and Self-Contained teachers’ discourses on Bilingualism within the context of Professional Development
109
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List of Annexes
Annex A: Survey # 1
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Annex B: Survey # 2
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Annex C: Survey # 3
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Annex D: Survey # 4 (Seedhouse’s 1995)
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Annex E: Participants’ Consent Form
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Annex F: Protocols 1 and 2
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Annex G: Teacher Reflective Journal Sample
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Annex H: Axial Coding
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Annex I: Data Reduction Process