urban search and rescue: preparedness and coordination when structures...

Urban Search and Rescue:

Preparedness and Coordination

When Structures Collapse

An analysis of Preparedness and Coordination

For receiving USAR-assistance in

The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia

Ralf Beerens Coventry University

“A report submitted to the Department of Geography, Environment and Disaster

Management; Faculty of Business, Environment and Society, Coventry University in

partial fulfilment of the requirements for a MSc. in Disaster Management

2006/2007.”

Urban Search and Rescue:

Preparedness and Coordination

When Structures Collapse

An analysis of Preparedness and Coordination

For receiving USAR-assistance in

The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia

Ralf Beerens Coventry University

“A report submitted to the Department of Geography, Environment and Disaster

Management; Faculty of Business, Environment and Society, Coventry University in

partial fulfilment of the requirements for a MSc. in Disaster Management

2006/2007.”

Printed September 2007

Linssen Grafische Producties

Maasbracht

The Netherlands

Correspondence

Ralf J.J. Beerens

Walburgisstraat 43

6109 RE OHE EN LAAK

THE NETHERLANDS

Telephone: +31 (0)6 11 212 875

Website: www.ralf-online.tk

E-mail: [email protected]

Keywords:

Urban, Search, Rescue, Preparedness, Coordination, Netherlands, Estonia, Sweden, INSARAG, European

Union, Civil Protection, USAR, Urban Search and Rescue

Printed September 2007

Linssen Grafische Producties

Maasbracht

The Netherlands

Correspondence

Ralf J.J. Beerens

Walburgisstraat 43

6109 RE OHE EN LAAK

THE NETHERLANDS

Telephone: +31 (0)6 11 212 875

Website: www.ralf-online.tk

E-mail: [email protected]

Keywords:

Urban, Search, Rescue, Preparedness, Coordination, Netherlands, Estonia, Sweden, INSARAG, European

Union, Civil Protection, USAR, Urban Search and Rescue

- III -

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................. III ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................V FOREWORD....................................................................................................................VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................. IX LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ XI LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... XI LIST OF ANNEXES........................................................................................................XII ABBREVIATIONS ..........................................................................................................XII 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1

1.1 Aims and Objectives...............................................................................................6 1.2 Rationale for the studies context ............................................................................7

2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................10 2.1 USAR....................................................................................................................10

2.1.1 What is USAR?............................................................................................10 2.1.2 USAR Organisation .....................................................................................12

2.2 International Coordination ..................................................................................15 2.2.1 United Nations .............................................................................................16 2.2.2 European Union ...........................................................................................22

2.3 Preparedness........................................................................................................24 2.3.1 The Disaster Cycle .......................................................................................24 2.3.2 Disaster Effects ............................................................................................25

2.4 USAR-EU Disasters .............................................................................................30 2.4.1 Human-Made disasters.................................................................................32 2.4.2 Storms and hurricanes ..................................................................................33

3 METHODOLOGY.....................................................................................................35 3.1 Research Design and Method ..............................................................................35

3.1.1 Desk Research..............................................................................................36 3.1.2 Desk Research Analysis and Model development .......................................36 3.1.3 Expert Interviews .........................................................................................38 3.1.4 Interview Analysis and Modelling...............................................................40

3.2 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................41 4 PRIMARY DATA RESEARCH: MODEL DEVELOPMENT .............................43

4.1 INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology ..............................................................43 4.2 European Union...................................................................................................47 4.3 “International/EU USAR Model”........................................................................49

5 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS.....................................................................................51 5.1 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: The Netherlands ..................................51

5.1.1 Background USAR.nl ..................................................................................51 5.1.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands ......................................................................................................................53 5.1.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands..........56 5.1.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands ...57 5.1.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “The Netherlands Model”59

5.2 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Sweden.................................................62 5.2.1 Background Swedish Search and Rescue Services......................................62 5.2.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden.............63 5.2.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden .......................66

- III -

TABLE OF CONTENTS TABLE OF CONTENTS.................................................................................................. III ABSTRACT.........................................................................................................................V FOREWORD....................................................................................................................VII ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.............................................................................................. IX LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ XI LIST OF FIGURES .......................................................................................................... XI LIST OF ANNEXES........................................................................................................XII ABBREVIATIONS ..........................................................................................................XII 1 INTRODUCTION........................................................................................................1

1.1 Aims and Objectives...............................................................................................6 1.2 Rationale for the studies context ............................................................................7

2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW..................................................10 2.1 USAR....................................................................................................................10

2.1.1 What is USAR?............................................................................................10 2.1.2 USAR Organisation .....................................................................................12

2.2 International Coordination ..................................................................................15 2.2.1 United Nations .............................................................................................16 2.2.2 European Union ...........................................................................................22

2.3 Preparedness........................................................................................................24 2.3.1 The Disaster Cycle .......................................................................................24 2.3.2 Disaster Effects ............................................................................................25

2.4 USAR-EU Disasters .............................................................................................30 2.4.1 Human-Made disasters.................................................................................32 2.4.2 Storms and hurricanes ..................................................................................33

3 METHODOLOGY.....................................................................................................35 3.1 Research Design and Method ..............................................................................35

3.1.1 Desk Research..............................................................................................36 3.1.2 Desk Research Analysis and Model development .......................................36 3.1.3 Expert Interviews .........................................................................................38 3.1.4 Interview Analysis and Modelling...............................................................40

3.2 Data Analysis .......................................................................................................41 4 PRIMARY DATA RESEARCH: MODEL DEVELOPMENT .............................43

4.1 INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology ..............................................................43 4.2 European Union...................................................................................................47 4.3 “International/EU USAR Model”........................................................................49

5 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS.....................................................................................51 5.1 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: The Netherlands ..................................51

5.1.1 Background USAR.nl ..................................................................................51 5.1.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands ......................................................................................................................53 5.1.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands..........56 5.1.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands ...57 5.1.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “The Netherlands Model”59

5.2 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Sweden.................................................62 5.2.1 Background Swedish Search and Rescue Services......................................62 5.2.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden.............63 5.2.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden .......................66

- IV -

5.2.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden ................ 66 5.2.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Swedish Model” ............ 69

5.3 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Estonia ................................................ 72 5.3.1 Introduction Estonian Disaster Relief Team................................................ 72 5.3.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia............. 74 5.3.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia........................ 76 5.3.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia ................. 78 5.3.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Estonian Model”............ 80

6 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................. 83 6.1 Limitations and Considerations........................................................................... 86

7 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................ 89 7.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 89 7.2 Recommendations and possibilities for future research...................................... 91

7.2.1 International Issues ...................................................................................... 91 7.2.2 National Issues............................................................................................. 92

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 94 ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................... 100 ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................ 102

- IV -

5.2.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden ................ 66 5.2.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Swedish Model” ............ 69

5.3 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Estonia ................................................ 72 5.3.1 Introduction Estonian Disaster Relief Team................................................ 72 5.3.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia............. 74 5.3.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia........................ 76 5.3.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia ................. 78 5.3.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Estonian Model”............ 80

6 DISCUSSION............................................................................................................. 83 6.1 Limitations and Considerations........................................................................... 86

7 CONCLUSIONS........................................................................................................ 89 7.1 Conclusion ........................................................................................................... 89 7.2 Recommendations and possibilities for future research...................................... 91

7.2.1 International Issues ...................................................................................... 91 7.2.2 National Issues............................................................................................. 92

REFERENCES .................................................................................................................. 94 ABBREVIATIONS.......................................................................................................... 100 ANNEXES ........................................................................................................................ 102

- V -

ABSTRACT Disasters that might cause structural collapse in Europe are increasing in frequency but

also in intensity. This said the impact of such events can be substantially reduced by being

prepared and ready to act. Authorities, individuals and communities should be equipped

with the knowledge and capacities for effective disaster management.

The term Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) refers to the area of science and the set of

skills and abilities that are focused on searching, locating, reaching, medically stabilising

and extricating deeply entombed survivors of these disasters. Efficiently conducting USAR

requires an effectively coordinated response of the various teams within the disaster area.

These international incoming teams often have to cooperate with local or national

authorities and follow their various coordination mechanisms to perform and complete

their tasks. In order to increase coordination and cooperation a set of guidelines and

methodologies is put in place by the United Nations (UN) covering various sequential

phases during a USAR mission regarding coordination. In line with this the European

Union (EU) is creating policy regarding coordination mechanisms to prepare its Member

States.

This research aimed to compare the coordination mechanisms and related measures to

enhance preparedness of three European countries using comparative case study research.

The three European countries compared in the research are The Netherlands, Estonia and

Sweden. The research is focused on receiving international USAR in those countries in

cases where national response entities are overwhelmed. The purpose of the research is to

contribute to the preparedness of the contributory countries in the implementation of

USAR coordination systems such as UN International Search and Rescue Advisory Group

(INSARAG) and EU policies. In order to conduct this comparison the UN INSARAG

guidelines and methodology and EU Council resolutions regarding preparedness and

coordination were modelled on a local/regional, national and international level, based on

the sequential phases of the INSARAG methodology cycle. The same modelling principle

was also applied to the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia using data collected in semi-

structured interviews/discussions with experts. The structures and mechanisms in place

regarding USAR preparedness and coordination were analysed. These “country models”

- V -

ABSTRACT Disasters that might cause structural collapse in Europe are increasing in frequency but

also in intensity. This said the impact of such events can be substantially reduced by being

prepared and ready to act. Authorities, individuals and communities should be equipped

with the knowledge and capacities for effective disaster management.

The term Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) refers to the area of science and the set of

skills and abilities that are focused on searching, locating, reaching, medically stabilising

and extricating deeply entombed survivors of these disasters. Efficiently conducting USAR

requires an effectively coordinated response of the various teams within the disaster area.

These international incoming teams often have to cooperate with local or national

authorities and follow their various coordination mechanisms to perform and complete

their tasks. In order to increase coordination and cooperation a set of guidelines and

methodologies is put in place by the United Nations (UN) covering various sequential

phases during a USAR mission regarding coordination. In line with this the European

Union (EU) is creating policy regarding coordination mechanisms to prepare its Member

States.

This research aimed to compare the coordination mechanisms and related measures to

enhance preparedness of three European countries using comparative case study research.

The three European countries compared in the research are The Netherlands, Estonia and

Sweden. The research is focused on receiving international USAR in those countries in

cases where national response entities are overwhelmed. The purpose of the research is to

contribute to the preparedness of the contributory countries in the implementation of

USAR coordination systems such as UN International Search and Rescue Advisory Group

(INSARAG) and EU policies. In order to conduct this comparison the UN INSARAG

guidelines and methodology and EU Council resolutions regarding preparedness and

coordination were modelled on a local/regional, national and international level, based on

the sequential phases of the INSARAG methodology cycle. The same modelling principle

was also applied to the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia using data collected in semi-

structured interviews/discussions with experts. The structures and mechanisms in place

regarding USAR preparedness and coordination were analysed. These “country models”

- VI -

were then compared to the “International/EU USAR model” using a methodology derived

from pattern-layering.

This pattern-layering analysis shows various discrepancies within the “International/EU

USAR model” and between the country models. This may be interpreted as measures or

mechanisms not operating efficiently. The research has taken these various differences into

account and concludes giving recommendations on how to improve preparedness and

coordination on both an international and national level by conducting future research.

- VI -

were then compared to the “International/EU USAR model” using a methodology derived

from pattern-layering.

This pattern-layering analysis shows various discrepancies within the “International/EU

USAR model” and between the country models. This may be interpreted as measures or

mechanisms not operating efficiently. The research has taken these various differences into

account and concludes giving recommendations on how to improve preparedness and

coordination on both an international and national level by conducting future research.

- VII -

FOREWORD I consider it a great privilege to have the opportunity to write this foreword to Ralf

Beerens’ Master thesis. In my position as National Commander of USAR.NL, I was

approached by Ralf towards the end of 2006. Ralf asked me several questions regarding

the Dutch USAR team, USAR.NL, and if possibilities for conducting research, may exist.

In a, for me, unattended moment, I responded quickly to his question. The positive

response was so rapid that even Ralf was astonished by it. Soon a digital dialogue evolved

concerning the possibilities to write a thesis about the position of Urban Search and Rescue

(USAR) within the United Nations, the European Union and in fact the position of USAR

within a national disaster management system.

In the field of emergency response management very little academic research is performed.

This arena is dominated by pragmatic professionals, who generally have limited notion for

academics, and are more focused on theoretical training. This said, practice is always more

detailed then plain theory. Ralf Beerens took a challenge by comparing the various USAR

teams and systems in Sweden, Estonia and the Netherlands. The choice for this challenge

was not coincidental; it was in fact made in close cooperation with me.

It was with endeavour, I greatly admire, that Ralf gained in-depth knowledge of the subject

matter. He came across well motivated colleagues, who were more then happy to support

him during his research and guide him towards his ambition: Masters graduates themselves

within this specialist area only studied, at this time, by so few. His research generated a

wealth of information that is very enlightening and worth reading. His results helped me to

new insights into the USAR community. The conclusions endorsed my assertion, that

there is a substantial need for future development within the field of crisis-response and

disaster management.

The above mentioned is not only the reason that I recommend this document as worth

reading. Personally I think this thesis is the foundation for more in-depth research into the

surplus value of small, smart and rapid deployable units on a national and international

level. The thesis gives a clear insight into what are current possibilities internationally,

with regards incident management. In my opinion this field is not restricted to Urban

Search and Rescue. Challenges to suppress incidents on an international level with the help

- VII -

FOREWORD I consider it a great privilege to have the opportunity to write this foreword to Ralf

Beerens’ Master thesis. In my position as National Commander of USAR.NL, I was

approached by Ralf towards the end of 2006. Ralf asked me several questions regarding

the Dutch USAR team, USAR.NL, and if possibilities for conducting research, may exist.

In a, for me, unattended moment, I responded quickly to his question. The positive

response was so rapid that even Ralf was astonished by it. Soon a digital dialogue evolved

concerning the possibilities to write a thesis about the position of Urban Search and Rescue

(USAR) within the United Nations, the European Union and in fact the position of USAR

within a national disaster management system.

In the field of emergency response management very little academic research is performed.

This arena is dominated by pragmatic professionals, who generally have limited notion for

academics, and are more focused on theoretical training. This said, practice is always more

detailed then plain theory. Ralf Beerens took a challenge by comparing the various USAR

teams and systems in Sweden, Estonia and the Netherlands. The choice for this challenge

was not coincidental; it was in fact made in close cooperation with me.

It was with endeavour, I greatly admire, that Ralf gained in-depth knowledge of the subject

matter. He came across well motivated colleagues, who were more then happy to support

him during his research and guide him towards his ambition: Masters graduates themselves

within this specialist area only studied, at this time, by so few. His research generated a

wealth of information that is very enlightening and worth reading. His results helped me to

new insights into the USAR community. The conclusions endorsed my assertion, that

there is a substantial need for future development within the field of crisis-response and

disaster management.

The above mentioned is not only the reason that I recommend this document as worth

reading. Personally I think this thesis is the foundation for more in-depth research into the

surplus value of small, smart and rapid deployable units on a national and international

level. The thesis gives a clear insight into what are current possibilities internationally,

with regards incident management. In my opinion this field is not restricted to Urban

Search and Rescue. Challenges to suppress incidents on an international level with the help

- VIII -

of specialists are increasing in frequency: massive forest fires, floods and complex

transport incidents require an expert approach. Preparedness and in particular planning on

a national level in many cases do not meet the mark, despite the fact that international

assistance is often there for the taking. This thesis demonstrates that within this field there

is literally a world to gain.

This study strongly encourages the reader to form his own opinion based on the academic

evidence laid out. This opinion leads, without a doubt, to considerations for further and

broader development of the USAR organisation nationally, within European and on an

international scale. Ralf Beerens has developed himself, in a very short timeframe with the

help of this research, to valuable advisor within the above described field. I recommend the

reader to examine this thesis and take Ralf’s approaches and conclusions into account.

Rob K. Brons LLM Chief Fire Officer

The Hague (Region)

National Commander USAR.NL

- VIII -

of specialists are increasing in frequency: massive forest fires, floods and complex

transport incidents require an expert approach. Preparedness and in particular planning on

a national level in many cases do not meet the mark, despite the fact that international

assistance is often there for the taking. This thesis demonstrates that within this field there

is literally a world to gain.

This study strongly encourages the reader to form his own opinion based on the academic

evidence laid out. This opinion leads, without a doubt, to considerations for further and

broader development of the USAR organisation nationally, within European and on an

international scale. Ralf Beerens has developed himself, in a very short timeframe with the

help of this research, to valuable advisor within the above described field. I recommend the

reader to examine this thesis and take Ralf’s approaches and conclusions into account.

Rob K. Brons LLM Chief Fire Officer

The Hague (Region)

National Commander USAR.NL

- IX -

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincerest appreciation to all the people that contributed to this

research project. I also want to use this opportunity to thank those people that have

supported and stimulated me before and during the studies at Coventry University.

Although many of these people will be thanked without stating their name below, they

know who they are and so do I.

In no particular order the Researcher wants to thank the following specific organisations

and people:

• Coventry University’s lecturers and students for their discussions and in-depth

education in the field of Disaster Management. A special word of thanks to Mr.

Robin Tasker in particular who guided me through this challenging research

process, but also Mr. Mike Broadbent for his thoughtfulness during the course.

• USAR.NL and their staff members who supported me with advice and information

regarding USAR(.NL). In particular I want to thank Mr. Rob K. Brons for

providing me with ideas about the subject in the early stages of the dissertation

project and Mr. Huub van der Weide for his advice and information based on his

thorough knowledge of the international USAR-scene (Bedankt!).

• SRSA and in particular Mr. David Norlin for his time while explaining SRSA and

the Swedish Rescue System to me (Tack så mycket!).

• EDRT for their hospitality during my stay in Tallinn. In particular Mr. Gert Teder

and Mr. Rivo Salong for providing me with information about their USAR-team

and of course Mr. Priit Paju for guiding me through the medieval streets of Old-

Town Tallinn (Aitäh).

• Fellow researchers and academics such as Mr. Brendon Morris for his

consultancy and guidance as an expert regarding USAR and INSARAG because of

- IX -

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS I would like to express my sincerest appreciation to all the people that contributed to this

research project. I also want to use this opportunity to thank those people that have

supported and stimulated me before and during the studies at Coventry University.

Although many of these people will be thanked without stating their name below, they

know who they are and so do I.

In no particular order the Researcher wants to thank the following specific organisations

and people:

• Coventry University’s lecturers and students for their discussions and in-depth

education in the field of Disaster Management. A special word of thanks to Mr.

Robin Tasker in particular who guided me through this challenging research

process, but also Mr. Mike Broadbent for his thoughtfulness during the course.

• USAR.NL and their staff members who supported me with advice and information

regarding USAR(.NL). In particular I want to thank Mr. Rob K. Brons for

providing me with ideas about the subject in the early stages of the dissertation

project and Mr. Huub van der Weide for his advice and information based on his

thorough knowledge of the international USAR-scene (Bedankt!).

• SRSA and in particular Mr. David Norlin for his time while explaining SRSA and

the Swedish Rescue System to me (Tack så mycket!).

• EDRT for their hospitality during my stay in Tallinn. In particular Mr. Gert Teder

and Mr. Rivo Salong for providing me with information about their USAR-team

and of course Mr. Priit Paju for guiding me through the medieval streets of Old-

Town Tallinn (Aitäh).

• Fellow researchers and academics such as Mr. Brendon Morris for his

consultancy and guidance as an expert regarding USAR and INSARAG because of

- X -

his recent experience in doing research related to USAR and Ms. Nihan Erdogan

for her information and suggestions regarding USAR preparedness (in Turkey).

Also I would like to thank Mr. Vincent van Vliet and Mr. Paul van de Bilt for

providing interesting comments on the Dutch Emergency System. Last but not least

thanks to Professor Dr. Ben Ale for his academic comments on the research project

and inspiring me by raising “new” research questions.

• The voluntary Peer-Reviewers, without stating all their names. I want to thank

them for making their time available in order to read and correct my Denglish

(Dutch-English) and giving feedback on the report. Ms. Evita O’Malley (“Roomy

2D”) was of great support throughout the year, thank you.

• My future employer (whoever that may be) who still has the bravery to offer me a

job in the field of Disaster Management/USAR after reading this dissertation.

• Finally I would like to thank my family and especially my parents for their support

and having faith in me.

Ralf J.J. Beerens

- X -

his recent experience in doing research related to USAR and Ms. Nihan Erdogan

for her information and suggestions regarding USAR preparedness (in Turkey).

Also I would like to thank Mr. Vincent van Vliet and Mr. Paul van de Bilt for

providing interesting comments on the Dutch Emergency System. Last but not least

thanks to Professor Dr. Ben Ale for his academic comments on the research project

and inspiring me by raising “new” research questions.

• The voluntary Peer-Reviewers, without stating all their names. I want to thank

them for making their time available in order to read and correct my Denglish

(Dutch-English) and giving feedback on the report. Ms. Evita O’Malley (“Roomy

2D”) was of great support throughout the year, thank you.

• My future employer (whoever that may be) who still has the bravery to offer me a

job in the field of Disaster Management/USAR after reading this dissertation.

• Finally I would like to thank my family and especially my parents for their support

and having faith in me.

Ralf J.J. Beerens

- XI -

LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Affected Country's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination .........................................................................................................................44 Table 4.2: Responsibilities when establishing RDC............................................................44 Table 4.3: UN OCHA's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination .45 Table 4.4: Member States’ Responsibilities ........................................................................47 Table 4.5: European Civil Protection Mechanism's responsibilities....................................48 Table 7.1: Overview of USAR Preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia......89

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Number of Natural Disasters 1900-2006.............................................................1 Figure 1.2: Number of technological disaster 1900-2006.....................................................2 Figure 1.3: Other events; Enschede Fireworks disaster 2001 in The Netherlands ................4 Figure 1.4: Possible Storm damage based on a Hurricane Katrina Episode in Europe/Rotterdam ..................................................................................................................4 Figure 1.5: 9/11 World Trade Center Attack: Immediate Urban Search and Rescue, Post-Event ......................................................................................................................................5 Figure 1.6: Summary of the research approach .....................................................................6 Figure 1.7: USAR.NL during international accreditation exercise........................................9 Figure 2.1: USAR response within the national disaster response framework....................12 Figure 2.2: USAR-Team Structure ......................................................................................13 Figure 2.3: Classification of the teams and an overview of its capabilities in percentages of a total search and rescue mission during an USAR-event ...................................................14 Figure 2.4: Conceptually integrated continuum showing the relationships between the data within the time periods.........................................................................................................18 Figure 2.5: UN INSARAG Methodology Cycle..................................................................20 Figure 2.6: The Disaster Cycle.............................................................................................25 Figure 2.7: The USAR Response Framework......................................................................30 Figure 2.8: Effective use of USAR trough various types of incidents ranging from regularly occurring emergencies to large scale building collapse and earthquakes ............................31 Figure 2.9: Natural and human-made disasters in- and outside the EU (1999-2006)..........34 Figure 3.1: Multiple-case design USAR Research ..............................................................36 Figure 3.2: Model Framework .............................................................................................37 Figure 3.3: Overview Research Methodology .....................................................................42 Figure 4.1: Overview of the National Mechanisms that should be in place according to INSARAG 2006...................................................................................................................45 Figure 4.2: Overview of International Mechanisms that should..........................................46 Figure 4.3: Overview of the various information,................................................................49 Figure 4.4: International/EU USAR Model .........................................................................51 Figure 5.1: Organisation of USAR.nl ..................................................................................52 Figure 5.2: Internal Organisation USAR.nl .........................................................................53 Figure 5.3: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands ..........................................................................................................................55 Figure 5.4: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands ..........................................................................................................................57

- XI -

LIST OF TABLES Table 4.1: Affected Country's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination .........................................................................................................................44 Table 4.2: Responsibilities when establishing RDC............................................................44 Table 4.3: UN OCHA's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination .45 Table 4.4: Member States’ Responsibilities ........................................................................47 Table 4.5: European Civil Protection Mechanism's responsibilities....................................48 Table 7.1: Overview of USAR Preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia......89

LIST OF FIGURES Figure 1.1: Number of Natural Disasters 1900-2006.............................................................1 Figure 1.2: Number of technological disaster 1900-2006.....................................................2 Figure 1.3: Other events; Enschede Fireworks disaster 2001 in The Netherlands ................4 Figure 1.4: Possible Storm damage based on a Hurricane Katrina Episode in Europe/Rotterdam ..................................................................................................................4 Figure 1.5: 9/11 World Trade Center Attack: Immediate Urban Search and Rescue, Post-Event ......................................................................................................................................5 Figure 1.6: Summary of the research approach .....................................................................6 Figure 1.7: USAR.NL during international accreditation exercise........................................9 Figure 2.1: USAR response within the national disaster response framework....................12 Figure 2.2: USAR-Team Structure ......................................................................................13 Figure 2.3: Classification of the teams and an overview of its capabilities in percentages of a total search and rescue mission during an USAR-event ...................................................14 Figure 2.4: Conceptually integrated continuum showing the relationships between the data within the time periods.........................................................................................................18 Figure 2.5: UN INSARAG Methodology Cycle..................................................................20 Figure 2.6: The Disaster Cycle.............................................................................................25 Figure 2.7: The USAR Response Framework......................................................................30 Figure 2.8: Effective use of USAR trough various types of incidents ranging from regularly occurring emergencies to large scale building collapse and earthquakes ............................31 Figure 2.9: Natural and human-made disasters in- and outside the EU (1999-2006)..........34 Figure 3.1: Multiple-case design USAR Research ..............................................................36 Figure 3.2: Model Framework .............................................................................................37 Figure 3.3: Overview Research Methodology .....................................................................42 Figure 4.1: Overview of the National Mechanisms that should be in place according to INSARAG 2006...................................................................................................................45 Figure 4.2: Overview of International Mechanisms that should..........................................46 Figure 4.3: Overview of the various information,................................................................49 Figure 4.4: International/EU USAR Model .........................................................................51 Figure 5.1: Organisation of USAR.nl ..................................................................................52 Figure 5.2: Internal Organisation USAR.nl .........................................................................53 Figure 5.3: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands ..........................................................................................................................55 Figure 5.4: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands ..........................................................................................................................57

- XII -

Figure 5.5: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands............................................................................................................... 59 Figure 5.6: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “The Netherlands”.................. 60 Figure 5.7: Overview of comparison “The Netherlands Model” and “International/EU USAR Model ....................................................................................................................... 61 Figure 5.8: Organisation SRSA ........................................................................................... 62 Figure 5.9: Overview of the International Swedish USAR team ........................................ 63 Figure 5.10: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional .......................................................... 65 Figure 5.11: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden 66 Figure 5.12: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden ...................................................................................................... 68 Figure 5.13: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Sweden” .............................. 70 Figure 5.14: Overview of comparison “Swedish Model” and “International/EU USAR Model” ................................................................................................................................. 71 Figure 5.15: Organisation Estonian Disaster Relief Team .................................................. 72 Figure 5.16: Organisation Estonian Disaster Relief Team .................................................. 73 Figure 5.17: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia ................................................................................................................................. 76 Figure 5.18: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination............................................... 77 Figure 5.19: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia ....................................................................................................... 79 Figure 5.20: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Estonia” ............................... 81 Figure 5.21: Overview of comparison “Estonian Model” and “International/EU USAR Model................................................................................................................................... 82

LIST OF ANNEXES ANNEX A ......................................................................................................................... 103

EU Member States, Candidate Countries and Other European Countries................... 103 ANNEX B ......................................................................................................................... 106

Letters of Agreement between EU and UN OCHA........................................................ 106 ANNEX C ......................................................................................................................... 114

Letter of Information...................................................................................................... 114 ANNEX D ......................................................................................................................... 130

Interview Package ......................................................................................................... 130 ANNEX E ......................................................................................................................... 144

Coventry University Ethics Checklist and Compliance Form....................................... 144 ANNEX F.......................................................................................................................... 146

Letter for Review............................................................................................................ 146 ANNEX G ......................................................................................................................... 148

Overview Aims and Objectives ...................................................................................... 148 ANNEX H ......................................................................................................................... 149

The Netherlands Discussion Report .............................................................................. 149 ANNEX I........................................................................................................................... 158

Sweden Discussion Report............................................................................................. 158 ANNEX J .......................................................................................................................... 169

Estonian Discussion Report........................................................................................... 169

- XII -

Figure 5.5: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands............................................................................................................... 59 Figure 5.6: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “The Netherlands”.................. 60 Figure 5.7: Overview of comparison “The Netherlands Model” and “International/EU USAR Model ....................................................................................................................... 61 Figure 5.8: Organisation SRSA ........................................................................................... 62 Figure 5.9: Overview of the International Swedish USAR team ........................................ 63 Figure 5.10: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional .......................................................... 65 Figure 5.11: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden 66 Figure 5.12: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden ...................................................................................................... 68 Figure 5.13: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Sweden” .............................. 70 Figure 5.14: Overview of comparison “Swedish Model” and “International/EU USAR Model” ................................................................................................................................. 71 Figure 5.15: Organisation Estonian Disaster Relief Team .................................................. 72 Figure 5.16: Organisation Estonian Disaster Relief Team .................................................. 73 Figure 5.17: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia ................................................................................................................................. 76 Figure 5.18: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination............................................... 77 Figure 5.19: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia ....................................................................................................... 79 Figure 5.20: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Estonia” ............................... 81 Figure 5.21: Overview of comparison “Estonian Model” and “International/EU USAR Model................................................................................................................................... 82

LIST OF ANNEXES ANNEX A ......................................................................................................................... 103











- XIII -

ABBREVIATIONS 9/11 11 September 2001; United States Terrorist Attacks 7/7 7 July 2005; London Terrorist Bombings BoO Base of Operations BzK The Netherlands Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations CAB County Administrative Board CECIS Common Emergency and Information System EADRCC Euro-Atlantic Disaster Response Coordination Centre ECHO European Community Humanitarian Office EDRT Estonian Disaster Relief Team EM-DAT Emergency Disasters Data Base EOD Explosive Ordnance Disposal EU European Union EU-MIC European Union – Monitoring and Information Centre FCSS Field Coordination Support Section FEMA Federal Emergency Management Agency GA General Assembly GRIP Gecoördineerde Regionale Incidentbestrijdings Procedures (NL):

Coordinated Regional Incident Procedure HAZMAT Hazardous Materials IFRC International Federation of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies INSARAG International Search and Rescue Advisory Group LEMA Local Emergency Management Authority LOCC Landelijk Operationeel Coördinatiecentrum (NL): National Operational Coordination Centre NATO North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

- XIII -



- XIV -

NCC National Coordination Centre NL The Netherlands OCHA Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs OSOCC On-Site Operations Coordination Centre PAHO Pan American Health Organisation RDC Reception/Departure Centre SAR Search and Rescue SEMA Swedish Emergency Management Agency SRSA Swedish Rescue Services Agency UK United Kingdom UN United Nations UNDAC United Nations Disaster Assessment and Coordination Team UN-ISDR United Nations Strategy for Disaster Reduction USA United States of America USAR/US&R Urban Search and Rescue USSR Union of Soviet Socialist Republics V-OSOCC Virtual On-Site Operations Coordination Centre WHO World Health Organisation WRZO Wet Rampen en Zware Ongevallen (Dutch Disaster Law)

- XIV -


- 1 -

1 INTRODUCTION This first chapter outlines the scope of the research topic. It will give an overview of the

aims and objectives and provide the framework in which this research was carried out.

The population in Europe is exposed to a number of hazards and threats from both natural

or human-made (or human-related) events. In the last decade there has been a significant

increase in events that might cause structural collapse of buildings throughout the world.

These events vary from natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and storms to

technical disasters such as explosions (see figures 1.1 and 1.2). Events like this,

occasionally in combination with construction failures or lacking quality control, lead to

the collapse of one or many buildings (Walker 1991:5, Barbera and Macintyre 1996).

Besides buildings, other structures can cave in. A recent example is the “Mississippi

Bridge Collapse” in Minneapolis (USA) (Cable News Network (CNN) 2007). This

collapse of structures can lead to the entrapment of people.

Figure 1.1: Number of Natural Disasters 1900-2006

(Source: Emergency Disasters Data Base EM-DAT 2007a)

- 1 -

1 INTRODUCTION This first chapter outlines the scope of the research topic. It will give an overview of the

aims and objectives and provide the framework in which this research was carried out.

The population in Europe is exposed to a number of hazards and threats from both natural

or human-made (or human-related) events. In the last decade there has been a significant

increase in events that might cause structural collapse of buildings throughout the world.

These events vary from natural disasters such as earthquakes, floods and storms to

technical disasters such as explosions (see figures 1.1 and 1.2). Events like this,

occasionally in combination with construction failures or lacking quality control, lead to

the collapse of one or many buildings (Walker 1991:5, Barbera and Macintyre 1996).

Besides buildings, other structures can cave in. A recent example is the “Mississippi

Bridge Collapse” in Minneapolis (USA) (Cable News Network (CNN) 2007). This

collapse of structures can lead to the entrapment of people.

Figure 1.1: Number of Natural Disasters 1900-2006

(Source: Emergency Disasters Data Base EM-DAT 2007a)

- 2 -

Figure 1.2: Number of technological disaster 1900-2006

(Source: Emergency Disasters Data Base EM-DAT 2007b)

An operational example “A local earthquake, a gas explosion…or multiple terrorist attacks? Several tall tower

flats and offices are collapsed during office hours in a densely populated area of the

country’s capital. It is unclear exactly how many people are missing, but the number is

expected to be high. The authorities do not have enough capacity to cope with the disaster

and ask for assistance. It seems international help is needed, so the United Nations’

Virtual On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre (V-OSOCC) and the European Union

Common Emergency Communication and Information System (CECIS) is used to alert and

request assistance. The responding team goes to the airport, where they are briefed while

their equipment is loaded. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, local embassies

and arriving international teams make the necessary arrangements at the Reception and

Departure Centre (RDC). Twenty-four hours after the alarm was raised, the last USAR

team arrives at the scene. The situation is still unclear when the search and rescue

operation commences.

- 2 -

Figure 1.2: Number of technological disaster 1900-2006

(Source: Emergency Disasters Data Base EM-DAT 2007b)

An operational example “A local earthquake, a gas explosion…or multiple terrorist attacks? Several tall tower

flats and offices are collapsed during office hours in a densely populated area of the

country’s capital. It is unclear exactly how many people are missing, but the number is

expected to be high. The authorities do not have enough capacity to cope with the disaster

and ask for assistance. It seems international help is needed, so the United Nations’

Virtual On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre (V-OSOCC) and the European Union

Common Emergency Communication and Information System (CECIS) is used to alert and

request assistance. The responding team goes to the airport, where they are briefed while

their equipment is loaded. Meanwhile, the Ministry of Foreign Affairs, local embassies

and arriving international teams make the necessary arrangements at the Reception and

Departure Centre (RDC). Twenty-four hours after the alarm was raised, the last USAR

team arrives at the scene. The situation is still unclear when the search and rescue

operation commences.

- 3 -

Equipment is in short supply, there are probably a lot of casualties, there is little

coordination and many survivors are desperately searching for their relatives.

The rescue units work in shifts. Their specially trained rescue dogs and their modern

equipment allow them to work highly effectively. Paramedics treat the victims’ injuries at

the scene, with the help of the USAR doctor when necessary, and the victims are then

transferred to the local authorities for further care. Unfortunately, bodies have also been

found in the wreckage, and they are carefully recovered, with respect for local and

religious customs and with a view to later identification. The Command Unit and Staff Unit

head the team and liaise with the local authorities, the embassies and the United Nations

Disaster Assistance and Coordination (UNDAC) team. If necessary, they will set up an

international coordination centre. The team remains in constant contact with the National

Operational Team in their country. The Support Unit, meanwhile, takes care of the search

and rescue workers, their dogs and the equipment.

As time passes, the prospects of finding more victims alive fade. Sadly, after five days – the

disaster occurred six days ago – no more survivors are found. While some of the USAR

teams continue to provide assistance, the rest begin tying up the loose ends and handing

over the work. The equipment is packed up or handed over, the staff returns to home base.

On arrival in their home country the initial debriefing takes place, after which everyone

goes home. This is where after-care begins: counselling for the team members, reporting

and evaluation.”

Source adapted from USAR.NL (n. d.)

- 3 -

Equipment is in short supply, there are probably a lot of casualties, there is little

coordination and many survivors are desperately searching for their relatives.

The rescue units work in shifts. Their specially trained rescue dogs and their modern

equipment allow them to work highly effectively. Paramedics treat the victims’ injuries at

the scene, with the help of the USAR doctor when necessary, and the victims are then

transferred to the local authorities for further care. Unfortunately, bodies have also been

found in the wreckage, and they are carefully recovered, with respect for local and

religious customs and with a view to later identification. The Command Unit and Staff Unit

head the team and liaise with the local authorities, the embassies and the United Nations

Disaster Assistance and Coordination (UNDAC) team. If necessary, they will set up an

international coordination centre. The team remains in constant contact with the National

Operational Team in their country. The Support Unit, meanwhile, takes care of the search

and rescue workers, their dogs and the equipment.

As time passes, the prospects of finding more victims alive fade. Sadly, after five days – the

disaster occurred six days ago – no more survivors are found. While some of the USAR

teams continue to provide assistance, the rest begin tying up the loose ends and handing

over the work. The equipment is packed up or handed over, the staff returns to home base.

On arrival in their home country the initial debriefing takes place, after which everyone

goes home. This is where after-care begins: counselling for the team members, reporting

and evaluation.”

Source adapted from USAR.NL (n. d.)

- 4 -

Figure 1.3: Other events; Enschede Fireworks disaster 2001 in The Netherlands

(Source: Gemeentelijke Gezondheidsdienst (GGD) Regio Twente 2006)

One of the first hazards that might lead to structural collapse is the changing climate (see

figure 1.4). This change influences the intensity of storms and it appears that Europe will

face heavier and more frequent storms in the future (European Environment Agency (EEA)

2004:4). Stronger winds in combination with heavy rain are likely to cause structural

damage to buildings. Heavy rain causes flooding which can undermine the foundation of

buildings that may lead to instability in structures and finally collapse. Buildings which do

not “fall down” may eventually need to be demolished for safety reasons.

Figure 1.4: Possible Storm damage based on a Hurricane Katrina Episode in Europe/Rotterdam

(Source: Dijkstra 2006:56)

- 4 -

Figure 1.3: Other events; Enschede Fireworks disaster 2001 in The Netherlands

(Source: Gemeentelijke Gezondheidsdienst (GGD) Regio Twente 2006)

One of the first hazards that might lead to structural collapse is the changing climate (see

figure 1.4). This change influences the intensity of storms and it appears that Europe will

face heavier and more frequent storms in the future (European Environment Agency (EEA)

2004:4). Stronger winds in combination with heavy rain are likely to cause structural

damage to buildings. Heavy rain causes flooding which can undermine the foundation of

buildings that may lead to instability in structures and finally collapse. Buildings which do

not “fall down” may eventually need to be demolished for safety reasons.

Figure 1.4: Possible Storm damage based on a Hurricane Katrina Episode in Europe/Rotterdam

(Source: Dijkstra 2006:56)

- 5 -

A second example of a growing hazard in the Western World is terrorism (see figure 1.5).

Terrorists still use conventional weapons such as explosives (Muller, Spaaij and

Ruitenberg 2003:91), but they have also begun to use unconventional “weapons” like

planes or cars to attack buildings with explosives. As a result of these explosions people

may become trapped in all kinds of collapsed structures. This could not just include

buildings, for example in the Madrid-bombings, terrorists blew up several trains and

people were trapped in the rubble, as in the underground bombings in London.

Figure 1.5: 9/11 World Trade Center Attack: Immediate Urban Search and Rescue, Post-Event

(Source: Riverside Urban Search and Rescue 2007)

Effective response to these events requires specialist equipment, training and personnel

that are prepared to deal with collapsed structures and to search for and rescue trapped

people. One of the emergency response entities that is currently able to respond to these

events are Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) teams. These USAR-teams are a recent

development in the emergency response community and they are still under development

on a national and international level to establish themselves in the emergency preparedness

and response structures. Currently the most important document for the preparedness of

(assisting) USAR-teams but also USAR-responses within affected countries is the

International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) guidelines and

methodology (2006). More recent political developments within the European Union (EU)

regarding USAR are also under development mainly in the form of council resolutions.

- 5 -

A second example of a growing hazard in the Western World is terrorism (see figure 1.5).

Terrorists still use conventional weapons such as explosives (Muller, Spaaij and

Ruitenberg 2003:91), but they have also begun to use unconventional “weapons” like

planes or cars to attack buildings with explosives. As a result of these explosions people

may become trapped in all kinds of collapsed structures. This could not just include

buildings, for example in the Madrid-bombings, terrorists blew up several trains and

people were trapped in the rubble, as in the underground bombings in London.

Figure 1.5: 9/11 World Trade Center Attack: Immediate Urban Search and Rescue, Post-Event

(Source: Riverside Urban Search and Rescue 2007)

Effective response to these events requires specialist equipment, training and personnel

that are prepared to deal with collapsed structures and to search for and rescue trapped

people. One of the emergency response entities that is currently able to respond to these

events are Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) teams. These USAR-teams are a recent

development in the emergency response community and they are still under development

on a national and international level to establish themselves in the emergency preparedness

and response structures. Currently the most important document for the preparedness of

(assisting) USAR-teams but also USAR-responses within affected countries is the

International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) guidelines and

methodology (2006). More recent political developments within the European Union (EU)

regarding USAR are also under development mainly in the form of council resolutions.

- 6 -

This project will explore the INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology and will analyse its

applicability within The Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden. It will take into account the

different preparedness and response levels within the National systems as showed in figure

1.6 and link these levels to the international guidelines, methodology and policies. The

purpose is to gain insight into national preparedness and coordination levels related to

international USAR responses.

Figure 1.6: Summary of the research approach

1.1 Aims and Objectives The general aim of this research is to compare the coordination mechanisms and related

preparedness measures of three European countries. These countries include The

Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden, in receiving international Urban Search and Rescue

assistance.

This comparison will contribute to the preparedness of the contributory countries and the

use of USAR coordination mechanisms such as UN INSARAG in EU developed countries.

It should aid in clarification of the current linkages between the preparedness and

coordination mechanisms in place on national and international levels.

UN INSARAG Guidelines

The Netherlands Sweden Estonia

Comparative Case Study Research

National Structures (Law/Policy)



Local/ Operational USAR-Procedures

Local/Operational USAR-Procedures

Local/Operational USAR- Procedures

European Union USAR Council

Resolutions

Operational/Local Level

National Level

International Level

- 6 -

This project will explore the INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology and will analyse its

applicability within The Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden. It will take into account the

different preparedness and response levels within the National systems as showed in figure

1.6 and link these levels to the international guidelines, methodology and policies. The

purpose is to gain insight into national preparedness and coordination levels related to

international USAR responses.

Figure 1.6: Summary of the research approach

1.1 Aims and Objectives The general aim of this research is to compare the coordination mechanisms and related

preparedness measures of three European countries. These countries include The

Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden, in receiving international Urban Search and Rescue

assistance.

This comparison will contribute to the preparedness of the contributory countries and the

use of USAR coordination mechanisms such as UN INSARAG in EU developed countries.

It should aid in clarification of the current linkages between the preparedness and

coordination mechanisms in place on national and international levels.

UN INSARAG Guidelines

The Netherlands Sweden Estonia

Comparative Case Study Research




Local/ Operational USAR-Procedures

Local/Operational USAR-Procedures

Local/Operational USAR- Procedures

European Union USAR Council

Resolutions

Operational/Local Level

National Level

International Level

- 7 -

In order to achieve these aims the following objectives will be implemented:

• The UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology as well as European Council

resolutions on receiving USAR support in disaster affected countries will be

reviewed and modelled in order to gain insight into the international USAR

community and its organisational structures. Previous research on USAR as well as

other policy documents will be reviewed.

• An in-depth analysis of the national emergency preparedness and coordination

system and the application of the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology

within this system in the Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden will be conducted. This

is accomplished using case-study research and simplified modelling of the

coordination mechanisms and preparedness measures in place.

• The models developed in the previous phases will be used to analyse the National

structures and mechanisms for receiving urban search and rescue support in a

disaster affected country by pattern-matching overlaying and comparing the

different models.

• Recommendations will be made for the further development of the UN INSARAG

guidelines and methodology, national structures and mechanisms and other USAR

related systems in disaster affected areas based on the modelling and comparison.

1.2 Rationale for the studies context The United Nations General Assembly Resolution 57/150 of 16 December 2002 (United

Nations General Assembly 2002) stated “that countries prone to earthquakes or disasters

with the potential to cause structural collapse are strongly advised to include the

INSARAG methodology in their national emergency management plans”. In addition the

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR) “Hyogo

Framework for Action 2005-2015” prioritises in article five that disaster preparedness and

- 7 -

In order to achieve these aims the following objectives will be implemented:

• The UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology as well as European Council

resolutions on receiving USAR support in disaster affected countries will be

reviewed and modelled in order to gain insight into the international USAR

community and its organisational structures. Previous research on USAR as well as

other policy documents will be reviewed.

• An in-depth analysis of the national emergency preparedness and coordination

system and the application of the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology

within this system in the Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden will be conducted. This

is accomplished using case-study research and simplified modelling of the

coordination mechanisms and preparedness measures in place.

• The models developed in the previous phases will be used to analyse the National

structures and mechanisms for receiving urban search and rescue support in a

disaster affected country by pattern-matching overlaying and comparing the

different models.

• Recommendations will be made for the further development of the UN INSARAG

guidelines and methodology, national structures and mechanisms and other USAR

related systems in disaster affected areas based on the modelling and comparison.

1.2 Rationale for the studies context The United Nations General Assembly Resolution 57/150 of 16 December 2002 (United

Nations General Assembly 2002) stated “that countries prone to earthquakes or disasters

with the potential to cause structural collapse are strongly advised to include the

INSARAG methodology in their national emergency management plans”. In addition the

United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN-ISDR) “Hyogo

Framework for Action 2005-2015” prioritises in article five that disaster preparedness and

- 8 -

effective response should be strengthened at all levels “in order to substantially reduce the

impacts and losses of disasters” in hazard-prone areas (UN-ISDR 2007).

Most regions in Western Europe however have low earthquake frequency, and the

magnitude of occurring earthquakes is in most cases not strong enough to cause structural

collapse. Nevertheless there is still potential for the structural collapse of buildings as a

result of terrorist attacks such as the London Canary Wharf/Docklands Bombing in 1996,

9/11 (see figure 1.5) or the Madrid Train Bombings in 2004, events like plane crashes as

occurred in the Amsterdam-Bijlmer area (Bijlmerramp), or explosions and other human-

made disasters such as the fireworks disaster in Enschede (see figure 1.3) (Zero-meridean

2007).

There are international guidelines such as the second edition “guidelines and

methodology” from INSARAG (2006) and European Council Decisions for a country’s

responsibilities in terms of preparedness and receiving international (USAR) response.

These are however only guidelines the implementation of which may vary. Research has

not examined the specific implementation within the Netherlands emergency structures. It

is important to establish a level of preparedness and understand why preparation is

necessary (Alexander 2002:5). This information can lead to future improvements to

contribute to the safety of the community if a structural collapse type disaster happens. It

can also contribute to the international insights in preparedness in particular within

Western-Europe.

Most European countries such as the Netherlands also have a system of national

emergency management plans arranged by law (NL: Wet Rampen en Zware

Ongevallen/WRZO) (Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties 1985).

Currently in the Netherlands, this law is being reviewed because of the regionalisation of

the emergency system. This research however will examine how these local and national

plans and structures meet the UN resolution regarding Urban Search and Rescue and

compare this with two Baltic States: Sweden and Estonia. It will also explore recent

European developments regarding Civil Protection and how this relates to USAR.

The emphasis in this research will concern the urban component of Search and Rescue.

USAR is implemented following “a sudden onset disaster causing large-scale structural

- 8 -

effective response should be strengthened at all levels “in order to substantially reduce the

impacts and losses of disasters” in hazard-prone areas (UN-ISDR 2007).

Most regions in Western Europe however have low earthquake frequency, and the

magnitude of occurring earthquakes is in most cases not strong enough to cause structural

collapse. Nevertheless there is still potential for the structural collapse of buildings as a

result of terrorist attacks such as the London Canary Wharf/Docklands Bombing in 1996,

9/11 (see figure 1.5) or the Madrid Train Bombings in 2004, events like plane crashes as

occurred in the Amsterdam-Bijlmer area (Bijlmerramp), or explosions and other human-

made disasters such as the fireworks disaster in Enschede (see figure 1.3) (Zero-meridean

2007).

There are international guidelines such as the second edition “guidelines and

methodology” from INSARAG (2006) and European Council Decisions for a country’s

responsibilities in terms of preparedness and receiving international (USAR) response.

These are however only guidelines the implementation of which may vary. Research has

not examined the specific implementation within the Netherlands emergency structures. It

is important to establish a level of preparedness and understand why preparation is

necessary (Alexander 2002:5). This information can lead to future improvements to

contribute to the safety of the community if a structural collapse type disaster happens. It

can also contribute to the international insights in preparedness in particular within

Western-Europe.

Most European countries such as the Netherlands also have a system of national

emergency management plans arranged by law (NL: Wet Rampen en Zware

Ongevallen/WRZO) (Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties 1985).

Currently in the Netherlands, this law is being reviewed because of the regionalisation of

the emergency system. This research however will examine how these local and national

plans and structures meet the UN resolution regarding Urban Search and Rescue and

compare this with two Baltic States: Sweden and Estonia. It will also explore recent

European developments regarding Civil Protection and how this relates to USAR.

The emphasis in this research will concern the urban component of Search and Rescue.

USAR is implemented following “a sudden onset disaster causing large-scale structural

- 9 -

collapse” (INSARAG 2006:9). According to MacIntyre, Barbera and Smity (2006)

“massive earthquakes often cause structures to collapse, trapping victims under dense

rubble for long periods of time”. It is important to extricate victims as soon as possible

hence standardized operational and technical preparedness procedures and mechanisms in

place, both nationally and internationally. According to Morris (2006:15) “the management

component of an international USAR team is essential to their successful integration and

use within the overall response in an earthquake affected country”. This research will

focus on the overlap in these procedures and organisational structures on a National and

International preparedness level.

The Netherlands has had an operational USAR team since November 2003, the Baltic

USAR-teams have been established for longer. The Swedish Rescue Services Agency

(SRSA) USAR team was one of the “early” teams established in 1991 and the Estonian

Disaster Relief Team (EDRT) followed in 1997. The Dutch team’s development came as a

common effort after not being able to deliver specialist response internationally to the

Izmir earthquake in Turkey (1999) and nationally to the Fireworks disaster in Enschede

(2001) (USAR.NL n.d.). This team delivers specific USAR support on a national and

international level (USAR.NL n. d.). This research will investigate if the other teams have

the same aim in responding to disasters. It is important to understand how USAR-teams fit

into national emergency management plans and how they link to the international and in

particular the European USAR community.

Figure 1.7: USAR.NL during international accreditation exercise

(Source: USAR.NL 2007)

- 9 -

collapse” (INSARAG 2006:9). According to MacIntyre, Barbera and Smity (2006)

“massive earthquakes often cause structures to collapse, trapping victims under dense

rubble for long periods of time”. It is important to extricate victims as soon as possible

hence standardized operational and technical preparedness procedures and mechanisms in

place, both nationally and internationally. According to Morris (2006:15) “the management

component of an international USAR team is essential to their successful integration and

use within the overall response in an earthquake affected country”. This research will

focus on the overlap in these procedures and organisational structures on a National and

International preparedness level.

The Netherlands has had an operational USAR team since November 2003, the Baltic

USAR-teams have been established for longer. The Swedish Rescue Services Agency

(SRSA) USAR team was one of the “early” teams established in 1991 and the Estonian

Disaster Relief Team (EDRT) followed in 1997. The Dutch team’s development came as a

common effort after not being able to deliver specialist response internationally to the

Izmir earthquake in Turkey (1999) and nationally to the Fireworks disaster in Enschede

(2001) (USAR.NL n.d.). This team delivers specific USAR support on a national and

international level (USAR.NL n. d.). This research will investigate if the other teams have

the same aim in responding to disasters. It is important to understand how USAR-teams fit

into national emergency management plans and how they link to the international and in

particular the European USAR community.

Figure 1.7: USAR.NL during international accreditation exercise

(Source: USAR.NL 2007)

- 10 -

2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides the background to and context for this research on USAR

preparedness and coordination. It also establishes the link between this research and the

current state of knowledge on USAR and other related topics (Blaikie 2000:71). The

literature review is based on a selection of publications which include UN guidance

documents, government publications, fire services publications and scientific journal

articles.

Most of the publications that were reviewed are policy documents. Little research has

currently been undertaken on USAR-preparedness and coordination. The reason for that is

that international USAR assistance is a new subject area with the INSARAG only

established in 1991. Also the first set of guidelines was only recently endorsed by the

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 57/150 of 16 December 2002. In addition to

this international USAR assistance is a governmental mechanism for individual Nations

and the United Nations who predominantly use policy documents as opposed to academic

research to structure their organisations. Most research related to USAR has been carried

out in fields such as seismology, structural engineering, sociology, medicine and

mechanical engineering.

A brief introduction to the USAR mechanisms is included to give an overview. It discusses

the different national and international coordination mechanisms that are currently in place.

It will also introduce disaster preparedness. An overview of possible trigger events for the

mobilisation of USAR is also presented.

2.1 USAR

2.1.1 What is USAR? In international terminology USAR is one of two abbreviations used for describing “Urban

Search and Rescue”, the USAR abbreviation is mostly used by the UN and its members.

The other abbreviation, US&R, is mostly used by the Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA) in the United States of America.

- 10 -

2 BACKGROUND AND LITERATURE REVIEW This chapter provides the background to and context for this research on USAR

preparedness and coordination. It also establishes the link between this research and the

current state of knowledge on USAR and other related topics (Blaikie 2000:71). The

literature review is based on a selection of publications which include UN guidance

documents, government publications, fire services publications and scientific journal

articles.

Most of the publications that were reviewed are policy documents. Little research has

currently been undertaken on USAR-preparedness and coordination. The reason for that is

that international USAR assistance is a new subject area with the INSARAG only

established in 1991. Also the first set of guidelines was only recently endorsed by the

United Nations General Assembly Resolution 57/150 of 16 December 2002. In addition to

this international USAR assistance is a governmental mechanism for individual Nations

and the United Nations who predominantly use policy documents as opposed to academic

research to structure their organisations. Most research related to USAR has been carried

out in fields such as seismology, structural engineering, sociology, medicine and

mechanical engineering.

A brief introduction to the USAR mechanisms is included to give an overview. It discusses

the different national and international coordination mechanisms that are currently in place.

It will also introduce disaster preparedness. An overview of possible trigger events for the

mobilisation of USAR is also presented.

2.1 USAR

2.1.1 What is USAR? In international terminology USAR is one of two abbreviations used for describing “Urban

Search and Rescue”, the USAR abbreviation is mostly used by the UN and its members.

The other abbreviation, US&R, is mostly used by the Federal Emergency Management

Agency (FEMA) in the United States of America.

- 11 -

The term USAR contains three basic elements:

• Urban environment

• Search techniques

• Rescue techniques

These elements combined into USAR, which may be defined as “locating, reaching,

(medically) treating, and safely extricating deeply entombed survivors of collapsed

structures” (Barbera and Macintyre 1996). Although most definitions state that USAR is

related to rescuing survivors from collapsed structures, the definitional approaches may

differ. Some define USAR as a “science” (Barbera and Macintyre 1996) others define it

more practical as “skills and abilities” (Barbera and Cadoux 1991, Cone 2000).

Definitions also vary in the emphasis they place on one of the three elements. Barbera and

Cadoux (1991) put more emphasis on the “urban” element in one of the earliest definitions

of USAR defining it as “those skills and abilities necessary to locate, extricate, and treat

casualties within an area of population density affected by collapsed structures”. In later

definitions the medical treatment became more important (Barbera an Macintyre 1996,

Cone 2000, INSARAG 2006, FEMA 2007). FEMA (2007) currently defines the medical

treatment as medical stabilization thus suggesting the actual treatment will be left to other

more specialised medical services and personnel. Some USAR trained teams for example

do not undertake medical intervention and rely on medical specialists.

USAR distinguishes itself from general Search And Rescue (SAR) by focusing on rescuing

people in densely populated areas trapped in confined spaces. Voids or small spaces can

allow people to survive after the structural collapse of buildings and other structures

(Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006). SAR however comprises the “bigger picture” and

can be related to any mission aiming to locate and rescue survivors; examples include

water-rescue by the coastguard or lost walkers search and rescue in a hostile outdoor

environment by mountain SAR teams. However there are some exceptions to the USAR

definition mentioned earlier e.g. FEMA in the United States also uses USAR-teams for

search and rescue during other events. These may not directly be related to structural

collapse and include flooding, hurricanes and hazardous materials spills (FEMA 2007).

Thus the actual tasks undertaken by a USAR team may vary internationally based on

hazard profiles, related training and equipment on a national level.

- 11 -

The term USAR contains three basic elements:

• Urban environment

• Search techniques

• Rescue techniques

These elements combined into USAR, which may be defined as “locating, reaching,

(medically) treating, and safely extricating deeply entombed survivors of collapsed

structures” (Barbera and Macintyre 1996). Although most definitions state that USAR is

related to rescuing survivors from collapsed structures, the definitional approaches may

differ. Some define USAR as a “science” (Barbera and Macintyre 1996) others define it

more practical as “skills and abilities” (Barbera and Cadoux 1991, Cone 2000).

Definitions also vary in the emphasis they place on one of the three elements. Barbera and

Cadoux (1991) put more emphasis on the “urban” element in one of the earliest definitions

of USAR defining it as “those skills and abilities necessary to locate, extricate, and treat

casualties within an area of population density affected by collapsed structures”. In later

definitions the medical treatment became more important (Barbera an Macintyre 1996,

Cone 2000, INSARAG 2006, FEMA 2007). FEMA (2007) currently defines the medical

treatment as medical stabilization thus suggesting the actual treatment will be left to other

more specialised medical services and personnel. Some USAR trained teams for example

do not undertake medical intervention and rely on medical specialists.

USAR distinguishes itself from general Search And Rescue (SAR) by focusing on rescuing

people in densely populated areas trapped in confined spaces. Voids or small spaces can

allow people to survive after the structural collapse of buildings and other structures

(Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006). SAR however comprises the “bigger picture” and

can be related to any mission aiming to locate and rescue survivors; examples include

water-rescue by the coastguard or lost walkers search and rescue in a hostile outdoor

environment by mountain SAR teams. However there are some exceptions to the USAR

definition mentioned earlier e.g. FEMA in the United States also uses USAR-teams for

search and rescue during other events. These may not directly be related to structural

collapse and include flooding, hurricanes and hazardous materials spills (FEMA 2007).

Thus the actual tasks undertaken by a USAR team may vary internationally based on

hazard profiles, related training and equipment on a national level.

- 12 -

2.1.2 USAR Organisation USAR as a rapid emergency responding entity “distinguishes from other emergency rescue

entities by its unique capability to overcome the impediments caused by steel, reinforced

concrete and other heavy construction to locate victims and effect rescue” (Barbera and

Macintyre 1996). Cone (2000) clearly states that USAR is a supplement to other

emergency response resources in the United States and does not replace them. Thorvald

(1995) also emphasizes that “search and rescue following a building collapse requires a

multidisciplinary effort”. INSARAG (2006:84) concurs with both previous statements by

stating that a USAR response system cannot exist in isolation and must form an integrated

part of a disaster management response framework discussed and shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: USAR response within the national disaster response framework

(Source adapted from INSARAG 2006:84) The United Nations (INSARAG 2006:87) clearly state that USAR teams should comprise

the following five components:

• Management

• Logistics

• Search

• Rescue

• Medical

This shows that besides operational components such as search, rescue and medical,

attention is given to the command and control structure of a team. Therefore the team uses

supportive, but vital and structural, elements such as management and logistics. These core

National Disaster System Rapid Response Mechanism

USAR-Response System

- 12 -

2.1.2 USAR Organisation USAR as a rapid emergency responding entity “distinguishes from other emergency rescue

entities by its unique capability to overcome the impediments caused by steel, reinforced

concrete and other heavy construction to locate victims and effect rescue” (Barbera and

Macintyre 1996). Cone (2000) clearly states that USAR is a supplement to other

emergency response resources in the United States and does not replace them. Thorvald

(1995) also emphasizes that “search and rescue following a building collapse requires a

multidisciplinary effort”. INSARAG (2006:84) concurs with both previous statements by

stating that a USAR response system cannot exist in isolation and must form an integrated

part of a disaster management response framework discussed and shown in figure 2.1.

Figure 2.1: USAR response within the national disaster response framework

(Source adapted from INSARAG 2006:84) The United Nations (INSARAG 2006:87) clearly state that USAR teams should comprise

the following five components:

• Management

• Logistics

• Search

• Rescue

• Medical

This shows that besides operational components such as search, rescue and medical,

attention is given to the command and control structure of a team. Therefore the team uses

supportive, but vital and structural, elements such as management and logistics. These core

National Disaster System Rapid Response Mechanism

USAR-Response System

- 13 -

operational and management components are increasingly staffed by specialists such as

engineers because of the complexity of the condition of a compromised structure (Thorvald

1995). This shows that USAR is an operational mechanism that is fit for purpose and

constantly evolving.

Figure 2.2: USAR-Team Structure

(Source: INSARAG 2006:88)

Morris (2006), Collins (2004) and Oliver (2005) discuss that during operations a USAR

team usually follows the steps of a safety-assessment, search, victim access, medical

stabilisation and extrication followed by victim removal. This first step of assessing the

level of acceptable risk is important and one that changes over time (Thorvald 1995).

Research carried out by Bäckström and Christofferson (2006) shows the technical

evolvement of search and rescue equipment and methods using highly sophisticated

“modern” research equipment alongside the “classic’ canine-search in the steps mentioned

above. Working with this equipment and the dogs also requires structural and intensive

training to prepare for USAR operations as was researched by Kettunen (2006).

USAR is a combined instrument which not only uses technical equipment to succeed in its

tasks it also uses policy and management to operate within a diverse and constantly

changing environment to fulfil its tasks of search and rescue. Management plays a vital

role in the coordination and liaison role with other (local) organisations in addition to

managing their own teams (INSARAG 2006:42). Morris (2006:16) states that the

Planning Safety/Security

PublicInformation

Liaison

SEARCH

RESCUE

MEDICAL

OPERATIONS

Haz Mat

Engineering

Rigging

Specialized

Communications

LOGISTICS

MANAGEMENT

- 13 -

operational and management components are increasingly staffed by specialists such as

engineers because of the complexity of the condition of a compromised structure (Thorvald

1995). This shows that USAR is an operational mechanism that is fit for purpose and

constantly evolving.

Figure 2.2: USAR-Team Structure


Morris (2006), Collins (2004) and Oliver (2005) discuss that during operations a USAR

team usually follows the steps of a safety-assessment, search, victim access, medical

stabilisation and extrication followed by victim removal. This first step of assessing the

level of acceptable risk is important and one that changes over time (Thorvald 1995).

Research carried out by Bäckström and Christofferson (2006) shows the technical

evolvement of search and rescue equipment and methods using highly sophisticated

“modern” research equipment alongside the “classic’ canine-search in the steps mentioned

above. Working with this equipment and the dogs also requires structural and intensive

training to prepare for USAR operations as was researched by Kettunen (2006).

USAR is a combined instrument which not only uses technical equipment to succeed in its

tasks it also uses policy and management to operate within a diverse and constantly

changing environment to fulfil its tasks of search and rescue. Management plays a vital

role in the coordination and liaison role with other (local) organisations in addition to

managing their own teams (INSARAG 2006:42). Morris (2006:16) states that the

Planning Safety/Security

PublicInformation

Liaison

SEARCH

RESCUE

MEDICAL

OPERATIONS

Haz Mat

Engineering

Rigging

Specialized

Communications

LOGISTICS

MANAGEMENT

- 14 -

management role of an international USAR team is essential to their successful integration

and use within the overall response. Figure 2.2 gives an overview of the USAR-teams’

structure as described in the INSARAG guidelines and methodology (INSARAG 2006:42).

USAR team management is responsible for liaison with the various parties involved as

well as other USAR teams in the area (INSARAG 2006:51). In addition to the team leader,

the On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (OSOCC), will play an important coordinating

role between the various teams on the ground. Although the team is coordinated through

the OSOCC it is directed by the Local Emergency Management Authority (INSARAG

2006:42). Most communication between the various entities flows through the OSOCC in

order to keep the overview and coordination centralised. Katoch (2006:162) therefore

describes the OSOCC as a “single point of interface”.

Teams worldwide are now being accredited and classified based on the team’s operational

capability and related to the sort of missions they must be able to successfully accomplish.

This helps to create a common understanding of capabilities among teams and contributes

to a coordinated response among teams (INSARAG 2006:33). Figure 2.3 gives an

overview of what a team is capable of and how much percent this is of the total rescue

work. This scheme will in the future contribute to the statement that only qualified and

appropriate USAR resources are deployed. This said it is likely that operations in which

teams should be used will always be influenced by political issues.

Figure 2.3: Classification of the teams and an overview of its capabilities in percentages of a total

search and rescue mission during an USAR-event


- 14 -

management role of an international USAR team is essential to their successful integration

and use within the overall response. Figure 2.2 gives an overview of the USAR-teams’

structure as described in the INSARAG guidelines and methodology (INSARAG 2006:42).

USAR team management is responsible for liaison with the various parties involved as

well as other USAR teams in the area (INSARAG 2006:51). In addition to the team leader,

the On-Site Operations Coordination Centre (OSOCC), will play an important coordinating

role between the various teams on the ground. Although the team is coordinated through

the OSOCC it is directed by the Local Emergency Management Authority (INSARAG

2006:42). Most communication between the various entities flows through the OSOCC in

order to keep the overview and coordination centralised. Katoch (2006:162) therefore

describes the OSOCC as a “single point of interface”.

Teams worldwide are now being accredited and classified based on the team’s operational

capability and related to the sort of missions they must be able to successfully accomplish.

This helps to create a common understanding of capabilities among teams and contributes

to a coordinated response among teams (INSARAG 2006:33). Figure 2.3 gives an

overview of what a team is capable of and how much percent this is of the total rescue

work. This scheme will in the future contribute to the statement that only qualified and

appropriate USAR resources are deployed. This said it is likely that operations in which

teams should be used will always be influenced by political issues.

Figure 2.3: Classification of the teams and an overview of its capabilities in percentages of a total

search and rescue mission during an USAR-event


- 15 -

A final element that makes USAR unique for international Search and Rescue operations is

its ability to be almost completely self-supporting and using limited support of local

resources (Barbera and Cadoux 1991). A disaster affected country is requested to support

the incoming USAR teams only with security and “logistics” including interpreters, guides,

fuel, transport, water and maps (INSARAG 2006:24). All USAR team resources are

centrally located at a Base of Operations (BoO). According to INSARAG (2006:59) the

“BoO serves as the USAR team’s site for headquarters, communications hub,

sleeping/resting/eating areas, equipment stock set-up and refuge from the elements while

operational in a disaster affected country”. These policies are designed to minimize the

burden on the country and its resources as required by UN Resolution 57/150 (United

Nations General Assembly 2002). In addition to this the team also has the option to

“donate equipment” (INSARAG 2006:48) to the local community before leaving. This can

be seen as humanitarian aid as it contributes to the relief and recovery process. An example

is the Pakistan Earthquake in 2005 when USAR.NL, as with other teams, left their tents

behind for the local community to be used as for example an emergency hospital (Saeijs et

al. 2006:78).

2.2 International Coordination Coordination “is a result of intentional actions to harmonize individual responses to

maximize impact and achieve synergy in a situation where the overall effect is greater than

the sum of the parts” (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) - Field

Coordination Support Section (FCSS) 2006:13).

Walker (1991:24) stated that in the early years of USAR response there was “not only lack

of coordination between international teams on the ground, but often the host authorities

have no idea of what the specialist teams are capable of, what equipment they have

brought with them and often indeed, which teams have actually arrived”. Examples of

early disasters where there was lack of coordination are earthquakes such as the 1985

Mexican earthquake (Thorvald 1995) and the 1988 Armenian earthquake, whose effects

can be seen as the reason (Cone 2000) for developing internationally coordinated USAR

response in 1991. This led to the creation of INSARAG under the umbrella of the United

Nations (INSARAG 2006:1). USAR in United Nations terms is often seen as a response-

mechanism “for the country affected by a sudden on-set disaster causing large-scale

- 15 -

A final element that makes USAR unique for international Search and Rescue operations is

its ability to be almost completely self-supporting and using limited support of local

resources (Barbera and Cadoux 1991). A disaster affected country is requested to support

the incoming USAR teams only with security and “logistics” including interpreters, guides,

fuel, transport, water and maps (INSARAG 2006:24). All USAR team resources are

centrally located at a Base of Operations (BoO). According to INSARAG (2006:59) the

“BoO serves as the USAR team’s site for headquarters, communications hub,

sleeping/resting/eating areas, equipment stock set-up and refuge from the elements while

operational in a disaster affected country”. These policies are designed to minimize the

burden on the country and its resources as required by UN Resolution 57/150 (United

Nations General Assembly 2002). In addition to this the team also has the option to

“donate equipment” (INSARAG 2006:48) to the local community before leaving. This can

be seen as humanitarian aid as it contributes to the relief and recovery process. An example

is the Pakistan Earthquake in 2005 when USAR.NL, as with other teams, left their tents

behind for the local community to be used as for example an emergency hospital (Saeijs et

al. 2006:78).

2.2 International Coordination Coordination “is a result of intentional actions to harmonize individual responses to

maximize impact and achieve synergy in a situation where the overall effect is greater than

the sum of the parts” (Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) - Field

Coordination Support Section (FCSS) 2006:13).

Walker (1991:24) stated that in the early years of USAR response there was “not only lack

of coordination between international teams on the ground, but often the host authorities

have no idea of what the specialist teams are capable of, what equipment they have

brought with them and often indeed, which teams have actually arrived”. Examples of

early disasters where there was lack of coordination are earthquakes such as the 1985

Mexican earthquake (Thorvald 1995) and the 1988 Armenian earthquake, whose effects

can be seen as the reason (Cone 2000) for developing internationally coordinated USAR

response in 1991. This led to the creation of INSARAG under the umbrella of the United

Nations (INSARAG 2006:1). USAR in United Nations terms is often seen as a response-

mechanism “for the country affected by a sudden on-set disaster causing large-scale

- 16 -

structural collapse” (INSARAG 2006:9). But USAR is not a solitary mechanism, it

cooperates with other UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)

mechanisms such as UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team or

international entities such as the European Union and most important the national or local

response. According to Katoch (2006) it is important to understand the established

international framework to maintain good coordination.

It should be noted that the efforts mentioned below are based on universal dialogues within

both the United Nations and the European Union. In both frameworks the individual

Nations have their own sovereignty and are able to respond to a disaster in a way they

believe is best. Therefore it is possible that Nations, but also individual responders within

those Nations, not coordinate with the United Nations or European Union and begin an

individual response influenced by its own, often political, aims. These political motivations

can vary from sincere humanitarian aid to the need of promoting its own country using the

media and publicity disaster responses obtain. According to Katoch (2006) varying

agendas, professional knowledge, motivation, standards and an eye on camera exposure

influences the disaster coordination efforts on scene by both the governments and the

international community. This then will have a negative impact on the quality of assistance

provided to the victims.

2.2.1 United Nations United Nations General Assembly resolution 46/181 of 19 December 1991 (United

Nations General Assembly 1991) is the basis for the current and ongoing “strengthening of

the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations” of which

USAR-teams are a part. This resolution outlines the importance of humanitarian assistance

and states some guiding principles for all UN membership States. The resolution

emphasizes the sovereignty of all States as stated in the Charter of the United Nations (UN

1964). It also notes that it is the States’ “responsibility first and foremost to take care of the

victims of natural disasters and other emergencies occurring on its territory. Hence, the

affected state has the primary role in the initiation, organisation, coordination, and

implementation of humanitarian assistance within its territory” (United Nations General

Assembly 1991). It further states that the UN “has a central and unique role to play in

providing leadership and coordinating the efforts of the international community to

support the affected countries” (United Nations General Assembly 1991). The UN

- 16 -

structural collapse” (INSARAG 2006:9). But USAR is not a solitary mechanism, it

cooperates with other UN Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA)

mechanisms such as UN Disaster Assessment and Coordination (UNDAC) team or

international entities such as the European Union and most important the national or local

response. According to Katoch (2006) it is important to understand the established

international framework to maintain good coordination.

It should be noted that the efforts mentioned below are based on universal dialogues within

both the United Nations and the European Union. In both frameworks the individual

Nations have their own sovereignty and are able to respond to a disaster in a way they

believe is best. Therefore it is possible that Nations, but also individual responders within

those Nations, not coordinate with the United Nations or European Union and begin an

individual response influenced by its own, often political, aims. These political motivations

can vary from sincere humanitarian aid to the need of promoting its own country using the

media and publicity disaster responses obtain. According to Katoch (2006) varying

agendas, professional knowledge, motivation, standards and an eye on camera exposure

influences the disaster coordination efforts on scene by both the governments and the

international community. This then will have a negative impact on the quality of assistance

provided to the victims.

2.2.1 United Nations United Nations General Assembly resolution 46/181 of 19 December 1991 (United

Nations General Assembly 1991) is the basis for the current and ongoing “strengthening of

the coordination of humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations” of which

USAR-teams are a part. This resolution outlines the importance of humanitarian assistance

and states some guiding principles for all UN membership States. The resolution

emphasizes the sovereignty of all States as stated in the Charter of the United Nations (UN

1964). It also notes that it is the States’ “responsibility first and foremost to take care of the

victims of natural disasters and other emergencies occurring on its territory. Hence, the

affected state has the primary role in the initiation, organisation, coordination, and

implementation of humanitarian assistance within its territory” (United Nations General

Assembly 1991). It further states that the UN “has a central and unique role to play in

providing leadership and coordinating the efforts of the international community to

support the affected countries” (United Nations General Assembly 1991). The UN

- 17 -

however is not the only organisation within the international community that supports

affected countries. Also other organisations such as the “Red Cross” and “Doctors without

Borders” and other individual humanitarian responses from individual Nations or private

organisations will be delivered besides UN and possibly without their coordination in

disaster affected countries (Katoch 2006).

Along with this resolution the INSARAG was established as “a cooperative effort by

countries that are either prone to earthquakes or disasters that may cause structural

collapse, or countries and organizations that are providers of international USAR

assistance, the UN, IFRC and other international responders” (INSARAG 2006:1). The

Field Coordination Support Section (FCSS) of UN OCHA is the seat of the INSARAG

Secretariat which has facilitated the development of guidelines regarding international

USAR-response. According to INSARAG these guidelines are “intended as a reference

guide for international urban search and rescue operations for countries aiming to

establish USAR capacity, as well as for established USAR teams” (INSARAG 2006:1).

Nowadays these guidelines are increasingly used by various USAR teams.

Following these guidelines the UN General Assembly endorsed resolution 57/150 on 16

December 2002. This resolution not only reaffirms resolution 46/181, it is also specifically

concerned with “Strengthening the effectiveness and coordination of international USAR

assistance” (United Nations General Assembly 2002). It re-emphasizes the responsibility

of the State when disaster strikes but also emphasizes the responsibility to take

preparedness and mitigation measures between disasters. It gives an overview of the

international mechanisms in place which might support an affected country in case

international USAR-support is needed. It finally gives some general encouragements to

improve international coordination and cooperation during USAR efforts.

Erdogan (2006) noted that it is important to have a coordination system for both national

and international actors during humanitarian relief to prevent chaos. Without describing a

specific coordination system Erdogan (2006) suggests that these systems should be adapted

to the changing and very dynamic disaster environment and they succeed if the sum of the

coordinated efforts’ value is greater than the sum of each effort itself. However, Erdogan

(2006) concludes that despite OCHA’s efforts to create unity in coordination there is no

such thing as a “best organisation”. This implies that OCHA should not try to set standards

- 17 -

however is not the only organisation within the international community that supports

affected countries. Also other organisations such as the “Red Cross” and “Doctors without

Borders” and other individual humanitarian responses from individual Nations or private

organisations will be delivered besides UN and possibly without their coordination in

disaster affected countries (Katoch 2006).

Along with this resolution the INSARAG was established as “a cooperative effort by

countries that are either prone to earthquakes or disasters that may cause structural

collapse, or countries and organizations that are providers of international USAR

assistance, the UN, IFRC and other international responders” (INSARAG 2006:1). The

Field Coordination Support Section (FCSS) of UN OCHA is the seat of the INSARAG

Secretariat which has facilitated the development of guidelines regarding international

USAR-response. According to INSARAG these guidelines are “intended as a reference

guide for international urban search and rescue operations for countries aiming to

establish USAR capacity, as well as for established USAR teams” (INSARAG 2006:1).

Nowadays these guidelines are increasingly used by various USAR teams.

Following these guidelines the UN General Assembly endorsed resolution 57/150 on 16

December 2002. This resolution not only reaffirms resolution 46/181, it is also specifically

concerned with “Strengthening the effectiveness and coordination of international USAR

assistance” (United Nations General Assembly 2002). It re-emphasizes the responsibility

of the State when disaster strikes but also emphasizes the responsibility to take

preparedness and mitigation measures between disasters. It gives an overview of the

international mechanisms in place which might support an affected country in case

international USAR-support is needed. It finally gives some general encouragements to

improve international coordination and cooperation during USAR efforts.

Erdogan (2006) noted that it is important to have a coordination system for both national

and international actors during humanitarian relief to prevent chaos. Without describing a

specific coordination system Erdogan (2006) suggests that these systems should be adapted

to the changing and very dynamic disaster environment and they succeed if the sum of the

coordinated efforts’ value is greater than the sum of each effort itself. However, Erdogan

(2006) concludes that despite OCHA’s efforts to create unity in coordination there is no

such thing as a “best organisation”. This implies that OCHA should not try to set standards

- 18 -

for USAR but create an operational framework that gives the different actors the

possibility to change depending on conditions and structures they face during a mission.

Katoch (2006) states that the quality of disaster response and coordination is also

dependent on the experience and administrative and organisational ability of the

government of the affected country.

Morris (2006) identified key preparedness efforts necessary by an earthquake affected

country to ensure best coordinated use of international USAR assistance. This resulted in a

model that is shown in figure 2.4. This model shows that the key efforts are

communication and understanding of various elements such as the strategies for success

and failure, the variations and sensitivities that exist, the need for working together and the

lack of discipline that is prevalent. Chiu et al. (2002) stated that it is essential for any

leader of local or federal government department to coordinate information (communicate)

about the catastrophic event and then manage the appropriate immediate response.

1. Before earthquake

2. Response

3. After response / before next earthquake

Of: the strategies for

success and failure, the variations and

sensitivities that exist, the need for working

together and the lack of discipline that is

prevalent

UnderstandingCommunication


2. Response






prevalent


Figure 2.4: Conceptually integrated continuum showing the relationships between the data within the

time periods

(Source: Morris 2006:162)

INSARAG tries to achieve sharing of information and prevent duplication of efforts.

However, according to Erdogan (2006) OCHA has two main coordination functions:

• On a country level

• On the field level with the teams

- 18 -

for USAR but create an operational framework that gives the different actors the

possibility to change depending on conditions and structures they face during a mission.

Katoch (2006) states that the quality of disaster response and coordination is also

dependent on the experience and administrative and organisational ability of the

government of the affected country.

Morris (2006) identified key preparedness efforts necessary by an earthquake affected

country to ensure best coordinated use of international USAR assistance. This resulted in a

model that is shown in figure 2.4. This model shows that the key efforts are

communication and understanding of various elements such as the strategies for success

and failure, the variations and sensitivities that exist, the need for working together and the

lack of discipline that is prevalent. Chiu et al. (2002) stated that it is essential for any

leader of local or federal government department to coordinate information (communicate)

about the catastrophic event and then manage the appropriate immediate response.


2. Response






prevalent



2. Response






prevalent


Figure 2.4: Conceptually integrated continuum showing the relationships between the data within the

time periods

(Source: Morris 2006:162)

INSARAG tries to achieve sharing of information and prevent duplication of efforts.

However, according to Erdogan (2006) OCHA has two main coordination functions:

• On a country level

• On the field level with the teams

- 19 -

The INSARAG guidelines were reviewed in 2006 and now give detailed supportive

information in line with UN resolution 57/150. However these are guidelines and the UN

member countries but also USAR teams are not obliged to adopt them. Following these

guidelines contributes to international unity and transparency.

To support countries during or in the aftermath of a disaster with coordination the United

Nations has established UNDAC. UNDAC is designed to assist in meeting international

needs for early and qualified information during the first phase of a sudden-onset

emergency and, when necessary, in coordination of international relief operations at the

site of the emergencies. UNDAC uses staff, procedures and support to fulfil its mission and

is able to do this on a strategic and operational level. UNDAC coordination is

“participatory, impartial and transparent” (OCHA-FCSS 2006:4). UNDAC is a

supportive mechanism to INSARAG, but can also be used in events where no international

USAR response will arrive and without a specific request of the Nation itself but through

the UN resident coordinator (OCHA-FCSS 2006:13).

2.2.1.1 INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology According to Chiu et al. (2002) proper rescue procedures and resources are essential. The

INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology give an overview for coordinating international

USAR using its own methodology cycle (INSARAG 2006:9). This cycle is comparable

with the disaster cycle but it is especially developed for USAR-missions and comprises the

components outlined in figure 2.5. These different components are the stages that the

teams will go through once an USAR-event takes place. A closer look at the cycle shows

that most of the elements are related to management actions.

- 19 -

The INSARAG guidelines were reviewed in 2006 and now give detailed supportive

information in line with UN resolution 57/150. However these are guidelines and the UN

member countries but also USAR teams are not obliged to adopt them. Following these

guidelines contributes to international unity and transparency.

To support countries during or in the aftermath of a disaster with coordination the United

Nations has established UNDAC. UNDAC is designed to assist in meeting international

needs for early and qualified information during the first phase of a sudden-onset

emergency and, when necessary, in coordination of international relief operations at the

site of the emergencies. UNDAC uses staff, procedures and support to fulfil its mission and

is able to do this on a strategic and operational level. UNDAC coordination is

“participatory, impartial and transparent” (OCHA-FCSS 2006:4). UNDAC is a

supportive mechanism to INSARAG, but can also be used in events where no international

USAR response will arrive and without a specific request of the Nation itself but through

the UN resident coordinator (OCHA-FCSS 2006:13).

2.2.1.1 INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology According to Chiu et al. (2002) proper rescue procedures and resources are essential. The

INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology give an overview for coordinating international

USAR using its own methodology cycle (INSARAG 2006:9). This cycle is comparable

with the disaster cycle but it is especially developed for USAR-missions and comprises the

components outlined in figure 2.5. These different components are the stages that the

teams will go through once an USAR-event takes place. A closer look at the cycle shows

that most of the elements are related to management actions.

- 20 -

Figure 2.5: UN INSARAG Methodology Cycle

(Source based on INSARAG 2006:9)

INSARAG (2006:9) only advises the countries “to include INSARAG in National

Emergency Management Plans”. By doing this “the most effective use of available USAR

resources” is ensured (INSARAG 2006:9). Again this is an advisory measure and

countries can decide whether they will implement INSARAG methodology. If ignored

situations with a lack of coordination, as occurred prior to INSARAG, could arise (Walker

1991:20). Bäckström and Christofferson (2006:45) also found during their research that

even in a controlled situation; an operation easily gets out of control without a proper chain

of command and on-site coordination. This emphasizes coordination through all

organisational layers from a local level and national level to the international level using an

integrated system of preparedness. Bäckström and Christofferson (2006) found that there is

a deficient system of reporting among the international USAR teams and organisations.

Preparedness (period between

disaster responses): Lesson’s learned and improvement, training

and planning.

Mobilisation (actions immediately

following the occurrence of a

disaster): International USAR

teams prepare to response and assist

Operations (actions required when USAR teams arrives):

Register with RDC and OSOCC, report to

LEMA and perform USAR operations

Demobilisation (USAR operations are ceased and withdrawal

commences): Coordinate with

OSOCC and depart through RDC

Post-Mission (USAR team returned

“home”): Complete Post-Mission

report and conduct lesson’s learned review

UN INSARAG Methodology

Cycle

- 20 -

Figure 2.5: UN INSARAG Methodology Cycle

(Source based on INSARAG 2006:9)

INSARAG (2006:9) only advises the countries “to include INSARAG in National

Emergency Management Plans”. By doing this “the most effective use of available USAR

resources” is ensured (INSARAG 2006:9). Again this is an advisory measure and

countries can decide whether they will implement INSARAG methodology. If ignored

situations with a lack of coordination, as occurred prior to INSARAG, could arise (Walker

1991:20). Bäckström and Christofferson (2006:45) also found during their research that

even in a controlled situation; an operation easily gets out of control without a proper chain

of command and on-site coordination. This emphasizes coordination through all

organisational layers from a local level and national level to the international level using an

integrated system of preparedness. Bäckström and Christofferson (2006) found that there is

a deficient system of reporting among the international USAR teams and organisations.

Preparedness (period between

disaster responses): Lesson’s learned and improvement, training

and planning.

Mobilisation (actions immediately

following the occurrence of a

disaster): International USAR

teams prepare to response and assist

Operations (actions required when USAR teams arrives):

Register with RDC and OSOCC, report to

LEMA and perform USAR operations

Demobilisation (USAR operations are ceased and withdrawal

commences): Coordinate with

OSOCC and depart through RDC

Post-Mission (USAR team returned

“home”): Complete Post-Mission

report and conduct lesson’s learned review

UN INSARAG Methodology

Cycle

- 21 -

They even doubt the existence of a reporting system although a form of reporting is

provided for in the INSARAG guidelines. They found that developments often stay within

teams and that global USAR work fails to secure the synergy effects that can be achieved

through better collaboration between international USAR organisations (Bäckström and

Christofferson 2006:50). These findings emphasize that INSARAG indeed, still is seen as a

voluntary effort/advice that is constantly evolving and that strong coordination is needed in

all phases of the methodology cycle.

INSARAG (2006) gives detailed information for the USAR coordination of different

participants like UN, the affected countries and the responding countries/USAR teams.

This information is based on the INSARAG methodology cycle as described in figure 2.5.

INSARAG tries to give guidance for field operations and at national coordination level. It

does this by basing its content on the methodology cycle and also by the element

responsible i.e. the affected country, UN OCHA, the responding country. It then gives

guidelines for the different coordination mechanisms that are put in place for structuring

response. The three main mechanisms INSARAG discusses are the Local Emergency

Management Authority (LEMA), the On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre

(OSOCC) and the Reception and Departure Centre (RDC). Katoch (2006) states that it is

important to know what resources and actors are entering a disaster site, from whom and

when. The OSOCC and RDC are important mechanisms that can register this and keep the

LEMA but also the international responding community informed. Katoch (2006) also

states that the LEMA usually concentrates on coordinating domestic relief efforts and

therefore needs the OSOCC, which provides a single point of interface with the

international effort and facilitates information exchange and logistics support. The RDC

then forms the entry point for international USAR support to come into an affected country

and coordinates and informs with the OSOCC and LEMA.

The LEMA is the most important mechanism according to INSARAG (2006:18) as it is the

ultimate responsible authority for the overall command, coordination and management of

response operation. The LEMA might be supported by UNDAC with coordination of

international response, however it is important that the LEMA implements and maintains

procedures for receiving international USAR teams (INSARAG 2006:23). International

USAR teams must adhere to the policies and procedures of the affected country regarding

incident operations besides there standard procedures written down in INSARAG (2006).

- 21 -

They even doubt the existence of a reporting system although a form of reporting is

provided for in the INSARAG guidelines. They found that developments often stay within

teams and that global USAR work fails to secure the synergy effects that can be achieved

through better collaboration between international USAR organisations (Bäckström and

Christofferson 2006:50). These findings emphasize that INSARAG indeed, still is seen as a

voluntary effort/advice that is constantly evolving and that strong coordination is needed in

all phases of the methodology cycle.

INSARAG (2006) gives detailed information for the USAR coordination of different

participants like UN, the affected countries and the responding countries/USAR teams.

This information is based on the INSARAG methodology cycle as described in figure 2.5.

INSARAG tries to give guidance for field operations and at national coordination level. It

does this by basing its content on the methodology cycle and also by the element

responsible i.e. the affected country, UN OCHA, the responding country. It then gives

guidelines for the different coordination mechanisms that are put in place for structuring

response. The three main mechanisms INSARAG discusses are the Local Emergency

Management Authority (LEMA), the On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre

(OSOCC) and the Reception and Departure Centre (RDC). Katoch (2006) states that it is

important to know what resources and actors are entering a disaster site, from whom and

when. The OSOCC and RDC are important mechanisms that can register this and keep the

LEMA but also the international responding community informed. Katoch (2006) also

states that the LEMA usually concentrates on coordinating domestic relief efforts and

therefore needs the OSOCC, which provides a single point of interface with the

international effort and facilitates information exchange and logistics support. The RDC

then forms the entry point for international USAR support to come into an affected country

and coordinates and informs with the OSOCC and LEMA.

The LEMA is the most important mechanism according to INSARAG (2006:18) as it is the

ultimate responsible authority for the overall command, coordination and management of

response operation. The LEMA might be supported by UNDAC with coordination of

international response, however it is important that the LEMA implements and maintains

procedures for receiving international USAR teams (INSARAG 2006:23). International

USAR teams must adhere to the policies and procedures of the affected country regarding

incident operations besides there standard procedures written down in INSARAG (2006).

- 22 -

It should be noted, however, that not all the local mechanisms are in place as assumed by

INSARAG because of the sovereignty of the States.

Besides the preparedness, coordination and response mechanisms in a real-world context,

there is an increasingly important role in the preparedness and coordination for USAR

disasters within a “virtual world”. Currently INSARAG uses the Virtual On-Site

Operations and Coordination Centre (V-OSOCC). This web based mechanism is used to

alert teams and exchange information regarding current and ongoing USAR disasters and

related events such as training. The mechanism is accessible only for registered users

which vary from USAR team members, disaster managers and other international

responders. The system is independent from a disaster area and can be accessed, in real-

time, worldwide. It helps to support the coordinated response by offering its users a range

of tools that contribute to the preparedness, decision-making and coordination process. The

system however is constantly evolving and its use is influenced by the availability of

internet among its users worldwide (OCHA-FCSS 2007).

2.2.2 European Union The European Union (EU) coordination mechanisms that will be put in place when

conducting USAR-operations are relatively new in comparison to those of the UN. It is

also noted that little research has been carried out with regard to the use of these

mechanisms. Currently the EU is working on its “Community Civil Protection Mechanism”

developing policy and mechanisms that will be put in place when European USAR-support

is requested. Important in this development was the EU Council decision of 23 October

2001 which focussed on the establishment “of a community mechanism to facilitate

reinforced cooperation in Civil Protection intervention” (EU Council 2001). Urban Search

and Rescue is integrated in this general “Community Mechanism” and is seen as an

important instrument for civil protection.

The decision above is closely related to a representatives meeting of 8 July 1990 on

improving mutual aid between the membership states in the event of natural or technical

disasters and title V of the Treaty of the European Union (EU Council 2001). The general

purpose of this “Community Mechanism” is “to provide, on request, support in the event of

emergencies and to facilitate improved coordination of assistance intervention provided by

- 22 -

It should be noted, however, that not all the local mechanisms are in place as assumed by

INSARAG because of the sovereignty of the States.

Besides the preparedness, coordination and response mechanisms in a real-world context,

there is an increasingly important role in the preparedness and coordination for USAR

disasters within a “virtual world”. Currently INSARAG uses the Virtual On-Site

Operations and Coordination Centre (V-OSOCC). This web based mechanism is used to

alert teams and exchange information regarding current and ongoing USAR disasters and

related events such as training. The mechanism is accessible only for registered users

which vary from USAR team members, disaster managers and other international

responders. The system is independent from a disaster area and can be accessed, in real-

time, worldwide. It helps to support the coordinated response by offering its users a range

of tools that contribute to the preparedness, decision-making and coordination process. The

system however is constantly evolving and its use is influenced by the availability of

internet among its users worldwide (OCHA-FCSS 2007).

2.2.2 European Union The European Union (EU) coordination mechanisms that will be put in place when

conducting USAR-operations are relatively new in comparison to those of the UN. It is

also noted that little research has been carried out with regard to the use of these

mechanisms. Currently the EU is working on its “Community Civil Protection Mechanism”

developing policy and mechanisms that will be put in place when European USAR-support

is requested. Important in this development was the EU Council decision of 23 October

2001 which focussed on the establishment “of a community mechanism to facilitate

reinforced cooperation in Civil Protection intervention” (EU Council 2001). Urban Search

and Rescue is integrated in this general “Community Mechanism” and is seen as an

important instrument for civil protection.

The decision above is closely related to a representatives meeting of 8 July 1990 on

improving mutual aid between the membership states in the event of natural or technical

disasters and title V of the Treaty of the European Union (EU Council 2001). The general

purpose of this “Community Mechanism” is “to provide, on request, support in the event of

emergencies and to facilitate improved coordination of assistance intervention provided by

- 23 -

the member states and the community, taken into account the special needs of the isolated,

outermost and other regions or Islands of the community” (EU Council 2001). The Council

Decision (2001) also lays the basis for the actions that should be taken by the member

states and the commission for the further development of the mechanism. The EU Council

Decision (2001) however clearly states that it should not affect the reciprocal rights and

obligation of the Member States under bilateral or multilateral agreements. Besides, it

should also be noted that the EU delivers humanitarian support outside Europe through its

“European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO)”.

This “community mechanism” is closely related to USAR because it allows potential

responses to disaster being prepared (Barnier 2006:35, European Union Commission

2007a). It is geared to rapidly mobilizing the existing resources (usually search-and-rescue

equipment, medical services, temporary accommodation, sanitation equipment, etc.)

needed to save lives and relieve suffering in the days immediately after a disaster (Barnier

2006:39). The disasters that the “community mechanism” covers are broader than only

USAR disaster. Its duties and functions were laid down in a commission decision of 29

December 2003 (European Union Commission 2003). This decision was the basis for

developing procedures for the provision of up-to-date information on resources and

establishing a Monitoring and Information Centre.

According to Barnier (2006:39) the core of this “Community Civil Protection Mechanism”

is the Monitoring and Information Centre (MIC). This centre receives warnings and

handles requests for assistance round the clock in- and outside Europe (Barnier 2006:39).

The system works based on requests: the country concerned must send a request for

assistance to the MIC, which forwards the request to the membership countries’ (see annex

A). Following the response of the membership countries the MIC mobilises and deploys

the requested support such as USAR. By responding the MIC closely cooperates with the

UN mechanisms as described above and they have signed a letter of agreement on

coordination and cooperation in disaster response outside the EU in 2004 (see annex B).

Other mechanisms available within the “Community Civil Protection Mechanism” and

based on the Commission Decision of 29 December 2003 are a “common emergency and

information system” (CECIS), coordination teams and experts and a training program.

- 23 -

the member states and the community, taken into account the special needs of the isolated,

outermost and other regions or Islands of the community” (EU Council 2001). The Council

Decision (2001) also lays the basis for the actions that should be taken by the member

states and the commission for the further development of the mechanism. The EU Council

Decision (2001) however clearly states that it should not affect the reciprocal rights and

obligation of the Member States under bilateral or multilateral agreements. Besides, it

should also be noted that the EU delivers humanitarian support outside Europe through its

“European Community Humanitarian Office (ECHO)”.

This “community mechanism” is closely related to USAR because it allows potential

responses to disaster being prepared (Barnier 2006:35, European Union Commission

2007a). It is geared to rapidly mobilizing the existing resources (usually search-and-rescue

equipment, medical services, temporary accommodation, sanitation equipment, etc.)

needed to save lives and relieve suffering in the days immediately after a disaster (Barnier

2006:39). The disasters that the “community mechanism” covers are broader than only

USAR disaster. Its duties and functions were laid down in a commission decision of 29

December 2003 (European Union Commission 2003). This decision was the basis for

developing procedures for the provision of up-to-date information on resources and

establishing a Monitoring and Information Centre.

According to Barnier (2006:39) the core of this “Community Civil Protection Mechanism”

is the Monitoring and Information Centre (MIC). This centre receives warnings and

handles requests for assistance round the clock in- and outside Europe (Barnier 2006:39).

The system works based on requests: the country concerned must send a request for

assistance to the MIC, which forwards the request to the membership countries’ (see annex

A). Following the response of the membership countries the MIC mobilises and deploys

the requested support such as USAR. By responding the MIC closely cooperates with the

UN mechanisms as described above and they have signed a letter of agreement on

coordination and cooperation in disaster response outside the EU in 2004 (see annex B).

Other mechanisms available within the “Community Civil Protection Mechanism” and

based on the Commission Decision of 29 December 2003 are a “common emergency and

information system” (CECIS), coordination teams and experts and a training program.

- 24 -

Both were created to improve coordination of Civil Protection through communication and

sharing best practices within its member states (European Union Commission 2007a).

On 6 June 2007 a recast of the previous council decision of 2001 and 2003 was proposed

by the European Commission (2007b). Important elements related to USAR are that the

mechanism should be strengthened to ensure a more effective and visible demonstration of

European solidarity and to allow for the development of a European rapid response

capability, based on the civil protection modules. These modules are “self-sufficient and

autonomous predefined task- and needs –driven arrangements of Member States'

capabilities or a mobile operational teams of the Member States representing a

combination of human and material means, that can be referred to by its capacity for

intervention or by the task(s) it is able to undertake” (European Union Commission

2007b). These are however currently under development.

The EU Community Mechanism uses a broader approach to disasters then INSARAG. It is

aimed at a variety of disastrous events, not only the ones causing structural collapse, but

also radiological and environmental accidents. However, the proposed recast of the council

decision of 2003 (European Commission 2007b) emphasises that despite this broader

approach the EU mechanism’s operational coordination “shall be fully integrated with the

overall coordination provided by UN OCHA” (European Commission 2007b). This

integration of coordination is empowered by the letters from EU and UN OCHA in annex

B regarding coordination of responses outside the European Union.

Since the creation of the mechanism it has provided civil protection assistance in a variety

of natural and human-made disasters (European Union Commission 2007a). See also

figure 2.9 for specific details.

2.3 Preparedness

2.3.1 The Disaster Cycle An important instrument for explaining disaster management and its approaches is the

Disaster Cycle (see figure 2.6). The cycle is based on the statement that “disasters are

repetitive events” (Alexander 2002:5). The cycle shows various sequential phases that are

connected, thus suggesting influence. Mitigation is the first phase that can be seen as “the

- 24 -

Both were created to improve coordination of Civil Protection through communication and

sharing best practices within its member states (European Union Commission 2007a).

On 6 June 2007 a recast of the previous council decision of 2001 and 2003 was proposed

by the European Commission (2007b). Important elements related to USAR are that the

mechanism should be strengthened to ensure a more effective and visible demonstration of

European solidarity and to allow for the development of a European rapid response

capability, based on the civil protection modules. These modules are “self-sufficient and

autonomous predefined task- and needs –driven arrangements of Member States'

capabilities or a mobile operational teams of the Member States representing a

combination of human and material means, that can be referred to by its capacity for

intervention or by the task(s) it is able to undertake” (European Union Commission

2007b). These are however currently under development.

The EU Community Mechanism uses a broader approach to disasters then INSARAG. It is

aimed at a variety of disastrous events, not only the ones causing structural collapse, but

also radiological and environmental accidents. However, the proposed recast of the council

decision of 2003 (European Commission 2007b) emphasises that despite this broader

approach the EU mechanism’s operational coordination “shall be fully integrated with the

overall coordination provided by UN OCHA” (European Commission 2007b). This

integration of coordination is empowered by the letters from EU and UN OCHA in annex

B regarding coordination of responses outside the European Union.

Since the creation of the mechanism it has provided civil protection assistance in a variety

of natural and human-made disasters (European Union Commission 2007a). See also

figure 2.9 for specific details.

2.3 Preparedness

2.3.1 The Disaster Cycle An important instrument for explaining disaster management and its approaches is the

Disaster Cycle (see figure 2.6). The cycle is based on the statement that “disasters are

repetitive events” (Alexander 2002:5). The cycle shows various sequential phases that are

connected, thus suggesting influence. Mitigation is the first phase that can be seen as “the

- 25 -

measures which can be taken to minimise the destructive and disruptive effects of hazards

and thus lessen the magnitude of a disaster” (Maskrey 1989:39). This phase is followed by

Preparedness (and resilience building) these are the “actions taken to reduce the impact of

disasters when they are forecast or imminent” (Alexander 2002:5). After the preparedness

phase disaster strikes leading to a response which are the “emergency actions taken during

both the impact of a disaster and the short-term aftermath” (Alexander 2002:5). Next these

short-term actions after the event move on to a phase of recovery which involves the

“rebuilding of lives as well as the infrastructure” (Smith 2004:57) often to a pre-disaster

level. The cycle shows that preparedness is the connecting link between mitigation and

response. It therefore might be seen as an important phase as it closes the gaps between the

measures in place and by structuring and coordinating the possibilities for response using

tools such as planning. It is the link between the pre-disaster and post-disaster phase and

influences the two following phases in their efficiency.

Figure 2.6: The Disaster Cycle

(Source: Alexander 2002)

2.3.2 Disaster Effects Disasters may severely disrupt or overwhelm the local rescue and medical resources and

also produce consequences within one or more (local) governments thus requiring

- 25 -

measures which can be taken to minimise the destructive and disruptive effects of hazards

and thus lessen the magnitude of a disaster” (Maskrey 1989:39). This phase is followed by

Preparedness (and resilience building) these are the “actions taken to reduce the impact of

disasters when they are forecast or imminent” (Alexander 2002:5). After the preparedness

phase disaster strikes leading to a response which are the “emergency actions taken during

both the impact of a disaster and the short-term aftermath” (Alexander 2002:5). Next these

short-term actions after the event move on to a phase of recovery which involves the

“rebuilding of lives as well as the infrastructure” (Smith 2004:57) often to a pre-disaster

level. The cycle shows that preparedness is the connecting link between mitigation and

response. It therefore might be seen as an important phase as it closes the gaps between the

measures in place and by structuring and coordinating the possibilities for response using

tools such as planning. It is the link between the pre-disaster and post-disaster phase and

influences the two following phases in their efficiency.

Figure 2.6: The Disaster Cycle

(Source: Alexander 2002)

2.3.2 Disaster Effects Disasters may severely disrupt or overwhelm the local rescue and medical resources and

also produce consequences within one or more (local) governments thus requiring

- 26 -

(inter)national response assets (Barbera and Cadoux 1991, Perry 2003, Erdogan 2006,

Katoch 2006). A disaster might also cause competing priorities, destroyed communication

and transportation infrastructure (OCHA-FCSS 2006). If an affected country is not

prepared for this, chaos may be created by the huge amount of (international) people and

equipment that might arrive on-scene unless leadership and resource allocation is strong

(OCHA FCSS 2006, Chiu et al. 2002, Romundstad et al. 2004, Erdogan 2006). This chaos

might also create a hazard for the rescuers and a logistical problem for incident command

(Romundstad et al. 2004). To prevent this chaos preparedness can be created as “a

programme of long-term development activities whose goals are to strengthen the overall

capacity and capability of a country to manage efficiently all types of emergency and bring

about an orderly transition from relief through recovery and back to sustained

development” (World Health Organisation 1999:12). Within this programme, and in order

to be capable of responding to small and large events, local response must be flexible

enough to expand readily as additional sources are added. This helps to match the levels of

demand posed by an escalating event. Furthermore this programme can also be based on

the system that is used to respond to everyday emergencies. On the other hand this requires

effective pre-planning and pre-identification of all sources by the governments involved

(Perry 2003, Katoch 2003, Erdogan 2006). Subsequently the “Hyogo framework”

emphasises that it is important to have a “dialogue and exchange of information and

coordination with the aim of fostering a holistic approach towards disaster risk reduction”

(UN ISDR 2007). A key activity within this framework is the development of “coordinated

regional approaches, and create or upgrade regional policies, operational mechanisms,

plans and communication systems to prepare for and ensure rapid and effective disaster

response” (UN ISDR 2007).

Although it might be assumed that the affected local population is helplessly waiting for

others to come and save them, this is a myth even in developing countries (De Ville de

Goyet 2000). Only a handful of survivors are rescued by foreign teams, most survivors are

saved by locals. De Ville de Goyet (2000) also stated that Pan American Health

Organisation (PAHO)/World Health Organisation’s experience is that a hasty response that

is not based on familiarity with the local conditions and meant to complement the national

efforts only contributes to the chaos. In addition to this Perry (2003) states that all planning

and response begins with the local capabilities and resources that later may be

supplemented by extra-community capabilities and resources. However it is mainly the

- 26 -

(inter)national response assets (Barbera and Cadoux 1991, Perry 2003, Erdogan 2006,

Katoch 2006). A disaster might also cause competing priorities, destroyed communication

and transportation infrastructure (OCHA-FCSS 2006). If an affected country is not

prepared for this, chaos may be created by the huge amount of (international) people and

equipment that might arrive on-scene unless leadership and resource allocation is strong

(OCHA FCSS 2006, Chiu et al. 2002, Romundstad et al. 2004, Erdogan 2006). This chaos

might also create a hazard for the rescuers and a logistical problem for incident command

(Romundstad et al. 2004). To prevent this chaos preparedness can be created as “a

programme of long-term development activities whose goals are to strengthen the overall

capacity and capability of a country to manage efficiently all types of emergency and bring

about an orderly transition from relief through recovery and back to sustained

development” (World Health Organisation 1999:12). Within this programme, and in order

to be capable of responding to small and large events, local response must be flexible

enough to expand readily as additional sources are added. This helps to match the levels of

demand posed by an escalating event. Furthermore this programme can also be based on

the system that is used to respond to everyday emergencies. On the other hand this requires

effective pre-planning and pre-identification of all sources by the governments involved

(Perry 2003, Katoch 2003, Erdogan 2006). Subsequently the “Hyogo framework”

emphasises that it is important to have a “dialogue and exchange of information and

coordination with the aim of fostering a holistic approach towards disaster risk reduction”

(UN ISDR 2007). A key activity within this framework is the development of “coordinated

regional approaches, and create or upgrade regional policies, operational mechanisms,

plans and communication systems to prepare for and ensure rapid and effective disaster

response” (UN ISDR 2007).

Although it might be assumed that the affected local population is helplessly waiting for

others to come and save them, this is a myth even in developing countries (De Ville de

Goyet 2000). Only a handful of survivors are rescued by foreign teams, most survivors are

saved by locals. De Ville de Goyet (2000) also stated that Pan American Health

Organisation (PAHO)/World Health Organisation’s experience is that a hasty response that

is not based on familiarity with the local conditions and meant to complement the national

efforts only contributes to the chaos. In addition to this Perry (2003) states that all planning

and response begins with the local capabilities and resources that later may be

supplemented by extra-community capabilities and resources. However it is mainly the

- 27 -

industrialised and developed countries that can afford to maintain such well equipped

rescue-programmes (Chiu et al 2002). Also international humanitarian organisations and

national governments retain the duty to respond and the right to determine how response is

organised; many national governments may not have the organisational or logistical

capacity to do so (Katoch 2006).

Morris (2006:34) states that it is important for a country to consider how much has to

happen before international USAR teams arrive. Morris (2006:31) emphasises the fact that

preparing for international assistance will have a more complex and challenging effect on

the affected country if the system is not used to cooperating internationally. Individuals

who normally are responsible for the coordination of disaster management systems on a

local level are suddenly required to take on board extra resources from abroad that they

may not understand (Morris 2006:32). To prepare for this, personnel need to be trained and

effective coordination should be in place so that the “most appropriate USAR aid is used in

the most appropriate location at the most appropriate time” (Morris 2006). During the Ji-

Ji earthquake in Taiwan the Taiwanese government was criticised for their poor

preparation and loose coordination when deploying USAR-teams (Chiu et al. 2002). How

many additional casualties will fall because of poor preparation and loose coordination is

difficult to gauge but the result is usually suffering by victims.

The affected country might consider requesting international heavy rescue equipment if the

local resources are overwhelmed by the scale of the disaster and as part of their

preparedness planning or bilateral agreements in place. The reasons for considering

preparedness and response on rescue works are according to (Barbera and Macintyre

1996):

• Each life is valued

• Moving from response to recovery after a disaster occurs is delayed until there is

reasonable certainty that no trapped survivors remain.

• It is difficult, if not impossible to move family members

• The survival of extricated victims is important to the victim and the victims’

family.

Especially in the developed world it is not accepted that not every possible effort be taken

to save a victims life when possible. Another factor is the media which has a strong

- 27 -

industrialised and developed countries that can afford to maintain such well equipped

rescue-programmes (Chiu et al 2002). Also international humanitarian organisations and

national governments retain the duty to respond and the right to determine how response is

organised; many national governments may not have the organisational or logistical

capacity to do so (Katoch 2006).

Morris (2006:34) states that it is important for a country to consider how much has to

happen before international USAR teams arrive. Morris (2006:31) emphasises the fact that

preparing for international assistance will have a more complex and challenging effect on

the affected country if the system is not used to cooperating internationally. Individuals

who normally are responsible for the coordination of disaster management systems on a

local level are suddenly required to take on board extra resources from abroad that they

may not understand (Morris 2006:32). To prepare for this, personnel need to be trained and

effective coordination should be in place so that the “most appropriate USAR aid is used in

the most appropriate location at the most appropriate time” (Morris 2006). During the Ji-

Ji earthquake in Taiwan the Taiwanese government was criticised for their poor

preparation and loose coordination when deploying USAR-teams (Chiu et al. 2002). How

many additional casualties will fall because of poor preparation and loose coordination is

difficult to gauge but the result is usually suffering by victims.

The affected country might consider requesting international heavy rescue equipment if the

local resources are overwhelmed by the scale of the disaster and as part of their

preparedness planning or bilateral agreements in place. The reasons for considering

preparedness and response on rescue works are according to (Barbera and Macintyre

1996):

• Each life is valued

• Moving from response to recovery after a disaster occurs is delayed until there is

reasonable certainty that no trapped survivors remain.

• It is difficult, if not impossible to move family members

• The survival of extricated victims is important to the victim and the victims’

family.

Especially in the developed world it is not accepted that not every possible effort be taken

to save a victims life when possible. Another factor is the media which has a strong

- 28 -

influence on the perceived reality of disasters and governmental response (Walker 1991,

Katoch 2003).

The WHO (1999:14) also states some basic principles for emergency preparedness. Most

of these principles are aimed at the community and governmental development of these

measures. It states for example that preparedness should not be developed in isolation and

that it should use standard management techniques (WHO 1999:14). Smith (2004) further

stated that effective disaster response involves a detailed process of planning – and testing

– of prompt short-term responses involving various groups of people

Another important element that supports the need for being prepared is the response time

that is available; time is crucial for victim survival and preparedness can decrease this time

(Barbera and Macintyre 1996, Barbera and Cadoux 1991). External resources such as

USAR teams need time to reach local responders (Perry 2003). In sudden on-set (natural)

disaster this response time to save lives is measured in hours (Katoch 2003). The vast

majority of rescues (90%) occurred within the first 24 hours (“Golden 24 hours period”)

are mostly accomplished by local personnel using simple tools, as was the case in the

Indian Ocean Tsunami (Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006, Tsunami Evaluation Coalition

(TEC) 2006:42). In previous research carried out by Barbera and Macintyre (1996) it was

stated that the remaining trapped survivors were usually deeply entombed beyond the

ability of unspecialised responders to locate or reach them and that heavy USAR teams

would arrive after the most critical first hours (De Ville de Goyet 2000). This emphasises

that besides “heavy” USAR preparedness attention should been given to the lighter USAR

preparedness that will be carried out by local bystanders or local response assets (Barbera

and Cadoux 1991, Barbera and Macintyre 1996, Ashkenazi, et al. 2005). There is still

some international debate resources being directed towards training locals as opposed to

bringing in specialists such as USAR.

It is also noted that military resources might be used for logistical capabilities and

providing manpower “to support heavy urban rescue response” instead of being put in

place for law and order (Barbera and Macintyre 1996, De Ville de Goyet 2000, Katoch

2006). The military and civil defence assets should then be seen as a tool complementing

existing relief mechanisms in order to provide specific support to specific requirements in

response to the acknowledge “humanitarian gap” between the disaster needs that the relief

- 28 -

influence on the perceived reality of disasters and governmental response (Walker 1991,

Katoch 2003).

The WHO (1999:14) also states some basic principles for emergency preparedness. Most

of these principles are aimed at the community and governmental development of these

measures. It states for example that preparedness should not be developed in isolation and

that it should use standard management techniques (WHO 1999:14). Smith (2004) further

stated that effective disaster response involves a detailed process of planning – and testing

– of prompt short-term responses involving various groups of people

Another important element that supports the need for being prepared is the response time

that is available; time is crucial for victim survival and preparedness can decrease this time

(Barbera and Macintyre 1996, Barbera and Cadoux 1991). External resources such as

USAR teams need time to reach local responders (Perry 2003). In sudden on-set (natural)

disaster this response time to save lives is measured in hours (Katoch 2003). The vast

majority of rescues (90%) occurred within the first 24 hours (“Golden 24 hours period”)

are mostly accomplished by local personnel using simple tools, as was the case in the

Indian Ocean Tsunami (Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006, Tsunami Evaluation Coalition

(TEC) 2006:42). In previous research carried out by Barbera and Macintyre (1996) it was

stated that the remaining trapped survivors were usually deeply entombed beyond the

ability of unspecialised responders to locate or reach them and that heavy USAR teams

would arrive after the most critical first hours (De Ville de Goyet 2000). This emphasises

that besides “heavy” USAR preparedness attention should been given to the lighter USAR

preparedness that will be carried out by local bystanders or local response assets (Barbera

and Cadoux 1991, Barbera and Macintyre 1996, Ashkenazi, et al. 2005). There is still

some international debate resources being directed towards training locals as opposed to

bringing in specialists such as USAR.

It is also noted that military resources might be used for logistical capabilities and

providing manpower “to support heavy urban rescue response” instead of being put in

place for law and order (Barbera and Macintyre 1996, De Ville de Goyet 2000, Katoch

2006). The military and civil defence assets should then be seen as a tool complementing

existing relief mechanisms in order to provide specific support to specific requirements in

response to the acknowledge “humanitarian gap” between the disaster needs that the relief

- 29 -

community is being asked to satisfy and the resources available to meet them (OCHA Civil

Military Cooperation Section (CMCS) 2006:7). Also other entities such as the corporate

sector are becoming engaged in disaster response (Katoch 2006). Macintyre, Barbera and

Smith (2006) concluded that trapped earthquake victims normally survive for five-six days,

but under special, ideal conditions survival may extend to 14 days maximum. This shows

that fast responding heavy rescue from neighbouring countries increases the survivability

rate and again emphasises the importance of preparedness measures such as agreements

with neighbouring countries.

Maintaining a USAR team and ensuring its rapid response capacities will require extra

financial resources. In addition it should be noted that these highly equipped specialist

teams are rarely used (Barbera and Cadoux 1991) and it is hard to justify their needs

explaining the costs of inactive equipment. Some consider it to be more efficient to put

more effort in other elements of the disaster cycle (figure 2.6) such as mitigation measures.

These can be more broadly adopted by the population and prevent a disaster from

happening. Programs such as awareness training, or intelligence in case of terrorism, might

be more cost-effective than maintaining a certain level of preparedness. Figure 2.7 gives an

overview of the international USAR response framework capabilities in comparison to

National Capability and awareness programs. According to Walker (1991:17) the key

question asked is: “Are additional lives saved and injuries reduced by the presence of

international Urban Search and Rescue teams?” While answering this question

consideration should been given to the fact that USAR might be used for other purposes

such as locating the dead, showing international solidarity, passing on skills and gaining

experience in problems their own country might face (Walker 1991:24). Additionally

USAR also can assure the local community that there are no survivors to be found after a

longer period of search and rescue (Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006). By doing this

they contribute to transition from a response to a recovery phase.

- 29 -

community is being asked to satisfy and the resources available to meet them (OCHA Civil

Military Cooperation Section (CMCS) 2006:7). Also other entities such as the corporate

sector are becoming engaged in disaster response (Katoch 2006). Macintyre, Barbera and

Smith (2006) concluded that trapped earthquake victims normally survive for five-six days,

but under special, ideal conditions survival may extend to 14 days maximum. This shows

that fast responding heavy rescue from neighbouring countries increases the survivability

rate and again emphasises the importance of preparedness measures such as agreements

with neighbouring countries.

Maintaining a USAR team and ensuring its rapid response capacities will require extra

financial resources. In addition it should be noted that these highly equipped specialist

teams are rarely used (Barbera and Cadoux 1991) and it is hard to justify their needs

explaining the costs of inactive equipment. Some consider it to be more efficient to put

more effort in other elements of the disaster cycle (figure 2.6) such as mitigation measures.

These can be more broadly adopted by the population and prevent a disaster from

happening. Programs such as awareness training, or intelligence in case of terrorism, might

be more cost-effective than maintaining a certain level of preparedness. Figure 2.7 gives an

overview of the international USAR response framework capabilities in comparison to

National Capability and awareness programs. According to Walker (1991:17) the key

question asked is: “Are additional lives saved and injuries reduced by the presence of

international Urban Search and Rescue teams?” While answering this question

consideration should been given to the fact that USAR might be used for other purposes

such as locating the dead, showing international solidarity, passing on skills and gaining

experience in problems their own country might face (Walker 1991:24). Additionally

USAR also can assure the local community that there are no survivors to be found after a

longer period of search and rescue (Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006). By doing this

they contribute to transition from a response to a recovery phase.

- 30 -

Figure 2.7: The USAR Response Framework


2.4 USAR-EU Disasters Urbanisation is taking place at a phenomenal rate and by the year 2025 almost two third of

the world’s population will live in urban areas at high risk for hurricanes and floods

(Walker 1991, Wijkman 2006). Living in these urban settlements brings new risks.

Hazards can influence the built environment possibly leading to increased demand for

USAR support. The trigger events for activating USAR-response may vary from natural

phenomena such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, mudslides, avalanches and storms to

spontaneous collapse due to engineering failures, aging infrastructure, technological

failures or terrorist attacks (Thorvald 1995, Barbera and Macintyre 1996). Besides these

disastrous events, emergencies like train derailments and collisions causing entrapment

exceeding the typical auto extrication-method, might lead to the activation of (national)

USAR or USAR elements as shown in figure 2.8 (Barbera and Macintyre 1996, INSARAG

2006:87). In recent years these trigger events have increased in frequency as shown in

figures 1.1 and 1.2.

- 30 -

Figure 2.7: The USAR Response Framework


2.4 USAR-EU Disasters Urbanisation is taking place at a phenomenal rate and by the year 2025 almost two third of

the world’s population will live in urban areas at high risk for hurricanes and floods

(Walker 1991, Wijkman 2006). Living in these urban settlements brings new risks.

Hazards can influence the built environment possibly leading to increased demand for

USAR support. The trigger events for activating USAR-response may vary from natural

phenomena such as earthquakes, hurricanes, floods, mudslides, avalanches and storms to

spontaneous collapse due to engineering failures, aging infrastructure, technological

failures or terrorist attacks (Thorvald 1995, Barbera and Macintyre 1996). Besides these

disastrous events, emergencies like train derailments and collisions causing entrapment

exceeding the typical auto extrication-method, might lead to the activation of (national)

USAR or USAR elements as shown in figure 2.8 (Barbera and Macintyre 1996, INSARAG

2006:87). In recent years these trigger events have increased in frequency as shown in

figures 1.1 and 1.2.

- 31 -

Figure 2.8: Effective use of USAR trough various types of incidents ranging from regularly occurring

emergencies to large scale building collapse and earthquakes

(Source adapted from: INSARAG 2006:87)

Although USAR developed as an earthquake response mechanism it has been put in place

for other structural collapse events such as the 9-11 Terrorist attacks in the United States.

This shows diversification of USAR response to various disaster types. With the current

terrorist threat and changing climate the scope and variety of events resulting in structural

collapse will continue to influence USAR. One of the key goals for every USAR rescue

mission is however “to retrieve trapped victims while maintaining the safety of rescue

worker” (Thorvald 1995). INSARAG (2006:79) clearly states that if a determination is

made that a site is contaminated no USAR operations will be conducted until an

appropriate assessment, and if required, isolation has been conducted.

Many factors influence survival opportunities for victims. These factors include the

collapse pattern, the access to food and/or water and the ambient temperature (Macintyre,

Barbera and Smith 2006). If a trigger event is unlikely to cause voids by the settlement of

debris than USAR is not likely to be used for rescuing survivors. Furthermore if the event

causes other side-effects such as explosions or fires people trapped are unlikely to survive

under the rubble because of the secondary effects of these side-effects such as heat, carbon

monoxide and other toxins (Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006). In addition to these side

RISK

Hazard Type

- 31 -

Figure 2.8: Effective use of USAR trough various types of incidents ranging from regularly occurring

emergencies to large scale building collapse and earthquakes

(Source adapted from: INSARAG 2006:87)

Although USAR developed as an earthquake response mechanism it has been put in place

for other structural collapse events such as the 9-11 Terrorist attacks in the United States.

This shows diversification of USAR response to various disaster types. With the current

terrorist threat and changing climate the scope and variety of events resulting in structural

collapse will continue to influence USAR. One of the key goals for every USAR rescue

mission is however “to retrieve trapped victims while maintaining the safety of rescue

worker” (Thorvald 1995). INSARAG (2006:79) clearly states that if a determination is

made that a site is contaminated no USAR operations will be conducted until an

appropriate assessment, and if required, isolation has been conducted.

Many factors influence survival opportunities for victims. These factors include the

collapse pattern, the access to food and/or water and the ambient temperature (Macintyre,

Barbera and Smith 2006). If a trigger event is unlikely to cause voids by the settlement of

debris than USAR is not likely to be used for rescuing survivors. Furthermore if the event

causes other side-effects such as explosions or fires people trapped are unlikely to survive

under the rubble because of the secondary effects of these side-effects such as heat, carbon

monoxide and other toxins (Macintyre, Barbera and Smith 2006). In addition to these side

RISK

Hazard Type

- 32 -

effects Thorvald (1995) emphasis the risks during USAR operations caused by “partially

collapsed buildings” to both the victims and rescue workers. These partially collapsed

structures influence “the remaining building and the rubble’s uncertain stability and

strength” according to Thorvald (1995). This can lead to voluntary bringing buildings

down to ensure safety and create survival opportunities for victims.

USAR needs to be able to respond to sudden onset events which are totally unexpected and

might lead to mass confusion where services, communication, transportation and logistics

are disrupted (Crippen 2001). Currently in Northern Europe terrorist attacks and storms or

floods are more likely to necessitate USAR response rather than an earthquake. Also

technical and human-made disasters resulting in massive structural collapse such as the

Enschede Fireworks disaster in The Netherlands in 2001 might require USAR-response.

2.4.1 Human-Made disasters Human-made disasters in general can lead to structural collapse; examples are explosions

in chemical factories or other industrial complexes. Mostly the collapse is caused by an

explosion followed by a pressure wave.

2.4.1.1 Terrorism Special forms of human-made disasters are terrorist attacks, using traditional explosives.

These events are often intended to inflict massive damage and casualties, sometimes

bringing down large ion structures that may be full of people (Collins 2003). Past events in

United States such as the major terrorist bombings in Oklahoma-city in 1995, and in 2001

when planes flew into the World Trade Center and Pentagon, show that USAR teams are

involved during search and rescue of people after such an event. Rescue operations in the

Word Trade Center were conducted 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and involved over 5000

workers (Berrios-Torres et al. 2003). In the UK for example the 9/11 attacks contributed to

acceleration of USAR development. Also the Madrid bombings in 2004 lead to the

response of search and rescue because of the debris and the steel that might have trapped

more people, however no international support was needed then. These events influenced

the national policies and approaches of governments and politics.

According to Collins (2003) the most improbable situations are sometimes probable when

it comes to terrorism and this might include future use of nuclear or chemical components

during attack. Also the use of airplanes, tanker trucks and other common forms of

- 32 -

effects Thorvald (1995) emphasis the risks during USAR operations caused by “partially

collapsed buildings” to both the victims and rescue workers. These partially collapsed

structures influence “the remaining building and the rubble’s uncertain stability and

strength” according to Thorvald (1995). This can lead to voluntary bringing buildings

down to ensure safety and create survival opportunities for victims.

USAR needs to be able to respond to sudden onset events which are totally unexpected and

might lead to mass confusion where services, communication, transportation and logistics

are disrupted (Crippen 2001). Currently in Northern Europe terrorist attacks and storms or

floods are more likely to necessitate USAR response rather than an earthquake. Also

technical and human-made disasters resulting in massive structural collapse such as the

Enschede Fireworks disaster in The Netherlands in 2001 might require USAR-response.

2.4.1 Human-Made disasters Human-made disasters in general can lead to structural collapse; examples are explosions

in chemical factories or other industrial complexes. Mostly the collapse is caused by an

explosion followed by a pressure wave.

2.4.1.1 Terrorism Special forms of human-made disasters are terrorist attacks, using traditional explosives.

These events are often intended to inflict massive damage and casualties, sometimes

bringing down large ion structures that may be full of people (Collins 2003). Past events in

United States such as the major terrorist bombings in Oklahoma-city in 1995, and in 2001

when planes flew into the World Trade Center and Pentagon, show that USAR teams are

involved during search and rescue of people after such an event. Rescue operations in the

Word Trade Center were conducted 24 hours a day, 7 days a week and involved over 5000

workers (Berrios-Torres et al. 2003). In the UK for example the 9/11 attacks contributed to

acceleration of USAR development. Also the Madrid bombings in 2004 lead to the

response of search and rescue because of the debris and the steel that might have trapped

more people, however no international support was needed then. These events influenced

the national policies and approaches of governments and politics.

According to Collins (2003) the most improbable situations are sometimes probable when

it comes to terrorism and this might include future use of nuclear or chemical components

during attack. Also the use of airplanes, tanker trucks and other common forms of

- 33 -

transportation as portable weapons might require massive USAR operations (Collins

2003). The US Marines for example suffered a devastating attack in Lebanon when an

explosive packed lorry was driven into barracks resulting in a large number of casualties.

Almost every day the military troops are attacked by terrorists in Iraq and Afghanistan

using various methods. All these new and hazardous elements put an extra risk to the

already dangerous environment USAR teams are operating in.

Collins (2003) also states that we must prepare for more spectacular forms of terrorist

attacks by employing the same basic strategies and resources we used to manage the

consequences of earthquake disasters. However consideration should been given to

providing a quicker response with better coordination at a large scale event requiring more

resources and lasting longer (Collins 2003). Iskender and Erdogan (2007) emphasise that

despite “terrorist incidents differ from other natural and human-made disaster because of

its characteristics” it are still emergencies that require modern emergency management

systems. In practice this would mean that security and intelligence mechanisms should

work in close cooperation with the emergency management systems (Iskender and

Erdogan 2007).

Important lessons learned from the September 11, 2001 World Trade Centre and the

Pentagon attack were that USAR-leadership should properly advise local authorities of the

teams’ capabilities and assets early in an incident and that networking prior to an incident

is very important. Also familiarization with the local and regional assets might be of great

use in assisting the search for logistical support when needed (Berrios-Torres et al. 2003,

Collins 2003). Another example is communication. During the London 7/7 Bombings the

telephone network was overwhelmed resulting in fall-out and loss of communication

means also used by responders.

2.4.2 Storms and hurricanes Other likely events are large storms causing floods such as recently seen in New Orleans.

The experience there shows that such events need far more equipment than on the typical

USAR list (Godfrey 2006). Hurricanes not only clause flooding they also have secondary

effects such as waves of water crashing into things or the strong winds causing collapse of

structures. Also massive rainfall during for example hurricanes can lead to instability of the

- 33 -

transportation as portable weapons might require massive USAR operations (Collins

2003). The US Marines for example suffered a devastating attack in Lebanon when an

explosive packed lorry was driven into barracks resulting in a large number of casualties.

Almost every day the military troops are attacked by terrorists in Iraq and Afghanistan

using various methods. All these new and hazardous elements put an extra risk to the

already dangerous environment USAR teams are operating in.

Collins (2003) also states that we must prepare for more spectacular forms of terrorist

attacks by employing the same basic strategies and resources we used to manage the

consequences of earthquake disasters. However consideration should been given to

providing a quicker response with better coordination at a large scale event requiring more

resources and lasting longer (Collins 2003). Iskender and Erdogan (2007) emphasise that

despite “terrorist incidents differ from other natural and human-made disaster because of

its characteristics” it are still emergencies that require modern emergency management

systems. In practice this would mean that security and intelligence mechanisms should

work in close cooperation with the emergency management systems (Iskender and

Erdogan 2007).

Important lessons learned from the September 11, 2001 World Trade Centre and the

Pentagon attack were that USAR-leadership should properly advise local authorities of the

teams’ capabilities and assets early in an incident and that networking prior to an incident

is very important. Also familiarization with the local and regional assets might be of great

use in assisting the search for logistical support when needed (Berrios-Torres et al. 2003,

Collins 2003). Another example is communication. During the London 7/7 Bombings the

telephone network was overwhelmed resulting in fall-out and loss of communication

means also used by responders.

2.4.2 Storms and hurricanes Other likely events are large storms causing floods such as recently seen in New Orleans.

The experience there shows that such events need far more equipment than on the typical

USAR list (Godfrey 2006). Hurricanes not only clause flooding they also have secondary

effects such as waves of water crashing into things or the strong winds causing collapse of

structures. Also massive rainfall during for example hurricanes can lead to instability of the

- 34 -

soil and slopes which might cause landslides. These events might cause building collapse

or damage spread over a large area. Also other secondary effects of storms and other

events such as power outage in chemical factories might eventually lead to disaster and

structural collapse. This is not directly caused by the event but through a chain of reactions

leading to other events causing the collapse.

Figure 2.9: Natural and human-made disasters in- and outside the EU (1999-2006)

(some of them leading to USAR response)

(Source: Barnier 2006:10)

- 34 -

soil and slopes which might cause landslides. These events might cause building collapse

or damage spread over a large area. Also other secondary effects of storms and other

events such as power outage in chemical factories might eventually lead to disaster and

structural collapse. This is not directly caused by the event but through a chain of reactions

leading to other events causing the collapse.

Figure 2.9: Natural and human-made disasters in- and outside the EU (1999-2006)

(some of them leading to USAR response)

(Source: Barnier 2006:10)

- 35 -

3 METHODOLOGY The methodology used for the research is outlined in this chapter. Approaches and

techniques that contributed to information collection on USAR-preparedness and

coordination are also discussed. This chapter further describes how information and

documentation related to USAR-preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia was

collected and investigated.

3.1 Research Design and Method The research used a qualitative approach utilising the experience and knowledge of the

participants in the area of USAR systems on a local/regional, national and international

level. This knowledge was reinforced through the use of documents to support and provide

evidence. The research did not use statistical procedures or other means of quantification.

Simplifying qualitative data into quantitative data could have lead to the loss of important

opinions and comments with respect to USAR preparedness and coordination. This is

important information as USAR is a relatively new field of applied research.

The research used a combination of “Comparative Research” (Ragin 1987) and “Case

Study Research” (Yin 2003) designs. It aimed, despite the differences in the cases, to

outline their similarities in preparedness and coordination structures on different response

levels using a basic model. During the research, the investigator’s ideas were informed by

the evidence collected in the various cases (refer figure 3.1). This required a responsive

and flexible attitude on the part of the researcher with respect to the use of techniques and

developing diagrams and models based on constantly evolving data collected. In order to

structure the research, information was included in a “data-base” or notebook. This

notebook contained basic information such as aims and objectives for the research. It also

formed a “chain of evidence” and provided external people with information on the

research process and results.

The comparative case-study research was built on the replication logic for multiple-case

studies (Yin 2003:47). The cases were treated as single units of analysis based on the same

research methodology and techniques as written down in the case study protocol. This

- 35 -

3 METHODOLOGY The methodology used for the research is outlined in this chapter. Approaches and

techniques that contributed to information collection on USAR-preparedness and

coordination are also discussed. This chapter further describes how information and

documentation related to USAR-preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia was

collected and investigated.

3.1 Research Design and Method The research used a qualitative approach utilising the experience and knowledge of the

participants in the area of USAR systems on a local/regional, national and international

level. This knowledge was reinforced through the use of documents to support and provide

evidence. The research did not use statistical procedures or other means of quantification.

Simplifying qualitative data into quantitative data could have lead to the loss of important

opinions and comments with respect to USAR preparedness and coordination. This is

important information as USAR is a relatively new field of applied research.

The research used a combination of “Comparative Research” (Ragin 1987) and “Case

Study Research” (Yin 2003) designs. It aimed, despite the differences in the cases, to

outline their similarities in preparedness and coordination structures on different response

levels using a basic model. During the research, the investigator’s ideas were informed by

the evidence collected in the various cases (refer figure 3.1). This required a responsive

and flexible attitude on the part of the researcher with respect to the use of techniques and

developing diagrams and models based on constantly evolving data collected. In order to

structure the research, information was included in a “data-base” or notebook. This

notebook contained basic information such as aims and objectives for the research. It also

formed a “chain of evidence” and provided external people with information on the

research process and results.

The comparative case-study research was built on the replication logic for multiple-case

studies (Yin 2003:47). The cases were treated as single units of analysis based on the same

research methodology and techniques as written down in the case study protocol. This

- 36 -

made comparison easier and more reliable. However, every case within the research had its

own purpose within the validating process (refer figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Multiple-case design USAR Research

3.1.1 Desk Research The research explored different levels of preparedness and coordination mechanisms

within national and international USAR assistance. It was based on policies,

methodologies and guidelines on the phenomenon of (inter)national USAR support and

their relationship to local/regional and national preparedness and coordination in the

Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. This examination provided a further basis for

developing USAR-preparedness and for analysing and interpreting the systems of

preparedness in the different countries. The research design was developed around the

previously stated aims and objectives. Linkages between the various research phases, data-

collection methods and sources can be found at the end of this chapter in figure 3.3.

Information was collected from written data sources such as the INSARAG guidelines and

methodology (2006) and EU council resolutions 2001/792EC (European Union Council

2001) and 2004/277/EC (European Union Commission 2003). These contributed to the

main body of the semi-structured interviews as questions arose directly from the research.

3.1.2 Desk Research Analysis and Model development During desk research of the INSARAG guidelines and methodology (2006) and the EU

Resolutions 2001/792EC (European Union Council 2001) and 2004/277/EC (European

Union Commission 2003), a “rich picture approach” (Checkland and Scholes 1999) was

chosen producing diagrammatic models. This showed the organisational structures and

INTERNATIONAL / EUROPEAN USAR

context


context


context

Structural Collapse in:

The Netherlands


Estonia


Sweden

- 36 -

made comparison easier and more reliable. However, every case within the research had its

own purpose within the validating process (refer figure 3.1).

Figure 3.1: Multiple-case design USAR Research

3.1.1 Desk Research The research explored different levels of preparedness and coordination mechanisms

within national and international USAR assistance. It was based on policies,

methodologies and guidelines on the phenomenon of (inter)national USAR support and

their relationship to local/regional and national preparedness and coordination in the

Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. This examination provided a further basis for

developing USAR-preparedness and for analysing and interpreting the systems of

preparedness in the different countries. The research design was developed around the

previously stated aims and objectives. Linkages between the various research phases, data-

collection methods and sources can be found at the end of this chapter in figure 3.3.

Information was collected from written data sources such as the INSARAG guidelines and

methodology (2006) and EU council resolutions 2001/792EC (European Union Council

2001) and 2004/277/EC (European Union Commission 2003). These contributed to the

main body of the semi-structured interviews as questions arose directly from the research.

3.1.2 Desk Research Analysis and Model development During desk research of the INSARAG guidelines and methodology (2006) and the EU

Resolutions 2001/792EC (European Union Council 2001) and 2004/277/EC (European

Union Commission 2003), a “rich picture approach” (Checkland and Scholes 1999) was

chosen producing diagrammatic models. This showed the organisational structures and


context


context


context


The Netherlands


Estonia


Sweden

- 37 -

simplified the structure of USAR-support. The role of various preparedness and

coordination mechanisms was clarified by producing the model. The diagrams and

structures were used to show logical linkages on cooperation, information, command and

control and requesting/granting assistance regarding the mechanisms that are supportive

during the reception of international USAR assistance. They allowed a better

understanding of the different disaster preparedness structures by showing linkages by

simplified interconnecting lines and the use of distinctive colours.

This conceptual thinking allowed a mechanism for data collection and analysis to evolve.

This took into account the preparedness and coordination mechanisms that should be in

place. It also took into account the different phases of a USAR-disaster. It uses the

INSARAG methodology cycle on a local/regional, national and international level as a

framework (see figure 3.2). An “International/EU USAR Model” having sequential phases

was produced after several reviews. This model created a “logic” (Wholey 1979 in Yin

2003:127) and provided a framework and overview by combining and linking the

information derived from the diagrammatic models. It also formed the general and

theoretical basis for the collection of data during expert interviews.

Figure 3.2: Model Framework

- 37 -

simplified the structure of USAR-support. The role of various preparedness and

coordination mechanisms was clarified by producing the model. The diagrams and

structures were used to show logical linkages on cooperation, information, command and

control and requesting/granting assistance regarding the mechanisms that are supportive

during the reception of international USAR assistance. They allowed a better

understanding of the different disaster preparedness structures by showing linkages by

simplified interconnecting lines and the use of distinctive colours.

This conceptual thinking allowed a mechanism for data collection and analysis to evolve.

This took into account the preparedness and coordination mechanisms that should be in

place. It also took into account the different phases of a USAR-disaster. It uses the

INSARAG methodology cycle on a local/regional, national and international level as a

framework (see figure 3.2). An “International/EU USAR Model” having sequential phases

was produced after several reviews. This model created a “logic” (Wholey 1979 in Yin

2003:127) and provided a framework and overview by combining and linking the

information derived from the diagrammatic models. It also formed the general and

theoretical basis for the collection of data during expert interviews.

Figure 3.2: Model Framework

- 38 -

3.1.3 Expert Interviews In order to test the model semi-structured interviews were then conducted to look for

patterns of interrelationship between the different levels of operational USAR-response on

a local/regional, national and international level. The interview method was useful because

it used the perspective of a person who was familiar with the USAR-topic and its different

mechanisms and policies.

The countries chosen for this research were the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia because

they have various commonalities:

• They all have a USAR-team conform INSARAG guidelines and methodology

• They have a similar Emergency Response Structure

• They all face similar risks

Although they share these commonalities The Netherlands and Sweden are established

EU-member countries and Estonia is a relatively new member. Estonia was a former

member of the Soviet Union (USSR) and became an independent nation in 1991

subsequently joining the EU in May 2004. Furthermore Sweden and Estonia are Baltic

States which might influence their likelihood for cooperation in disaster preparedness.

As it was unfeasible to study all the parties involved, purposive sampling was used to make

a selection of participants based on the following criteria:

• The participant should have a thorough understanding of the local/regional and

national emergency preparedness and response structure related to USAR.

• The participant should be familiar with the INSARAG Guidelines and

Methodologies.

The sample group for this research included three participants, one specialist per country.

Using more participants could not have added new evidence to the data because it was

based on factual information such as policy. Adding one or two participants per country in

a later stage however was used to review and verify the provided information.

Based on the criteria mentioned above the participants were contacted through their

international USAR points of contact and by recommendation of experts in the USAR-

field. The first contact was made via letter (see annex C). These participants helped the

- 38 -

3.1.3 Expert Interviews In order to test the model semi-structured interviews were then conducted to look for

patterns of interrelationship between the different levels of operational USAR-response on

a local/regional, national and international level. The interview method was useful because

it used the perspective of a person who was familiar with the USAR-topic and its different

mechanisms and policies.

The countries chosen for this research were the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia because

they have various commonalities:

• They all have a USAR-team conform INSARAG guidelines and methodology

• They have a similar Emergency Response Structure

• They all face similar risks

Although they share these commonalities The Netherlands and Sweden are established

EU-member countries and Estonia is a relatively new member. Estonia was a former

member of the Soviet Union (USSR) and became an independent nation in 1991

subsequently joining the EU in May 2004. Furthermore Sweden and Estonia are Baltic

States which might influence their likelihood for cooperation in disaster preparedness.

As it was unfeasible to study all the parties involved, purposive sampling was used to make

a selection of participants based on the following criteria:

• The participant should have a thorough understanding of the local/regional and

national emergency preparedness and response structure related to USAR.

• The participant should be familiar with the INSARAG Guidelines and

Methodologies.

The sample group for this research included three participants, one specialist per country.

Using more participants could not have added new evidence to the data because it was

based on factual information such as policy. Adding one or two participants per country in

a later stage however was used to review and verify the provided information.

Based on the criteria mentioned above the participants were contacted through their

international USAR points of contact and by recommendation of experts in the USAR-

field. The first contact was made via letter (see annex C). These participants helped the

- 39 -

researcher to gain more specific information from others experts with respect to the

research question. They also helped to explain and translate different written data sources

because most national policy information was written in the national language. The

interviews were conducted at the respondent’s offices. This allowed full access to

resources and additional information to clarify but also verify their answers.

Prior to the interviews a letter and “interview package” or “proforma” was sent out to the

interviewees (annex D). The functions of this package were:

• To give the interviewee the opportunity to prepare themselves for the interview.

This ensured consistency in approach so the interviewer could cover all the topics

in the same order for each respondent.

• To establish the direction and scope of the discourse. This allowed the interviewer

to give all his attention to the interviewee’s testimony.

• To structure the information that was collected during the interview for consistency

and in order to model it in the analysis phase.

• To incorporate 'factual/quantitative material' leaving the interview itself free to

focus on deeper issues.

(Keats 2000)

Before the interview package was sent out a pilot was conducted in order to assure that

questions were clear and not open to misinterpretation. After two pilots, changes to the

original were made regarding lay-out and sequencing of the questions.

The interviews started with general introductions and provision of more information about

the research project and ethical procedures. Although the research used data provided by

participants, no ethical issues arose because the information gained was related to

information available in the public domain and not related to personal information (see

annex E). However the participants were asked to sign a participant information sheet that

was added to the “interview package” (see annex D). This helped to explain the research to

the participants and provided further details about what would happen to the information

provided. The interview progressed by giving the interviewee the opportunity to follow

their own interests and concerns and provided a general background about their

organisation and the countries’ emergency management structure. The different sections of

the questions, the local, national and international levels were discussed using open-ended

- 39 -

researcher to gain more specific information from others experts with respect to the

research question. They also helped to explain and translate different written data sources

because most national policy information was written in the national language. The

interviews were conducted at the respondent’s offices. This allowed full access to

resources and additional information to clarify but also verify their answers.

Prior to the interviews a letter and “interview package” or “proforma” was sent out to the

interviewees (annex D). The functions of this package were:

• To give the interviewee the opportunity to prepare themselves for the interview.

This ensured consistency in approach so the interviewer could cover all the topics

in the same order for each respondent.

• To establish the direction and scope of the discourse. This allowed the interviewer

to give all his attention to the interviewee’s testimony.

• To structure the information that was collected during the interview for consistency

and in order to model it in the analysis phase.

• To incorporate 'factual/quantitative material' leaving the interview itself free to

focus on deeper issues.

(Keats 2000)

Before the interview package was sent out a pilot was conducted in order to assure that

questions were clear and not open to misinterpretation. After two pilots, changes to the

original were made regarding lay-out and sequencing of the questions.

The interviews started with general introductions and provision of more information about

the research project and ethical procedures. Although the research used data provided by

participants, no ethical issues arose because the information gained was related to

information available in the public domain and not related to personal information (see

annex E). However the participants were asked to sign a participant information sheet that

was added to the “interview package” (see annex D). This helped to explain the research to

the participants and provided further details about what would happen to the information

provided. The interview progressed by giving the interviewee the opportunity to follow

their own interests and concerns and provided a general background about their

organisation and the countries’ emergency management structure. The different sections of

the questions, the local, national and international levels were discussed using open-ended

- 40 -

questions in a guided interview structure. During the interviews the participants were asked

to verify some of their answers using policy or other formal documents. The conducted

interviews were more guided conversations with an open-ended format, than structured

queries. They did not limit the interviewee from combining and interlinking the different

response levels. In some cases the interviews were the basis for further inquiry and

contacting other persons and sources of evidence (chain sampling effect) (Yates 2004).

After the interviews the participants and other experts were given the opportunity to peer-

review the information obtained in their case (based on the interview) so they could add

new materials or correct the interpretation made by the researcher (see annex F).

3.1.4 Interview Analysis and Modelling The research used a comparative multi-case study analysis with an emphasis on analysing

the various cases on their preparedness and coordination structures. This comparative

research tries to search for formulating explanations of the preparedness for receiving

international USAR-support in the different countries within a real-life context. The case

studies analysed the current situation on which mechanisms are in place and which are not.

The mechanisms or structures not in place are important to understand.

The “International/EU USAR model” was used as a blueprint for data collection but was

also the first step in the research analysis in order to create similar models for the different

countries in multiple single case-studies. The information gained in the different interviews

was used to structure and finally model the various mechanisms on a local/regional and

national level in a specific case-study “report” based on the same “modelling” principle.

The information provided during the interview/discussions was re-structured into

“discussion reports” afterwards, using the questionnaire format as outlined in annex D.

Conducting open-ended interviews as opposed to restricting participants to filling in the

questionnaires themselves, allowed them to go more in-depth in relation to the provided

information with respect to the model. During the interviews for example additional

background information was gained on how the local/regional and national mechanisms

match the international mechanisms in order to clarify linkages. Further information was

gained in discussion around questions directly from the questionnaire.

- 40 -

questions in a guided interview structure. During the interviews the participants were asked

to verify some of their answers using policy or other formal documents. The conducted

interviews were more guided conversations with an open-ended format, than structured

queries. They did not limit the interviewee from combining and interlinking the different

response levels. In some cases the interviews were the basis for further inquiry and

contacting other persons and sources of evidence (chain sampling effect) (Yates 2004).

After the interviews the participants and other experts were given the opportunity to peer-

review the information obtained in their case (based on the interview) so they could add

new materials or correct the interpretation made by the researcher (see annex F).

3.1.4 Interview Analysis and Modelling The research used a comparative multi-case study analysis with an emphasis on analysing

the various cases on their preparedness and coordination structures. This comparative

research tries to search for formulating explanations of the preparedness for receiving

international USAR-support in the different countries within a real-life context. The case

studies analysed the current situation on which mechanisms are in place and which are not.

The mechanisms or structures not in place are important to understand.

The “International/EU USAR model” was used as a blueprint for data collection but was

also the first step in the research analysis in order to create similar models for the different

countries in multiple single case-studies. The information gained in the different interviews

was used to structure and finally model the various mechanisms on a local/regional and

national level in a specific case-study “report” based on the same “modelling” principle.

The information provided during the interview/discussions was re-structured into

“discussion reports” afterwards, using the questionnaire format as outlined in annex D.

Conducting open-ended interviews as opposed to restricting participants to filling in the

questionnaires themselves, allowed them to go more in-depth in relation to the provided

information with respect to the model. During the interviews for example additional

background information was gained on how the local/regional and national mechanisms

match the international mechanisms in order to clarify linkages. Further information was

gained in discussion around questions directly from the questionnaire.

- 41 -

The interview “discussion reports” were analysed creating diagrammatical models to show

organisational structures. Lines show cooperation, information transfer, command and

control and requesting/granting assistance. The diagrammatic models development was

carried out during and after the interviews in cooperation with the participants. The

theoretical framework (model) previously had been developed from the desk research. The

different national mechanisms were drawn in the model framework in order to clarify and

verify the understanding of the answers given by the participants. They also completed the

superficial described mechanisms in the “International EU/USAR Model”.

3.2 Data Analysis Following the last step analysis was carried out to compare the three models based on the

national information with the general “International/EU USAR Model”. This can be seen

as “pattern matching” (Trochim 1989 in Yin 2003:116) because it compares an empirically

based pattern (National Models) with a predicted or suggested one (International/EU

USAR Model). By choosing this strategy the applicability and usefulness of the

“International/EU USAR Model” was verified. The comparison was carried out by

layering the different models and by comparing the differences and similarities that

represent preparedness and coordination measures and their cooperation, information or

command and control links. Statements made during the interviews were also taken into

account in order to justify and provide explanations regarding preparedness. Finally the

results and report were peer-reviewed by experts and specialists.

An overview of the research design and its methodology can be found on the next page, the

objectives and corresponding numbers can be found in annex G.

- 41 -

The interview “discussion reports” were analysed creating diagrammatical models to show

organisational structures. Lines show cooperation, information transfer, command and

control and requesting/granting assistance. The diagrammatic models development was

carried out during and after the interviews in cooperation with the participants. The

theoretical framework (model) previously had been developed from the desk research. The

different national mechanisms were drawn in the model framework in order to clarify and

verify the understanding of the answers given by the participants. They also completed the

superficial described mechanisms in the “International EU/USAR Model”.

3.2 Data Analysis Following the last step analysis was carried out to compare the three models based on the

national information with the general “International/EU USAR Model”. This can be seen

as “pattern matching” (Trochim 1989 in Yin 2003:116) because it compares an empirically

based pattern (National Models) with a predicted or suggested one (International/EU

USAR Model). By choosing this strategy the applicability and usefulness of the

“International/EU USAR Model” was verified. The comparison was carried out by

layering the different models and by comparing the differences and similarities that

represent preparedness and coordination measures and their cooperation, information or

command and control links. Statements made during the interviews were also taken into

account in order to justify and provide explanations regarding preparedness. Finally the

results and report were peer-reviewed by experts and specialists.

An overview of the research design and its methodology can be found on the next page, the

objectives and corresponding numbers can be found in annex G.

- 42 -

Figure 3.3: Overview Research Methodology

- 42 -

Figure 3.3: Overview Research Methodology

- 43 -

4 PRIMARY DATA RESEARCH: MODEL DEVELOPMENT

Information on international coordination and preparedness mechanisms such as

INSARAG and EU Civil Protection were discussed previously. Following the literature

review more in-depth analysis of the mechanisms and their guidelines and resolutions

regarding the practical preparedness and coordination was carried out during desk research

leading to a model. Diagrammatic models were used to clarify the various linkages as they

are stated in policy and guidelines. Further a model for international and in particular

European USAR preparedness and coordination based on the various distinctive

diagrammatic models is suggested.

4.1 INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology Section B.1.2. of the INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology (2006:9) states that

“countries prone to earthquakes or disasters with the potential to cause structural collapse

are strongly advised to include the INSARAG methodology in their national emergency

management plans”. The following INSARAG mechanisms are advised by INSARAG on

a local/regional and national level, they are also linked to the INSARAG Methodology

cycle as described previously (figure 2.5):

Countries prone to disaster with the potential to cause structural collapse or countries

providing international USAR assistance should identify an INSARAG National Focal

Point (INSARAG 2006:14). This should be a senior officer in the Government Ministry

responsible for the management of international and/or national disaster response.

Countries affected by disaster will have established a LEMA (local emergency

management authority) that is the ultimate responsible authority for overall command,

coordination and management of the response operation. The LEMA refer to national,

regional or local authorities or combinations of those (INSARAG 2006:18). The various

tasks the country has to perform according to the UN INSARAG Methodology Cycle are

summarized in table 4.1 below (based on INSARAG 2006: 23).

- 43 -

4 PRIMARY DATA RESEARCH: MODEL DEVELOPMENT

Information on international coordination and preparedness mechanisms such as

INSARAG and EU Civil Protection were discussed previously. Following the literature

review more in-depth analysis of the mechanisms and their guidelines and resolutions

regarding the practical preparedness and coordination was carried out during desk research

leading to a model. Diagrammatic models were used to clarify the various linkages as they

are stated in policy and guidelines. Further a model for international and in particular

European USAR preparedness and coordination based on the various distinctive

diagrammatic models is suggested.

4.1 INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology Section B.1.2. of the INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology (2006:9) states that

“countries prone to earthquakes or disasters with the potential to cause structural collapse

are strongly advised to include the INSARAG methodology in their national emergency

management plans”. The following INSARAG mechanisms are advised by INSARAG on

a local/regional and national level, they are also linked to the INSARAG Methodology

cycle as described previously (figure 2.5):

Countries prone to disaster with the potential to cause structural collapse or countries

providing international USAR assistance should identify an INSARAG National Focal

Point (INSARAG 2006:14). This should be a senior officer in the Government Ministry

responsible for the management of international and/or national disaster response.

Countries affected by disaster will have established a LEMA (local emergency

management authority) that is the ultimate responsible authority for overall command,

coordination and management of the response operation. The LEMA refer to national,

regional or local authorities or combinations of those (INSARAG 2006:18). The various

tasks the country has to perform according to the UN INSARAG Methodology Cycle are

summarized in table 4.1 below (based on INSARAG 2006: 23).

- 44 -

Table 4.1: Affected Country's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Maintain National Focal Point • Develop and maintain domestic USAR according to

INSARAG • Implement and maintain procedures for receiving

international USAR into the country e.g. RDC related • Prepare logistics support • Update V-OSOCC

Mobilisation • Request international Assistance • National Disaster Plan including LEMA • Establish RDC • Situation and Needs assessment

Operations • Establish LEMA • Maintain Representation at both RDC and OSOCC • Utilise international coordination mechanisms • Integrate international USAR into ongoing national

operations Demobilisation • Declare end of USAR operations

• Provide logistical support Post-Mission • NONE

In order to support international USAR teams arriving and departing, an RDC (extension

of the OSOCC) will need to be set up to facilitate immigration, customs and other local

authorities’ requirements. Countries are encouraged by INSARAG (2006:19) to

incorporate the establishment and staffing of a RDC into disaster preparedness plans and

test it regularly. The responsibilities when establishing an RDC are stated in table 4.2

below (based on INSARAG 2006: 27).

Table 4.2: Responsibilities when establishing RDC Responsibilities

• Coordinate with (Air)Port Authorities and LEMA • Identify suitable location for RDC • Establish Communications to OSOCC and V-OSOCC as soon as possible • Gather various information for incoming resources • Register and Brief incoming resources • Request additional staff from incoming teams

• Operate provisional RDC until arrival UNDAC Team

• Prepare to hand over the RDC to the UNDAC Team upon arrival

- 44 -

Table 4.1: Affected Country's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Maintain National Focal Point • Develop and maintain domestic USAR according to

INSARAG • Implement and maintain procedures for receiving

international USAR into the country e.g. RDC related • Prepare logistics support • Update V-OSOCC

Mobilisation • Request international Assistance • National Disaster Plan including LEMA • Establish RDC • Situation and Needs assessment

Operations • Establish LEMA • Maintain Representation at both RDC and OSOCC • Utilise international coordination mechanisms • Integrate international USAR into ongoing national

operations Demobilisation • Declare end of USAR operations

• Provide logistical support Post-Mission • NONE

In order to support international USAR teams arriving and departing, an RDC (extension

of the OSOCC) will need to be set up to facilitate immigration, customs and other local

authorities’ requirements. Countries are encouraged by INSARAG (2006:19) to

incorporate the establishment and staffing of a RDC into disaster preparedness plans and

test it regularly. The responsibilities when establishing an RDC are stated in table 4.2

below (based on INSARAG 2006: 27).

Table 4.2: Responsibilities when establishing RDC Responsibilities

• Coordinate with (Air)Port Authorities and LEMA • Identify suitable location for RDC • Establish Communications to OSOCC and V-OSOCC as soon as possible • Gather various information for incoming resources • Register and Brief incoming resources • Request additional staff from incoming teams

• Operate provisional RDC until arrival UNDAC Team

• Prepare to hand over the RDC to the UNDAC Team upon arrival

- 45 -

Figure 4.1: Overview of the National Mechanisms that should be in place according to INSARAG 2006

Besides the above mentioned mechanisms that should be in place on a local/regional and

national level the following international mechanisms are (or should be) established:

UN OCHA will serve as the INSARAG Secretariat of the INSARAG Steering committee

and will coordinate international assistance such as international USAR Teams in disasters

and humanitarian crises exceeding the affected country’s capacity (INSARAG 2006:18).

Its various tasks are described in table 4.3 below (based on INSARAG 2006: 22).

Table 4.3: UN OCHA's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Advocate and promote USAR Preparedness Mobilisation • Activate V-OSOCC

• Communicate with UN-Representatives in affect country • Deploy UNDAC

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information

Request for assistance

Granting for assistance

Coordination

COUNTRY X

LEMA Government Ministry

INSARAG National Focal Point

RDC OSOCC

Emergency Planning

- 45 -

Figure 4.1: Overview of the National Mechanisms that should be in place according to INSARAG 2006

Besides the above mentioned mechanisms that should be in place on a local/regional and

national level the following international mechanisms are (or should be) established:

UN OCHA will serve as the INSARAG Secretariat of the INSARAG Steering committee

and will coordinate international assistance such as international USAR Teams in disasters

and humanitarian crises exceeding the affected country’s capacity (INSARAG 2006:18).

Its various tasks are described in table 4.3 below (based on INSARAG 2006: 22).

Table 4.3: UN OCHA's responsibilities related to USAR preparedness and coordination Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Advocate and promote USAR Preparedness Mobilisation • Activate V-OSOCC

• Communicate with UN-Representatives in affect country • Deploy UNDAC

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

COUNTRY X

LEMA Government Ministry

INSARAG National Focal Point

RDC OSOCC

Emergency Planning

- 46 -

Operations • Manage V-OSOCC • Support UNDAC

Demobilisation • Manage V-OSOCC • Support UNDAC

Post-Mission • Post Mission Reports USAR Teams • Lesson’s learned meeting

UN OCHA has the availability of a UNDAC Team that can be deployed to sudden-onset

emergencies to support the LEMA with coordination of international response including

USAR, assessments of priority needs and information management by establishing an

OSOCC (INSARAG 2006:18). The OSOCC will be established close to both the LEMA

and the disaster site. The OSOCC can also be established by the first arriving international

USAR team who will then hand over the OSOCC to the UNDAC Team when they arrive

(INSARAG 2006:20). In a national USAR disaster an OSOCC may be established by the

LEMA if seen necessary.

Finally there is the Virtual OSOCC, which is a web-based information tool that facilitates

in providing information exchange between responders and the affected country

(INSARAG 2006:20). The above mentioned mechanisms are combined in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Overview of International Mechanisms that should

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY UN OCHA

International USAR UNDAC TEAM

INSARAG National

Focal Point

LEMA OSOCC

V-OSOCC

- 46 -

Operations • Manage V-OSOCC • Support UNDAC

Demobilisation • Manage V-OSOCC • Support UNDAC

Post-Mission • Post Mission Reports USAR Teams • Lesson’s learned meeting

UN OCHA has the availability of a UNDAC Team that can be deployed to sudden-onset

emergencies to support the LEMA with coordination of international response including

USAR, assessments of priority needs and information management by establishing an

OSOCC (INSARAG 2006:18). The OSOCC will be established close to both the LEMA

and the disaster site. The OSOCC can also be established by the first arriving international

USAR team who will then hand over the OSOCC to the UNDAC Team when they arrive

(INSARAG 2006:20). In a national USAR disaster an OSOCC may be established by the

LEMA if seen necessary.

Finally there is the Virtual OSOCC, which is a web-based information tool that facilitates

in providing information exchange between responders and the affected country

(INSARAG 2006:20). The above mentioned mechanisms are combined in figure 4.2.

Figure 4.2: Overview of International Mechanisms that should

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

INTERNATIONAL COMMUNITY UN OCHA

International USAR UNDAC TEAM

INSARAG National

Focal Point

LEMA OSOCC

V-OSOCC

- 47 -

be in place according to INSARAG (2006)

4.2 European Union The information used for this discussion is based on the latest official European Council

Decision 2001/792EC regarding “Establishing a Community Civil Protection Mechanism”

(European Union Council 2001) and the Commission Decision 2004/277/EC “laying down

rules for the implementation of Council Decision 2001/792/EC, Euratom establishing a

Community mechanism to facilitate reinforced cooperation in civil protection assistance

interventions” (European Union Commission 2003). There are no practical guidelines such

as the INSARAG guidelines to facilitate the EU mechanisms. However the INSARAG

Methodology cycle was used to structure the various responsibilities of the Community

Mechanism.

EC Decision 2001/792 states that countries should take preparatory measures to “enable

assistance intervention teams in emergencies to be mobilized rapidly and coordinated with

the requisite flexibility and to ensure, through a training program, the effective response”

(European Union Council 2001) in addition to this training programme the pooling of

capabilities must be established. In article 2 the Decision states that the “Member State in

which the emergency has occurred shall, without delay, notify: those Member States which

may be affected and the European Commission through a formal request to the Monitoring

and information Centre using Member States’ contacts point” (European Union Council

2001). Commission decision of 29 December 2003 article 29 gives the procedure for

requesting assistance through the MIC and states that the requesting State shall provide the

MIC with relevant information. The MIC will then forward the request and information to

the assisting states and update the affected State on the status of the request. Other tasks of

the Member State are stated in table 4.4 below.

Table 4.4: Member States’ Responsibilities Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Identify intervention teams and experts which might be available for intervention and assessment/coordination (USAR Modules)

Mobilisation • Notify possible affect States • Request Assistance through MIC and the communication

and information system (CECIS) • Provide and update teams with information

- 47 -

be in place according to INSARAG (2006)

4.2 European Union The information used for this discussion is based on the latest official European Council

Decision 2001/792EC regarding “Establishing a Community Civil Protection Mechanism”

(European Union Council 2001) and the Commission Decision 2004/277/EC “laying down

rules for the implementation of Council Decision 2001/792/EC, Euratom establishing a

Community mechanism to facilitate reinforced cooperation in civil protection assistance

interventions” (European Union Commission 2003). There are no practical guidelines such

as the INSARAG guidelines to facilitate the EU mechanisms. However the INSARAG

Methodology cycle was used to structure the various responsibilities of the Community

Mechanism.

EC Decision 2001/792 states that countries should take preparatory measures to “enable

assistance intervention teams in emergencies to be mobilized rapidly and coordinated with

the requisite flexibility and to ensure, through a training program, the effective response”

(European Union Council 2001) in addition to this training programme the pooling of

capabilities must be established. In article 2 the Decision states that the “Member State in

which the emergency has occurred shall, without delay, notify: those Member States which

may be affected and the European Commission through a formal request to the Monitoring

and information Centre using Member States’ contacts point” (European Union Council

2001). Commission decision of 29 December 2003 article 29 gives the procedure for

requesting assistance through the MIC and states that the requesting State shall provide the

MIC with relevant information. The MIC will then forward the request and information to

the assisting states and update the affected State on the status of the request. Other tasks of

the Member State are stated in table 4.4 below.

Table 4.4: Member States’ Responsibilities Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Identify intervention teams and experts which might be available for intervention and assessment/coordination (USAR Modules)

Mobilisation • Notify possible affect States • Request Assistance through MIC and the communication

and information system (CECIS) • Provide and update teams with information

- 48 -

Operations • Provide and update teams with information Demobilisation • NONE Post-Mission • NONE

The Decision also states in article three that Member States (affected and Supporting)

should “identify in advance intervention teams which might be available for such

intervention”, in latter correspondence (European Union Commission 2007b) this is

referred to as Civil Protection Modules. Article 4 then follows stating that the Mechanism

should “mobilize and dispatch small teams of experts to assess the situation and facilitate

in coordination or assistance of operations on site”. A tabular overview of the

responsibilities of the Civil Protection Mechanism including MIC based on the Council

Decision of October 2001 can be found in table 4.5 below. Figure 4.3 below gives an

overview of the various information and coordination flows between the different entities.

Table 4.5: European Civil Protection Mechanism's responsibilities Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Identification of intervention teams and other intervention support

• Setting-up and implementation of training programme for intervention

• Pool information on capabilities of the Member States • Workshops, seminars and pilot projects

Mobilisation • Dispatch assessment and/or coordination Teams (if needed) • Establishment of Monitoring and Information Centre and

collect validated information on the Emergency • Establishment of a common emergency information system • Facilitate transport of resources for assistance and other

support actions Operations • Collect and update validated information on the emergency

• Inform participating States on progress Demobilisation • Facilitate transport of resources for assistance and other

support actions Post-Mission • Programme of Lessons learned from the interventions

- 48 -

Operations • Provide and update teams with information Demobilisation • NONE Post-Mission • NONE

The Decision also states in article three that Member States (affected and Supporting)

should “identify in advance intervention teams which might be available for such

intervention”, in latter correspondence (European Union Commission 2007b) this is

referred to as Civil Protection Modules. Article 4 then follows stating that the Mechanism

should “mobilize and dispatch small teams of experts to assess the situation and facilitate

in coordination or assistance of operations on site”. A tabular overview of the

responsibilities of the Civil Protection Mechanism including MIC based on the Council

Decision of October 2001 can be found in table 4.5 below. Figure 4.3 below gives an

overview of the various information and coordination flows between the different entities.

Table 4.5: European Civil Protection Mechanism's responsibilities Phase of the Cycle

Task

Preparedness • Identification of intervention teams and other intervention support

• Setting-up and implementation of training programme for intervention

• Pool information on capabilities of the Member States • Workshops, seminars and pilot projects

Mobilisation • Dispatch assessment and/or coordination Teams (if needed) • Establishment of Monitoring and Information Centre and

collect validated information on the Emergency • Establishment of a common emergency information system • Facilitate transport of resources for assistance and other

support actions Operations • Collect and update validated information on the emergency

• Inform participating States on progress Demobilisation • Facilitate transport of resources for assistance and other

support actions Post-Mission • Programme of Lessons learned from the interventions

- 49 -

Figure 4.3: Overview of the various information, request/granting and coordination flows through the various entities according to EU

4.3 “International/EU USAR Model” The previously created diagrammatic models from both INSARAG and EU were

integrated into the sequential framework that was based on the various coordination levels

and the INSARAG methodology cycle (figure 2.5). The complete “International/European

USAR model” is shown in figure 4.4. In this model the distinctive lines from the diagrams

and organisational structures were removed to create a better overview. The model now

only shows the various mechanisms that should be in place and their connection, as well as

the level and the phase in which they operate. The place of mechanism in the model is not

determined hierarchically. If mechanisms in various levels however are directly linked to

each other, they were connected through a solid line. But it is also possible that there is a

direct link but that this is no directly shown but through another mechanism. This was done

in order to simplify the structure and keep the overview clear. It is important that there is a

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

European Union

Member State (Emergency) Member State (Affected or Supporting)

MIC

Training Programme

Training Programme

Training Programme

Civil protection Modules (USAR)


Assessment Team Experts

Pooling Capabilities

EU Contact Point EU Contact Point

- 49 -

Figure 4.3: Overview of the various information, request/granting and coordination flows through the various entities according to EU

4.3 “International/EU USAR Model” The previously created diagrammatic models from both INSARAG and EU were

integrated into the sequential framework that was based on the various coordination levels

and the INSARAG methodology cycle (figure 2.5). The complete “International/European

USAR model” is shown in figure 4.4. In this model the distinctive lines from the diagrams

and organisational structures were removed to create a better overview. The model now

only shows the various mechanisms that should be in place and their connection, as well as

the level and the phase in which they operate. The place of mechanism in the model is not

determined hierarchically. If mechanisms in various levels however are directly linked to

each other, they were connected through a solid line. But it is also possible that there is a

direct link but that this is no directly shown but through another mechanism. This was done

in order to simplify the structure and keep the overview clear. It is important that there is a

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

European Union

Member State (Emergency) Member State (Affected or Supporting)

MIC

Training Programme

Training Programme

Training Programme



Assessment Team Experts

Pooling Capabilities

EU Contact Point EU Contact Point

- 50 -

connection and that the mechanism is not a solitary entity within the preparedness and

coordination system when receiving USAR assistance.

- 50 -

connection and that the mechanism is not a solitary entity within the preparedness and

coordination system when receiving USAR assistance.

- 51 -

Figure 4.4: International/EU USAR Model

5 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS After having defined a general “International/EU USAR Model”, the following sections

will analyse and give results for the coordination and preparedness mechanisms in The

Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. To gain more insight into the national USAR systems

some general background information about their USAR systems are given. Subsequently

the coordination and preparedness mechanisms are analysed on a local/regional, national

and international level and will give in-depth information regarding preparedness and

coordination mechanisms such as command and control, planning, coordination, flow of

information, requesting assistance and granting assistance. The information stated in these

paragraphs is based on the interviews/discussions with national experts in combination

with regard to the previously explained “International/EU USAR model”. The

diagrammatic models used to clarify the coordination and preparedness elements are

combined in a “country model”. This model is created using a similar approach as was

used for the “International/EU USAR Model” and per country the model is compared with

this “theoretical” model. The complete information gathered during the

interviews/discussions can be found in the reports attached: The Netherlands (see annex

H), Sweden (see annex I) and Estonia (see annex J)

5.1 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: The Netherlands

5.1.1 Background USAR.nl USAR in the Netherlands was established in 2003 and can respond to national (including

Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles) and international (arriving within maximum 24 hours

after alarm at the disaster area) USAR disasters. It has given the following guidelines for

its national usability:

• A severe or extensive emergency that cannot be suppressed sufficiently with the

municipal or regional available resources

• Specific search and rescue of humans and animals

Typical USAR incidents according to USAR.NL are: earthquakes, tunnel incidents,

building collapse, seaquake or flood wave, hurricanes, landslides and mudslides.

(Based on USAR.NL 2002)

- 51 -

Figure 4.4: International/EU USAR Model

5 RESULTS AND ANALYSIS After having defined a general “International/EU USAR Model”, the following sections

will analyse and give results for the coordination and preparedness mechanisms in The

Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. To gain more insight into the national USAR systems

some general background information about their USAR systems are given. Subsequently

the coordination and preparedness mechanisms are analysed on a local/regional, national

and international level and will give in-depth information regarding preparedness and

coordination mechanisms such as command and control, planning, coordination, flow of

information, requesting assistance and granting assistance. The information stated in these

paragraphs is based on the interviews/discussions with national experts in combination

with regard to the previously explained “International/EU USAR model”. The

diagrammatic models used to clarify the coordination and preparedness elements are

combined in a “country model”. This model is created using a similar approach as was

used for the “International/EU USAR Model” and per country the model is compared with

this “theoretical” model. The complete information gathered during the

interviews/discussions can be found in the reports attached: The Netherlands (see annex

H), Sweden (see annex I) and Estonia (see annex J)

5.1 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: The Netherlands

5.1.1 Background USAR.nl USAR in the Netherlands was established in 2003 and can respond to national (including

Aruba and the Netherlands Antilles) and international (arriving within maximum 24 hours

after alarm at the disaster area) USAR disasters. It has given the following guidelines for

its national usability:

• A severe or extensive emergency that cannot be suppressed sufficiently with the

municipal or regional available resources

• Specific search and rescue of humans and animals

Typical USAR incidents according to USAR.NL are: earthquakes, tunnel incidents,

building collapse, seaquake or flood wave, hurricanes, landslides and mudslides.

(Based on USAR.NL 2002)

- 52 -

USAR.NL is controlled by the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations in the

Netherlands. It is also supported by a “bureau USAR” regarding strategic policy

development (see figure 5.1). USAR is a combined effort of 4 out of 25 safety regions in

the Netherlands including Fire and Rescue Services, Medical Services, Police and Defence.

The people involved in USAR are, with the exception of those working at “bureau USAR”,

part-time available above and beyond their “daily” job, for example, as a fire fighter. The

USAR-team can be rapidly established and deployed after alarming (Nationwide within

maximum five hours).

Figure 5.1: Organisation of USAR.nl (Source adapted from USAR.nl 2002:6)

Nationally, specific elements of the team can be deployed such as specialist command,

supportive units or staff. Internationally, they have the capacity to adapt their team

composition to the needs of the response, after approval of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

USAR.NL has besides the command, staff and support group; 4 rescue teams with canine-

search (see figure 5.2). USAR is established as a specialist team that can be used in

addition to the daily rescue tasks of the (local/regional) Fire and Rescue Services in case of

large structural collapse or entrapment.

Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations

National Commander USAR Deputy Commander USAR

Commander USAR Commander USAR Commander USAR

National “Bureau USAR”

USAR Steering Committee

Management Team USAR

Contact-persons USAR

Participating Organisations

- 52 -

USAR.NL is controlled by the Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations in the

Netherlands. It is also supported by a “bureau USAR” regarding strategic policy

development (see figure 5.1). USAR is a combined effort of 4 out of 25 safety regions in

the Netherlands including Fire and Rescue Services, Medical Services, Police and Defence.

The people involved in USAR are, with the exception of those working at “bureau USAR”,

part-time available above and beyond their “daily” job, for example, as a fire fighter. The

USAR-team can be rapidly established and deployed after alarming (Nationwide within

maximum five hours).

Figure 5.1: Organisation of USAR.nl (Source adapted from USAR.nl 2002:6)

Nationally, specific elements of the team can be deployed such as specialist command,

supportive units or staff. Internationally, they have the capacity to adapt their team

composition to the needs of the response, after approval of the Ministry of Foreign Affairs.

USAR.NL has besides the command, staff and support group; 4 rescue teams with canine-

search (see figure 5.2). USAR is established as a specialist team that can be used in

addition to the daily rescue tasks of the (local/regional) Fire and Rescue Services in case of

large structural collapse or entrapment.

Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations

National Commander USAR Deputy Commander USAR

Commander USAR Commander USAR Commander USAR

National “Bureau USAR”

USAR Steering Committee

Management Team USAR

Contact-persons USAR

Participating Organisations

- 53 -

Figure 5.2: Internal Organisation USAR.nl (Source adapted from USAR.nl 2002:8)

5.1.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands

The Netherlands have three coordination and preparedness levels within the local/regional

structure:

• Field

• Municipal

• Provincial/Regional

All these various levels use distinctive preparedness plans which vary in their content,

based on the area and incident they cover. They contain information about the response

mechanism such as coordination structures and the responders various tasks. Embedding

USAR in these plans depends on the developer of the plans. There are no national

guidelines for embedding USAR in the plans and it is unknown which plans contain

information regarding USAR. A memo was used to inform the 25 safety-regions about

USAR and its specialist search and rescue capabilities. At this moment it is unknown how

USAR.NL Command Commander Deputy Commander

USAR.NL Staff Staff Commander Liaison Information Officer Admin

USAR.NL Support Commander Support group Doctor Head Nurse Safety Officer Security Officer Building Expert Technician ICT Technician Transport and logistics Member Cook

Search and Rescue Group D

Search and Rescue Group C

Search and Rescue Group B

Search and Rescue Group A Commander Search and Rescue Group Rescue Member / Technical Search Specialist Rescue Member/Canine Supervisor Rescue Member Nurse

Optional Group

Experts (optional)

- 53 -

Figure 5.2: Internal Organisation USAR.nl (Source adapted from USAR.nl 2002:8)

5.1.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands

The Netherlands have three coordination and preparedness levels within the local/regional

structure:

• Field

• Municipal

• Provincial/Regional

All these various levels use distinctive preparedness plans which vary in their content,

based on the area and incident they cover. They contain information about the response

mechanism such as coordination structures and the responders various tasks. Embedding

USAR in these plans depends on the developer of the plans. There are no national

guidelines for embedding USAR in the plans and it is unknown which plans contain

information regarding USAR. A memo was used to inform the 25 safety-regions about

USAR and its specialist search and rescue capabilities. At this moment it is unknown how

USAR.NL Command Commander Deputy Commander

USAR.NL Staff Staff Commander Liaison Information Officer Admin

USAR.NL Support Commander Support group Doctor Head Nurse Safety Officer Security Officer Building Expert Technician ICT Technician Transport and logistics Member Cook

Search and Rescue Group D

Search and Rescue Group C

Search and Rescue Group B

Search and Rescue Group A Commander Search and Rescue Group Rescue Member / Technical Search Specialist Rescue Member/Canine Supervisor Rescue Member Nurse

Optional Group

Experts (optional)

- 54 -

familiar the local/regional level is with requesting and using National USAR assistance

because it has only been (partially) deployed nationally once (August 2007) and it is a

recently established entity.

During an emergency the Mayor of the municipality is, by disaster law, (Wet Rampen en

Zware Ongevallen (WRZO) 1985) the most senior command and control mechanism. The

Mayor is the only mechanism/person that is formally in charge of the operation. In

decision making and coordination, the various mechanisms such as the Mayor, will be

supported by special “policy” teams. These teams are called Municipal or Regional Policy

Teams which deliver strategic support. The Netherlands have also a formal procedure

regarding coordination called GRIP (Coordinated Regional Incident Procedure). This

procedure arranges the Dutch coordination structure if an incident increases in scale.

USAR is not specifically added into this procedure; however the way the procedure is

structured it should make integration of additional resources easily possible.

On an operational/field level the Mayor can delegate his responsibilities to the operational

leader who might be supported by a multi-disciplinary operational team in directing and

coordinating the responding services such as police, ambulance and fire/rescue at a field

level. The USAR-team will be added to this local field command. In case the disaster

crosses the boundary or the resources limit of a municipality, the queen’s commissioner

(Commissaris van de Koningin/CdK) will be informed. The Queen’s commissioner will

undertake a coordinating role between the municipal/regional level and the national level.

Currently the Queen’s Commissioner has the possibility to delegate a part of his

responsibility, regarding coordinating resources, to the National Operational Coordination

Centre (LOCC). In the event specialist assistance like USAR is needed this is arranged by

law (WRZO 1985). The following procedures are possible for requesting National USAR

assistance:

• The Mayor puts in a formal request for assistance via the Queen’s commissioner

who will grant and forward this request to the Minister of the Interior and Kingdom

Relations. The Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations then grants this

support, consulted by for example the USAR-command.

• In case timely response is needed there is also the possibility for the operational

leader to choose a “fast-track” by informing the mayor and directly contacting the

Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations’ National Coordination Centre

- 54 -

familiar the local/regional level is with requesting and using National USAR assistance

because it has only been (partially) deployed nationally once (August 2007) and it is a

recently established entity.

During an emergency the Mayor of the municipality is, by disaster law, (Wet Rampen en

Zware Ongevallen (WRZO) 1985) the most senior command and control mechanism. The

Mayor is the only mechanism/person that is formally in charge of the operation. In

decision making and coordination, the various mechanisms such as the Mayor, will be

supported by special “policy” teams. These teams are called Municipal or Regional Policy

Teams which deliver strategic support. The Netherlands have also a formal procedure

regarding coordination called GRIP (Coordinated Regional Incident Procedure). This

procedure arranges the Dutch coordination structure if an incident increases in scale.

USAR is not specifically added into this procedure; however the way the procedure is

structured it should make integration of additional resources easily possible.

On an operational/field level the Mayor can delegate his responsibilities to the operational

leader who might be supported by a multi-disciplinary operational team in directing and

coordinating the responding services such as police, ambulance and fire/rescue at a field

level. The USAR-team will be added to this local field command. In case the disaster

crosses the boundary or the resources limit of a municipality, the queen’s commissioner

(Commissaris van de Koningin/CdK) will be informed. The Queen’s commissioner will

undertake a coordinating role between the municipal/regional level and the national level.

Currently the Queen’s Commissioner has the possibility to delegate a part of his

responsibility, regarding coordinating resources, to the National Operational Coordination

Centre (LOCC). In the event specialist assistance like USAR is needed this is arranged by

law (WRZO 1985). The following procedures are possible for requesting National USAR

assistance:

• The Mayor puts in a formal request for assistance via the Queen’s commissioner

who will grant and forward this request to the Minister of the Interior and Kingdom

Relations. The Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations then grants this

support, consulted by for example the USAR-command.

• In case timely response is needed there is also the possibility for the operational

leader to choose a “fast-track” by informing the mayor and directly contacting the

Ministry of the Interior and Kingdom Relations’ National Coordination Centre

- 55 -

(NCC) who then will contact the USAR command. If this “fast-track” is used the

formal procedure must still be followed afterwards.

Figure 5.3 below shows an overview of the various mechanisms at this level and their

linkages.

Figure 5.3: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands

Fire and Rescue Services

Police Forces Medical Assistance Services

(GGD/GHOR)

Public and Private bodies from which

support can be requested, e.g. Army

Operational Leader / Operational Team

(Coordinating) Mayor of

Municipality

Queen’s Commissioner

Municipal and/or Regional Policy

Team (GBT/RBT)

Provincial Coordination

Plan

Disaster Plan

Disaster Relief Plan

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination


Center

USAR Staff

- 55 -

(NCC) who then will contact the USAR command. If this “fast-track” is used the

formal procedure must still be followed afterwards.

Figure 5.3 below shows an overview of the various mechanisms at this level and their

linkages.

Figure 5.3: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands



(GGD/GHOR)



Operational Leader / Operational Team

(Coordinating) Mayor of

Municipality


Municipal and/or Regional Policy

Team (GBT/RBT)


Plan

Disaster Plan

Disaster Relief Plan

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination


Center

USAR Staff

- 56 -

5.1.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands

The link between the local/regional and national level is mainly established by the Queen’s

commissioner. Because the scale of the incident has increased, more resources are needed.

The supporting Coordination Centres within the various mechanisms will deal with the

emergency on this level. They deliver supportive information about the coordination of

resources available in the various regions or within the country. At this level there are

several preparedness plans and other arrangements regarding inter-ministry coordination

and cooperation. However the plans do not contain any information regarding the request

and assistance of international USAR assistance.

Following the local/regional level the Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations

(Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties/BZK) and his National

Coordination Centre will be the most senior mechanism in coordinating and granting

assistance nationally. They will deliver national strategic support with respect to the

incident. The National Coordination Centre supports the Minister with strategic and policy

matters. The National Operational Command Centre (LOCC) within the Ministry of

Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations will coordinate operational resources regarding the

incident. The USAR command is directly linked to the LOCC and will be informed

immediately. It is also possible that the USAR command initiates the possibility to deliver

assistance through the LOCC or directly to the local/regional command. Before USAR is

deployed, the USAR command and the Ministry have to be consulted and give their

approval.

Figure 5.4 on the next page gives an overview of the linkages of the various mechanisms

during an emergency on a National level.

- 56 -

5.1.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands

The link between the local/regional and national level is mainly established by the Queen’s

commissioner. Because the scale of the incident has increased, more resources are needed.

The supporting Coordination Centres within the various mechanisms will deal with the

emergency on this level. They deliver supportive information about the coordination of

resources available in the various regions or within the country. At this level there are

several preparedness plans and other arrangements regarding inter-ministry coordination

and cooperation. However the plans do not contain any information regarding the request

and assistance of international USAR assistance.

Following the local/regional level the Minister of the Interior and Kingdom Relations

(Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties/BZK) and his National

Coordination Centre will be the most senior mechanism in coordinating and granting

assistance nationally. They will deliver national strategic support with respect to the

incident. The National Coordination Centre supports the Minister with strategic and policy

matters. The National Operational Command Centre (LOCC) within the Ministry of

Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations will coordinate operational resources regarding the

incident. The USAR command is directly linked to the LOCC and will be informed

immediately. It is also possible that the USAR command initiates the possibility to deliver

assistance through the LOCC or directly to the local/regional command. Before USAR is

deployed, the USAR command and the Ministry have to be consulted and give their

approval.

Figure 5.4 on the next page gives an overview of the linkages of the various mechanisms

during an emergency on a National level.

- 57 -

Figure 5.4: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands

5.1.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands

The Ministry of Internal Affairs will be the most senior ministry when requesting

International Support as it is also coordinating domestic affairs (with other ministries). It

also has the general overview of resources needed because it gathers all the information. It

is however not agreed how international USAR support will be called in, neither is there a

procedure or other arrangements as to how international USAR assistance would be

supported during arrival with, for example, logistics, communications and customs through

setting up an RDC.


Minister of the Interior & Kingdom

Relations

National Coordination

Centers (NCC/LOCC)


Center

Other Ministries e.g. Foreign Affairs,

Defense

USAR Command

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Departmental Coordination

Centers


Plan

INSARAG National Focal

Point

- 57 -

Figure 5.4: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands

5.1.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in The Netherlands

The Ministry of Internal Affairs will be the most senior ministry when requesting

International Support as it is also coordinating domestic affairs (with other ministries). It

also has the general overview of resources needed because it gathers all the information. It

is however not agreed how international USAR support will be called in, neither is there a

procedure or other arrangements as to how international USAR assistance would be

supported during arrival with, for example, logistics, communications and customs through

setting up an RDC.



Relations


Centers (NCC/LOCC)


Center

Other Ministries e.g. Foreign Affairs,

Defense

USAR Command

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Departmental Coordination

Centers


Plan

INSARAG National Focal

Point

- 58 -

Because USAR.NL is classified as a “heavy” USAR team it is likely that they will start

setting-up an OSOCC and deliver support while running an RDC. However this is not

formally arranged. As the emergency evolves over time USAR.NL will needs international

support from experts such as UNDAC in running these mechanisms.

While there are no formal specific procedures on how USAR assistance will be requested

from the national to the international level it is also not pre-defined what has to happen

before international USAR assistance might be called in. This depends on the

circumstances such as the national availability of resources and the scale/type of disaster. It

is assumed that the Minster of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations consulted by the

National Coordination Centre will send out the request if necessary. It is also assumed that

they will take into account the expertise and professionalism of assisting international

teams when accepting their assistance.

Besides the above mentioned there are no procedures regarding requesting international

support. Although it is assumed that the international community will be alerted through

the V-OSOCC. There are also no procedures or structures in place on how international

USAR support will be added to the previously described local/regional and national

emergency structure. The elements communication, information and chain of command are

not formally arranged nationally. It is assumed that USAR will use its own, separate,

structure through the OSOCC that will be set up. It then will operate besides, but in close

cooperation, with the national mechanisms and coordination centres. In particular the local

command will play a vital role when directing international USAR teams via the OSOCC.

On the next page a graphical overview (figure 5.5) of the possible situation for requesting

international support is given.

- 58 -

Because USAR.NL is classified as a “heavy” USAR team it is likely that they will start

setting-up an OSOCC and deliver support while running an RDC. However this is not

formally arranged. As the emergency evolves over time USAR.NL will needs international

support from experts such as UNDAC in running these mechanisms.

While there are no formal specific procedures on how USAR assistance will be requested

from the national to the international level it is also not pre-defined what has to happen

before international USAR assistance might be called in. This depends on the

circumstances such as the national availability of resources and the scale/type of disaster. It

is assumed that the Minster of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations consulted by the

National Coordination Centre will send out the request if necessary. It is also assumed that

they will take into account the expertise and professionalism of assisting international

teams when accepting their assistance.

Besides the above mentioned there are no procedures regarding requesting international

support. Although it is assumed that the international community will be alerted through

the V-OSOCC. There are also no procedures or structures in place on how international

USAR support will be added to the previously described local/regional and national

emergency structure. The elements communication, information and chain of command are

not formally arranged nationally. It is assumed that USAR will use its own, separate,

structure through the OSOCC that will be set up. It then will operate besides, but in close

cooperation, with the national mechanisms and coordination centres. In particular the local

command will play a vital role when directing international USAR teams via the OSOCC.

On the next page a graphical overview (figure 5.5) of the possible situation for requesting


- 59 -

Figure 5.5: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands

5.1.4.1 Cross-Boundary USAR coordination and Preparedness The Netherlands have bilateral agreements regarding response and support in case of

emergencies with Germany and Belgium. There is an ongoing project regarding close

cooperation when responding to Emergencies in the border areas. However the outcomes

are not known yet. This project also focuses on a small area and it is assumed that the

national Emergency services will respond according to the structure that is applicable for

the country they are responding to i.e. if the Dutch teams are assisting Germany they will

adapt to the German system and might not use international/European “standards” or

agreed procedures.

5.1.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “The Netherlands Model”

Combining the various diagrams leads to the “Dutch USAR Model” presented on the next

page (figure 5.6). This model is created according to the same procedures as mentioned

previously in the modelling chapter for creating the “International/EU USAR model”.

Following are the outcomes of the pattern-layering process (figure 5.7).

EU Civil Protection EU-MIC


Relations


Centers (NCC/LOCC)

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

UN OCHA / FCSS V-OSOCC

Responding Countries

Germany

Belgium

- 59 -

Figure 5.5: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in The Netherlands

5.1.4.1 Cross-Boundary USAR coordination and Preparedness The Netherlands have bilateral agreements regarding response and support in case of

emergencies with Germany and Belgium. There is an ongoing project regarding close

cooperation when responding to Emergencies in the border areas. However the outcomes

are not known yet. This project also focuses on a small area and it is assumed that the

national Emergency services will respond according to the structure that is applicable for

the country they are responding to i.e. if the Dutch teams are assisting Germany they will

adapt to the German system and might not use international/European “standards” or

agreed procedures.

5.1.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “The Netherlands Model”

Combining the various diagrams leads to the “Dutch USAR Model” presented on the next

page (figure 5.6). This model is created according to the same procedures as mentioned

previously in the modelling chapter for creating the “International/EU USAR model”.

Following are the outcomes of the pattern-layering process (figure 5.7).



Relations


Centers (NCC/LOCC)

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination



Germany

Belgium

- 60 -

Figure 5.6: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “The Netherlands”

- 60 -

Figure 5.6: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “The Netherlands”

- 61 -

Figure 5.7: Overview of comparison “The Netherlands Model” and “International/EU USAR Model

- 61 -

Figure 5.7: Overview of comparison “The Netherlands Model” and “International/EU USAR Model

- 62 -

5.2 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Sweden

5.2.1 Background Swedish Search and Rescue Services

Figure 5.8: Organisation SRSA

(Swedish Räddningsverkets 2007a) The Swedish USAR team was established in 1991 and it was set up to be deployed

internationally as a heavy USAR team. The USAR team is part of the humanitarian- and

international development support Sweden offers. The team is deployed and maintained by

the Swedish Rescue Services Agency’s (SRSA) international Department (see figure 5.8)

which works closely with the ministry of Defense and Foreign Affairs. SRSA offers a

wider range of international support to various countries in the world and in various chains

of the disaster cycle. SRSA helps internationally in for example preparedness and

awareness (SRSA 2007b).

The Swedish international USAR team is set up and equipped according to the INSARAG

guidelines and methodology (2006) thus having Command, Staff, Support, Search and

Rescue (including medical treatment) elements (see figure 5.9).

According to SRSA Sweden is most likely to have the following hazards that might lead to

structural collapse and USAR assistance:

• Landslides

• Large Storms

• Gas-explosions or other human-made events

• Multiple Dam Breaks causing heavy flood waves

• Terrorist Attacks

- 62 -

5.2 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Sweden

5.2.1 Background Swedish Search and Rescue Services

Figure 5.8: Organisation SRSA

(Swedish Räddningsverkets 2007a) The Swedish USAR team was established in 1991 and it was set up to be deployed

internationally as a heavy USAR team. The USAR team is part of the humanitarian- and

international development support Sweden offers. The team is deployed and maintained by

the Swedish Rescue Services Agency’s (SRSA) international Department (see figure 5.8)

which works closely with the ministry of Defense and Foreign Affairs. SRSA offers a

wider range of international support to various countries in the world and in various chains

of the disaster cycle. SRSA helps internationally in for example preparedness and

awareness (SRSA 2007b).

The Swedish international USAR team is set up and equipped according to the INSARAG

guidelines and methodology (2006) thus having Command, Staff, Support, Search and

Rescue (including medical treatment) elements (see figure 5.9).

According to SRSA Sweden is most likely to have the following hazards that might lead to

structural collapse and USAR assistance:

• Landslides

• Large Storms

• Gas-explosions or other human-made events

• Multiple Dam Breaks causing heavy flood waves

• Terrorist Attacks

- 63 -

Figure 5.9: Overview of the International Swedish USAR team

(Source: Norlin 2007)

5.2.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden In Sweden the municipality has an important role regarding preparedness planning. Most

of the Fire and Rescue preparedness is planned and conducted at a local level, by the

municipal Fire and Rescue Services. These preparedness plans or “plans of actions” as they

are also called, should be based on local circumstances and risks. They also arrange

agreements with other municipalities regarding mutual-aid. The “plans of action” contain:

Management 1 teamleader 1 deputy teamleader

Staff 1 chief of staff 1 deputy chief of staff 2 staff assistent 2 communication 1 information 1 canine coordinator 1 medical doctor 2 interpreter ----------------------------- 1 liaison officer

On scene command 1 On scene commander 1 communication

Support Recce

1 chief 1 chef 3 technichan 1 medical nurse

1 chief 3 rescuer

Block A 1 chief Rescue group 1 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 2 medical nurse Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian Rescue group 2 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 1 medical nurse 1 medical doctor Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian

Block B 1 chief Rescue group 3 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 2 medical nurse Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian Rescue group 4 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 2 medical nurse Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian

Medical treatment area

3 rescuer 2 medical nurse 1 medical doctor

- 63 -

Figure 5.9: Overview of the International Swedish USAR team

(Source: Norlin 2007)

5.2.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden In Sweden the municipality has an important role regarding preparedness planning. Most

of the Fire and Rescue preparedness is planned and conducted at a local level, by the

municipal Fire and Rescue Services. These preparedness plans or “plans of actions” as they

are also called, should be based on local circumstances and risks. They also arrange

agreements with other municipalities regarding mutual-aid. The “plans of action” contain:

Management 1 teamleader 1 deputy teamleader

Staff 1 chief of staff 1 deputy chief of staff 2 staff assistent 2 communication 1 information 1 canine coordinator 1 medical doctor 2 interpreter ----------------------------- 1 liaison officer

On scene command 1 On scene commander 1 communication

Support Recce

1 chief 1 chef 3 technichan 1 medical nurse

1 chief 3 rescuer

Block A 1 chief Rescue group 1 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 2 medical nurse Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian Rescue group 2 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 1 medical nurse 1 medical doctor Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian

Block B 1 chief Rescue group 3 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 2 medical nurse Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian Rescue group 4 1 rescue officer Rescue 3 rescuer 2 medical nurse Canine 3 Canine/handler 1 safety officer Technical search 2 technichian

Medical treatment area

3 rescuer 2 medical nurse 1 medical doctor

- 64 -

• aims and objectives for prevention and response

• a description of risks which might lead to rescue operations

• available resources

• organisational structure of the response

The plans are reviewed by the County Administrative Board (CAB) and they will report to

the Swedish Rescue Services Agency (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002 – Swedish

Rädnningsverkets 2007c). However the county also makes its own plans for specific

incidents such as flooding, forest fires and nuclear events.

Sweden currently does not have structures in place to deploy their USAR-team nationally.

USAR therefore is not part of the planning process in Sweden and the local organisation

might not be familiar with it. The organisations and personnel taking part in the

international team working for local organisations however are likely to be familiar with

USAR and its procedures. In the various plans attention is paid to “daily” rescue works

conducted by the Fire and Rescue Services. Examples are car extrication or small collapsed

structures and apartment fires that can be dealt with using local resources. Presently there

is a proposal to develop USAR-rescue teams using personnel from the bigger

municipalities (Stockholm, Göteborg and Malmö). These municipalities already have

specialist USAR equipment stored at their stations. The equipment that is used for

international USAR nevertheless is stored at the SRSA. Creating these “municipal” based

rescue teams might lead to the development of a “local” USAR capacity covering the most

densely populated areas in Sweden.

During an emergency the “räddningsledare” or “rescue leader” is the most important

mechanism in command and control of the rescue organisations such as fire and rescue

services. It is also the most important mechanism when coordinating resources at a local

and regional level although it is not in command of Police, Medical and other bodies. The

rescue leader has a powerful role within the community during an emergency. The rescue

leader, for example, can force companies and private persons to have their resources used

in a rescue operation. This depends on the incident. The Rescue Leader can also call in

search dogs via the Swedish Search Dog Association to execute a search mission. A search

mission however is under the responsibility of the Police, thus the Rescue leader will be a

police officer. Normally the rescue leader during USAR tasks is a Fire and Rescue Chief or

someone appointed by this Chief. In case of bombs or terrorist threats again the Police

- 64 -

• aims and objectives for prevention and response

• a description of risks which might lead to rescue operations

• available resources

• organisational structure of the response

The plans are reviewed by the County Administrative Board (CAB) and they will report to

the Swedish Rescue Services Agency (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002 – Swedish

Rädnningsverkets 2007c). However the county also makes its own plans for specific

incidents such as flooding, forest fires and nuclear events.

Sweden currently does not have structures in place to deploy their USAR-team nationally.

USAR therefore is not part of the planning process in Sweden and the local organisation

might not be familiar with it. The organisations and personnel taking part in the

international team working for local organisations however are likely to be familiar with

USAR and its procedures. In the various plans attention is paid to “daily” rescue works

conducted by the Fire and Rescue Services. Examples are car extrication or small collapsed

structures and apartment fires that can be dealt with using local resources. Presently there

is a proposal to develop USAR-rescue teams using personnel from the bigger

municipalities (Stockholm, Göteborg and Malmö). These municipalities already have

specialist USAR equipment stored at their stations. The equipment that is used for

international USAR nevertheless is stored at the SRSA. Creating these “municipal” based

rescue teams might lead to the development of a “local” USAR capacity covering the most

densely populated areas in Sweden.

During an emergency the “räddningsledare” or “rescue leader” is the most important

mechanism in command and control of the rescue organisations such as fire and rescue

services. It is also the most important mechanism when coordinating resources at a local

and regional level although it is not in command of Police, Medical and other bodies. The

rescue leader has a powerful role within the community during an emergency. The rescue

leader, for example, can force companies and private persons to have their resources used

in a rescue operation. This depends on the incident. The Rescue Leader can also call in

search dogs via the Swedish Search Dog Association to execute a search mission. A search

mission however is under the responsibility of the Police, thus the Rescue leader will be a

police officer. Normally the rescue leader during USAR tasks is a Fire and Rescue Chief or

someone appointed by this Chief. In case of bombs or terrorist threats again the Police

- 65 -

Incident Commander will fulfil this role. The Rescue leader might be supported during an

emergency in coordination by the Joint Staff of the Fire and Rescue Services. Depending

on the scale and kind of the disaster the rescue leader will be either an agreed person of

two (or more) municipalities or someone appointed or delivered by the County

Administrative Board. When requesting support from other municipalities the Rescue

leader can directly contact his counterpart in another municipality who will decide if the

proper resources are available to respond. Otherwise the Rescue leader can also contact the

SRSA Duty Officer at a National level.

Figure 5.10 below shows the various local/regional mechanisms and their linkages.

Figure 5.10: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Fire and Rescue Service\




Rescue Leader / Rädnningsledaren

(municipal or county

Municipality

County

Specific Disaster Plans

(County)

Plan of Action (Municipality)

Supporting Municipality Rescue

Leader (Other Municipality)

Joint Staff

- 65 -

Incident Commander will fulfil this role. The Rescue leader might be supported during an

emergency in coordination by the Joint Staff of the Fire and Rescue Services. Depending

on the scale and kind of the disaster the rescue leader will be either an agreed person of

two (or more) municipalities or someone appointed or delivered by the County

Administrative Board. When requesting support from other municipalities the Rescue

leader can directly contact his counterpart in another municipality who will decide if the

proper resources are available to respond. Otherwise the Rescue leader can also contact the

SRSA Duty Officer at a National level.

Figure 5.10 below shows the various local/regional mechanisms and their linkages.

Figure 5.10: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Fire and Rescue Service\






Municipality

County

Specific Disaster Plans

(County)

Plan of Action (Municipality)

Supporting Municipality Rescue

Leader (Other Municipality)

Joint Staff

- 66 -

5.2.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden The link between the local/county level and the national level in Sweden is established

mainly through the rescue leader who contacts the SRSA Duty Officer. SRSA is the

supervisory authority for Municipal Fire and Rescue Services and has an important role in

coordinating and supporting the local/county level regarding strategic information with

respect to information about available resources. SRSA also coordinates the deployment of

the USAR team internationally and owns/ maintains the heavy-rescue equipment for this

team.

After scaling up to a National level the local command and control will not change and the

various other mechanisms will have a supportive role. The SRSA will be coordinate

between the ministries and government. They will also arrange the requests for assistance

and inform the questioner about the decision on it. Figure 5.11 below gives an overview of

the above described processes.

Figure 5.11: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden

5.2.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden Sweden does not have procedures or policy in place regarding the request of international

USAR assistance. They also have no formal arrangements on how the international

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Minister of Defense

Government

SRSA



- 66 -

5.2.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden The link between the local/county level and the national level in Sweden is established

mainly through the rescue leader who contacts the SRSA Duty Officer. SRSA is the

supervisory authority for Municipal Fire and Rescue Services and has an important role in

coordinating and supporting the local/county level regarding strategic information with

respect to information about available resources. SRSA also coordinates the deployment of

the USAR team internationally and owns/ maintains the heavy-rescue equipment for this

team.

After scaling up to a National level the local command and control will not change and the

various other mechanisms will have a supportive role. The SRSA will be coordinate

between the ministries and government. They will also arrange the requests for assistance

and inform the questioner about the decision on it. Figure 5.11 below gives an overview of

the above described processes.

Figure 5.11: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden

5.2.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Sweden Sweden does not have procedures or policy in place regarding the request of international

USAR assistance. They also have no formal arrangements on how the international

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Minister of Defense

Government

SRSA



- 67 -

community will be informed through V-OSOCC or CECIS. This is due to the assumed low

risk of (events causing) structural collapse in Sweden. However it is most likely that SRSA

will play an important role in requesting international USAR assistance because they are

familiar with it as part of their work. There is also no procedure for starting up an RDC or

OSOCC on a Regional or National level while awaiting international support. Again it is

likely that SRSA will be supportive and coordinate this effort, however this depends on the

circumstances and the disaster scale. Once the mechanisms such as RDC and OSOCC are

set up, there may be need of international support to achieve endurance.

There is no procedure that provides information when international USAR support must be

requested, such as when the Swedish resources are overwhelmed. However when this may

be, is unknown. The main reason for calling in international support will be a lack of

specialist equipment and personnel. Although this is difficult to foresee as it depends on

the scale and type of the disaster.

It is most likely that SRSA in cooperation with the Ministry of Foreign of Affairs and the

Swedish Government will send out a request for international USAR assistance through the

EU-MIC and UN-OCHA mechanisms. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the

Government will approve this request before sending out and will also review the

incoming grants for assistance. It should be taken into account that not all teams will

announce themselves but some might “just” arrive in case of disaster. There are no

preparedness procedures in place and only one exercise in 2007 was executed taking into

account the support of incoming international teams. As a result experience is limited and

the outcomes of this exercise need to be implemented.

Although there are no formal procedures concerning implementing the international

mechanisms such as RDC and OSOCC within the Swedish Emergency System, Sweden

will strive to follow the INSARAG guidelines and methodology. This implies that the

international Teams will be assigned by the OSOCC and cooperate with the SRSA and the

rescue leader. SRSA might support the rescue leader with a supporting assessment team on

scene. The OSOCC, will then coordinate the international teams although these teams will

closely cooperate at a local level with the Rescue Leader or an assistant. These are

suggestive proposals as there are no formal arrangements.

- 67 -

community will be informed through V-OSOCC or CECIS. This is due to the assumed low

risk of (events causing) structural collapse in Sweden. However it is most likely that SRSA

will play an important role in requesting international USAR assistance because they are

familiar with it as part of their work. There is also no procedure for starting up an RDC or

OSOCC on a Regional or National level while awaiting international support. Again it is

likely that SRSA will be supportive and coordinate this effort, however this depends on the

circumstances and the disaster scale. Once the mechanisms such as RDC and OSOCC are

set up, there may be need of international support to achieve endurance.

There is no procedure that provides information when international USAR support must be

requested, such as when the Swedish resources are overwhelmed. However when this may

be, is unknown. The main reason for calling in international support will be a lack of

specialist equipment and personnel. Although this is difficult to foresee as it depends on

the scale and type of the disaster.

It is most likely that SRSA in cooperation with the Ministry of Foreign of Affairs and the

Swedish Government will send out a request for international USAR assistance through the

EU-MIC and UN-OCHA mechanisms. The Ministry of Foreign Affairs and the

Government will approve this request before sending out and will also review the

incoming grants for assistance. It should be taken into account that not all teams will

announce themselves but some might “just” arrive in case of disaster. There are no

preparedness procedures in place and only one exercise in 2007 was executed taking into

account the support of incoming international teams. As a result experience is limited and

the outcomes of this exercise need to be implemented.

Although there are no formal procedures concerning implementing the international

mechanisms such as RDC and OSOCC within the Swedish Emergency System, Sweden

will strive to follow the INSARAG guidelines and methodology. This implies that the

international Teams will be assigned by the OSOCC and cooperate with the SRSA and the

rescue leader. SRSA might support the rescue leader with a supporting assessment team on

scene. The OSOCC, will then coordinate the international teams although these teams will

closely cooperate at a local level with the Rescue Leader or an assistant. These are

suggestive proposals as there are no formal arrangements.

- 68 -

Currently the reception of international USAR assistance is under review by the SRSA in

cooperation with the Swedish Emergency Management Agency (SEMA) as a result of the

failures in the United States during Hurricane Katrina.

Below a graphical overview (figure 5.12) of the possible situation for requesting


Figure 5.12: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden

SRSA

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination




Government of Sweden

Ministry of Foreign Affairs

Estonia

Lithuania

Latvia

INSARAG National

Focal Point

- 68 -

Currently the reception of international USAR assistance is under review by the SRSA in

cooperation with the Swedish Emergency Management Agency (SEMA) as a result of the

failures in the United States during Hurricane Katrina.

Below a graphical overview (figure 5.12) of the possible situation for requesting


Figure 5.12: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in Sweden

SRSA

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination




Government of Sweden


Estonia

Lithuania

Latvia

INSARAG National

Focal Point

- 69 -

5.2.4.1 Cross-Boundary Assistance Cross boundary assistance between Nordic countries is based on the NORDRED

agreement 1989 (NORDRED 2007) and varies per municipality as this level is responsible

for arranging coordination and arranging preparedness measures (Swedish

Rädnningsverkets 2007c). There are no general or national guidelines or procedures

available. It depends on the municipality and the type of incident. For example the Öresund

region is very active in arranging cross-boundary command and control and coordination

of responses because of the bridge between Denmark and Sweden.

Most organisations will respond according to the normal mechanisms and command and

control structures in place in the country they are operating in. Sweden currently has

bilateral agreements with Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. These agreements are based on the

historical contribution of Sweden to the capacity building in these countries after these

Baltic States became independent form Russia (USSR).

SRSA has agreements with Russia and Ukraine regarding rescue support. Sweden is also

active within NORDRED, which is a common effort regarding rescue response between

Denmark, Finland, Norway, Iceland and Sweden.

5.2.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Swedish Model” Following is a combination of the previously explained diagrammatical models regarding

USAR preparedness and coordination in Sweden. This model again used the same

modelling approach as was used for the “International/EU USAR model” (see figure 5.13)

described in chapter four and is followed with the outcomes of pattern-layering (see figure

5.14).

- 69 -

5.2.4.1 Cross-Boundary Assistance Cross boundary assistance between Nordic countries is based on the NORDRED

agreement 1989 (NORDRED 2007) and varies per municipality as this level is responsible

for arranging coordination and arranging preparedness measures (Swedish

Rädnningsverkets 2007c). There are no general or national guidelines or procedures

available. It depends on the municipality and the type of incident. For example the Öresund

region is very active in arranging cross-boundary command and control and coordination

of responses because of the bridge between Denmark and Sweden.

Most organisations will respond according to the normal mechanisms and command and

control structures in place in the country they are operating in. Sweden currently has

bilateral agreements with Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia. These agreements are based on the

historical contribution of Sweden to the capacity building in these countries after these

Baltic States became independent form Russia (USSR).

SRSA has agreements with Russia and Ukraine regarding rescue support. Sweden is also

active within NORDRED, which is a common effort regarding rescue response between

Denmark, Finland, Norway, Iceland and Sweden.

5.2.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Swedish Model” Following is a combination of the previously explained diagrammatical models regarding

USAR preparedness and coordination in Sweden. This model again used the same

modelling approach as was used for the “International/EU USAR model” (see figure 5.13)

described in chapter four and is followed with the outcomes of pattern-layering (see figure

5.14).

- 70 -

Figure 5.13: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Sweden”

- 70 -

Figure 5.13: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Sweden”

- 71 -

Figure 5.14: Overview of comparison “Swedish Model” and “International/EU USAR Model”

- 71 -

Figure 5.14: Overview of comparison “Swedish Model” and “International/EU USAR Model”

- 72 -

5.3 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Estonia

5.3.1 Introduction Estonian Disaster Relief Team The Estonian Disaster Relief Team (EDRT) was established in 1997 as an ad-hoc response

to fight a large forest fire in Estonia and to take part in the NATO/Partnership for peace

Exercise in 1997. The team was legalized by Government declaration in 2001. In the past

there was a strong military influence in the EDRT team as it was funded by the ministry of

defence, this however changed over the years and nowadays the team consists of

professional Fire and Rescue Workers working for and funded by the Estonian Rescue

Board (Estonian Disaster Relief Team 2007). Figure 5.15 gives an organisational overview

of EDRT in relation to the National system.

Figure 5.15: Organisation Estonian Disaster Relief Team (Source adapted from Estonian Disaster Relief Team 2007)

According to EDRT, Estonia faces the following hazards that might lead to the execution

of USAR:

• Forest Fires

• Storms and Flooding

• Spontaneous building collapse

• Terrorism

Response Coordination Centre (24 Hrs.)

Estonian Rescue Board

Team Members


Ministry of Interior Ministry of Finance

GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC

- 72 -

5.3 USAR Coordination and Preparedness: Estonia

5.3.1 Introduction Estonian Disaster Relief Team The Estonian Disaster Relief Team (EDRT) was established in 1997 as an ad-hoc response

to fight a large forest fire in Estonia and to take part in the NATO/Partnership for peace

Exercise in 1997. The team was legalized by Government declaration in 2001. In the past

there was a strong military influence in the EDRT team as it was funded by the ministry of

defence, this however changed over the years and nowadays the team consists of

professional Fire and Rescue Workers working for and funded by the Estonian Rescue

Board (Estonian Disaster Relief Team 2007). Figure 5.15 gives an organisational overview

of EDRT in relation to the National system.


According to EDRT, Estonia faces the following hazards that might lead to the execution

of USAR:

• Forest Fires

• Storms and Flooding

• Spontaneous building collapse

• Terrorism

Response Coordination Centre (24 Hrs.)

Estonian Rescue Board

Team Members


Ministry of Interior Ministry of Finance

GOVERNMENT OF THE REPUBLIC

- 73 -


In the beginning EDRT only contained Search and Rescue, Staff and a Field Hospital.

Later the team was expanded by adding Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) and Hazard

Materials (HAZMAT)/Chemical Specialists to it. Nowadays the USAR/EDRT Team has

the following range of possible missions:

• Urban Search & Rescue (Medium to Heavy according to INSARAG

classification)

• Medical assistance

• Chemical rescue and decontamination

• Explosive ordnance disposal

• Logistical support

(See figure 5.16)

The team can be deployed internationally within 24 hours and has a readiness of 40

specialists.

STAFF Logistics unit, incl.

Communication (EST-LOG)

SAR UNIT (EST-SAR)

Medical UNIT (EST-MED)

Chemical UNIT (EST-CHEM

Media Officer

Disaster Preparedness Support Office (DPSO)

= Home Base

- 73 -


In the beginning EDRT only contained Search and Rescue, Staff and a Field Hospital.

Later the team was expanded by adding Explosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) and Hazard

Materials (HAZMAT)/Chemical Specialists to it. Nowadays the USAR/EDRT Team has

the following range of possible missions:

• Urban Search & Rescue (Medium to Heavy according to INSARAG

classification)

• Medical assistance

• Chemical rescue and decontamination

• Explosive ordnance disposal

• Logistical support

(See figure 5.16)

The team can be deployed internationally within 24 hours and has a readiness of 40

specialists.

STAFF Logistics unit, incl.

Communication (EST-LOG)

SAR UNIT (EST-SAR)

Medical UNIT (EST-MED)

Chemical UNIT (EST-CHEM

Media Officer

Disaster Preparedness Support Office (DPSO)

= Home Base

- 74 -

5.3.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia Estonia has various preparedness plans within the different coordination levels. The most

important level for planning, but also response, is the county/regional level. Especially the

Regional Rescue Centres play a vital supporting role in this planning process at local and

county level besides their other main tasks:

• Fire Fighting and Rescue Works

• Fire Safety Supervision

• Crisis Management

• Prevention Activities

At a municipal level in rural municipalities and cities, crisis management plans containing

information regarding organisational response should be in place. The coordination for

these plans lies with the county Governor who will be supported by the Estonian Rescue

Board. Crisis management plans are established on county level. These plans contain

information about possible emergencies within the county and the response to these

emergencies such as law enforcement, goods supply and cooperation with defence. Crisis

management planning is arranged by the Emergency Preparedness Act 2002 (Rescue.ee

2007). The use of national USAR assistance and resources is not embedded in these plans

or structured within the various preparedness mechanisms in place such as the Rescue

Centres. Although the plans contain information about local/county rescue works

conducted by the Fire and Rescue Services as part of their “daily” tasks, such as car

extrication. It should be noted that Estonia is a small country which can use very direct

lines between the different mechanisms using ad-hoc based support from various people or

(response) mechanisms. These direct lines affect the familiarity with USAR on a

local/county level when requesting and using it. However it is not formally arranged how

USAR will be promoted in the emergency system.

The most important command and control mechanism during a USAR operation on a local

level in Estonia is the highest Fire-Officer in charge or the “Rescue Work Coordinator”.

This mechanism has the authority to request private equipment and manpower to be used

in rescue works besides Fire and Rescue Services, Police and Ambulance. The Rescue

Work Coordinator will have the command and control but also coordination of the rescue

works. The actual works are conducted by professional Fire and Rescue Services

(supported by voluntary fire units). Communication and coordination support between the

- 74 -

5.3.2 Local/Regional USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia Estonia has various preparedness plans within the different coordination levels. The most

important level for planning, but also response, is the county/regional level. Especially the

Regional Rescue Centres play a vital supporting role in this planning process at local and

county level besides their other main tasks:

• Fire Fighting and Rescue Works

• Fire Safety Supervision

• Crisis Management

• Prevention Activities

At a municipal level in rural municipalities and cities, crisis management plans containing

information regarding organisational response should be in place. The coordination for

these plans lies with the county Governor who will be supported by the Estonian Rescue

Board. Crisis management plans are established on county level. These plans contain

information about possible emergencies within the county and the response to these

emergencies such as law enforcement, goods supply and cooperation with defence. Crisis

management planning is arranged by the Emergency Preparedness Act 2002 (Rescue.ee

2007). The use of national USAR assistance and resources is not embedded in these plans

or structured within the various preparedness mechanisms in place such as the Rescue

Centres. Although the plans contain information about local/county rescue works

conducted by the Fire and Rescue Services as part of their “daily” tasks, such as car

extrication. It should be noted that Estonia is a small country which can use very direct

lines between the different mechanisms using ad-hoc based support from various people or

(response) mechanisms. These direct lines affect the familiarity with USAR on a

local/county level when requesting and using it. However it is not formally arranged how

USAR will be promoted in the emergency system.

The most important command and control mechanism during a USAR operation on a local

level in Estonia is the highest Fire-Officer in charge or the “Rescue Work Coordinator”.

This mechanism has the authority to request private equipment and manpower to be used

in rescue works besides Fire and Rescue Services, Police and Ambulance. The Rescue

Work Coordinator will have the command and control but also coordination of the rescue

works. The actual works are conducted by professional Fire and Rescue Services

(supported by voluntary fire units). Communication and coordination support between the

- 75 -

field (Rescue Work Coordinator) and the Governmental mechanisms such as the crisis

management commissions is mainly via the Regional Rescue Centre. If Emergencies

evolve, the Rescue Work Coordinator will be supported and controlled by the Emergency

Situation Response Coordinator. The Emergency Situation Response Coordinator is a

higher authority and can directly give orders to the municipal or county government. The

Emergency Situation Response Coordinator can request national USAR support directly

through the Estonian Rescue Board. However it is not pre-arranged when national USAR

support should be requested. It should be taken into account that the USAR organisation is

established using professional Fire and Rescue Workers and they will be part of USAR

alongside their “daily job”. If the affected area covers bigger parts of Estonia most of these

workers will already be involved in the disaster and the national USAR capacity might not

be sufficient to be deployed as a “team”. At this time there is no formal procedure for

requesting national USAR team support and in the past it has been done ad-hoc using

informal USAR contacts.

On the next page in figure 5.17 an organisational structure can be found showing the

various local/county response mechanisms and their links.

- 75 -

field (Rescue Work Coordinator) and the Governmental mechanisms such as the crisis

management commissions is mainly via the Regional Rescue Centre. If Emergencies

evolve, the Rescue Work Coordinator will be supported and controlled by the Emergency

Situation Response Coordinator. The Emergency Situation Response Coordinator is a

higher authority and can directly give orders to the municipal or county government. The

Emergency Situation Response Coordinator can request national USAR support directly

through the Estonian Rescue Board. However it is not pre-arranged when national USAR

support should be requested. It should be taken into account that the USAR organisation is

established using professional Fire and Rescue Workers and they will be part of USAR

alongside their “daily job”. If the affected area covers bigger parts of Estonia most of these

workers will already be involved in the disaster and the national USAR capacity might not

be sufficient to be deployed as a “team”. At this time there is no formal procedure for

requesting national USAR team support and in the past it has been done ad-hoc using

informal USAR contacts.

On the next page in figure 5.17 an organisational structure can be found showing the

various local/county response mechanisms and their links.

- 76 -

Figure 5.17: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia

5.3.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia On a National level Estonia also has a crisis management plan. This plan outlines the

various duties of the ministries, State Chancellery and the County governors regarding the

response to emergencies. This National Plan however does not contain information about

using USAR assistance or requesting (international) USAR assistance.





Rescue Work Coordinator /

Emergency Situation Response Coordinator

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

USAR / EDRT STAFF

Local Government

County Government

Local Government Crisis Commission

County Government Crisis Commission

Local Crisis Management

Plan

County Crisis Management

Plan

Regional Rescue Center

- 76 -

Figure 5.17: Diagrammatical Model Local/Regional Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia

5.3.3 National USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia On a National level Estonia also has a crisis management plan. This plan outlines the

various duties of the ministries, State Chancellery and the County governors regarding the

response to emergencies. This National Plan however does not contain information about

using USAR assistance or requesting (international) USAR assistance.





Rescue Work Coordinator /

Emergency Situation Response Coordinator

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

USAR / EDRT STAFF

Local Government

County Government

Local Government Crisis Commission

County Government Crisis Commission

Local Crisis Management

Plan


Plan

Regional Rescue Center

- 77 -

During domestic disasters the Estonian Rescue Board plays an important supportive and

consultative role as they are part of the Ministry of the Interior. During USAR response

they will also fulfil a coordinating role. The Director General of the Board will approve the

request for delivering USAR assistance. This request is most likely to be made by the

Rescue Works Coordinator or Emergency Situation Response Coordinator through the

Rescue Board or EDRT Duty Officer. If the disaster has reached a national scale, the

Government of Estonia will play a vital role as they will establish a Crisis Commission for

coordination and strategic support. This crisis commission is also consulted by the

Estonian Rescue Board.

If the disaster requires international USAR support no pre-defined arrangements are made

regarding procedures and policy. It is likely that the Ministry of the Interior supported by

the Rescue Board will decide if support is needed and put in an international request.

Within EDRT there are two INSARAG National Focal Points responsible for

implementing the INSARAG guidelines and methodology (2006). The National

Emergency System (including USAR/EDRT) as described previously is shown in figure

5.18.

Figure 5.18: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Ministry of the Interior Rescue Board

Government of the Republic

Government Crisis

Commission

County Government County Government Crisis Commission


Plan

National Crisis

Management Plan

USAR / EDRT

Command INSARAG National

Focal Point

- 77 -

During domestic disasters the Estonian Rescue Board plays an important supportive and

consultative role as they are part of the Ministry of the Interior. During USAR response

they will also fulfil a coordinating role. The Director General of the Board will approve the

request for delivering USAR assistance. This request is most likely to be made by the

Rescue Works Coordinator or Emergency Situation Response Coordinator through the

Rescue Board or EDRT Duty Officer. If the disaster has reached a national scale, the

Government of Estonia will play a vital role as they will establish a Crisis Commission for

coordination and strategic support. This crisis commission is also consulted by the

Estonian Rescue Board.

If the disaster requires international USAR support no pre-defined arrangements are made

regarding procedures and policy. It is likely that the Ministry of the Interior supported by

the Rescue Board will decide if support is needed and put in an international request.

Within EDRT there are two INSARAG National Focal Points responsible for

implementing the INSARAG guidelines and methodology (2006). The National

Emergency System (including USAR/EDRT) as described previously is shown in figure

5.18.

Figure 5.18: Diagrammatical Model National Coordination and Preparedness in Estonia

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Ministry of the Interior Rescue Board

Government of the Republic

Government Crisis

Commission

County Government County Government Crisis Commission


Plan

National Crisis

Management Plan

USAR / EDRT

Command INSARAG National

Focal Point

- 78 -

5.3.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia As previously explained the Estonian Government represented by the Ministry of

Interior/Estonian Rescue Board will put in an international request for USAR support.

However it is possible that the Rescue Board will start informing the international

community through V-OSOCC or CECIS in order to save time, however this is not

formally arranged. It is assumed that the request will be forwarded to the international

community through EU, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) or UN-OCHA. There

are no pre-defined arrangements with respect to the intensity of the disasters that can

overwhelm the national resources requiring international USAR assistance. This depends

on various circumstances such as the scale and type of disaster. It also depends on the

national available capacity because EDRT-team members might be deployed to other

countries. This reduces the national capacity and manpower available and cannot be

planned for long in advance.

If international USAR-assistance is provided they will be linked to a National “Point of

Contact” familiar with USAR, however there are no formal procedures for integrating and

supporting international USAR assistance within Estonia. It is assumed that Estonia will

follow the INSARAG guidelines and methodology and that the international teams will do

the same. This implies that there is no change of command and a separate command and

control structure will be assembled, as well as an information structure for international

USAR using the RDC and OSOCC as main mechanisms. The Estonian Rescue Board and

Regional Emergency Centres will be supportive in setting up an RDC and OSOCC. This

might help to link the OSOCC and communication to the appropriate coordination level;

however this has not been formally arranged or tested. The process that could be followed

for requesting international USAR support is shown in figure 5.19 on the next page.

- 78 -

5.3.4 International USAR Preparedness and Coordination in Estonia As previously explained the Estonian Government represented by the Ministry of

Interior/Estonian Rescue Board will put in an international request for USAR support.

However it is possible that the Rescue Board will start informing the international

community through V-OSOCC or CECIS in order to save time, however this is not

formally arranged. It is assumed that the request will be forwarded to the international

community through EU, North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) or UN-OCHA. There

are no pre-defined arrangements with respect to the intensity of the disasters that can

overwhelm the national resources requiring international USAR assistance. This depends

on various circumstances such as the scale and type of disaster. It also depends on the

national available capacity because EDRT-team members might be deployed to other

countries. This reduces the national capacity and manpower available and cannot be

planned for long in advance.

If international USAR-assistance is provided they will be linked to a National “Point of

Contact” familiar with USAR, however there are no formal procedures for integrating and

supporting international USAR assistance within Estonia. It is assumed that Estonia will

follow the INSARAG guidelines and methodology and that the international teams will do

the same. This implies that there is no change of command and a separate command and

control structure will be assembled, as well as an information structure for international

USAR using the RDC and OSOCC as main mechanisms. The Estonian Rescue Board and

Regional Emergency Centres will be supportive in setting up an RDC and OSOCC. This

might help to link the OSOCC and communication to the appropriate coordination level;

however this has not been formally arranged or tested. The process that could be followed

for requesting international USAR support is shown in figure 5.19 on the next page.

- 79 -

Figure 5.19: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in

Estonia

5.3.4.1 Cross-Boundary Preparedness and Coordination The Regional Rescue Centres and the Counties are responsible for having plans in place

regarding cross boundary USAR incidents. However it is assumed that every country will

use their own system regarding the incident and it will adapt to the other system if it

operates in another country. Currently there are no formal procedures where command is

pre-arranged in boundary areas. In case of an emergency command is usual a cooperative

effort.

Estonia has bilateral agreements regarding responding to a disaster with:

- Sweden

- Finland

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Ministry of the Interior

Rescue Board




NATO EADRCC

Finland

Sweden

Latvia

- 79 -

Figure 5.19: Diagrammatical Model suggested International Coordination and Preparedness in

Estonia

5.3.4.1 Cross-Boundary Preparedness and Coordination The Regional Rescue Centres and the Counties are responsible for having plans in place

regarding cross boundary USAR incidents. However it is assumed that every country will

use their own system regarding the incident and it will adapt to the other system if it

operates in another country. Currently there are no formal procedures where command is

pre-arranged in boundary areas. In case of an emergency command is usual a cooperative

effort.

Estonia has bilateral agreements regarding responding to a disaster with:

- Sweden

- Finland

Legend:

Chain of Command

Planning

Flow of Information



Coordination

Ministry of the Interior

Rescue Board




NATO EADRCC

Finland

Sweden

Latvia

- 80 -

- Latvia

These countries can be contacted directly through the Rescue Board. Because of their

history with the Former Russian Republic (USSR) it is less likely that they will accept

Russian support very swiftly.

5.3.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Estonian Model” On the next page the diagrammatical models are combined by creating an “Estonian USAR

Model” for preparedness and coordination structures (see figure 5.20). The model is a

simplified and combined view of the various structures that were previously described. It is

used to be compared with the “International/EU USAR model” as it uses the same

modelling approach (see figure 5.21).

- 80 -

- Latvia

These countries can be contacted directly through the Rescue Board. Because of their

history with the Former Russian Republic (USSR) it is less likely that they will accept

Russian support very swiftly.

5.3.5 Overall USAR Preparedness and Coordination: “Estonian Model” On the next page the diagrammatical models are combined by creating an “Estonian USAR

Model” for preparedness and coordination structures (see figure 5.20). The model is a

simplified and combined view of the various structures that were previously described. It is

used to be compared with the “International/EU USAR model” as it uses the same

modelling approach (see figure 5.21).

- 81 -

Figure 5.20: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Estonia”

- 81 -

Figure 5.20: USAR Preparedness and Coordination Model “Estonia”

- 82 -

Figure 5.21: Overview of comparison “Estonian Model” and “International/EU USAR Model

- 82 -

Figure 5.21: Overview of comparison “Estonian Model” and “International/EU USAR Model

- 83 -

6 DISCUSSION This chapter discusses the previously presented results regarding preparedness and

coordination when requesting and receiving international USAR assistance in the

Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. It will link the results to previous research in order to

give a view of the current situation. It will also critically reflect on the results gathered and

the methodology used.

As previously stated international USAR response is a new and developing field. It began

as an ad-hoc uncoordinated voluntary response mechanism during the Mexican Earthquake

in 1985 (Walker 1991:24). Since then international response, teams and operations evolved

using internationally agreed methods and techniques. INSARAG and its’ guidelines and

methodologies (2006) play an important role in this coordination and preparedness process.

Within Europe the European Commission is becoming more important in terms of Civil

Protection and the necessary coordination and preparedness (including USAR). Unlike the

“voluntary” INSARAG guidelines and methodologies the EU commission decisions are

more mandatory in nature for the member States: Member States should establish and use

the mechanisms proposed by the commission. Although there are “agreements” between

the European Commission and UN OCHA (see annex B) regarding response and

coordination outside EU member states, there is little cooperation or agreement in

communication, coordination and preparedness mechanisms within Europe, as shown in

the “International/EU USAR model”. Currently there are two similar but separated systems

of mechanisms operating; the EU-Civil Protection Mechanism and UN OCHA-INSARAG.

Osei (2007) assumes that “rich countries possess more robust frameworks and response

systems”. This might be true however if there is no coordination or communication

between the various systems both, before and during a disaster, this may lead to chaos on

an international level which may then effect the National and Local response (Erdogan

2006).

Over the last few months Europe has been struck by several disastrous events. The events

varied from large forest fires in the South to floods in the West. Alongside these hazards

there is still the threat of terrorist attacks. These recent events, but also the historic

information presented in figures 1.1 and 1.2 show that the risk profile for the urban areas in

Europe might necessitate more intensive use of USAR in the future. This requires a

broader approach to urban search and rescue than the INSARAG (2006:9) stated response

- 83 -

6 DISCUSSION This chapter discusses the previously presented results regarding preparedness and

coordination when requesting and receiving international USAR assistance in the

Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. It will link the results to previous research in order to

give a view of the current situation. It will also critically reflect on the results gathered and

the methodology used.

As previously stated international USAR response is a new and developing field. It began

as an ad-hoc uncoordinated voluntary response mechanism during the Mexican Earthquake

in 1985 (Walker 1991:24). Since then international response, teams and operations evolved

using internationally agreed methods and techniques. INSARAG and its’ guidelines and

methodologies (2006) play an important role in this coordination and preparedness process.

Within Europe the European Commission is becoming more important in terms of Civil

Protection and the necessary coordination and preparedness (including USAR). Unlike the

“voluntary” INSARAG guidelines and methodologies the EU commission decisions are

more mandatory in nature for the member States: Member States should establish and use

the mechanisms proposed by the commission. Although there are “agreements” between

the European Commission and UN OCHA (see annex B) regarding response and

coordination outside EU member states, there is little cooperation or agreement in

communication, coordination and preparedness mechanisms within Europe, as shown in

the “International/EU USAR model”. Currently there are two similar but separated systems

of mechanisms operating; the EU-Civil Protection Mechanism and UN OCHA-INSARAG.

Osei (2007) assumes that “rich countries possess more robust frameworks and response

systems”. This might be true however if there is no coordination or communication

between the various systems both, before and during a disaster, this may lead to chaos on

an international level which may then effect the National and Local response (Erdogan

2006).

Over the last few months Europe has been struck by several disastrous events. The events

varied from large forest fires in the South to floods in the West. Alongside these hazards

there is still the threat of terrorist attacks. These recent events, but also the historic

information presented in figures 1.1 and 1.2 show that the risk profile for the urban areas in

Europe might necessitate more intensive use of USAR in the future. This requires a

broader approach to urban search and rescue than the INSARAG (2006:9) stated response

- 84 -

to earthquakes and structural collapse. Teams like EDRT have the ability to use EOD or

HAZMAT specialists during search and rescue missions. USAR teams should, therefore,

cover a broader range of specialist urban search and rescue missions in the future. Events

such as disastrous floods or storms within the country or Europe could lead to the

deployment of (specialist) rapid deployment teams based on the USAR structure. These

teams will need additional equipment which they currently do not use, such as boats. This

however should be prepared and coordinated on a National level having regards to the

hazards the country is facing. In the countries studied, USAR is not fully implemented at a

national level. It is also unknown which country will more likely requires USAR response

within its borders. The teams studied use the INSARAG guidelines and methodology as

their key reference for organising USAR. In comparison a broader and more integrated

USAR approach is found with FEMA in the United States. USAR in the United States is

used for hurricanes and other non-structural collapse events (FEMA 2007). Such an

approach might help to promote USAR as a specialist entity and aid its integration within a

wider range of disaster responses, as is encompassed in New Zealand Government policy

(New Zealand Ministry for Emergency Management 2001).

Related to natural hazards and the use of USAR, Dykstra (2006:40) created a fictitious

scenario in which a storm like Hurricane Katrina hit the Netherlands. To manage the

aftermath of such a storm would require more than 1400 USAR personnel. This amount of

USAR specialists is not available in the Netherlands and, therefore, would need to be

requested internationally. In order to conduct this kind of mission local/regional and

national mechanisms need to be more familiar with the abilities and use of USAR.

Missions like this require intensive communication between the various international

teams, but also need coordination with the local authorities in order to “prevent lack of

information and duplication of efforts” (Erdogan 2006).

Currently there is no implementation of international USAR within the National structures

in the three countries researched. It also should be noted that large disastrous events affect

the local/regional, but also national, response capacity. If the Netherlands faced a hurricane

similar to Katrina, about one-third of the country would be flooded. It is understood that an

understanding of methods and purposes is required across the USAR community in order

to work together effectively in the field (Morris 2006:31). At present the countries have no

formal procedures or internal mechanisms in place to promote USAR or international

USAR assistance nationally on a local/regional level. This deficiency of USAR knowledge

- 84 -

to earthquakes and structural collapse. Teams like EDRT have the ability to use EOD or

HAZMAT specialists during search and rescue missions. USAR teams should, therefore,

cover a broader range of specialist urban search and rescue missions in the future. Events

such as disastrous floods or storms within the country or Europe could lead to the

deployment of (specialist) rapid deployment teams based on the USAR structure. These

teams will need additional equipment which they currently do not use, such as boats. This

however should be prepared and coordinated on a National level having regards to the

hazards the country is facing. In the countries studied, USAR is not fully implemented at a

national level. It is also unknown which country will more likely requires USAR response

within its borders. The teams studied use the INSARAG guidelines and methodology as

their key reference for organising USAR. In comparison a broader and more integrated

USAR approach is found with FEMA in the United States. USAR in the United States is

used for hurricanes and other non-structural collapse events (FEMA 2007). Such an

approach might help to promote USAR as a specialist entity and aid its integration within a

wider range of disaster responses, as is encompassed in New Zealand Government policy

(New Zealand Ministry for Emergency Management 2001).

Related to natural hazards and the use of USAR, Dykstra (2006:40) created a fictitious

scenario in which a storm like Hurricane Katrina hit the Netherlands. To manage the

aftermath of such a storm would require more than 1400 USAR personnel. This amount of

USAR specialists is not available in the Netherlands and, therefore, would need to be

requested internationally. In order to conduct this kind of mission local/regional and

national mechanisms need to be more familiar with the abilities and use of USAR.

Missions like this require intensive communication between the various international

teams, but also need coordination with the local authorities in order to “prevent lack of

information and duplication of efforts” (Erdogan 2006).

Currently there is no implementation of international USAR within the National structures

in the three countries researched. It also should be noted that large disastrous events affect

the local/regional, but also national, response capacity. If the Netherlands faced a hurricane

similar to Katrina, about one-third of the country would be flooded. It is understood that an

understanding of methods and purposes is required across the USAR community in order

to work together effectively in the field (Morris 2006:31). At present the countries have no

formal procedures or internal mechanisms in place to promote USAR or international

USAR assistance nationally on a local/regional level. This deficiency of USAR knowledge

- 85 -

at a local level might be the result of the lack of planning and training. If local responders

are not aware of the purpose and use of a mechanism, they cannot use it effectively. This is

also the case in national and international terminology: not using international terminology

and abbreviations such as the word LEMA along with the nationally used terminology

might lead to communication issues in the field. Currently this is not taken into account

when planning in the various countries. Most terminology, but also structures and

procedures, are in the national language and not easy accessible without translation.

As expressed by EDRT during the research, many of their USAR responders will already

be used in the local search and rescue operations. This should be taken into account when

preparing and planning for national USAR response and utilizing its highly specialized

skills and operational resources. It is important for a country “to consider how much has to

happen before international USAR teams arrive in the affected area” (Morris 2006:35).

None of the countries were able to give an indication of when National resources will be

overwhelmed. USAR therefore should be planned within a broader context. None of the

three countries studied have structured when and how international USAR support will be

requested and they all refer to the various circumstances this depends on.

The public may also get involved in searching for and rescuing survivors (de Ville de

Goyet 2000, INSARAG 2006). The public and private organisations will play an important

role in supporting international teams during their missions. They might, for example,

support the teams with transport or information regarding the disaster. This emphasizes the

statement that “preparedness and prevention activities should be more broadly adopted”

(Ville de Goyet 2000).

USAR may also be used during terrorist events that causing large scale collapse. These

events might require a different approach regarding preparedness and even more

coordination among the various responding entities. Collins (2003) for example stated that

“we must prepare for even more spectacular forms of terrorist attacks” while referring to

9/11. As seen during 9/11, the Madrid bombings and 7/7 these events do not remain on a

local level and international coordination and assistance may be required. During all events

time is crucial when people are trapped under the rubble and need to be saved (Macintyre,

Barbera and Smith 2006). The side effects of this new terrorist threat will not only affect

the individuals trapped but also creates an extra hazard for rescue workers in the field.

More effective coordination and preparedness, but also implementation within the

- 85 -

at a local level might be the result of the lack of planning and training. If local responders

are not aware of the purpose and use of a mechanism, they cannot use it effectively. This is

also the case in national and international terminology: not using international terminology

and abbreviations such as the word LEMA along with the nationally used terminology

might lead to communication issues in the field. Currently this is not taken into account

when planning in the various countries. Most terminology, but also structures and

procedures, are in the national language and not easy accessible without translation.

As expressed by EDRT during the research, many of their USAR responders will already

be used in the local search and rescue operations. This should be taken into account when

preparing and planning for national USAR response and utilizing its highly specialized

skills and operational resources. It is important for a country “to consider how much has to

happen before international USAR teams arrive in the affected area” (Morris 2006:35).

None of the countries were able to give an indication of when National resources will be

overwhelmed. USAR therefore should be planned within a broader context. None of the

three countries studied have structured when and how international USAR support will be

requested and they all refer to the various circumstances this depends on.

The public may also get involved in searching for and rescuing survivors (de Ville de

Goyet 2000, INSARAG 2006). The public and private organisations will play an important

role in supporting international teams during their missions. They might, for example,

support the teams with transport or information regarding the disaster. This emphasizes the

statement that “preparedness and prevention activities should be more broadly adopted”

(Ville de Goyet 2000).

USAR may also be used during terrorist events that causing large scale collapse. These

events might require a different approach regarding preparedness and even more

coordination among the various responding entities. Collins (2003) for example stated that

“we must prepare for even more spectacular forms of terrorist attacks” while referring to

9/11. As seen during 9/11, the Madrid bombings and 7/7 these events do not remain on a

local level and international coordination and assistance may be required. During all events

time is crucial when people are trapped under the rubble and need to be saved (Macintyre,

Barbera and Smith 2006). The side effects of this new terrorist threat will not only affect

the individuals trapped but also creates an extra hazard for rescue workers in the field.

More effective coordination and preparedness, but also implementation within the

- 86 -

operations, regarding USAR on all levels (local/regional, national and international) can

decrease the time needed for deployment and rescue during all disasters. It appears that the

countries do not currently take into account this onset threat and USAR response might be

called in on an ad-hoc basis. This may be because USAR needs to be more promoted in

terms of its use within (national) terrorist events as planners are currently not familiar with

it.

Morris (2006:4) stated that “the cost of USAR teams and the fact that they are rarely

required makes the request for international USAR assistance commonplace”. However all

countries researched have USAR capabilities; although one of them has no procedures and

structures in place to use its team nationally. The other countries have not fully

implemented USAR within all response levels. This is not cost-effective because they have

the resources available but formally cannot effectively use them nationally when disaster

strikes. This however might also be the result of deficiency in USAR awareness and

planning at various levels.

The research emphasized that there are still no procedures in place for sharing information

in the post-disaster phase within the various countries. As previously concluded by

Bäckström and Christofferson (2006:50) USAR developments and lessons learned often

stay within their own organisation and in this case within their own country. This lack of

shared experience decreases the evolvement of international USAR assistance and

coordination in the future. An example to share experiences and share information is V-

OSOCC. Although this mechanism offers a variety of future (technical) opportunities it is

currently not used efficiently by all its members. This despite its aim as a tool for exchange

of information among members.

6.1 Limitations and Considerations It must be remembered, however, that the models used for analysis and presenting results

give a simplified picture of reality. They are based on more complex diagrammatic models.

During “pattern matching” of the various “country models”, some information of the

diagrammatic models was taken into account in order to give background information on a

mechanism in order to mitigate the side effects of losing data during modeling.

The time frame in which information had to be gathered and the models constructed was

relatively short; therefore, there may be elements that the model does not cover. An

- 86 -

operations, regarding USAR on all levels (local/regional, national and international) can

decrease the time needed for deployment and rescue during all disasters. It appears that the

countries do not currently take into account this onset threat and USAR response might be

called in on an ad-hoc basis. This may be because USAR needs to be more promoted in

terms of its use within (national) terrorist events as planners are currently not familiar with

it.

Morris (2006:4) stated that “the cost of USAR teams and the fact that they are rarely

required makes the request for international USAR assistance commonplace”. However all

countries researched have USAR capabilities; although one of them has no procedures and

structures in place to use its team nationally. The other countries have not fully

implemented USAR within all response levels. This is not cost-effective because they have

the resources available but formally cannot effectively use them nationally when disaster

strikes. This however might also be the result of deficiency in USAR awareness and

planning at various levels.

The research emphasized that there are still no procedures in place for sharing information

in the post-disaster phase within the various countries. As previously concluded by

Bäckström and Christofferson (2006:50) USAR developments and lessons learned often

stay within their own organisation and in this case within their own country. This lack of

shared experience decreases the evolvement of international USAR assistance and

coordination in the future. An example to share experiences and share information is V-

OSOCC. Although this mechanism offers a variety of future (technical) opportunities it is

currently not used efficiently by all its members. This despite its aim as a tool for exchange

of information among members.

6.1 Limitations and Considerations It must be remembered, however, that the models used for analysis and presenting results

give a simplified picture of reality. They are based on more complex diagrammatic models.

During “pattern matching” of the various “country models”, some information of the

diagrammatic models was taken into account in order to give background information on a

mechanism in order to mitigate the side effects of losing data during modeling.

The time frame in which information had to be gathered and the models constructed was

relatively short; therefore, there may be elements that the model does not cover. An

- 87 -

example is bilateral agreements on USAR research and an in-depth analysis of

demobilization and post-mission activities on a local and national level. Therefore the

models may need further development in the future so they can evolve and become more

precise.

The models developed in this research can be used as a basis for future comparison of

USAR coordination and response mechanism. The model now only provides factual

information about which mechanisms are in place, it does not take account of the fact that

there will be (ad-hoc) responses. An ad-hoc response is very likely to happen: during the

interviews participants gave suggestions on how assistance could, and might, be requested

and how it could be embedded in the local/regional and national coordination structures.

Although these suggestions have never been put in place or tested.

In addition the research was specifically aimed at USAR and did not take into account

other (international) preparedness arrangements that might be in place. The results show

for example that most countries have bilateral agreements with neighboring countries

regarding assistance in case of disasters. However this was not taken into account when

modeling. Ongoing EU developments were also not taken into consideration by the model.

The model emphasized the INSARAG guidelines and methodology and showed that this is

an interlinked set of mechanisms. This, however, was the result of choosing the INSARAG

methodology cycle for the framework. The various EU mechanisms may be more focused

on country preparedness in general and not on receiving USAR. Also the EU policy used

was not specifically developed for USAR but is applicable to it and is currently changing.

Nationally there are some changes regarding the reception of USAR which could not be

taken into account because they are under development. This might imply that the various

models will evolve and adapt over time.

An assumption that was made during the research was that when receiving USAR

assistance countries would respond according to the INSARAG guidelines. In case of a

disaster this, however, is not guaranteed. There may be teams and countries delivering

assistance without a formal request that may not use the INSARAG guidelines and

suggested mechanisms. Instances have occurred in which teams show up and start

searching, or attempting to search (NRC Handelsblad n.d.).

- 87 -

example is bilateral agreements on USAR research and an in-depth analysis of

demobilization and post-mission activities on a local and national level. Therefore the

models may need further development in the future so they can evolve and become more

precise.

The models developed in this research can be used as a basis for future comparison of

USAR coordination and response mechanism. The model now only provides factual

information about which mechanisms are in place, it does not take account of the fact that

there will be (ad-hoc) responses. An ad-hoc response is very likely to happen: during the

interviews participants gave suggestions on how assistance could, and might, be requested

and how it could be embedded in the local/regional and national coordination structures.

Although these suggestions have never been put in place or tested.

In addition the research was specifically aimed at USAR and did not take into account

other (international) preparedness arrangements that might be in place. The results show

for example that most countries have bilateral agreements with neighboring countries

regarding assistance in case of disasters. However this was not taken into account when

modeling. Ongoing EU developments were also not taken into consideration by the model.

The model emphasized the INSARAG guidelines and methodology and showed that this is

an interlinked set of mechanisms. This, however, was the result of choosing the INSARAG

methodology cycle for the framework. The various EU mechanisms may be more focused

on country preparedness in general and not on receiving USAR. Also the EU policy used

was not specifically developed for USAR but is applicable to it and is currently changing.

Nationally there are some changes regarding the reception of USAR which could not be

taken into account because they are under development. This might imply that the various

models will evolve and adapt over time.

An assumption that was made during the research was that when receiving USAR

assistance countries would respond according to the INSARAG guidelines. In case of a

disaster this, however, is not guaranteed. There may be teams and countries delivering

assistance without a formal request that may not use the INSARAG guidelines and

suggested mechanisms. Instances have occurred in which teams show up and start

searching, or attempting to search (NRC Handelsblad n.d.).

- 88 -

Finally the research was based on the premise that events requiring international USAR

assistance can be prepared for using a coordinated and planned structure. Ale (2007)

however queries whether it is possible for disasters of this scale, requiring international

assistance, to be planned for because of the various unknown factors that may come into

play. Ale (2007) further questions whether putting formal and planned coordination

mechanisms in place are really an option. He suggests it may be good to use ad-hoc

responses and use the established mechanisms and authorities instead of planning for and

creating pre-defined responses which are not aimed at the specific conditions?

- 88 -

Finally the research was based on the premise that events requiring international USAR

assistance can be prepared for using a coordinated and planned structure. Ale (2007)

however queries whether it is possible for disasters of this scale, requiring international

assistance, to be planned for because of the various unknown factors that may come into

play. Ale (2007) further questions whether putting formal and planned coordination

mechanisms in place are really an option. He suggests it may be good to use ad-hoc

responses and use the established mechanisms and authorities instead of planning for and

creating pre-defined responses which are not aimed at the specific conditions?

- 89 -

7 CONCLUSIONS This closing chapter provides a brief overview of the research in terms of its original aims

and objectives. It provides recommendations regarding preparedness and coordination

when receiving international USAR assistance in The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia.

Suggestions will be made with respect to the European Union and UN OCHA

(INSARAG). The chapter will also discuss the development of the academic study on

USAR preparedness and coordination providing some possibilities for future research.

7.1 Conclusion The aim of this research was to contrast The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia in terms of

their coordination mechanisms and related preparedness measures. Table 7.1 below shows

a tabular summary regarding these measures and mechanisms per country and their

distinctive levels of coordination. This summary is based on the in-depth analysis of the

national emergency preparedness and coordination systems and their comparison with UN

INSARAG guidelines and methodology (2006) and EU Council resolutions using

diagrammatic modelling.

Table 7.1: Overview of USAR Preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia Level / Country The Netherlands Sweden Estonia

Local – Regional Preparedness and

Coordination

The USAR.NL team can be embedded in local/regional

coordination structure (GRIP) however there are no preparedness

arrangements regarding integrating operational (international) USAR assistance at this level.

Furthermore the familiarity in planning and using USAR.NL at this level is disputable

and requesting its assistance uses a multi-

layered approach.

The Swedish USAR team does not operate

within the country therefore USAR tasks at

a local level are conducted by local fire

and rescue services supported by SRSA and other organisations who

are not completely familiar with the USAR

concept. There is no planning for USAR at this level. At a local

level it is suggested that SRSA will play an important role with

regards to coordination and assisting when

international Assistance arrives.

The Estonian USAR team is not formally

embedded in local and regional preparedness

and coordination structures because rescue

works are part of the local fire and rescue

services. At this level there is no integration or

preparedness of cooperation with

international USAR assistance within the

LEMA. Also it is questionable if the local mechanisms are familiar

with (international) USAR assistance and its

usage.

- 89 -

7 CONCLUSIONS This closing chapter provides a brief overview of the research in terms of its original aims

and objectives. It provides recommendations regarding preparedness and coordination

when receiving international USAR assistance in The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia.

Suggestions will be made with respect to the European Union and UN OCHA

(INSARAG). The chapter will also discuss the development of the academic study on

USAR preparedness and coordination providing some possibilities for future research.

7.1 Conclusion The aim of this research was to contrast The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia in terms of

their coordination mechanisms and related preparedness measures. Table 7.1 below shows

a tabular summary regarding these measures and mechanisms per country and their

distinctive levels of coordination. This summary is based on the in-depth analysis of the

national emergency preparedness and coordination systems and their comparison with UN

INSARAG guidelines and methodology (2006) and EU Council resolutions using

diagrammatic modelling.

Table 7.1: Overview of USAR Preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia Level / Country The Netherlands Sweden Estonia

Local – Regional Preparedness and

Coordination

The USAR.NL team can be embedded in local/regional

coordination structure (GRIP) however there are no preparedness

arrangements regarding integrating operational (international) USAR assistance at this level.

Furthermore the familiarity in planning and using USAR.NL at this level is disputable

and requesting its assistance uses a multi-

layered approach.

The Swedish USAR team does not operate

within the country therefore USAR tasks at

a local level are conducted by local fire

and rescue services supported by SRSA and other organisations who

are not completely familiar with the USAR

concept. There is no planning for USAR at this level. At a local

level it is suggested that SRSA will play an important role with

regards to coordination and assisting when

international Assistance arrives.

The Estonian USAR team is not formally

embedded in local and regional preparedness

and coordination structures because rescue

works are part of the local fire and rescue

services. At this level there is no integration or

preparedness of cooperation with

international USAR assistance within the

LEMA. Also it is questionable if the local mechanisms are familiar

with (international) USAR assistance and its

usage.

- 90 -

National Preparedness and Coordination

There are no preparedness

arrangements regarding assisting or integrating

the incoming international teams.

They will be coordinated through a separate

international structure using OSOCC.

Furthermore the national representation within

these mechanisms is not pre-planned, by for

example the INSARAG Focal Point who is the

link between the National and

International level

On a National level it is suggested that

(international) USAR assistance will be

arranged by SRSA. They will also maintain the international Swedish USAR team however there are no formal

procedures for implementing

international assistance in the national ongoing

operations and mechanisms.

The national USAR capacity depends on the

local availability of manpower and it is

disputable if a national USAR team can be

deployed besides the local organisations that already responded. Also on a National level there

are no formal arrangements of

supporting USAR mechanisms by

representation through national experts.

International Preparedness and

Coordination

The Netherlands have no formal arrangements for

requesting and supporting international USAR assistance nor do they have arrangements

about informing international teams about “lessons learned” in the

aftermath.

Sweden does not have formal arrangements for requesting international USAR assistance and supporting them. They

also have no formal arrangements regarding the communication of

lessons learned.

Estonia does not have formal agreements for

requesting international USAR assistance. They also lack arrangements regarding preparedness measures related to the

support during the reception and departure of international teams. Also communication of findings after a disaster

is not arranged in procedures.

Although there are some National differences regarding the emergency preparedness and

coordination structures in place, all three countries have an institutional vacuum between

the various coordination levels when preparing, requesting but also using, both national

and international USAR assistance.

The three countries however have general bilateral agreements regarding the support and

assistance provided by their neighbouring countries, but this is not specifically aimed at

USAR and its particular preparedness and coordination mechanisms. These arrangements

are not embedded on a local/regional level where mostly command and control is arranged

and resources are put into place.

At a European level the research models showed that there are two similar but separate

coordination systems in place. At this level you have UN-OCHA coordinating USAR

support and the European Union proposing resolutions regulating coordination of Civil

Protection (including USAR) within the EU Member States.

- 90 -

National Preparedness and Coordination

There are no preparedness

arrangements regarding assisting or integrating

the incoming international teams.

They will be coordinated through a separate

international structure using OSOCC.

Furthermore the national representation within

these mechanisms is not pre-planned, by for

example the INSARAG Focal Point who is the

link between the National and

International level

On a National level it is suggested that

(international) USAR assistance will be

arranged by SRSA. They will also maintain the international Swedish USAR team however there are no formal

procedures for implementing

international assistance in the national ongoing

operations and mechanisms.

The national USAR capacity depends on the

local availability of manpower and it is

disputable if a national USAR team can be

deployed besides the local organisations that already responded. Also on a National level there

are no formal arrangements of

supporting USAR mechanisms by

representation through national experts.

International Preparedness and

Coordination

The Netherlands have no formal arrangements for

requesting and supporting international USAR assistance nor do they have arrangements

about informing international teams about “lessons learned” in the

aftermath.

Sweden does not have formal arrangements for requesting international USAR assistance and supporting them. They

also have no formal arrangements regarding the communication of

lessons learned.

Estonia does not have formal agreements for

requesting international USAR assistance. They also lack arrangements regarding preparedness measures related to the

support during the reception and departure of international teams. Also communication of findings after a disaster

is not arranged in procedures.

Although there are some National differences regarding the emergency preparedness and

coordination structures in place, all three countries have an institutional vacuum between

the various coordination levels when preparing, requesting but also using, both national

and international USAR assistance.

The three countries however have general bilateral agreements regarding the support and

assistance provided by their neighbouring countries, but this is not specifically aimed at

USAR and its particular preparedness and coordination mechanisms. These arrangements

are not embedded on a local/regional level where mostly command and control is arranged

and resources are put into place.

At a European level the research models showed that there are two similar but separate

coordination systems in place. At this level you have UN-OCHA coordinating USAR

support and the European Union proposing resolutions regulating coordination of Civil

Protection (including USAR) within the EU Member States.

- 91 -

Implementation of rigid structures would however not be advisable due to the impossibility

of planning for every eventuality. General guidelines and procedures were to be

recommended in order to ensure the smooth running of operations and the facilitation of

quick and effective response. The three countries in this case do not have fully

implemented the suggested general international agreed measures and mechanisms to be

prepared for a coordinated international response within their country, when structures

collapse.

7.2 Recommendations and possibilities for future research The secondary aim of this research was to contribute to the preparedness of the

contributory countries and the use of USAR coordination mechanisms such as UN

INSARAG in EU developed countries. Below some recommendations and possibilities for

future research are given based on the previous discussion. These recommendations can

aid the development of the various mechanisms and measures in the future. They are

divided in two sections: international and national.

7.2.1 International Issues The similarities between the European and International (UN-OCHA) coordination

systems must be outlined. Afterwards an agreement between EU and UN regarding

coordination within the European Union should be established. This woul dhelp to arrange

coordination and prevents misunderstandings on an international level. A possible

approach to this research can be defining the EU as a USAR “region”. This might give the

EU the opportunity to develop specific structures regarding USAR assistance within its

own region based on the INSARAG (2006) framework. Also the virtual OSOCC might

provide technological opportunities for future communication and information sharing

within the “region”.

The European USAR response teams and their capabilities should be mapped in order to

prepare possibilities for EU cooperation and coordination regarding USAR when a large

disaster strikes. This could contribute to setting up training and exercise possibilities, but

also might lead to more adequate and timely responses using the various national USAR

resources available.

- 91 -

Implementation of rigid structures would however not be advisable due to the impossibility

of planning for every eventuality. General guidelines and procedures were to be

recommended in order to ensure the smooth running of operations and the facilitation of

quick and effective response. The three countries in this case do not have fully

implemented the suggested general international agreed measures and mechanisms to be

prepared for a coordinated international response within their country, when structures

collapse.

7.2 Recommendations and possibilities for future research The secondary aim of this research was to contribute to the preparedness of the

contributory countries and the use of USAR coordination mechanisms such as UN

INSARAG in EU developed countries. Below some recommendations and possibilities for

future research are given based on the previous discussion. These recommendations can

aid the development of the various mechanisms and measures in the future. They are

divided in two sections: international and national.

7.2.1 International Issues The similarities between the European and International (UN-OCHA) coordination

systems must be outlined. Afterwards an agreement between EU and UN regarding

coordination within the European Union should be established. This woul dhelp to arrange

coordination and prevents misunderstandings on an international level. A possible

approach to this research can be defining the EU as a USAR “region”. This might give the

EU the opportunity to develop specific structures regarding USAR assistance within its

own region based on the INSARAG (2006) framework. Also the virtual OSOCC might

provide technological opportunities for future communication and information sharing

within the “region”.

The European USAR response teams and their capabilities should be mapped in order to

prepare possibilities for EU cooperation and coordination regarding USAR when a large

disaster strikes. This could contribute to setting up training and exercise possibilities, but

also might lead to more adequate and timely responses using the various national USAR

resources available.

- 92 -

The definition of USAR should be opened for further discussion with a broader prospect

for its operational use within the urban and built environment being explored with respects

to changing hazard profiles. It should be taken into account when discussing the

applicability of defining USAR that it is not only an operational entity but it can also be

seen as a political instrument in diplomatic relations delivering humanitarian support.

Research should be carried out to explore preparedness and coordination approaches

during (USAR) disasters benefiting efficient and effective international USAR assistance

saving time and lives. To this end the approach; pre-planned preparedness and

coordination structures or an ad-hoc response that leads to the creation of structures used is

disputable.

7.2.2 National Issues On a national level the operational development of USAR should be linked to a hazard

profile for the country. The national capacity in operational examples should be explored

in order to map preparedness and make arrangements for international assistance. Other

national resources, such as private companies, should be taken into account when planning.

Afterwards structures should be put in place for rapidly requesting international assistance

that are maintained and exercised.

The various National mechanisms should be compared with their international counterparts

like RDC and OSOCC and explore how and if (partially) integration of the mechanisms is

possible. This could increase cooperation and enhance the understanding in the

international mechanisms by using similar terminology, technology and approaches.

USAR knowledge on a national level among emergency responders and planners should be

mapped and procedures should be developed to increase their USAR awareness. Planners

should know the capabilities of USAR to use them within their planning based on

information provided by the national USAR teams. USAR should put more emphasis on

promoting their possibilities within the national emergency response structure among

responders. Also the use of modern (communication) equipment should be taken into

account when planning for these kinds of systems.

- 92 -

The definition of USAR should be opened for further discussion with a broader prospect

for its operational use within the urban and built environment being explored with respects

to changing hazard profiles. It should be taken into account when discussing the

applicability of defining USAR that it is not only an operational entity but it can also be

seen as a political instrument in diplomatic relations delivering humanitarian support.

Research should be carried out to explore preparedness and coordination approaches

during (USAR) disasters benefiting efficient and effective international USAR assistance

saving time and lives. To this end the approach; pre-planned preparedness and

coordination structures or an ad-hoc response that leads to the creation of structures used is

disputable.

7.2.2 National Issues On a national level the operational development of USAR should be linked to a hazard

profile for the country. The national capacity in operational examples should be explored

in order to map preparedness and make arrangements for international assistance. Other

national resources, such as private companies, should be taken into account when planning.

Afterwards structures should be put in place for rapidly requesting international assistance

that are maintained and exercised.

The various National mechanisms should be compared with their international counterparts

like RDC and OSOCC and explore how and if (partially) integration of the mechanisms is

possible. This could increase cooperation and enhance the understanding in the

international mechanisms by using similar terminology, technology and approaches.

USAR knowledge on a national level among emergency responders and planners should be

mapped and procedures should be developed to increase their USAR awareness. Planners

should know the capabilities of USAR to use them within their planning based on

information provided by the national USAR teams. USAR should put more emphasis on

promoting their possibilities within the national emergency response structure among

responders. Also the use of modern (communication) equipment should be taken into

account when planning for these kinds of systems.

- 93 -

The operational structure that USAR uses to be rapidly deployed and operate

(inter)nationally can be applied as a blueprint for other national specialist emergency

teams. It is therefore recommended that research on the applicability of the command and

control structure of USAR in broader perspective should be undertaken. An example is

utilising the current command structure by adding various small specialist “smart teams”

such as flood-teams or hazmat specialist in order to create rapid deployable, highly

sophisticated and special equipped response units. This could contribute to decreasing the

“time-to-rescue” and increase the survival opportunities.

Finally the developed and proposed (USAR) model should be researched in more depth in

regarding its broader applicability within coordination, preparedness and monitoring. As

well as its use in comparisons between various countries and their compliance with the

INSARAG methodology and guidelines and the EU Commission decisions. The model can

be used to map “strengths” and “weaknesses” of the country mechanism but also of the

international suggested measures and mechanisms in preparedness and coordination. The

“weaknesses” within the system subsequently should be analysed and deciphered creating

solid (preparedness and coordination) structures that will not collapse during disaster.

Although it is sensible that a country, first and foremost, ensure its own emergency

structures are in place and working before it focuses internationally. It should however

strengthen and develop its national approach, policy and mechanisms for situations that

exceed national coping capacities as international assistance is becoming more rapidly

available. It also should be taken into account that the current weaknesses or shortcomings

and its communication also helps to prepare for (international) responses. The saying

“preventing is better then curing” is more then applicable before and during disasters.

Although this closing chapter shows that there is a lot of work to be done. It also illustrates

that, within little time, small steps can be made. An example is the aims and objectives of

this research which have fulfilled and contribute to the insight into current USAR

preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. The report however raises more

questions on how to improve USAR effectiveness and supports the continuous dialogue to

exchange information regarding Urban Search and Rescue.

- 93 -

The operational structure that USAR uses to be rapidly deployed and operate

(inter)nationally can be applied as a blueprint for other national specialist emergency

teams. It is therefore recommended that research on the applicability of the command and

control structure of USAR in broader perspective should be undertaken. An example is

utilising the current command structure by adding various small specialist “smart teams”

such as flood-teams or hazmat specialist in order to create rapid deployable, highly

sophisticated and special equipped response units. This could contribute to decreasing the

“time-to-rescue” and increase the survival opportunities.

Finally the developed and proposed (USAR) model should be researched in more depth in

regarding its broader applicability within coordination, preparedness and monitoring. As

well as its use in comparisons between various countries and their compliance with the

INSARAG methodology and guidelines and the EU Commission decisions. The model can

be used to map “strengths” and “weaknesses” of the country mechanism but also of the

international suggested measures and mechanisms in preparedness and coordination. The

“weaknesses” within the system subsequently should be analysed and deciphered creating

solid (preparedness and coordination) structures that will not collapse during disaster.

Although it is sensible that a country, first and foremost, ensure its own emergency

structures are in place and working before it focuses internationally. It should however

strengthen and develop its national approach, policy and mechanisms for situations that

exceed national coping capacities as international assistance is becoming more rapidly

available. It also should be taken into account that the current weaknesses or shortcomings

and its communication also helps to prepare for (international) responses. The saying

“preventing is better then curing” is more then applicable before and during disasters.

Although this closing chapter shows that there is a lot of work to be done. It also illustrates

that, within little time, small steps can be made. An example is the aims and objectives of

this research which have fulfilled and contribute to the insight into current USAR

preparedness in the Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. The report however raises more

questions on how to improve USAR effectiveness and supports the continuous dialogue to

exchange information regarding Urban Search and Rescue.

- 94 -

REFERENCES Ale, B.J.M. (2007) Professor in Safety Science and Disaster Abatement [interview by R.

Beerens] Delft Technical University, 30 July 2007 Alexander, D. (2002) Principles of Emergency Planning and Management. New York:

Oxford University Press Ashkenazi, I., Isakovich, B., Kluger, Y., Alfici, R., Kessel, B. and Better, O. S. (2005)

Prehospital management of earthquake casualties buried under rubble. Prehospital Disaster Med, 20, 122-33

Bäckström, C. and Christoffersson, N. (2006) Urban Search and Rescue: An evaluation of

technical search equipment and methods. Lund, Sweden: Department of Fire Safety Engineering, Lund University

Barbera, J. A. and Cadoux, C. G. (1991) Search, rescue, and evacuation. Crit Care Clin, 7,

321-37 Barbera, J. A. and Macintyre, A. (1996) Urban search and rescue. Emerg Med Clin North

Am, 14, 399-412 Barnier, M. (2006) For a European civil protection force: Europe aid [online] Brussels:

European Commission-Environment/Civil Protection. Available from < http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/pdf/rapport_barnier_en.pdf> [30 June 2007]

Berrios-Torres, S.I., Greenko, J.A., Philips, M., Miller, J.R., Treadwell, T. and Ikeda, R.M.

(2003) World Trade Center Rescue Worker Injury and Illness Surveillance, New York 2001. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25, (2) 79-87

Blaikie, N. (2000) Designing Social Research. Cambridge: Polity Press Cable News Network (CNN) (2007) 7 dead as Mississippi River bridge falls amid rush

hour in Minneapolis [online] available from <http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/08/01/bridge.collapse/> [20 August 2007]

Checkland, P. and Scholes, D. (1999) Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Chichester:

Wiley Chiu, W. T., Arnold, J., Shih, Y. T., Hsiung, K. H., Chi, H. Y., Chiu, C. H., Tsai, W. C.

and Huang, W. C. (2002) A survey of international urban search-and-rescue teams following the Ji Ji earthquake. Disasters, 26, 85-94

Collins, L. (2003). Rescue and terrorism, part 2. Fire engineering156, (9) 84-87 ---. (2004) Earthquake rescue essentials. Fire & Rescue, 11-15

- 94 -

REFERENCES Ale, B.J.M. (2007) Professor in Safety Science and Disaster Abatement [interview by R.

Beerens] Delft Technical University, 30 July 2007 Alexander, D. (2002) Principles of Emergency Planning and Management. New York:

Oxford University Press Ashkenazi, I., Isakovich, B., Kluger, Y., Alfici, R., Kessel, B. and Better, O. S. (2005)

Prehospital management of earthquake casualties buried under rubble. Prehospital Disaster Med, 20, 122-33

Bäckström, C. and Christoffersson, N. (2006) Urban Search and Rescue: An evaluation of

technical search equipment and methods. Lund, Sweden: Department of Fire Safety Engineering, Lund University

Barbera, J. A. and Cadoux, C. G. (1991) Search, rescue, and evacuation. Crit Care Clin, 7,

321-37 Barbera, J. A. and Macintyre, A. (1996) Urban search and rescue. Emerg Med Clin North

Am, 14, 399-412 Barnier, M. (2006) For a European civil protection force: Europe aid [online] Brussels:

European Commission-Environment/Civil Protection. Available from < http://ec.europa.eu/commission_barroso/president/pdf/rapport_barnier_en.pdf> [30 June 2007]

Berrios-Torres, S.I., Greenko, J.A., Philips, M., Miller, J.R., Treadwell, T. and Ikeda, R.M.

(2003) World Trade Center Rescue Worker Injury and Illness Surveillance, New York 2001. American Journal of Preventive Medicine 25, (2) 79-87

Blaikie, N. (2000) Designing Social Research. Cambridge: Polity Press Cable News Network (CNN) (2007) 7 dead as Mississippi River bridge falls amid rush

hour in Minneapolis [online] available from <http://www.cnn.com/2007/US/08/01/bridge.collapse/> [20 August 2007]

Checkland, P. and Scholes, D. (1999) Soft Systems Methodology in Action. Chichester:

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Cone, D. C. (2000) Rescue from the rubble: urban search & rescue. Prehosp Emerg Care, 4, 352-357

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Uitgeverij Banda Emergency Disasters Data Base EM-DAT (2007a) Number of natural disasters reported

[online] available from <http://www.emdat.net/documents/figures/nat_dis_trends/05/ndnumberdisasters0005.gif> [20 August 2007]

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perspective of the Contingency Approach. Ulusal Afet Dergisi 2006;1(1):56-62 Estonian Disaster Relief Team (2007) When a disaster occurred [Presentation] Estonia:

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- 96 -

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- 96 -

Gemeentelijke Gezondheidsdienst (GGD) Regio Twente (2006) Foto Rampgebied [online] available from < http://www.ggve.nl/images/Fotorampgebied.jpg> [2 August 2007]

Godfrey, B. (2006). A new "Hurricane" chapter for US&R response? Fire engineering,

159(5), 123-126 International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (2006) INSARAG Guidelines and

Methodology. Geneva: United Nations, Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs

Iskender, H. and Erdogan, N. (2007) ‘2nd Istanbul Conference on Democracy and Global Security’. Istanbul (2007) The Evaluation of Terrorist Attacks From an Emergency Management Perspective. N.A.

Katoch, A. (2003) International Natural Disaster Response and the United Nations.

Geneva: United Nations, Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs - Field Coordination Support Section

---. (2006) The Responders’ Cauldron: The Uniqueness of International Disaster Response.

Journal of International Affairs, 59, 153-172 Keats, D.M. (2000) Interviewing: A practical guide for students and professionals.

Buckingham: Open University Press. Kettunen, J. (2006) The training and selection of the Finnish urban search and rescue

(USAR) team. Unpublished MSc. thesis, Coventry University Macintyre, A. G., Barbera, J. A. and Smith, E. R. (2006) Surviving collapsed structure

entrapment after earthquakes: a "time-to-rescue" analysis. Prehospital Disaster Med, 21, 4-17; discussion 18-9

Maskrey, A. (1989) Disaster Mitigation: A community based approach. Oxford: Oxfam

Print Ministerie van Binnenlandse Zaken en Koninkrijksrelaties (1985) 'Wet rampen en zware

ongevallen.' Staatsblad 101, n.a. Morris, B. (2006) Coordinated use of international urban search and rescue assistance by

earthquake affected countries. Independent report, prepared in cooperation with the United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (UN-OCHA), in its capacity as the International Urban Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) secretariat.

Muller, E.R., Spaaij, R.F.J. and Ruitenberg, A.G.W. (2003) Trends in terrorisme. Alphen

aan de Rijn: Kluwer New Zealand Ministry for Emergency Management (2002) Urban Search and Rescue in

New Zealand: Establishing an Integrated Capability [online] New Zealand: Implementation Plan Steering Committee. Available from

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<http://www.usar.govt.nz/usarwebsite.nsf/Files/usarintegratedaug01/$file/usarintegratedaug01.pdf> [23 August 2007]

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Hurricane Ivan reconstruction in Jamaica.’ Disaster Prevention and Management 16, (2) 217-234

Perry, R.W. (2003) ‘Incident management systems in disaster management.’ Disaster

Prevention and Management 12, (5) 405-412 Ragin, C.C. (1987) The Comparative Method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitave

strategies. London: University of California Press Rescue.ee (2007) Estonian Rescue Board [online] available from <http://www.rescue.ee>

[25 July 2007] Riverside Urban Search and Rescue (2007) World Trade Center Photos [online] available

from < http://www.riversideca.gov/fire/USAR/images/USARmain1.JPG> [2 August 2007]

Romundstad, L., Sundnes, K. O., Pillgram-Larsen, J., Roste, G. K. and Gilbert, M. (2004)

Challenges of major incident management when excess resources are allocated: experiences from a mass casualty incident after roof collapse of a military command center. Prehospital Disaster Med, 19, 179-84

- 97 -

<http://www.usar.govt.nz/usarwebsite.nsf/Files/usarintegratedaug01/$file/usarintegratedaug01.pdf> [23 August 2007]

NORDRED (2007) www.nordred.org [online] available from <http://www.nordred.org>

[27 August 2007] Norlin, D. (2007) ([email protected]) SRSA’s USAR Team Structure [email to R.

Beerens] ([email protected]) [30 August 2007] NRC Handelsblad (n.d.) Dossier Bijlmerramp enquete [online] available from

<http://www.nrc.nl/W2/Lab/Enquete/M-220499.html> [26 August 2007] Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) - Civil Military Cooperation

Section (CMCS) (2006) Guidelines on the use of military and civil defence assets in disaster relief – “Oslo Guidleines”. Available from <http://www.reliefweb.int/rw/lib.nsf/db900SID/AMMF-6VXJVG/$FILE/OCHA-Nov2006.pdf?OpenElement> [4 July 2007]

Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs (OCHA) - Field Coordination Support

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Oliver, T. (2005) Building collapse kills rescue workers. Crisis Resp, 1, 15 Osei, P.D. (2007) ‘Policy responses, institutional networks management and post-

Hurricane Ivan reconstruction in Jamaica.’ Disaster Prevention and Management 16, (2) 217-234

Perry, R.W. (2003) ‘Incident management systems in disaster management.’ Disaster

Prevention and Management 12, (5) 405-412 Ragin, C.C. (1987) The Comparative Method: Moving beyond qualitative and quantitave

strategies. London: University of California Press Rescue.ee (2007) Estonian Rescue Board [online] available from <http://www.rescue.ee>

[25 July 2007] Riverside Urban Search and Rescue (2007) World Trade Center Photos [online] available

from < http://www.riversideca.gov/fire/USAR/images/USARmain1.JPG> [2 August 2007]

Romundstad, L., Sundnes, K. O., Pillgram-Larsen, J., Roste, G. K. and Gilbert, M. (2004)

Challenges of major incident management when excess resources are allocated: experiences from a mass casualty incident after roof collapse of a military command center. Prehospital Disaster Med, 19, 179-84

- 98 -

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---. (2002) Versie 2b Handleiding USAR.NL. Zoetermeer: Ministerie van Binnenlandse

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Veiligheids- en Crisismanagement Smith, K (2004) (4th ed.) Environmental Hazards: Assessing Risk and Reducing Disaster.

London: Routledge Swedish Räddningsverkets (2007a) Structure [online] available from

<http://www.srv.se/upload/SRSA/THE%20SRSA/orgskiss_eng.pdf> [20 August 2007]

---. (2007b) This is how we work [online] available from

<http://www.srv.se/templates/SRSA_Page____21005.aspx> [20 August 2007] ---. (2007c) Civil Protection Act 2002 [online] available from

<http://www.srv.se/templates/SRV_Page____7271.aspx> [23 August 2007] Thorvald, S. (1995) Engineers and Building Collapse Response: From Mexico '85 to

Oklahoma '95. EQE Review, 7-12 Tsunami Evaluation Coalition (2006). Joint evaluation of the international response to the

Indian Ocean tsunami: Syntesis Report. London: TEC United Nations (1964) Charter of the United Nations. San Francisco: United Nations United Nations General Assembly (1991) Strengthening of the coordination of

humanitarian emergency assistance of the United Nations. 19 December: 46/181 New York: United Nations

---. (2002) Strengthening the effectiveness and coordination of international urban search

and rescue assistance. 16 December: 57/150 New York: United Nations United Nations International Strategy for Disaster Reduction (UN ISDR) (2007) Hyogo

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---. (2002) Versie 2b Handleiding USAR.NL. Zoetermeer: Ministerie van Binnenlandse

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[online] Geneva: League of Red Cross and Red Crescent Societies. Available from

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manual for managers and policy-makers. Geneva: World Health Organization Yates, S.J. (2004) Doing Social Science Research. London: Sage Publications. Yin, R.K. (2003) 3rd edn. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage

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manual for managers and policy-makers. Geneva: World Health Organization Yates, S.J. (2004) Doing Social Science Research. London: Sage Publications. Yin, R.K. (2003) 3rd edn. Case Study Research: Design and Methods. London: Sage

Publications Zero-meridean (2007) Zwaailichten.org: Overzicht van rampen na 1945 [online] available

from <http://www.zero-meridean.nl/ramp_sel.html> [15 March 2007]

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ANNEXES ANNEX A ......................................................................................................................... 103











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ANNEXES ANNEX A ......................................................................................................................... 103











- 103 -

ANNEX A

EU Member States, Candidate Countries and Other European Countries

EU Member Countries Country USAR Austria Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit

Samaritan Austria Rapid Response Team Search and Rescue Unit Vorarlberg

Belgium Unknown Bulgaria Unknown Cyprus Cyprus Civil Defence Czech Republic Czech Urban Search and Rescue Team Denmark Danish Search and Rescue Team Estonia Estonian Disaster Relief Team Finland FinRescueForce France Corps Mondial de Secours

Groupe d’Intervention Catastrophe Pompiers de l’Urgence Internationale Secouristes Sans Frontieres Unité de Secours et de Recherches Internationale

Germany International Search and Rescue Technische Hilfswerk Search and Rescue Rapid Deployment Force

Greece Greek Fire Services Rescue Team Hellenic Disaster Response Unit Hellenic Rescue Team

Hungary Hungarian USAR Team Ireland Unknown Italy Emergency Response Unit Latvia Unknown Lithuania Unknown Luxembourg Unknown Malta Unknown Netherlands USAR.NL Poland Search and Rescue Team of the State Fire

Service Portugal Unknown Romania Unknown Slovakia Search and Rescue Team of Slovak Fire and

Rescue Corps Slovenia National Association of Slovene Search and

Rescue Teams for International Cooperation and Assistance Slovene Search and Rescue Team

- 103 -

ANNEX A

EU Member States, Candidate Countries and Other European Countries

EU Member Countries Country USAR Austria Austrian Forces Disaster Relief Unit

Samaritan Austria Rapid Response Team Search and Rescue Unit Vorarlberg

Belgium Unknown Bulgaria Unknown Cyprus Cyprus Civil Defence Czech Republic Czech Urban Search and Rescue Team Denmark Danish Search and Rescue Team Estonia Estonian Disaster Relief Team Finland FinRescueForce France Corps Mondial de Secours

Groupe d’Intervention Catastrophe Pompiers de l’Urgence Internationale Secouristes Sans Frontieres Unité de Secours et de Recherches Internationale

Germany International Search and Rescue Technische Hilfswerk Search and Rescue Rapid Deployment Force

Greece Greek Fire Services Rescue Team Hellenic Disaster Response Unit Hellenic Rescue Team

Hungary Hungarian USAR Team Ireland Unknown Italy Emergency Response Unit Latvia Unknown Lithuania Unknown Luxembourg Unknown Malta Unknown Netherlands USAR.NL Poland Search and Rescue Team of the State Fire

Service Portugal Unknown Romania Unknown Slovakia Search and Rescue Team of Slovak Fire and

Rescue Corps Slovenia National Association of Slovene Search and

Rescue Teams for International Cooperation and Assistance Slovene Search and Rescue Team

- 104 -

Spain Spanish General Directorate for Civil Protection

Sweden Swedish Rescue Services Agency, SAR Team

United Kingdom British Civil Defence International Rescue Corps Rapid UK Search and Rescue Assistance in Disasters UK Fire Service Search and Rescue Team

Candidate Countries Country USAR Croatia Unknown Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Uknown Turkey AKA Search Rescue Research Association

AKUT Search and Rescue Association Civil Defence Search and Rescue Team Istanbul University Natural Disasters Search and Rescue Team SAR Team of Gölcük Chamber of Tradesmen and Craftsmen YY-GEA Search and Rescue Team

Other Countries Country USAR Albania Unknown Andorra Unknown Armenia Unknown Azerbaijan Unknown Belarus Unknown Bosnia and Herzegovina Unknown Georgia Unknown Iceland Icelandic International USAR Team Liechtenstein Unknown Moldova Unknown Monaco Firemen of Monaco Montenegro Unknown Norway Norwegian Search and Rescue Team Russia EMERCOM of Russia San Marino Unknown Serbia Unknown Switzerland Swiss Rescue Ukraine Kiev USAR Team Vatican City State Unknown Source: OCHA Online (2007) USAR Directory [online] available from <http://ochaonline3.un.org/Coordination/FieldCoordinationSupportSection/INSARAG/USARDirectory/tabid/1443/Default.aspx> [28 August 2007]

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Spain Spanish General Directorate for Civil Protection

Sweden Swedish Rescue Services Agency, SAR Team

United Kingdom British Civil Defence International Rescue Corps Rapid UK Search and Rescue Assistance in Disasters UK Fire Service Search and Rescue Team

Candidate Countries Country USAR Croatia Unknown Former Yugoslav Republic of Macedonia Uknown Turkey AKA Search Rescue Research Association

AKUT Search and Rescue Association Civil Defence Search and Rescue Team Istanbul University Natural Disasters Search and Rescue Team SAR Team of Gölcük Chamber of Tradesmen and Craftsmen YY-GEA Search and Rescue Team

Other Countries Country USAR Albania Unknown Andorra Unknown Armenia Unknown Azerbaijan Unknown Belarus Unknown Bosnia and Herzegovina Unknown Georgia Unknown Iceland Icelandic International USAR Team Liechtenstein Unknown Moldova Unknown Monaco Firemen of Monaco Montenegro Unknown Norway Norwegian Search and Rescue Team Russia EMERCOM of Russia San Marino Unknown Serbia Unknown Switzerland Swiss Rescue Ukraine Kiev USAR Team Vatican City State Unknown Source: OCHA Online (2007) USAR Directory [online] available from <http://ochaonline3.un.org/Coordination/FieldCoordinationSupportSection/INSARAG/USARDirectory/tabid/1443/Default.aspx> [28 August 2007]

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Source: Europe (2007) The European Union at a Glance [online] available from <http://europa.eu/abc/index_en.htm> [24 August 2007]

- 105 -

Source: Europe (2007) The European Union at a Glance [online] available from <http://europa.eu/abc/index_en.htm> [24 August 2007]

- 106 -

ANNEX B

Letters of Agreement between EU and UN OCHA

- 106 -

ANNEX B

Letters of Agreement between EU and UN OCHA

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ANNEX C

Letter of Information Coventry (UK), 20 June 2007 To: Whom it may concern Subject: “USAR Research Project” Dear Sir/Dear Madam, My name is Ralf Beerens and I am a 24-year-old student from the Netherlands. Currently, I am finishing my “Master of Science in Disaster Management” studies at Coventry University in the United Kingdom. In order to get my degree I have to complete a dissertation. This project will be conducted in cooperation with the Dutch USAR.nl team (Mr. Rob K. Brons and Mr. Huub van der Weide) with Mr. Brendon Morris as an external consultant. I am also under the academic supervision of Mr. Robin Tasker of Coventry University. You can find their details below and if you need further information they are willing to provide this. I developed a suitable research topic that both relates to my field of study and my own interests. After discussion with my supervisors I decided on the following topic: “National Urban Search and Rescue preparedness in case of catastrophic events: In comparison to three other European Nations, is the Netherlands prepared for Urban Disasters where international USAR-support is needed?” Please find attached a diagram and brief description of the research. I wish to compare the Dutch-level of USAR-preparedness with Sweden and Estonia using the INSARAG Guidelines. Naturally at this early phase of research I am seeking as much information as possible and hope that you and your organisation will be able to cooperate with me during the research and support me with information and advice necessary to conduct a qualitative research project. I am convinced that this research project will also benefit your organisation as well as the international USAR-community through its findings and recommendations. It gives an objective overview of your current (international) preparedness status and helps to review the applicability of INSARAG-guidelines on receiving international USAR-support in an developed world country (non-earthquake prone).

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ANNEX C

Letter of Information Coventry (UK), 20 June 2007 To: Whom it may concern Subject: “USAR Research Project” Dear Sir/Dear Madam, My name is Ralf Beerens and I am a 24-year-old student from the Netherlands. Currently, I am finishing my “Master of Science in Disaster Management” studies at Coventry University in the United Kingdom. In order to get my degree I have to complete a dissertation. This project will be conducted in cooperation with the Dutch USAR.nl team (Mr. Rob K. Brons and Mr. Huub van der Weide) with Mr. Brendon Morris as an external consultant. I am also under the academic supervision of Mr. Robin Tasker of Coventry University. You can find their details below and if you need further information they are willing to provide this. I developed a suitable research topic that both relates to my field of study and my own interests. After discussion with my supervisors I decided on the following topic: “National Urban Search and Rescue preparedness in case of catastrophic events: In comparison to three other European Nations, is the Netherlands prepared for Urban Disasters where international USAR-support is needed?” Please find attached a diagram and brief description of the research. I wish to compare the Dutch-level of USAR-preparedness with Sweden and Estonia using the INSARAG Guidelines. Naturally at this early phase of research I am seeking as much information as possible and hope that you and your organisation will be able to cooperate with me during the research and support me with information and advice necessary to conduct a qualitative research project. I am convinced that this research project will also benefit your organisation as well as the international USAR-community through its findings and recommendations. It gives an objective overview of your current (international) preparedness status and helps to review the applicability of INSARAG-guidelines on receiving international USAR-support in an developed world country (non-earthquake prone).

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This letter is intended to make the first contacts and to explore further possibilities such as means of contact for providing further information and to conduct in-depth interviews in a later stadium (beginning of August 2007). In order to provide more background information about myself I have also attached my Curriculum Vitae. If you need any further information please feel free to contact me. I look forward to hearing from you or your colleagues. I hope that we may be able to develop a cooperative and successful research project. Thanking you in advance, Yours Sincerely, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK) Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Attachments:

• Research Overview • Europass Curriculum Vitae (1)

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This letter is intended to make the first contacts and to explore further possibilities such as means of contact for providing further information and to conduct in-depth interviews in a later stadium (beginning of August 2007). In order to provide more background information about myself I have also attached my Curriculum Vitae. If you need any further information please feel free to contact me. I look forward to hearing from you or your colleagues. I hope that we may be able to develop a cooperative and successful research project. Thanking you in advance, Yours Sincerely, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK) Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Attachments:

• Research Overview • Europass Curriculum Vitae (1)

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Europass curriculum vitae

Personal information

Surname(s) / First name(s) Beerens, Ralf Josef Johanna

Address(es) Home: Walburgisstraat 43 6109 RE Ohé en Laak The Netherlands

Term: Lynden House, Room 2B 2B Spencer Road Coventry/Earlsdon CV5 6PA United Kingdom

Telephone(s) +31 (0)475 55 22 85 Mobile: +31 (0)6 11 212 875 (NL) +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 (UK)

E-mail(s) [email protected] / [email protected] (MSN) Skype ralf_beerens

Nationality (-ies) Dutch (NL)

Date of birth 22/1/1983

Gender Male

Desired employment / Occupational field

Integrated Emergency (Safety & Security) & Disaster Management

Work experience (in School)

Dates 1/1/2004 - Present

Occupation or position held Voluntary Fireman

Main activities and responsibilities

On evenings and weekends I am a part-time voluntary fireman for the Fire-Brigade of Roermond; Station Stevensweert. I am trained to smoke dive, rescue people and put out fires.

Name and address of employer

Brandweer Roermond Post Box 217 6040 AE Roermond The Netherlands http://brandweer.roermond.nl

Type of business or sector Fire-Brigade

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Europass curriculum vitae

Personal information

Surname(s) / First name(s) Beerens, Ralf Josef Johanna

Address(es) Home: Walburgisstraat 43 6109 RE Ohé en Laak The Netherlands

Term: Lynden House, Room 2B 2B Spencer Road Coventry/Earlsdon CV5 6PA United Kingdom

Telephone(s) +31 (0)475 55 22 85 Mobile: +31 (0)6 11 212 875 (NL) +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 (UK)

E-mail(s) [email protected] / [email protected] (MSN) Skype ralf_beerens

Nationality (-ies) Dutch (NL)

Date of birth 22/1/1983

Gender Male

Desired employment / Occupational field

Integrated Emergency (Safety & Security) & Disaster Management

Work experience (in School)

Dates 1/1/2004 - Present

Occupation or position held Voluntary Fireman


On evenings and weekends I am a part-time voluntary fireman for the Fire-Brigade of Roermond; Station Stevensweert. I am trained to smoke dive, rescue people and put out fires.


Brandweer Roermond Post Box 217 6040 AE Roermond The Netherlands http://brandweer.roermond.nl

Type of business or sector Fire-Brigade

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Dates 1/9/2005 – 30/6/2006

Occupation or position held Graduation Trainee; Headquarters Security Office Main activities and

responsibilities Research Project:

The project was related to safety and security aspects of the JFC HQ location in Brunssum and its surroundings, as well as to the emergency services (fire-brigade, (military) police force, medical assistance). The project was a practically orientated research that resulted in a recommendation. This recommendation was based on, the previously mentioned, aspects of safety, security and emergency services and presented to the top-management (Chief of Staff) of the NATO Headquarters in Brunssum. The contents of this project are NATO-Confidential and not available for the public.


NATO Allied Joint Force Command Headquarters Brunssum Post Box 270 6440 AG Brunssum The Netherlands www.jfcbs.nato.int / www.nato.int

Type of business or sector Defence/Military

Dates 30/8/2004 - 15/7/2005

Occupation or position held Intern; Emergency Preparedness (Staff 3P-Preparation)


DSM is a large multinational industrial and chemical company. Due to the nature of its business the company must deal with risks and threats to its employees and the environment, thus good preparation is essential. As an intern at the Park-Protection staff of DSM's Chemelot site (near Sittard-Geleen) I conducted research on the company’s preparedness plans and made suggestions for improvement. Under the direction of my supervisor, I had one main assignment/research project that concerned - Examination of the preparedness of Park-Protection (Fire-Brigade, Security, Medical Assistance) in case of emergencies. - Developing improved preparation plans. - Developing an improved structure for maintenance of these plans. - Giving advice in training and cooperation with other disciplines and local authorities. Other daily assignments included checking and updating safety procedures, office work and attending meetings. Finally I invited a site-user to do a pilot project under my supervision to check my proposal of the new safety preparedness plans. After this pilot DSM decided to introduce the plans for all site-users of the Chemelot-site (COMAH).


DSM Netherlands Chemelot Park-Protection Koestraat 3 6167 RA Geleen The Netherlands www.dsm.com / www.chemelot.com

Type of business or sector Chemical Industry

Dates 1/9/2003 - 4/7/2004

Occupation or position held Intern; Pro-action & Prevention

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Dates 1/9/2005 – 30/6/2006

Occupation or position held Graduation Trainee; Headquarters Security Office Main activities and

responsibilities Research Project:

The project was related to safety and security aspects of the JFC HQ location in Brunssum and its surroundings, as well as to the emergency services (fire-brigade, (military) police force, medical assistance). The project was a practically orientated research that resulted in a recommendation. This recommendation was based on, the previously mentioned, aspects of safety, security and emergency services and presented to the top-management (Chief of Staff) of the NATO Headquarters in Brunssum. The contents of this project are NATO-Confidential and not available for the public.


NATO Allied Joint Force Command Headquarters Brunssum Post Box 270 6440 AG Brunssum The Netherlands www.jfcbs.nato.int / www.nato.int

Type of business or sector Defence/Military

Dates 30/8/2004 - 15/7/2005

Occupation or position held Intern; Emergency Preparedness (Staff 3P-Preparation)


DSM is a large multinational industrial and chemical company. Due to the nature of its business the company must deal with risks and threats to its employees and the environment, thus good preparation is essential. As an intern at the Park-Protection staff of DSM's Chemelot site (near Sittard-Geleen) I conducted research on the company’s preparedness plans and made suggestions for improvement. Under the direction of my supervisor, I had one main assignment/research project that concerned - Examination of the preparedness of Park-Protection (Fire-Brigade, Security, Medical Assistance) in case of emergencies. - Developing improved preparation plans. - Developing an improved structure for maintenance of these plans. - Giving advice in training and cooperation with other disciplines and local authorities. Other daily assignments included checking and updating safety procedures, office work and attending meetings. Finally I invited a site-user to do a pilot project under my supervision to check my proposal of the new safety preparedness plans. After this pilot DSM decided to introduce the plans for all site-users of the Chemelot-site (COMAH).


DSM Netherlands Chemelot Park-Protection Koestraat 3 6167 RA Geleen The Netherlands www.dsm.com / www.chemelot.com

Type of business or sector Chemical Industry

Dates 1/9/2003 - 4/7/2004

Occupation or position held Intern; Pro-action & Prevention

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I completed a one-year internship at the Fire-brigade of Sittard-Geleen, as part of my University’s “learn @work” initiative. I conducted the following research project for the Fire-brigade: "How external-safety (Seveso II) can by bailed in land-use planning". The research was focused on pro-action & prevention. I created a new method, in cooperation with other departments of the local government, for developing safety & security measurements in the early stages of planning, for example: new industrial complexes or suburbs. This project resulted in a proposal that is now used as guidance by more municipalities in the Limburg-area.


Gemeente Sittard-Geleen Brandweer Bureau Westelijk-Mijnstreek Postbus 18 6130 AA Sittard-Geleen The Netherlands www.sittard-geleen.nl

Type of business or sector Local government / Fire Brigade Education and training

Dates 25/9/2006 – Present

Title of qualification awarded

Master of Science in Disaster Management

Principal subjects/Occupational skills

covered

The programme is designed to equip graduates, or professionals, with the necessary knowledge to identify, critically analyse, assess and successfully manage a growing range of disasters and to operate confidently in policy, management and operational sectors. The intention is to affect a strengthening of community, professional, organizational and government capacity to deal with complex multi-factorial disasters from local to international levels. Subjects:

- Disaster Theory - Risk Assessment - Research Methods - The Management of Natural & Environmental Disasters - Management of Human caused Disasters - Emergency and Disaster Planning - Disaster Management - Management of Urban Disasters - Community’ and the Human consequences of Disaster - Business Continuity Management - Dissertation

Name and type of organisation providing

organisation and training

Coventry University Priory Street Coventry CV1 FB United Kingdom http://www.coventry.ac.uk

Level in national or international classification

Master of Science (MSc.)

Dates 1/9/2002 – 1/9/2006


Bachelor in Cultural and Societal Development with a specialisation in Integrated Safety & Security Management

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I completed a one-year internship at the Fire-brigade of Sittard-Geleen, as part of my University’s “learn @work” initiative. I conducted the following research project for the Fire-brigade: "How external-safety (Seveso II) can by bailed in land-use planning". The research was focused on pro-action & prevention. I created a new method, in cooperation with other departments of the local government, for developing safety & security measurements in the early stages of planning, for example: new industrial complexes or suburbs. This project resulted in a proposal that is now used as guidance by more municipalities in the Limburg-area.


Gemeente Sittard-Geleen Brandweer Bureau Westelijk-Mijnstreek Postbus 18 6130 AA Sittard-Geleen The Netherlands www.sittard-geleen.nl

Type of business or sector Local government / Fire Brigade Education and training

Dates 25/9/2006 – Present


Master of Science in Disaster Management


covered

The programme is designed to equip graduates, or professionals, with the necessary knowledge to identify, critically analyse, assess and successfully manage a growing range of disasters and to operate confidently in policy, management and operational sectors. The intention is to affect a strengthening of community, professional, organizational and government capacity to deal with complex multi-factorial disasters from local to international levels. Subjects:

- Disaster Theory - Risk Assessment - Research Methods - The Management of Natural & Environmental Disasters - Management of Human caused Disasters - Emergency and Disaster Planning - Disaster Management - Management of Urban Disasters - Community’ and the Human consequences of Disaster - Business Continuity Management - Dissertation



Coventry University Priory Street Coventry CV1 FB United Kingdom http://www.coventry.ac.uk


Master of Science (MSc.)

Dates 1/9/2002 – 1/9/2006


Bachelor in Cultural and Societal Development with a specialisation in Integrated Safety & Security Management

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covered

Communication, Psychology / Sociology / Criminology (combination), Law & Policy Studies, Organizational & Project Management, Report & Research Skills training, Personal & Professional Development, ICT, Counseling. All with an emphasis on Safety/Security. I was also a candidate in a three-year learning-working environment experiment (learn@work). Within this programme a student is placed in a company or (local) government department that is engaged in the safety / security issue. 70% of the students learning takes place at work and 30% at University. I was awarded a 1:1 “Cum Laude” (with distinction) degree. I was also awarded a special distinction for merit, due to completion of courses in excess of the 180 ECs required for graduation. Further, by recommendation of the Board of Examiners and based on the courses completed I was awarded a minor in “Organisation and Management”.



Zuyd University Location: Sittard, Sportcentrumlaan Post Box 69 6130 AB Sittard The Netherlands www.hszuyd.nl


Bachelor

Dates 1/1/2004 - 1/6/2005


Part-time voluntary Fireman (NL:hoofdbrandwacht)


covered

During a part-time course I trained to become a voluntary fireman. - Rescue Courses - Firefighting Courses



Sector Veiligheid Brandweer Roermond / NIBRA Post Box 217 6040 AE Roermond The Netherlands www.sectorveiligheidnml.nl / www.nibra.nl


Training

Dates 1/9/2004 - 1/6/2005


Risk Management Course (Environment & Safety)


covered

Part-time introduction course in Risk Management with an emphasis on decision making about Safety and Environmental issues.



Open Universiteit Nederland Post Box 4444 6401 CX Heerlen The Netherlands www.ou.nl


Short Course

Dates 1/9/2004 - 15/3/2005


Diploma: Safety for Operational Supervisors SCC

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covered

Communication, Psychology / Sociology / Criminology (combination), Law & Policy Studies, Organizational & Project Management, Report & Research Skills training, Personal & Professional Development, ICT, Counseling. All with an emphasis on Safety/Security. I was also a candidate in a three-year learning-working environment experiment (learn@work). Within this programme a student is placed in a company or (local) government department that is engaged in the safety / security issue. 70% of the students learning takes place at work and 30% at University. I was awarded a 1:1 “Cum Laude” (with distinction) degree. I was also awarded a special distinction for merit, due to completion of courses in excess of the 180 ECs required for graduation. Further, by recommendation of the Board of Examiners and based on the courses completed I was awarded a minor in “Organisation and Management”.



Zuyd University Location: Sittard, Sportcentrumlaan Post Box 69 6130 AB Sittard The Netherlands www.hszuyd.nl


Bachelor

Dates 1/1/2004 - 1/6/2005


Part-time voluntary Fireman (NL:hoofdbrandwacht)


covered

During a part-time course I trained to become a voluntary fireman. - Rescue Courses - Firefighting Courses



Sector Veiligheid Brandweer Roermond / NIBRA Post Box 217 6040 AE Roermond The Netherlands www.sectorveiligheidnml.nl / www.nibra.nl


Training

Dates 1/9/2004 - 1/6/2005


Risk Management Course (Environment & Safety)


covered

Part-time introduction course in Risk Management with an emphasis on decision making about Safety and Environmental issues.



Open Universiteit Nederland Post Box 4444 6401 CX Heerlen The Netherlands www.ou.nl


Short Course

Dates 1/9/2004 - 15/3/2005


Diploma: Safety for Operational Supervisors SCC

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covered

I passed the examination which was composed by the SCC Examination Bank on the basis of the attainment targets and testing targets as specified by the CCE-SCC.



Nederlands Instituut voor bedrijfshulpverlening (NIBHV) Smit en Partouns b.v. Kampstraat 62-68 6163 HG Geleen The Netherlands www.smitenpartouns.com


Short Course

Dates 8/3/2005 - 8/3/2005


Introduction course in Crisis & Disaster Management


covered

This course focused on Crisis & Disaster Management techniques which are used by the district Fire-brigade in South-Limburg. For example: GRIP-method, which is used as a method to deal with all kinds of incidents.



Regionale Brandweer Zuid-Limburg / NIBRA Postbus 35 6269 ZG Margraten The Netherlands www.rbzl.nl / www.nibra.nl


Day Course

Dates 1/9/2001 - 1/9/2002


None


covered

Unfinished Bachelor in Civil Engineering.



Zuyd University/'s Hertogenbosch University Post Box 550 6400 AN Heerlen The Netherlands www.hszuyd.nl / www.avans.nl


None

Dates 1/8/1995 - 1/7/2001


Grammar School Diploma (NL: Atheneum)


covered

-Dutch -German -English -Mathematics A+B -Science -Chemistry -Economics



Bisschoppelijk College Echt Populierlaan 1 6101 BA Echt The Netherlands www.bcecht.nl

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covered

I passed the examination which was composed by the SCC Examination Bank on the basis of the attainment targets and testing targets as specified by the CCE-SCC.



Nederlands Instituut voor bedrijfshulpverlening (NIBHV) Smit en Partouns b.v. Kampstraat 62-68 6163 HG Geleen The Netherlands www.smitenpartouns.com


Short Course

Dates 8/3/2005 - 8/3/2005


Introduction course in Crisis & Disaster Management


covered

This course focused on Crisis & Disaster Management techniques which are used by the district Fire-brigade in South-Limburg. For example: GRIP-method, which is used as a method to deal with all kinds of incidents.



Regionale Brandweer Zuid-Limburg / NIBRA Postbus 35 6269 ZG Margraten The Netherlands www.rbzl.nl / www.nibra.nl


Day Course

Dates 1/9/2001 - 1/9/2002


None


covered

Unfinished Bachelor in Civil Engineering.



Zuyd University/'s Hertogenbosch University Post Box 550 6400 AN Heerlen The Netherlands www.hszuyd.nl / www.avans.nl


None

Dates 1/8/1995 - 1/7/2001


Grammar School Diploma (NL: Atheneum)


covered

-Dutch -German -English -Mathematics A+B -Science -Chemistry -Economics



Bisschoppelijk College Echt Populierlaan 1 6101 BA Echt The Netherlands www.bcecht.nl

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Grammar School

Personal skills and competences

Mother tongue Dutch

Other language(s)

Self-assessment Understanding Speaking Writing European level (***) Listening Reading Spoken

interaction Spoken

production

English C1 Proficient user C1 Proficient

user C1 Proficient user C1 Proficient

user C1 Proficient user

German B1 Independent user B1 Independent

user B1 Independent user B1 Independe

nt user B1 Independent user

French A2 Basic User A2 Basic User A2 Basic User A2 Basic User A2 Basic User

Computer skills and competences

Microsoft Office Internet E-mail Basic use of Geographic Information Systems (Learning ArcGIS 9)

Other skills and

competences • To analyze and deal with the safety/security problem in an integrated

way. • To use a method of instruments and measurements to prevent danger:

The safety-chain (NL): Pro-action → Prevention → Preparation → Repression → Aftercare.

• To stimulate liveability in co-operation with the (public) authorities concerned, social work, trade and industry and, last but not least, the civilians.

• Knowledge of the legal and political framework of the UK, European Union, United Nations and international disaster management sector.

• Effectively able to work with diverse groups of people. • Excellent communication skills. • Strategic and executive approach. • Knowledge of safety/security inside a company. • A systematic, comprehensive and current understanding of the field of

Disaster Management. • An ability to effectively use appropriate methods of enquiry and

analysis. • Conceptual understanding that enables to devise and sustain cogent

arguments and to solve problems using knowledge, research methods and methods of critical judgement and to effectively assess research findings, policy and management methods.

• An appreciation of uncertainty, ambiguity and complexity in knowledge, method and management.

• The capacity to manage own learning and to develop a capacity for continuing learning.

• A capacity to work towards and to achieve both individual and group goals.

Driving licence Dutch Licence:

A: Motor B: Car BE: Car + Trailer

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Grammar School

Personal skills and competences

Mother tongue Dutch

Other language(s)

Self-assessment Understanding Speaking Writing European level (***) Listening Reading Spoken

interaction Spoken

production

English C1 Proficient user C1 Proficient

user C1 Proficient user C1 Proficient

user C1 Proficient user

German B1 Independent user B1 Independent

user B1 Independent user B1 Independe

nt user B1 Independent user

French A2 Basic User A2 Basic User A2 Basic User A2 Basic User A2 Basic User

Computer skills and competences

Microsoft Office Internet E-mail Basic use of Geographic Information Systems (Learning ArcGIS 9)

Other skills and

competences • To analyze and deal with the safety/security problem in an integrated

way. • To use a method of instruments and measurements to prevent danger:

The safety-chain (NL): Pro-action → Prevention → Preparation → Repression → Aftercare.

• To stimulate liveability in co-operation with the (public) authorities concerned, social work, trade and industry and, last but not least, the civilians.

• Knowledge of the legal and political framework of the UK, European Union, United Nations and international disaster management sector.

• Effectively able to work with diverse groups of people. • Excellent communication skills. • Strategic and executive approach. • Knowledge of safety/security inside a company. • A systematic, comprehensive and current understanding of the field of

Disaster Management. • An ability to effectively use appropriate methods of enquiry and

analysis. • Conceptual understanding that enables to devise and sustain cogent

arguments and to solve problems using knowledge, research methods and methods of critical judgement and to effectively assess research findings, policy and management methods.

• An appreciation of uncertainty, ambiguity and complexity in knowledge, method and management.

• The capacity to manage own learning and to develop a capacity for continuing learning.

• A capacity to work towards and to achieve both individual and group goals.

Driving licence Dutch Licence:

A: Motor B: Car BE: Car + Trailer

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Additional information

2005: DSM-Newspaper article about my research proposal and the newly developed preparedness plans. 2006: Awarded with a “Huygens Scholarship Programme (HSP) Talent Program (TP)” grant by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science of the Netherlands to study a Master of Science in Disaster Management at Coventry University. This grant is provided to Dutch top students who have completed their studies with excellent, results and have also impressed the selection committee with their extra-curricular activities and motivation to study abroad. Students who receive the award have convinced the committee of the value that their study abroad will add to their initial Dutch education. Furthermore students awarded with this grant are seen as an excellent ambassador fur Dutch higher education and will be a credit to the chosen higher education institute (http://www.nuffic.net). 2006: Awarded with a “VSBfonds Scholarship” to study a Master of Science in Disaster Management at Coventry University. This scholarship is awarded because of good results in the Netherlands and convincing a selection committee with extra-curricular activities and a motivation to study abroad (http://www.vsbfonds.nl) . 2006: Regional Newspaper Article (Maasboulevaart) about being on of the first students and fire-fighters who is going abroad to study a MSc. In Disaster Management. 2006: Guest Speaker in “Disaster Management and Studying abroad” at “Knowledge at Work” symposium of Zuyd University in the Netherlands (http://www.kennisinbedrijf.nl). 2006: Course representative for the Full-time Taught Master of Science in Disaster Management. 2006: (Student) Member of the British Emergency Planning Society (EPS); London-Branch (http://www.the-eps.org).

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Additional information

2005: DSM-Newspaper article about my research proposal and the newly developed preparedness plans. 2006: Awarded with a “Huygens Scholarship Programme (HSP) Talent Program (TP)” grant by the Ministry of Education, Culture and Science of the Netherlands to study a Master of Science in Disaster Management at Coventry University. This grant is provided to Dutch top students who have completed their studies with excellent, results and have also impressed the selection committee with their extra-curricular activities and motivation to study abroad. Students who receive the award have convinced the committee of the value that their study abroad will add to their initial Dutch education. Furthermore students awarded with this grant are seen as an excellent ambassador fur Dutch higher education and will be a credit to the chosen higher education institute (http://www.nuffic.net). 2006: Awarded with a “VSBfonds Scholarship” to study a Master of Science in Disaster Management at Coventry University. This scholarship is awarded because of good results in the Netherlands and convincing a selection committee with extra-curricular activities and a motivation to study abroad (http://www.vsbfonds.nl) . 2006: Regional Newspaper Article (Maasboulevaart) about being on of the first students and fire-fighters who is going abroad to study a MSc. In Disaster Management. 2006: Guest Speaker in “Disaster Management and Studying abroad” at “Knowledge at Work” symposium of Zuyd University in the Netherlands (http://www.kennisinbedrijf.nl). 2006: Course representative for the Full-time Taught Master of Science in Disaster Management. 2006: (Student) Member of the British Emergency Planning Society (EPS); London-Branch (http://www.the-eps.org).

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ANNEX D

Interview Package Coventry (UK), 17 July 2007 To: Whom it may concern Subject: “USAR Research Project” – Information Request/Interview Planning Dear Sir / Dear Madam, In previous correspondence I contacted you regarding my comparative research about USAR-preparedness in The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. Attached (in pdf and word files) you can find a list of questions which I kindly ask you to answer and return to me. Could you also provide me with the necessary information such as documents (in English) or references, to give more background information to your answers? As part of my research your answers will help me to verify a USAR-preparedness model I am developing. I will provide you with this model, once verified with your results in a later phase of the research. While I understand that answering the questions might take some time (approx. 2 hours) I hope you will be able to cooperate with me in completing this research. Although the attached package may seem large it contains additional information such as a consent form and contact details. I would be grateful if you could send me the requested information before the 1st of August as the research has to be completed and written-up by the 14th of September 2007. As a follow-up to these questions I would like to arrange an interview of about 1½ - 2½ hours in the first week of August to discuss the questions/answers more in-depth. I would appreciate if you could also invite key-persons involved in answering the questions attached to this meeting to get their expert view on some matters. If this is not possible maybe a separate appointment could be arranged? Could you please provide me with some suggestions for location, date and time for the interview so I can make arrangements e.g. the booking of flights and hotels? Perhaps I could contact you over the phone regarding these matters? I also kindly ask you to read the consent form which is a requirement for interview-research at Coventry University. It provides more in-depth information about the interviews/discussion and the information you provide.

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ANNEX D

Interview Package Coventry (UK), 17 July 2007 To: Whom it may concern Subject: “USAR Research Project” – Information Request/Interview Planning Dear Sir / Dear Madam, In previous correspondence I contacted you regarding my comparative research about USAR-preparedness in The Netherlands, Sweden and Estonia. Attached (in pdf and word files) you can find a list of questions which I kindly ask you to answer and return to me. Could you also provide me with the necessary information such as documents (in English) or references, to give more background information to your answers? As part of my research your answers will help me to verify a USAR-preparedness model I am developing. I will provide you with this model, once verified with your results in a later phase of the research. While I understand that answering the questions might take some time (approx. 2 hours) I hope you will be able to cooperate with me in completing this research. Although the attached package may seem large it contains additional information such as a consent form and contact details. I would be grateful if you could send me the requested information before the 1st of August as the research has to be completed and written-up by the 14th of September 2007. As a follow-up to these questions I would like to arrange an interview of about 1½ - 2½ hours in the first week of August to discuss the questions/answers more in-depth. I would appreciate if you could also invite key-persons involved in answering the questions attached to this meeting to get their expert view on some matters. If this is not possible maybe a separate appointment could be arranged? Could you please provide me with some suggestions for location, date and time for the interview so I can make arrangements e.g. the booking of flights and hotels? Perhaps I could contact you over the phone regarding these matters? I also kindly ask you to read the consent form which is a requirement for interview-research at Coventry University. It provides more in-depth information about the interviews/discussion and the information you provide.

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Any comments or questions regarding the list of questions or proposed model framework are welcome. Thanking you in advance, Yours Sincerely, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK) Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Attachments:

• Research Question and Interview Package

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Any comments or questions regarding the list of questions or proposed model framework are welcome. Thanking you in advance, Yours Sincerely, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK) Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Attachments:

• Research Question and Interview Package

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National Urban Search and Rescue preparedness and coordination in case

of catastrophic events

In comparison to three other European nations, is the Netherlands prepared for urban disasters where international

USAR-support is needed?

Ralf J.J. Beerens

[email protected]

Questionnaire- and Interview-Pack

Coventry University Business, Environment & Society

MSc. In Disaster Management (F/T) 2006/2007

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National Urban Search and Rescue preparedness and coordination in case

of catastrophic events

In comparison to three other European nations, is the Netherlands prepared for urban disasters where international

USAR-support is needed?

Ralf J.J. Beerens

[email protected]

Questionnaire- and Interview-Pack

Coventry University Business, Environment & Society

MSc. In Disaster Management (F/T) 2006/2007

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Introduction Provided is a list of questions which I ask you to answer and return to aid my completion of my Master of Science research project at Coventry University (United Kingdom) titled: “National Urban Search and Rescue Preparedness and Coordination in case of catastrophic events”. Filling-in the question should take approx 2 hours of your time. The first section of this package contains consent information. Then 3 sections will follow. Each section contains some questions regarding the coordination level discussed. In the end of this document a list of contacts is attached should you have any questions with regards to the research. I also ask you to make some time available in your and/or your colleagues agendas for the first week of August to discuss your answers with the interviewer. The time needed depends on the information provided but should not take more than 3 hours. Participation in this research is voluntary and you are free to withdraw at any point. The information will be analysed using a model (see section 4) based on previous research on USAR-coordination and preparedness and the international INSARAG-guidelines mechanisms. The information will be used to test and verify the applicability of the model and its use for arranging International USAR-preparedness. Thank you for your cooperation, Best Regards, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK)

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Introduction Provided is a list of questions which I ask you to answer and return to aid my completion of my Master of Science research project at Coventry University (United Kingdom) titled: “National Urban Search and Rescue Preparedness and Coordination in case of catastrophic events”. Filling-in the question should take approx 2 hours of your time. The first section of this package contains consent information. Then 3 sections will follow. Each section contains some questions regarding the coordination level discussed. In the end of this document a list of contacts is attached should you have any questions with regards to the research. I also ask you to make some time available in your and/or your colleagues agendas for the first week of August to discuss your answers with the interviewer. The time needed depends on the information provided but should not take more than 3 hours. Participation in this research is voluntary and you are free to withdraw at any point. The information will be analysed using a model (see section 4) based on previous research on USAR-coordination and preparedness and the international INSARAG-guidelines mechanisms. The information will be used to test and verify the applicability of the model and its use for arranging International USAR-preparedness. Thank you for your cooperation, Best Regards, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK)

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Consent Information and Form

COVENTRY UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF BUSINESS, ENVIRONMENT & SOCIETY

NAME OF STUDENT Mr. Ralf Josef Johanna Beerens

NAME OF UNIVERSITY SUPERVISOR Mr. Robin Tasker

COURSE TITLE Master of Science in Disaster Management (Full-time / Taught) TITLE OF RESEARCH PROJECT

National Urban Search and Rescue preparedness and coordination in case of catastrophic events: In comparison to three other European Nations, is the Netherlands prepared for Urban Disasters where international USAR-support is needed? PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

Aims “To compare the coordination mechanisms and related preparedness/coordination measures and mechanisms of three European countries i.e. the Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden, in case international Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) support is needed.” “Contribute to the insights in the preparedness of the countries mentioned above and the use of USAR coordination mechanisms such as UN INSARAG in EU developed countries.” PARTICIPATION IN THIS RESEARCH WILL INVOLVE

Participating in this research will involve completion of the questions below. These questions are necessary to verify a model that has been developed by the researcher. These questions also are necessary to compare and analyse the different levels of USAR coordination and preparedness of the countries involved. You are asked to complete the answers or to pass the questions on to your colleagues to gather the answers. You are also asked to back your answers up with the necessary (written) information to verify the answer. Please provide the answers in English or Dutch so the researcher will understand them. Due to time restrictions completed answers will be required within 2 weeks of receiving the questions. After providing the researcher with the answers and any relevant background information a follow-up interview will be conducted. This interview should take approximately 1,5-2,5 hours. This interview is necessary to check the information provided and to give you or your colleagues an opportunity to fully explain the answers. It will also ensure that the information provided is correctly interpreted by the researcher. These discussions/interviews may be recorded by the interviewer for later review.

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Consent Information and Form

COVENTRY UNIVERSITY FACULTY OF BUSINESS, ENVIRONMENT & SOCIETY

NAME OF STUDENT Mr. Ralf Josef Johanna Beerens

NAME OF UNIVERSITY SUPERVISOR Mr. Robin Tasker

COURSE TITLE Master of Science in Disaster Management (Full-time / Taught) TITLE OF RESEARCH PROJECT

National Urban Search and Rescue preparedness and coordination in case of catastrophic events: In comparison to three other European Nations, is the Netherlands prepared for Urban Disasters where international USAR-support is needed? PURPOSE OF THE RESEARCH

Aims “To compare the coordination mechanisms and related preparedness/coordination measures and mechanisms of three European countries i.e. the Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden, in case international Urban Search and Rescue (USAR) support is needed.” “Contribute to the insights in the preparedness of the countries mentioned above and the use of USAR coordination mechanisms such as UN INSARAG in EU developed countries.” PARTICIPATION IN THIS RESEARCH WILL INVOLVE

Participating in this research will involve completion of the questions below. These questions are necessary to verify a model that has been developed by the researcher. These questions also are necessary to compare and analyse the different levels of USAR coordination and preparedness of the countries involved. You are asked to complete the answers or to pass the questions on to your colleagues to gather the answers. You are also asked to back your answers up with the necessary (written) information to verify the answer. Please provide the answers in English or Dutch so the researcher will understand them. Due to time restrictions completed answers will be required within 2 weeks of receiving the questions. After providing the researcher with the answers and any relevant background information a follow-up interview will be conducted. This interview should take approximately 1,5-2,5 hours. This interview is necessary to check the information provided and to give you or your colleagues an opportunity to fully explain the answers. It will also ensure that the information provided is correctly interpreted by the researcher. These discussions/interviews may be recorded by the interviewer for later review.

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FORESEEABLE RISKS OR DISCOMFORTS

The researcher does not see any risks or discomforts during your participation. Participation is completely voluntary and you may withdraw from it without giving a reason at any time. BENEFITS TO THE PARTICIPANT OF PARTICIPATION

This research will provide you and your country an overview of the current state of its preparedness and coordination regarding Urban Search and Rescue support. A comparative overview may provide some qualitative comments on your current preparedness position regarding the reception of international Urban Search and Rescue. WHAT WILL HAPPEN TO YOUR DATA

Any data/ results from your participation in the study will be used by Mr. Ralf Josef Johanna Beerens as part of his project work. The data will also be available to Mr. Robin Tasker. It may also be published in academic works, but your name or identity will not be revealed. You will be informed should the work be published. The results of the study will be made known to you after initial review of the data. If you have any questions or queries Mr. Ralf J.J. Beerens will be happy to answer them. If he cannot help you, you can speak to Mr. Robin Tasker If you have any questions about your rights as a participant or feel you have been placed at risk you can contact Mr. David Michael Broadbent, programme manager for the Master of Science in Disaster Management at Coventry University. Their contact information can be found at the end of this document. By signing this copy:

I confirm that I have read the above information.

The nature, demands and risks of the project have been explained to me.

I have also been informed that there will be no benefits/ payments to me for

participation.

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FORESEEABLE RISKS OR DISCOMFORTS

The researcher does not see any risks or discomforts during your participation. Participation is completely voluntary and you may withdraw from it without giving a reason at any time. BENEFITS TO THE PARTICIPANT OF PARTICIPATION

This research will provide you and your country an overview of the current state of its preparedness and coordination regarding Urban Search and Rescue support. A comparative overview may provide some qualitative comments on your current preparedness position regarding the reception of international Urban Search and Rescue. WHAT WILL HAPPEN TO YOUR DATA

Any data/ results from your participation in the study will be used by Mr. Ralf Josef Johanna Beerens as part of his project work. The data will also be available to Mr. Robin Tasker. It may also be published in academic works, but your name or identity will not be revealed. You will be informed should the work be published. The results of the study will be made known to you after initial review of the data. If you have any questions or queries Mr. Ralf J.J. Beerens will be happy to answer them. If he cannot help you, you can speak to Mr. Robin Tasker If you have any questions about your rights as a participant or feel you have been placed at risk you can contact Mr. David Michael Broadbent, programme manager for the Master of Science in Disaster Management at Coventry University. Their contact information can be found at the end of this document. By signing this copy:

I confirm that I have read the above information.

The nature, demands and risks of the project have been explained to me.

I have also been informed that there will be no benefits/ payments to me for

participation.

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I knowingly assume the risks involved and understand that I may withdraw my consent and discontinue participation at any time without penalty and without having to give any reason. Participant’s signature ____________________________________ Date _____________ Investigator’s signature ____________________________________ Date _____________ The signed copy of this form is retained by the student, and at the end of the project passed on to the supervisor. A second copy of the consent form should be given to the participant for them to keep for their own reference.

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I knowingly assume the risks involved and understand that I may withdraw my consent and discontinue participation at any time without penalty and without having to give any reason. Participant’s signature ____________________________________ Date _____________ Investigator’s signature ____________________________________ Date _____________ The signed copy of this form is retained by the student, and at the end of the project passed on to the supervisor. A second copy of the consent form should be given to the participant for them to keep for their own reference.

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Questions Instruction Please fill out the following questions in preparation to the interview. You can print out this form and use the spaces under the questions to fill-in your answer otherwise you can use this template and type the answer under the free space below the question. Please use official information or documents to provide the answer and if possible refer to them. If you are unable to give an answer to the question leave the question open or provide information why you were unable to answer the question. General Information Please provide contact details of the persons (other than you) involved in answering the questions and put the question numbers beside their name (if applicable). Contact Details Persons Involved Questions

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Questions Instruction Please fill out the following questions in preparation to the interview. You can print out this form and use the spaces under the questions to fill-in your answer otherwise you can use this template and type the answer under the free space below the question. Please use official information or documents to provide the answer and if possible refer to them. If you are unable to give an answer to the question leave the question open or provide information why you were unable to answer the question. General Information Please provide contact details of the persons (other than you) involved in answering the questions and put the question numbers beside their name (if applicable). Contact Details Persons Involved Questions

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Questions regarding the FIELD (local) and REGIONAL coordination level NR. Question

What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? Which specific plans contain USAR information?

1a.

What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks?

2a.

How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 2b. How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. Who grants the assistance? 2d. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? How is this maintained?

3a.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4.

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Questions regarding the FIELD (local) and REGIONAL coordination level NR. Question

What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? Which specific plans contain USAR information?

1a.

What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks?

2a.

How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 2b. How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. Who grants the assistance? 2d. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? How is this maintained?

3a.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4.

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Questions regarding the NATIONAL coordination level NR. Question

How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. What is the chain of command, who is in charge?

5a.

How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

How is national USAR assistance requested? Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5c.

How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?) Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5d.

Who grants the assistance? 5e. How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8.

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Questions regarding the NATIONAL coordination level NR. Question

How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. What is the chain of command, who is in charge?

5a.

How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

How is national USAR assistance requested? Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5c.

How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?) Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5d.

Who grants the assistance? 5e. How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8.

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Questions regarding the INTERNATIONAL coordination level NR. Question

How will the regional and national coordination level change if international USAR response arrives?

9.

What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre)?

10c.

Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 11b. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

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Questions regarding the INTERNATIONAL coordination level NR. Question


9.

What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre)?

10c.

Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 11b. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL

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OTHER questions NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.

Is there any political interference when requesting USAR support or other constraints?

15a.

What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION

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OTHER questions NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.


15a.

What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18.

THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION

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Contact information Researcher (MSc. Student in Disaster Management, Coventry University): Mr. Ralf J.J. Beerens Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Supervisor Coventry University: Mr. Robin Tasker Telephone : +44 (024) 76888745 E-mail : [email protected] Address : Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB, United Kingdom Programme Manager MSc. in Disaster Management, Coventry University Mr. David Michael Broadbent Telephone : +44 (024) 76888577 E-mail : [email protected] Address : Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB, United Kingdom External Consultant: Mr. Brendon Morris Telephone : +31 (06) 2242 1528 / +31 (0162) 589200 E-mail : [email protected] Address : P.O. Box 33 4940 AA, Raamsdonksveer, The Netherlands

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Contact information Researcher (MSc. Student in Disaster Management, Coventry University): Mr. Ralf J.J. Beerens Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Supervisor Coventry University: Mr. Robin Tasker Telephone : +44 (024) 76888745 E-mail : [email protected] Address : Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB, United Kingdom Programme Manager MSc. in Disaster Management, Coventry University Mr. David Michael Broadbent Telephone : +44 (024) 76888577 E-mail : [email protected] Address : Priory Street, Coventry CV1 5FB, United Kingdom External Consultant: Mr. Brendon Morris Telephone : +31 (06) 2242 1528 / +31 (0162) 589200 E-mail : [email protected] Address : P.O. Box 33 4940 AA, Raamsdonksveer, The Netherlands

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Contacts USAR.NL: Mr. Rob K. Brons (Commander USAR/Supervisor NL) Telephone : +31 (070) 3539400 E-mail : [email protected] Adress : P.O. Box 52155, 2505 CD Den Haag, The Netherlands Mr. Huub van der Weide E-mail : [email protected]

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Contacts USAR.NL: Mr. Rob K. Brons (Commander USAR/Supervisor NL) Telephone : +31 (070) 3539400 E-mail : [email protected] Adress : P.O. Box 52155, 2505 CD Den Haag, The Netherlands Mr. Huub van der Weide E-mail : [email protected]

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ANNEX E

Coventry University Ethics Checklist and Compliance Form

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ANNEX E

Coventry University Ethics Checklist and Compliance Form

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- 145 -

- 146 -

ANNEX F

Letter for Review Coventry (UK), 19 August 2007 To: Whom it may concern Subject: “USAR Research Project” – Information Review Dear Sir/Dear Madam, Please find attached the report of our discussion (dd. XX-XX-XXXX). I kindly ask you to critically review this report and make any changes if necessary or add vital information to it such as policy, acts, etc. that proves the statements written down. I also have some questions regarding the provided information in the discussions. These questions are highlighted in yellow, could you answer these questions to complete the general overview regarding your country and the research project. I have also attached conceptual drawings of organizational diagrams about the local, regional and national structures which led to your country’s model, please have a look at these as well. Please note that this report is the basis for my conclusions and analysis, any information provided or interpreted incorrectly in this report may lead to incorrect conclusions that can have future implications. Therefore, please take your time and also ask one of your colleagues to review it as well and correct or add information. This is necessary to ensure the reliability of the data. If someone other than you reviews the report please provide his or her name on the introduction page of the report. Along with the discussion report I have attached a draft of the model I made for your country based on the information I already had. Could you please check this model and comment on it regarding the structures and mechanisms in it (is it correct?). Comments on its clarity are particularly welcome. Please send me your response as soon as possible. I will send you a draft of my complete research report on the 1st of September for review.

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ANNEX F

Letter for Review Coventry (UK), 19 August 2007 To: Whom it may concern Subject: “USAR Research Project” – Information Review Dear Sir/Dear Madam, Please find attached the report of our discussion (dd. XX-XX-XXXX). I kindly ask you to critically review this report and make any changes if necessary or add vital information to it such as policy, acts, etc. that proves the statements written down. I also have some questions regarding the provided information in the discussions. These questions are highlighted in yellow, could you answer these questions to complete the general overview regarding your country and the research project. I have also attached conceptual drawings of organizational diagrams about the local, regional and national structures which led to your country’s model, please have a look at these as well. Please note that this report is the basis for my conclusions and analysis, any information provided or interpreted incorrectly in this report may lead to incorrect conclusions that can have future implications. Therefore, please take your time and also ask one of your colleagues to review it as well and correct or add information. This is necessary to ensure the reliability of the data. If someone other than you reviews the report please provide his or her name on the introduction page of the report. Along with the discussion report I have attached a draft of the model I made for your country based on the information I already had. Could you please check this model and comment on it regarding the structures and mechanisms in it (is it correct?). Comments on its clarity are particularly welcome. Please send me your response as soon as possible. I will send you a draft of my complete research report on the 1st of September for review.

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Due to time limitations I will need your comments on this research report before the 7th of September. After handing-in on the 14th of September I will send you a hard-copy and digital copy of the final report to thank you for your cooperation. I will let you know the mark my dissertation obtains. Thanking you in advance, Yours Sincerely, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK) Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Attachments:

1) Discussion Report 2) USAR Coordination and Preparedness Structures 3) “USAR Model”

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Due to time limitations I will need your comments on this research report before the 7th of September. After handing-in on the 14th of September I will send you a hard-copy and digital copy of the final report to thank you for your cooperation. I will let you know the mark my dissertation obtains. Thanking you in advance, Yours Sincerely, Ralf Beerens MSc. Student in Disaster Management Coventry University (UK) Term Address (UK): Correspondence Address (NL): Lynden House, Room 2B Walburgisstraat 43 2B Spencer Road 6109 RE Ohé en Laak Coventry/Earlsdon The Netherlands CV5 6PA United Kingdom Telephone UK : +44 (0)79 19 51 43 86 Telephone NL : +31 (0)6 11 212 875 E-mail : [email protected] MSN : [email protected] Skype : ralf_beerens Attachments:

1) Discussion Report 2) USAR Coordination and Preparedness Structures 3) “USAR Model”

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ANNEX G

Overview Aims and Objectives AIMS:

• To compare the coordination mechanisms and related preparedness measures of three European countries. These countries include The Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden, in receiving international Urban Search and Rescue (USAR).

• Contribute to the preparedness of the contributory countries and the use of USAR

coordination mechanisms such as UN INSARAG in EU developed countries. It should aid in clarification of the current linkages between the preparedness and coordination mechanisms in place on national and international levels

OBJECTIVES Number Objective 1. Review and model the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology as well as

the EU resolutions on receiving USAR support in disaster affected countries 2. Conduct an in-depth analysis of the national emergency preparedness and

coordination structure and the application of the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology within this system in the Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden

3. analyse the National structures and mechanisms for receiving urban search and rescue support in a disaster affected country by pattern-matching

4. Make recommendations for the further development of the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology, national structures and mechanisms and other USAR related systems in disaster affected areas.

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ANNEX G

Overview Aims and Objectives AIMS:

• To compare the coordination mechanisms and related preparedness measures of three European countries. These countries include The Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden, in receiving international Urban Search and Rescue (USAR).

• Contribute to the preparedness of the contributory countries and the use of USAR

coordination mechanisms such as UN INSARAG in EU developed countries. It should aid in clarification of the current linkages between the preparedness and coordination mechanisms in place on national and international levels

OBJECTIVES Number Objective 1. Review and model the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology as well as

the EU resolutions on receiving USAR support in disaster affected countries 2. Conduct an in-depth analysis of the national emergency preparedness and

coordination structure and the application of the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology within this system in the Netherlands, Estonia and Sweden

3. analyse the National structures and mechanisms for receiving urban search and rescue support in a disaster affected country by pattern-matching

4. Make recommendations for the further development of the UN INSARAG guidelines and methodology, national structures and mechanisms and other USAR related systems in disaster affected areas.

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ANNEX H

The Netherlands Discussion Report DISCUSSION REPORT Discussion Leader (Researcher) : Ralf J.J. Beerens Student ID : 16 04 661 Course : Master of Science in Disaster Management

(taught/full-time) Date and Time : 31 July 2007; 13.30 hrs. – 15.00 hrs. Location : USAR.NL, Dordrecht THE NETHERLANDS Project : URBAN SEARCH AND RESCUE

PREPAREDNESS Discussion Member : Mr. Huub van der Weide Deputy General Commander USAR.NL

REVIEWED BY:

• Mrs. Yvonne Stilting (Bureau USAR)

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ANNEX H

The Netherlands Discussion Report DISCUSSION REPORT Discussion Leader (Researcher) : Ralf J.J. Beerens Student ID : 16 04 661 Course : Master of Science in Disaster Management

(taught/full-time) Date and Time : 31 July 2007; 13.30 hrs. – 15.00 hrs. Location : USAR.NL, Dordrecht THE NETHERLANDS Project : URBAN SEARCH AND RESCUE

PREPAREDNESS Discussion Member : Mr. Huub van der Weide Deputy General Commander USAR.NL

REVIEWED BY:

• Mrs. Yvonne Stilting (Bureau USAR)

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FIELD (local) and REGIONAL coordination level NR. Question

What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. The Netherlands have several preparedness plans in place on local and regional level:

1. The local “Disaster Plan” (Rampenplan) that arranges the organizational structures when a disaster happens (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 2, art. 4)

2. A “Disaster Relief Plan” (Rampbestrijdingsplan) that is aimed on the kind of incident (mainly Chemical Companies) (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 2, art. >4)

3. On Province-level there is a “Province Coordination Plan” that arranges the Provincial Coordination in case of an emergency. However the main tasks of a Province in preparedness is verify and control the local governments (municipalities) with regards to the above mentioned planning.

4. Nationally there are various plans and arrangements for coordination and cooperation between the various ministries however they do not contain information about setting up and OSOCC or RDC.

How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? This is different per plan and region, USAR has sent out a circular giving the following usability criteria:

- A severe or extensive emergency that cannot be suppressed sufficiently with the municipal or regional available resources

- Specific search and rescue of humans and animals - Typical USAR incidents: earthquakes, tunnel incidents, building collapse,

seaquake or flood wave, hurricanes, landslides and mudslides. There is however no National guideline for embedding USAR in the local planning. Daily Rescue tasks such as extricating from car-crashes and small collapse of buildings is embedded in the procedures and plans at a local level. Also the Netherlands have the opportunity to call in specialist privately owned equipment such as cranes or other rescue tools. Which specific plans contain USAR information?

1a.

This is not recorded in policy and depends on local and regional planning. What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. Mostly organizational information about the usability criteria of USAR and its organizational support, but this depends on the purpose of the plan and its users. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. The Netherlands have a coordination system called GRIP (Coordinated Regional Incident Procedure). This structure has 5 different levels of GRIP: GRIP 0: Normal daily operating procedures for the operational (emergency) services (or first responders) GRIP 1: Source suppression – Incident Command (COPI) GRIP 2: Source and Effect Suppression – COPI + Operational Team (OT) GRIP 3: A Threat for the welfare of (large groups) of the community – COPI + OT + Municipal Policy Team (GBT) GRIP 4: A Cross-boundary Municipal incident, with possible lack of resources– COPI + OT + GBT + Regional Policy Team (RBT)

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What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. The Netherlands have several preparedness plans in place on local and regional level:

1. The local “Disaster Plan” (Rampenplan) that arranges the organizational structures when a disaster happens (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 2, art. 4)

2. A “Disaster Relief Plan” (Rampbestrijdingsplan) that is aimed on the kind of incident (mainly Chemical Companies) (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 2, art. >4)

3. On Province-level there is a “Province Coordination Plan” that arranges the Provincial Coordination in case of an emergency. However the main tasks of a Province in preparedness is verify and control the local governments (municipalities) with regards to the above mentioned planning.

4. Nationally there are various plans and arrangements for coordination and cooperation between the various ministries however they do not contain information about setting up and OSOCC or RDC.

How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? This is different per plan and region, USAR has sent out a circular giving the following usability criteria:

- A severe or extensive emergency that cannot be suppressed sufficiently with the municipal or regional available resources

- Specific search and rescue of humans and animals - Typical USAR incidents: earthquakes, tunnel incidents, building collapse,

seaquake or flood wave, hurricanes, landslides and mudslides. There is however no National guideline for embedding USAR in the local planning. Daily Rescue tasks such as extricating from car-crashes and small collapse of buildings is embedded in the procedures and plans at a local level. Also the Netherlands have the opportunity to call in specialist privately owned equipment such as cranes or other rescue tools. Which specific plans contain USAR information?

1a.

This is not recorded in policy and depends on local and regional planning. What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. Mostly organizational information about the usability criteria of USAR and its organizational support, but this depends on the purpose of the plan and its users. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. The Netherlands have a coordination system called GRIP (Coordinated Regional Incident Procedure). This structure has 5 different levels of GRIP: GRIP 0: Normal daily operating procedures for the operational (emergency) services (or first responders) GRIP 1: Source suppression – Incident Command (COPI) GRIP 2: Source and Effect Suppression – COPI + Operational Team (OT) GRIP 3: A Threat for the welfare of (large groups) of the community – COPI + OT + Municipal Policy Team (GBT) GRIP 4: A Cross-boundary Municipal incident, with possible lack of resources– COPI + OT + GBT + Regional Policy Team (RBT)

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Based on the information in “Referentiekader GRIP 2006”. The municipal level is the most important level with respect to suppressing the incident. The regional level will play a more important role if the incident and its effects cross the boundaries of the municipality. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? The Mayor of the municipality where the incident has happened is in charge (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 2, art. 11) . He is the only one (by law) who is in charge. He can delegate his responsibility to the operational leader (in small) incidents and he will be supported by specialists with advice in case of an emergency. The operational leader can be a fire-officer, police-officer or ambulance-officer depending on the kind of incident. In case of a larger incident a coordinating Mayor can be appointed (by the Queen’s commissioner), this is arranged in the Regional Disaster Plans. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? According to the “Disaster Law” (WRZO) the Mayor is responsible for requesting additional resources such as USAR. He will request this via the “Commisioner of the Queen” in the Region who will contact the minister of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. However it is possible to use direct-lines when contacting USAR and USAR might take its own initiative in proposing response to a disaster. What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks?

2a.

Normally first responders are (depending on the incident): 1. Fire-Services 2. Police 3. Ambulance 4. Municipal Services

How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 2b. The information flows depending on the incident via de same mechanisms as used in the GRIP structure:

1. Incident Command Post (COPI) 2. Operational Team (OT) 3. Municipal Policy Team (GBT) 4. Regional Policy Team (RBT) 5. Province Coordination Center (PCC) 6. National Coordination Center (NCC) and/or National Operational

Command Center (LOCC) How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. The “Formal” procedure is: The Mayor of the municipality where the incident has happened request USAR-support via the “Commissioner of the Queen” of his region. The “Commissioner of the Queen” then will forward this request to the Minister of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. There is also another “fast-track” which can be used to speed-up the response besides the above mentioned procedure:

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Based on the information in “Referentiekader GRIP 2006”. The municipal level is the most important level with respect to suppressing the incident. The regional level will play a more important role if the incident and its effects cross the boundaries of the municipality. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? The Mayor of the municipality where the incident has happened is in charge (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 2, art. 11) . He is the only one (by law) who is in charge. He can delegate his responsibility to the operational leader (in small) incidents and he will be supported by specialists with advice in case of an emergency. The operational leader can be a fire-officer, police-officer or ambulance-officer depending on the kind of incident. In case of a larger incident a coordinating Mayor can be appointed (by the Queen’s commissioner), this is arranged in the Regional Disaster Plans. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? According to the “Disaster Law” (WRZO) the Mayor is responsible for requesting additional resources such as USAR. He will request this via the “Commisioner of the Queen” in the Region who will contact the minister of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. However it is possible to use direct-lines when contacting USAR and USAR might take its own initiative in proposing response to a disaster. What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks?

2a.

Normally first responders are (depending on the incident): 1. Fire-Services 2. Police 3. Ambulance 4. Municipal Services

How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 2b. The information flows depending on the incident via de same mechanisms as used in the GRIP structure:


Command Center (LOCC) How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. The “Formal” procedure is: The Mayor of the municipality where the incident has happened request USAR-support via the “Commissioner of the Queen” of his region. The “Commissioner of the Queen” then will forward this request to the Minister of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. There is also another “fast-track” which can be used to speed-up the response besides the above mentioned procedure:

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The Mayor is informed by the duty “Commander in Chief”. The “Commander in Chief” will contact the National Coordination Center (NCC). The NCC will contact the national USAR commander or his deputy. The national USAR commander will discuss the request with his staff and sends a copy of this decision to the ministry of internal affairs and kingdom relations / NCC. Who grants the assistance? 2d. Formally the Director General of the Fire-Services and GHOR in consultation with the national USAR commander. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

USAR is a specialist unit for “search and rescue” tasks. It therefore has specialist high-tech search and rescue equipment which are not available at a local level. The local level is highly equipped with rescue equipment for car-extrication and other daily incidents. On a regional level rescue equipment is available for larger incidents such as building collapse or train-crashes. However there is little search equipment available. Also the expertise to use all the equipment is not centralized as it is with USAR and the familiarity depends on the training of the individual. USAR is aimed to support and added to the local responders. It also fits in the National coordination structure and is familiar with it. Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? The regional coordination mechanisms have been informed by letter and should be familiar with USAR. However on a local level USAR familiarity is unknown and further research should be done. The Rescue Services participating in national USAR programs (4 regions: Rotterdam-Rijnmond, Zuid-Holland-Zuid, Hollands-Midden and Haaglanden) are likely to be familiar with USAR. How is this maintained?

3a.

There is no procedure. Information is provided on request or in USAR’s own name. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4. Currently the Netherlands are reforming the organizational structure of Emergency Preparedness. The 25 “Safety Regions” (Veiligheidsregio’s) will become more important in the preparedness and response to an emergency. They will support the municipalities in there preparedness and response to create uniformity. At the moment there is a provisional law (Wet Veiligheidsregio’s) about the various mechanisms and authorities, however this law is not in place yet. This law was taken into account when reviewing the answers to the questions however it will not influence the answers as written before in the near future and the Mayor will still play the most important role during a local emergency.

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The Mayor is informed by the duty “Commander in Chief”. The “Commander in Chief” will contact the National Coordination Center (NCC). The NCC will contact the national USAR commander or his deputy. The national USAR commander will discuss the request with his staff and sends a copy of this decision to the ministry of internal affairs and kingdom relations / NCC. Who grants the assistance? 2d. Formally the Director General of the Fire-Services and GHOR in consultation with the national USAR commander. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

USAR is a specialist unit for “search and rescue” tasks. It therefore has specialist high-tech search and rescue equipment which are not available at a local level. The local level is highly equipped with rescue equipment for car-extrication and other daily incidents. On a regional level rescue equipment is available for larger incidents such as building collapse or train-crashes. However there is little search equipment available. Also the expertise to use all the equipment is not centralized as it is with USAR and the familiarity depends on the training of the individual. USAR is aimed to support and added to the local responders. It also fits in the National coordination structure and is familiar with it. Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? The regional coordination mechanisms have been informed by letter and should be familiar with USAR. However on a local level USAR familiarity is unknown and further research should be done. The Rescue Services participating in national USAR programs (4 regions: Rotterdam-Rijnmond, Zuid-Holland-Zuid, Hollands-Midden and Haaglanden) are likely to be familiar with USAR. How is this maintained?

3a.

There is no procedure. Information is provided on request or in USAR’s own name. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4. Currently the Netherlands are reforming the organizational structure of Emergency Preparedness. The 25 “Safety Regions” (Veiligheidsregio’s) will become more important in the preparedness and response to an emergency. They will support the municipalities in there preparedness and response to create uniformity. At the moment there is a provisional law (Wet Veiligheidsregio’s) about the various mechanisms and authorities, however this law is not in place yet. This law was taken into account when reviewing the answers to the questions however it will not influence the answers as written before in the near future and the Mayor will still play the most important role during a local emergency.

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NATIONAL coordination level NR. Question

How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. Formally the National Coordination Structure is:

- Regional Coordination Center (RCC) -> Safety Region - Provincial Coordination Center (PCC) -> County/Province - National Coordination Center (NCC) -> National/Ministry of Internal

Affairs and Kingdom Relations Currently the Netherlands also have a National Operational Command Center (LOCC). This center is responsible for the national coordination of resources and information during disasters. It can be used to request resources without having followed all the formal procedures in case of a disaster. What is the chain of command, who is in charge?

5a.

The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations which run the National Coordination Center (NCC) is in charge at a National Level:

- The NCC coordinates between the different departments within the various ministries in case of a disaster.

- The NCC coordinates within its own ministry. - The NCC uses the LOCC for the operational coordination during a

disaster. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)?


Command Center (LOCC) How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

There is no formal procedure for information flow to the international level such as translation or communication. This depends on where the OSOCC will be established but most likely the Province Coordination Center or the National Coordination Center will be providing the OSOCC with overall disaster information. Specific information regarding the Search and Rescue tasks by the teams will be communicated on a local level by the operational team. Also rescue works will be conducted at this level in cooperation with the Operational Team or the Incident Command. However all this will be currently established ad-hoc. How is national USAR assistance requested? 5c. Similar to 2C: The “Formal” procedure is: The Mayor of the municipality where the incident has happened request USAR-support via the “Commissioner of the Queen” of his region. The “Commissioner of the Queen” then will forward this request to the Minister of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. There is also another “fast-track” which can be used to speed-up the response

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How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. Formally the National Coordination Structure is:

- Regional Coordination Center (RCC) -> Safety Region - Provincial Coordination Center (PCC) -> County/Province - National Coordination Center (NCC) -> National/Ministry of Internal

Affairs and Kingdom Relations Currently the Netherlands also have a National Operational Command Center (LOCC). This center is responsible for the national coordination of resources and information during disasters. It can be used to request resources without having followed all the formal procedures in case of a disaster. What is the chain of command, who is in charge?

5a.

The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations which run the National Coordination Center (NCC) is in charge at a National Level:

- The NCC coordinates between the different departments within the various ministries in case of a disaster.

- The NCC coordinates within its own ministry. - The NCC uses the LOCC for the operational coordination during a

disaster. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)?


Command Center (LOCC) How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

There is no formal procedure for information flow to the international level such as translation or communication. This depends on where the OSOCC will be established but most likely the Province Coordination Center or the National Coordination Center will be providing the OSOCC with overall disaster information. Specific information regarding the Search and Rescue tasks by the teams will be communicated on a local level by the operational team. Also rescue works will be conducted at this level in cooperation with the Operational Team or the Incident Command. However all this will be currently established ad-hoc. How is national USAR assistance requested? 5c. Similar to 2C: The “Formal” procedure is: The Mayor of the municipality where the incident has happened request USAR-support via the “Commissioner of the Queen” of his region. The “Commissioner of the Queen” then will forward this request to the Minister of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. There is also another “fast-track” which can be used to speed-up the response

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besides the above mentioned procedure: The Mayor is informed by the duty “Commander in Chief”. The “Commander in Chief” will contact the National Coordination Center (NCC). The NCC will contact the national USAR commander or his deputy. The national USAR commander will discuss the request with his staff and sends a copy of this decision to the ministry of internal affairs and kingdom relations / NCC. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide) It is stated in a letter and is similar to the request for other operational resources stated in the law (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 4) How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?) The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations will request on behalf of the Dutch Government and is hereby supported by recommendation of the NCC. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5d.

No Formal Procedure requesting is voluntary effort using V-OSOCC Who grants the assistance? 5e. Nationally: The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations Internationally: The responding States How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

There are no arrangements for the reception of International USAR. Considerations should been given to the following elements:

- Transport arrangements within the Netherlands - Customs and Import of people and resources - Provide information through e.g. RDC

USAR.NL is capable of setting-up and running a RDC and OSOCC in first instance to support teams when entering the Netherlands. How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

No procedure, but it is likely that information will be communicated with the other responding countries using virtual OSOCC or CECIS or through the Embassies. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8. The Netherlands have an INSARAG Focal Point however this person is not employed within the Ministry and acts more as a consultant for the ministry and government.

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besides the above mentioned procedure: The Mayor is informed by the duty “Commander in Chief”. The “Commander in Chief” will contact the National Coordination Center (NCC). The NCC will contact the national USAR commander or his deputy. The national USAR commander will discuss the request with his staff and sends a copy of this decision to the ministry of internal affairs and kingdom relations / NCC. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide) It is stated in a letter and is similar to the request for other operational resources stated in the law (National Disaster Law (WRZO) 1985 chpt. 4) How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?) The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations will request on behalf of the Dutch Government and is hereby supported by recommendation of the NCC. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5d.

No Formal Procedure requesting is voluntary effort using V-OSOCC Who grants the assistance? 5e. Nationally: The Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations Internationally: The responding States How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

There are no arrangements for the reception of International USAR. Considerations should been given to the following elements:

- Transport arrangements within the Netherlands - Customs and Import of people and resources - Provide information through e.g. RDC

USAR.NL is capable of setting-up and running a RDC and OSOCC in first instance to support teams when entering the Netherlands. How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

No procedure, but it is likely that information will be communicated with the other responding countries using virtual OSOCC or CECIS or through the Embassies. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8. The Netherlands have an INSARAG Focal Point however this person is not employed within the Ministry and acts more as a consultant for the ministry and government.

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INTERNATIONAL coordination level NR. Question


9.

USAR will be added to the National Structure, this is not likely to change. Also USAR will operate according to the INSARAG guidelines and methodology using its own operational structure. Mainly USAR will coordinate through the OSOCC which will operate besides, but in close cooperation with the National Authorities. What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. The National Chain of Command is unlikely to change and USAR will be seen as another Unit under the local command. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. No procedures, most likely using the same mechanisms. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

This can not be defined in advance and depends on various circumstances such as the scale of the disaster. However the Dutch USAR-team is an international classified HEAVY USAR team (according to INSARAG 2006). When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. This depends on the situation and is not pre-defined. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? This can not be defined in advance and depends on various circumstances such as the scale of the disaster. However the Dutch USAR-team is an international classified HEAVY USAR team (according to INSARAG 2006). What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

USAR.NL consists of 1 Heavy team. Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre)?

10c.

USAR.NL will start setting up an RDC and OSOCC in case of a disaster, however in running it, it will be supported by incoming teams. Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? UNDAC or Dutch UNDAC members can be requested to set up the international mechanisms but this is not pre-planned or formalized. Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

Currently there will be two separate structures the national (as described before and in the Disaster Law) and the international (Conform INSARAG). How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. There are international treaties and bilateral agreements between the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. The chain of command will not change and is based on the countries’ National emergency response systems.

11b. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)?

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9.

USAR will be added to the National Structure, this is not likely to change. Also USAR will operate according to the INSARAG guidelines and methodology using its own operational structure. Mainly USAR will coordinate through the OSOCC which will operate besides, but in close cooperation with the National Authorities. What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. The National Chain of Command is unlikely to change and USAR will be seen as another Unit under the local command. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. No procedures, most likely using the same mechanisms. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

This can not be defined in advance and depends on various circumstances such as the scale of the disaster. However the Dutch USAR-team is an international classified HEAVY USAR team (according to INSARAG 2006). When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. This depends on the situation and is not pre-defined. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? This can not be defined in advance and depends on various circumstances such as the scale of the disaster. However the Dutch USAR-team is an international classified HEAVY USAR team (according to INSARAG 2006). What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

USAR.NL consists of 1 Heavy team. Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre)?

10c.

USAR.NL will start setting up an RDC and OSOCC in case of a disaster, however in running it, it will be supported by incoming teams. Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? UNDAC or Dutch UNDAC members can be requested to set up the international mechanisms but this is not pre-planned or formalized. Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

Currently there will be two separate structures the national (as described before and in the Disaster Law) and the international (Conform INSARAG). How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. There are international treaties and bilateral agreements between the Netherlands, Germany and Belgium. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. The chain of command will not change and is based on the countries’ National emergency response systems.


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This also does not change. Information will flow according to the national system for each country. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c. No changes, same procedure as mentioned in 2c for teams in the Netherlands.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL The professionalism of the international response will be taken into account when

requesting and approving international incoming support.

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This also does not change. Information will flow according to the national system for each country. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c. No changes, same procedure as mentioned in 2c for teams in the Netherlands.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL The professionalism of the international response will be taken into account when

requesting and approving international incoming support.

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OTHER NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. USAR.nl can operate nationally its members however work in 3 regions in the west of the country: USAR.nl is controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. Internationally only a complete USAR-team will be deployed. Nationally it is possible to use elements of the team. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

There is a Memorandum of Agreement between EU and UN regarding USAR support outside the EU however internally there are no arrangements. Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

European USAR should be arranged according to the UN/INSARAG structure and resources should be owned by the countries. Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.

There are bilateral agreements regarding response and support with: - Germany Trb. 1988, 95), - Belgium (Trb. 1984, 155)


15a.

Yes, the ministry of Foreign Affairs decides to provide humanitarian USAR support to a country struck by disaster. Also the ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations will take the safety of the team into account. With respect to incoming teams the ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom relations will take the expertise and professionalism into account. Also the political relationship between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the supporting country will be taken into account. What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

In random order: - Terrorism - Human-made disasters such as (chemical) explosions e.g. Enschede

Fireworks Disaster. - Large Storms (wind or snow -> snow load) - Flooding undermining the foundations of houses - (Small) Earthquakes

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. This is based on treaties. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18. NONE

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OTHER NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. USAR.nl can operate nationally its members however work in 3 regions in the west of the country: USAR.nl is controlled by the Ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations. Internationally only a complete USAR-team will be deployed. Nationally it is possible to use elements of the team. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

There is a Memorandum of Agreement between EU and UN regarding USAR support outside the EU however internally there are no arrangements. Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

European USAR should be arranged according to the UN/INSARAG structure and resources should be owned by the countries. Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.

There are bilateral agreements regarding response and support with: - Germany Trb. 1988, 95), - Belgium (Trb. 1984, 155)


15a.

Yes, the ministry of Foreign Affairs decides to provide humanitarian USAR support to a country struck by disaster. Also the ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom Relations will take the safety of the team into account. With respect to incoming teams the ministry of Internal Affairs and Kingdom relations will take the expertise and professionalism into account. Also the political relationship between the Kingdom of the Netherlands and the supporting country will be taken into account. What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

In random order: - Terrorism - Human-made disasters such as (chemical) explosions e.g. Enschede

Fireworks Disaster. - Large Storms (wind or snow -> snow load) - Flooding undermining the foundations of houses - (Small) Earthquakes

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. This is based on treaties. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18. NONE

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ANNEX I

Sweden Discussion Report DISCUSSION REPORT Discussion Leader (Researcher) : Ralf J.J. Beerens Student ID : 16 04 661 Course : Master of Science in Disaster Management

(taught/full-time) Date and Time : 25 July 2007; 8.30 hrs. – 11.30 hrs. Location : Swedish Rescue Service Agency (SRSA),

Kristinehamn SWEDEN Project : URBAN SEARCH AND RESCUE

PREPAREDNESS Discussion Member : Mr. David Norlin Programme Officer SRSA

REVIEWED BY:

• UNKNOWN

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ANNEX I

Sweden Discussion Report DISCUSSION REPORT Discussion Leader (Researcher) : Ralf J.J. Beerens Student ID : 16 04 661 Course : Master of Science in Disaster Management

(taught/full-time) Date and Time : 25 July 2007; 8.30 hrs. – 11.30 hrs. Location : Swedish Rescue Service Agency (SRSA),

Kristinehamn SWEDEN Project : URBAN SEARCH AND RESCUE

PREPAREDNESS Discussion Member : Mr. David Norlin Programme Officer SRSA

REVIEWED BY:

• UNKNOWN

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What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. There is an important role for the municipality regarding preparedness and planning. Most of the fire and rescue preparedness is planned and conducted at local level, by the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services. Municipal plans should be based on local circumstances and risks in the area; they are also responsible for arranging agreements with other municipalities in case of mutual-aid. This is also the case when international bilateral support is needed e.g. Oresund-bridge. There are no formal “instructions” for these plans but they are reviewed by the County and reported to SRSA (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt. 5). Every municipality must have plan of action for their preventative work against accidents and their fire and rescue service (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt.3). The plan of action should contain objectives and goals for the sectors prevention and response, a description of risks which might lead to rescue operations and finally available resources. How the work is planned and organized should be described as well. On a county level there are specific plans for disaster e.g. flooding, forest fires, nuclear events, etc.. These plans are developed by the County Administrative Board (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt. 4). How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? 1a. Sweden currently does not have a USAR-team that operates nationally due to the very low risks of earthquakes. The Swedish USAR capacity is established for international operations abroad. However, it has an experienced team conform INSARAG-structure. Currently there is a proposal to develop USAR-rescue teams consisting of members of the bigger municipalities (Stockholm, Göteborg and Malmö). These municipalities now already have specialist search and rescue equipment stored at their locations/stations. This is a transformation process that will start at the end of this year as the old agreements end. By combining teams of members from the same municipality Sweden might be able to develop “local” Urban Search and Rescue capacity within these municipalities. These teams than might be nationally deployed (through support of SRSA on request directly by Municipality/Rescue Leader), when necessary. However the municipalities are already equipped to conduct daily rescue tasks and as written before the rescue leader can call in the canine rescue dogs when necessary to conduct search tasks. Also Sweden can call in commercial equipment such as cranes to support with heavy equipment during an event. The Rescue Leader can force companies and privat persons to have their property used in the rescue operation. The Fire and Rescue Service must later reimburse the affected company/person for the use of their property

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What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. There is an important role for the municipality regarding preparedness and planning. Most of the fire and rescue preparedness is planned and conducted at local level, by the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services. Municipal plans should be based on local circumstances and risks in the area; they are also responsible for arranging agreements with other municipalities in case of mutual-aid. This is also the case when international bilateral support is needed e.g. Oresund-bridge. There are no formal “instructions” for these plans but they are reviewed by the County and reported to SRSA (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt. 5). Every municipality must have plan of action for their preventative work against accidents and their fire and rescue service (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt.3). The plan of action should contain objectives and goals for the sectors prevention and response, a description of risks which might lead to rescue operations and finally available resources. How the work is planned and organized should be described as well. On a county level there are specific plans for disaster e.g. flooding, forest fires, nuclear events, etc.. These plans are developed by the County Administrative Board (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt. 4). How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? 1a. Sweden currently does not have a USAR-team that operates nationally due to the very low risks of earthquakes. The Swedish USAR capacity is established for international operations abroad. However, it has an experienced team conform INSARAG-structure. Currently there is a proposal to develop USAR-rescue teams consisting of members of the bigger municipalities (Stockholm, Göteborg and Malmö). These municipalities now already have specialist search and rescue equipment stored at their locations/stations. This is a transformation process that will start at the end of this year as the old agreements end. By combining teams of members from the same municipality Sweden might be able to develop “local” Urban Search and Rescue capacity within these municipalities. These teams than might be nationally deployed (through support of SRSA on request directly by Municipality/Rescue Leader), when necessary. However the municipalities are already equipped to conduct daily rescue tasks and as written before the rescue leader can call in the canine rescue dogs when necessary to conduct search tasks. Also Sweden can call in commercial equipment such as cranes to support with heavy equipment during an event. The Rescue Leader can force companies and privat persons to have their property used in the rescue operation. The Fire and Rescue Service must later reimburse the affected company/person for the use of their property

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Currently there is also a proposal to use assets that are used for international deployment to be used for national search and rescue. The local (municipal) level will be responsible for requesting these assets this and SRSA might support when needed. Which specific plans contain USAR information? Not Applicable because there is no “formal” National USAR-team however the “plan of action” contains information about rescue works conducted at a local level by the fire and rescue services. What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. Not Applicable because there is no “formal” National USAR-team however the plans contain information about rescue works conducted on a local level by the fire and rescue services. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. SOS Alarm AB is running the alarm centre and responsible for receiving 112-calls and the dispatch of fire, rescue and medical resources. They are coordinating resources but are not in charge. Sweden knows three response levels:

- Local: Municipality - Regional: County - National: SRSA and other Governmental Agencies or Ministries (mainly

defense and foreign affairs) Municipality: The municipality is the strongest and most important response level in Sweden and it has many responsibilities regarding preparedness and response (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt. 3). County: The CAB is responsible for the supervision of the fire and rescue services within the different municipalities within the county and reports this to SRSA (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt 5). The Medical Services are also organized having the same boundaries as the county. Also the State Police has the same regions as the other emergency services. However the delivery of medical care might differ per country as it can be integrated within the Fire and Rescue Services but also be conducted by private or other organizations. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 2a. Within the local or, in exceptional cases, at the regional level, a rescue leader (Räddningsledaren) will be in charge of the rescue operations and will coordinate with other agencies involved such as the police and ambulance services. If there is a bomb or terrorist threat/event the “Police Incident Commander” will be in charge and cooperates closely with the rescue leader. The Police Incident Commander is in charge of police operation, the rescueleader in charge during a rescue operation. Both must cooperate In reality this is not a problem. The Rescue Leader can be the Fire and Rescue Chief or a Fire and Rescue Officer appointed by the Chief. If a disaster comprises more than one municipality the two rescue leaders in charge have to negotiate and agree upon who will be in charge of the mission. If there is no agreement the County Administrative Board appoints a Rescue Leader, this is arranged by law

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Currently there is also a proposal to use assets that are used for international deployment to be used for national search and rescue. The local (municipal) level will be responsible for requesting these assets this and SRSA might support when needed. Which specific plans contain USAR information? Not Applicable because there is no “formal” National USAR-team however the “plan of action” contains information about rescue works conducted at a local level by the fire and rescue services. What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. Not Applicable because there is no “formal” National USAR-team however the plans contain information about rescue works conducted on a local level by the fire and rescue services. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. SOS Alarm AB is running the alarm centre and responsible for receiving 112-calls and the dispatch of fire, rescue and medical resources. They are coordinating resources but are not in charge. Sweden knows three response levels:

- Local: Municipality - Regional: County - National: SRSA and other Governmental Agencies or Ministries (mainly

defense and foreign affairs) Municipality: The municipality is the strongest and most important response level in Sweden and it has many responsibilities regarding preparedness and response (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt. 3). County: The CAB is responsible for the supervision of the fire and rescue services within the different municipalities within the county and reports this to SRSA (Swedish Civil Protection Act 2002, Chpt 5). The Medical Services are also organized having the same boundaries as the county. Also the State Police has the same regions as the other emergency services. However the delivery of medical care might differ per country as it can be integrated within the Fire and Rescue Services but also be conducted by private or other organizations. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 2a. Within the local or, in exceptional cases, at the regional level, a rescue leader (Räddningsledaren) will be in charge of the rescue operations and will coordinate with other agencies involved such as the police and ambulance services. If there is a bomb or terrorist threat/event the “Police Incident Commander” will be in charge and cooperates closely with the rescue leader. The Police Incident Commander is in charge of police operation, the rescueleader in charge during a rescue operation. Both must cooperate In reality this is not a problem. The Rescue Leader can be the Fire and Rescue Chief or a Fire and Rescue Officer appointed by the Chief. If a disaster comprises more than one municipality the two rescue leaders in charge have to negotiate and agree upon who will be in charge of the mission. If there is no agreement the County Administrative Board appoints a Rescue Leader, this is arranged by law

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(this has only occurred a few times in the last 10 years, Swedish Civil Protection Act Chpt. 4). The rescue leader also has the ability to request search and rescue dogs directly from the Swedish dog association to perform search tasks. On a county-level the County Administrative Board (CAB) delivers a rescue leader in case of nuclear disasters. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? The Rescue Leader: The term “Räddningsledaren” is essential in the legislation and is strongly authorized. He can appoint people to take part of the rescue work, take hold of property and cordon of buildings and areas in order to facilitate the rescue operation. He will be supported and coordinated by the County Administrative Boards if necessary. The SRSA Duty Officer gives support, either directly to the local level or to the regional level. What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks? Depending on incident: The Police is responsible for Mountain Rescue and Search for lost people. Aerial Search and rescue is lead by the Civil Aviation Administration. Search and Rescue at sea is under the responsibility of the Swedish Maritime Administration. All other rescue operations are performed by the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services. The Räddningsledare may request help from appropriate organizations to supply with cranes, etc. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 2b.

1. Public (alert) 2. Fire and Rescue Services – Joint Staff 3. County Administrative Board 4. SRSA 5. (Ministry of Defence) 6. (Government)

How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. Not applicable because there is currently no National USAR. However for rescue works the SRSA Duty Officer connects the requesting Fire and Rescue Services with relevant supporting Fire and Rescue Services. SRSA provides additional equipment. However, this is not planned and has never been done. Who grants the assistance? 2d. The Rescue Leader of the supporting municipality will decide whether he has capacity to respond. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

Search and Rescue will be a specialist task/extension of the current Fire and Rescue Services. Mainly the search component will play an important role when operating and the larger municipalities will have more experience (and in the future maybe specialist teams who operate internationally). However specialist search dogs can be called in via the Swedish Search Dog Association. Currently search equipment is stored in at locations in the bigger cities and at SRSA. This specialist equipment can be added to the rescue equipment available on a local

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(this has only occurred a few times in the last 10 years, Swedish Civil Protection Act Chpt. 4). The rescue leader also has the ability to request search and rescue dogs directly from the Swedish dog association to perform search tasks. On a county-level the County Administrative Board (CAB) delivers a rescue leader in case of nuclear disasters. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? The Rescue Leader: The term “Räddningsledaren” is essential in the legislation and is strongly authorized. He can appoint people to take part of the rescue work, take hold of property and cordon of buildings and areas in order to facilitate the rescue operation. He will be supported and coordinated by the County Administrative Boards if necessary. The SRSA Duty Officer gives support, either directly to the local level or to the regional level. What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks? Depending on incident: The Police is responsible for Mountain Rescue and Search for lost people. Aerial Search and rescue is lead by the Civil Aviation Administration. Search and Rescue at sea is under the responsibility of the Swedish Maritime Administration. All other rescue operations are performed by the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services. The Räddningsledare may request help from appropriate organizations to supply with cranes, etc. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 2b.


How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. Not applicable because there is currently no National USAR. However for rescue works the SRSA Duty Officer connects the requesting Fire and Rescue Services with relevant supporting Fire and Rescue Services. SRSA provides additional equipment. However, this is not planned and has never been done. Who grants the assistance? 2d. The Rescue Leader of the supporting municipality will decide whether he has capacity to respond. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

Search and Rescue will be a specialist task/extension of the current Fire and Rescue Services. Mainly the search component will play an important role when operating and the larger municipalities will have more experience (and in the future maybe specialist teams who operate internationally). However specialist search dogs can be called in via the Swedish Search Dog Association. Currently search equipment is stored in at locations in the bigger cities and at SRSA. This specialist equipment can be added to the rescue equipment available on a local

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level. Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? The local coordination mechanisms are probably not familiar in general. However, in an extreme situation USAR capacity is needed; the affected municipality will contact the SRSA Duty Officer who will give appropriate support. The Rescue Services participating in national USAR programs such as the international USAR team are likely to be familiar with USAR. How is this maintained?

3a.

There is no formal procedure for communicating USAR in Sweden because there is no National Operating USAR-team. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4. NONE

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level. Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? The local coordination mechanisms are probably not familiar in general. However, in an extreme situation USAR capacity is needed; the affected municipality will contact the SRSA Duty Officer who will give appropriate support. The Rescue Services participating in national USAR programs such as the international USAR team are likely to be familiar with USAR. How is this maintained?

3a.

There is no formal procedure for communicating USAR in Sweden because there is no National Operating USAR-team. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4. NONE

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How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. The Swedish Rescue Services Agency, SRSA, is the national supervisory authority for the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services. On a National Level SRSA supports the local level with specialist knowledge but is not an operational entity. SRSA however owns heavy-rescue equipment for international USAR-deployment. SRSA also gives support, either directly to local level or to regional level. Also on a national level the government has the power to appoint whose responsibility it is to lead a disaster. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 5a. Räddningsledaren will still be in charge of the local operational Emergency however he will be supported by the National entities such as SRSA and the Government with coordination. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)?


How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

There is no formal procedure or policy however SRSA has knowledge about the international system and might be able to establish a RDC or OSOCC where suitable. This depends on the incident but will probably be at a regional level. In addition, Sub-OSOCCC’s may be established at local level. Initially, and during the operation, information will be disseminated through the virtual OSOCC and CECIS. How is national USAR assistance requested? In an extreme situation, where extra USAR-capacity is needed; the affected municipality will contact the SRSA Duty Officer who will give appropriate support. However this is not written down in a procedure. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5c.

No Formal Procedure. Normal Procedure for requesting support using the SRSA Duty Officer. How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?)

5d.

International USAR support will be delivered through the EU-MIC or UN-OCHA mechanisms via the SRSA control centre and in close cooperation with the ministry of foreign affairs. The Government of Sweden will request help. That will be handled by SRSA and approved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Currently the integration of international USAR-mechanisms will be done ad-hoc. SRSA will take the lead in this and form a joint group with other agencies such as SEMA and the ministry of Defense.

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How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. The Swedish Rescue Services Agency, SRSA, is the national supervisory authority for the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services. On a National Level SRSA supports the local level with specialist knowledge but is not an operational entity. SRSA however owns heavy-rescue equipment for international USAR-deployment. SRSA also gives support, either directly to local level or to regional level. Also on a national level the government has the power to appoint whose responsibility it is to lead a disaster. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 5a. Räddningsledaren will still be in charge of the local operational Emergency however he will be supported by the National entities such as SRSA and the Government with coordination. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)?


How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

There is no formal procedure or policy however SRSA has knowledge about the international system and might be able to establish a RDC or OSOCC where suitable. This depends on the incident but will probably be at a regional level. In addition, Sub-OSOCCC’s may be established at local level. Initially, and during the operation, information will be disseminated through the virtual OSOCC and CECIS. How is national USAR assistance requested? In an extreme situation, where extra USAR-capacity is needed; the affected municipality will contact the SRSA Duty Officer who will give appropriate support. However this is not written down in a procedure. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5c.

No Formal Procedure. Normal Procedure for requesting support using the SRSA Duty Officer. How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?)

5d.

International USAR support will be delivered through the EU-MIC or UN-OCHA mechanisms via the SRSA control centre and in close cooperation with the ministry of foreign affairs. The Government of Sweden will request help. That will be handled by SRSA and approved by the Ministry of Foreign Affairs. Currently the integration of international USAR-mechanisms will be done ad-hoc. SRSA will take the lead in this and form a joint group with other agencies such as SEMA and the ministry of Defense.

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Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide) There is no formal procedure available. Who grants the assistance? 5e. The ministry of Foreign Affairs will approve the request and also the incoming support delivered by other countries. How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

A RDC will be set up at appropriate airports and harbours. The Swedish USAR-team is able to set-up such centers but will need international support in running them. How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

Not specified yet but it is likely that information will be communicated with the other responding countries using virtual OSOCC or CECIS. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8. NONE

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Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide) There is no formal procedure available. Who grants the assistance? 5e. The ministry of Foreign Affairs will approve the request and also the incoming support delivered by other countries. How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

A RDC will be set up at appropriate airports and harbours. The Swedish USAR-team is able to set-up such centers but will need international support in running them. How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

Not specified yet but it is likely that information will be communicated with the other responding countries using virtual OSOCC or CECIS. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8. NONE

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9.

OSOCC and Sub-OSOCC will complement the existing system. No major changes will be made. According to INSARAG the National System will be in charge of the operations and the international teams are supportive to it. They will cooperate during the search and rescue operation. However this is not arranged in the National system. What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. International teams will be assigned by the OSOCC to deliver their tasks according to INSARAG-guidelines. They will be supplement to the National System and operate under their own chain of command which will cooperate with the National Command through the various mechanisms. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. The international incoming USAR teams will conduct their mission confirm INSARAG guidelines and they will be given a local site where they will conduct their mission in close cooperation with a local fire and rescue officer. Also they will perform their tasks under their own USAR-command which will cooperate with the National Response Forces either directly or through the OSOCC. This has never been practised or formalized. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

The Swedish USAR team has heavy equipment available and also the possibility to call in cranes. The three biggest cities have direct access to specific search equipment. The limitation will be specialist manpower or equipment in comparison to the scale of the disaster. When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. This depends on the circumstances and the event. Most likely is that an ad-hoc decision will be made if things are going beyond National Capacity. This is mainly related to specialist equipment and specialist manpower regarding the disaster. SRSA will advise the ministry of Defence to request for international support or use defense resources. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? Currently Sweden has an international heavy USAR team. Mainly the limitations are the availability of resources after the disaster has happened. This can be specialist equipment, but also personnel (specialist). This depends on the scale of the disaster. What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

Due to the very low risks of earthquakes in Sweden, the Swedish USAR capacity is established for international operations abroad. However, the international team is build basically on personnel from some local Fire and Rescue services. Thus, the competence to perform USAR operations is available at local level, especially in the three biggest cities (i.e. Stockholm Gothenburg and Malmö). The team is able to conduct heavy search and rescue operations (not yet classified) and consist out of members of the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services who will form an international USAR team when needed. These members have

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9.

OSOCC and Sub-OSOCC will complement the existing system. No major changes will be made. According to INSARAG the National System will be in charge of the operations and the international teams are supportive to it. They will cooperate during the search and rescue operation. However this is not arranged in the National system. What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. International teams will be assigned by the OSOCC to deliver their tasks according to INSARAG-guidelines. They will be supplement to the National System and operate under their own chain of command which will cooperate with the National Command through the various mechanisms. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. The international incoming USAR teams will conduct their mission confirm INSARAG guidelines and they will be given a local site where they will conduct their mission in close cooperation with a local fire and rescue officer. Also they will perform their tasks under their own USAR-command which will cooperate with the National Response Forces either directly or through the OSOCC. This has never been practised or formalized. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

The Swedish USAR team has heavy equipment available and also the possibility to call in cranes. The three biggest cities have direct access to specific search equipment. The limitation will be specialist manpower or equipment in comparison to the scale of the disaster. When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. This depends on the circumstances and the event. Most likely is that an ad-hoc decision will be made if things are going beyond National Capacity. This is mainly related to specialist equipment and specialist manpower regarding the disaster. SRSA will advise the ministry of Defence to request for international support or use defense resources. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? Currently Sweden has an international heavy USAR team. Mainly the limitations are the availability of resources after the disaster has happened. This can be specialist equipment, but also personnel (specialist). This depends on the scale of the disaster. What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

Due to the very low risks of earthquakes in Sweden, the Swedish USAR capacity is established for international operations abroad. However, the international team is build basically on personnel from some local Fire and Rescue services. Thus, the competence to perform USAR operations is available at local level, especially in the three biggest cities (i.e. Stockholm Gothenburg and Malmö). The team is able to conduct heavy search and rescue operations (not yet classified) and consist out of members of the Municipal Fire and Rescue Services who will form an international USAR team when needed. These members have

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experience with search and rescue in their daily jobs as member of a fire and rescue service. Besides, they also get specialist training for international deployment offered by SRSA. The search dogs and dog handlers are provided by the Swedish Dog Association on individual basis. Medics are recruited as individuals. Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre)?

10c.

Sweden will most likely be able to set-up an OSOCC or RDC but running it for a longer period of time it will need specialist support from international responders such as UNDAC. Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? This is not arranged. SRSA will probably send an assessment group to support the municipality/county that was struck by disaster. This team will consist of National UNDAC-members and other specialist resources that are available at the time. Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

SRSA will strive to implement OSOCC into the different coordination centres. However this should be done ad-hoc based on the situation and at the best place and this depends on the event. Most likely this is to be at a municipality level however county or national level OSOCC’s are also possible. How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. This varies per municipality. According to the Civil Protection Law the municipalities are responsible for arranging coordination arrangements during cross-boundary incidents however there is no general guideline for this. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. Depends on the incident and municipality. SRSA might support the municipality if not prepared. Most likely is that every organisation will respond according to the normal mechanisms on their territory. They will adapt to the structures in place if they are operating in another country and can be seen as supplement to emergency responders. They will use their own team-structure but will be under command of the responsible authority. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 11b. This is locally arranged but it is most likely to use the local and county mechanisms and depending on the area where it happened the National Government. However the SRSA might provide additional support. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c. Unknown, normal procedures.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL Currently the process of receiving international (USAR) response is an ongoing

project in cooperation with SEMA. Therefore the details are not known. However the failures during the response of Hurricane Katrina in the US might be seen as the trigger event for this project.

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experience with search and rescue in their daily jobs as member of a fire and rescue service. Besides, they also get specialist training for international deployment offered by SRSA. The search dogs and dog handlers are provided by the Swedish Dog Association on individual basis. Medics are recruited as individuals. Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site Operations and Coordination Centre)?

10c.

Sweden will most likely be able to set-up an OSOCC or RDC but running it for a longer period of time it will need specialist support from international responders such as UNDAC. Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? This is not arranged. SRSA will probably send an assessment group to support the municipality/county that was struck by disaster. This team will consist of National UNDAC-members and other specialist resources that are available at the time. Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

SRSA will strive to implement OSOCC into the different coordination centres. However this should be done ad-hoc based on the situation and at the best place and this depends on the event. Most likely this is to be at a municipality level however county or national level OSOCC’s are also possible. How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. This varies per municipality. According to the Civil Protection Law the municipalities are responsible for arranging coordination arrangements during cross-boundary incidents however there is no general guideline for this. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. Depends on the incident and municipality. SRSA might support the municipality if not prepared. Most likely is that every organisation will respond according to the normal mechanisms on their territory. They will adapt to the structures in place if they are operating in another country and can be seen as supplement to emergency responders. They will use their own team-structure but will be under command of the responsible authority. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 11b. This is locally arranged but it is most likely to use the local and county mechanisms and depending on the area where it happened the National Government. However the SRSA might provide additional support. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c. Unknown, normal procedures.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL Currently the process of receiving international (USAR) response is an ongoing

project in cooperation with SEMA. Therefore the details are not known. However the failures during the response of Hurricane Katrina in the US might be seen as the trigger event for this project.

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OTHER NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. Not applicable, currently USAR is only used for international deployment. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

The Swedish view is that the EU should not separate current communication structures. It also should not own its own “EU-resources”. Assumption: Sweden will use both EU-MIC and UN-OCHA to request international support. It will use the UN V-OSOCC and the EU CECIS systems. The latter might be seen more complicated but also more sophisticated and specialist training might be required. Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

EU should not own its own resources; however coordination should be possible as it not conflicts with UN arrangements. UN INSARAG might be used as a guideline also for EU. Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.

Sweden currently has bilateral agreements with Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia which are historically based on the contribution of Sweden to the capacity building of Search and Rescue in those Baltic States after they became independent from Russia (USSR). Also SRSA has agreements with Russia and Ukraine regarding Rescue Support. Also there are some agreements within NORD-RED (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Iceland) . But mostly the municipalities on the borders are responsible for making their own arrangements for bilateral (municipal) support. Is there any political interference when requesting USAR support or other constraints?

15a.

Foreign Affairs decides about receiving international teams so they might exclude teams from entering the country. What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

In random order: - Terrorist Attacks - Landslides - Large storms affecting society - Gas-explosions and other human-made events - Multiple Dam Breaks causing heavy flood waves

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. UNKNOWN Cross-boundary support in general is arranged by the local municipalities. Especially the Öresund-area will have command and control arrangements

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OTHER NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. Not applicable, currently USAR is only used for international deployment. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

The Swedish view is that the EU should not separate current communication structures. It also should not own its own “EU-resources”. Assumption: Sweden will use both EU-MIC and UN-OCHA to request international support. It will use the UN V-OSOCC and the EU CECIS systems. The latter might be seen more complicated but also more sophisticated and specialist training might be required. Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

EU should not own its own resources; however coordination should be possible as it not conflicts with UN arrangements. UN INSARAG might be used as a guideline also for EU. Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.

Sweden currently has bilateral agreements with Estonia, Lithuania and Latvia which are historically based on the contribution of Sweden to the capacity building of Search and Rescue in those Baltic States after they became independent from Russia (USSR). Also SRSA has agreements with Russia and Ukraine regarding Rescue Support. Also there are some agreements within NORD-RED (Denmark, Finland, Norway and Iceland) . But mostly the municipalities on the borders are responsible for making their own arrangements for bilateral (municipal) support. Is there any political interference when requesting USAR support or other constraints?

15a.

Foreign Affairs decides about receiving international teams so they might exclude teams from entering the country. What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

In random order: - Terrorist Attacks - Landslides - Large storms affecting society - Gas-explosions and other human-made events - Multiple Dam Breaks causing heavy flood waves

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. UNKNOWN Cross-boundary support in general is arranged by the local municipalities. Especially the Öresund-area will have command and control arrangements

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between Malmö and Copenhagen because of the bridge. Also there is some close cooperation between Sweden and Finland at the Finnish border. However because of population density it is not likely to happen that there will be cross-boundary USAR incidents. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18. Not all international USAR teams will arrive according to the UN-requests made via virtual-OSOCC. Some might just arrive.

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between Malmö and Copenhagen because of the bridge. Also there is some close cooperation between Sweden and Finland at the Finnish border. However because of population density it is not likely to happen that there will be cross-boundary USAR incidents. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18. Not all international USAR teams will arrive according to the UN-requests made via virtual-OSOCC. Some might just arrive.

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ANNEX J

Estonian Discussion Report DISCUSSION REPORT Discussion Leader (Researcher) : Ralf J.J. Beerens Student ID : 16 04 661 Course : Master of Science in Disaster Management

(taught/full-time) Date and Time : 7 August 2007; 10.00 hrs. – 12.00 hrs. Location : Estonian Disaster Relief Team (EDRT), Tallinn ESTONIA Project : URBAN SEARCH AND RESCUE PREPAREDNESS Discussion Member : Mr. Gert Teder (Head of EDRT) Mr. Rivo Salong (Coordinator EDRT) Mr. Priit Paju (Team leader EDRT)

REVIEWED BY: UNKNOWN

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ANNEX J

Estonian Discussion Report DISCUSSION REPORT Discussion Leader (Researcher) : Ralf J.J. Beerens Student ID : 16 04 661 Course : Master of Science in Disaster Management

(taught/full-time) Date and Time : 7 August 2007; 10.00 hrs. – 12.00 hrs. Location : Estonian Disaster Relief Team (EDRT), Tallinn ESTONIA Project : URBAN SEARCH AND RESCUE PREPAREDNESS Discussion Member : Mr. Gert Teder (Head of EDRT) Mr. Rivo Salong (Coordinator EDRT) Mr. Priit Paju (Team leader EDRT)

REVIEWED BY: UNKNOWN

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What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. Estonia has several emergency preparedness plans on different levels according to the Emergency Preparedness Act, January 2001. The most important level for planning is the county level and in particular the Regional Rescue Centre plays a vital role in the planning and response process. At municipal level in rural municipalities and cities crisis management plans should be in place. The county Governor will coordinate the preparedness of these plans and will be supported by the Rescue Board. These plans contain information about the organisation when responding to possible emergencies. (Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, chpt. 5) At a county level a crisis management plan is established. This plan contains information about the possible emergencies and the various responses to these emergencies such as law enforcement, good supply co-operation with defense, etc.. (Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, chpt. 4) On a National level Estonia also has a national crisis management plan that outlines the various duties of ministries, State Chancellery and the county governors in crisis management (Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, chpt. 2). How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? Specific National USAR support is not embedded in these plans. Although Fire-Trucks and rescue teams at a local level are equipped and trained to conduct “normal” daily rescue tasks. This is implemented in the regional Fire and Rescue Preparedness Planning and they are also able to conduct low to medium rescue works. However the Emergency Situation Act 1996 paragraph 20 offers the “rescue work coordinator” the ability to require private equipment and manpower to conduct rescue works such as cranes, trucks, etc. Also International USAR equipment stored at the Fire School in Väike-Maarja (Centre of Estonia) might be requested through the Estonian Rescue Board Duty Officer and used in National Disasters. Which specific plans contain USAR information?

1a.

Not Applicable because National USAR operates ad-hoc based on their international training. However The municipal and county plans should contain information about the organisation of rescue works in the area according to the Emergency Preparedness Act 2002, chpt 4 +5. What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. Not Applicable because National USAR operates ad-hoc based on their international training. However The municipal and county plans should contain information about the organization of rescue works in the area according to the Emergency Preparedness Act 2002, chpt 4 +5. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. Estonia is divided in 4 Regions (North, East, South and West). The Regions are so called “Response Areas of Regional Rescue Services Centers”. The Regions

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What disaster preparedness plans are in place at this level? 1. Estonia has several emergency preparedness plans on different levels according to the Emergency Preparedness Act, January 2001. The most important level for planning is the county level and in particular the Regional Rescue Centre plays a vital role in the planning and response process. At municipal level in rural municipalities and cities crisis management plans should be in place. The county Governor will coordinate the preparedness of these plans and will be supported by the Rescue Board. These plans contain information about the organisation when responding to possible emergencies. (Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, chpt. 5) At a county level a crisis management plan is established. This plan contains information about the possible emergencies and the various responses to these emergencies such as law enforcement, good supply co-operation with defense, etc.. (Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, chpt. 4) On a National level Estonia also has a national crisis management plan that outlines the various duties of ministries, State Chancellery and the county governors in crisis management (Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, chpt. 2). How is (National) USAR support embedded in these plans? Specific National USAR support is not embedded in these plans. Although Fire-Trucks and rescue teams at a local level are equipped and trained to conduct “normal” daily rescue tasks. This is implemented in the regional Fire and Rescue Preparedness Planning and they are also able to conduct low to medium rescue works. However the Emergency Situation Act 1996 paragraph 20 offers the “rescue work coordinator” the ability to require private equipment and manpower to conduct rescue works such as cranes, trucks, etc. Also International USAR equipment stored at the Fire School in Väike-Maarja (Centre of Estonia) might be requested through the Estonian Rescue Board Duty Officer and used in National Disasters. Which specific plans contain USAR information?

1a.

Not Applicable because National USAR operates ad-hoc based on their international training. However The municipal and county plans should contain information about the organisation of rescue works in the area according to the Emergency Preparedness Act 2002, chpt 4 +5. What information related to USAR do they contain? 1b. Not Applicable because National USAR operates ad-hoc based on their international training. However The municipal and county plans should contain information about the organization of rescue works in the area according to the Emergency Preparedness Act 2002, chpt 4 +5. What does the local coordination structure look like? 2. Estonia is divided in 4 Regions (North, East, South and West). The Regions are so called “Response Areas of Regional Rescue Services Centers”. The Regions

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are a very strong component in the Emergency structure. Their main tasks are: - Rescue Work (including Fire Fighting) - Fire Safety Supervision - Crisis Management - Prevention activities

These centers also coordinate the work of professional rescue brigades within the region. The Regional Rescue Services Centers are financed and equipped through the Estonian Rescue Board. The local government does not own resources and is only coordinating in a disaster while the Regional Rescue Services are operational because they own resources. Local:

1. Professional Fire and Rescue Services responding (when necessary assisted by volunteer fire units).

2. Regional Rescue Center 3. Municipality Governments and City Governments / Local Government

Crisis Commission County:

4. County Government/County Crisis Commission 5. Rescue Work Coordinator 6. Emergency Situation Response Coordinator 7. Emergency Center

National: 8. Estonian Rescue Board 9. Crisis Management Commission of the Estonian Government 10. Various Ministries 11. Estonian Government

What is the chain of command, who is in charge? The highest Fire and Rescue-Officer will be in charge until specialist coordination arrives (when necessary): The Rescue Work Coordinator or the Emergency Situation Response Coordinator then will take over the command (Emergency Situation Act 1996 Paragraph 19+20). If there is are explosives such as bombs involved the bomb squad will be in charge until the danger is mitigated. Again the rescue officer will take over command. However if national security is threatened the defence police or defence will be in command and control Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? The highest authority in charge either the Fire-Officer, the Rescue Work coordinator or the Emergency Situation Response Coordinator (Emergency Situation Act 1996, Paragraph 19+20). They are supported by the county governor. In case of a USAR incident the voluntary rescue workers will be requested through the crisis management team. What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks?

2a.

Depending on the incident normally: - Fire and Rescue Services - Police - Ambulance


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are a very strong component in the Emergency structure. Their main tasks are: - Rescue Work (including Fire Fighting) - Fire Safety Supervision - Crisis Management - Prevention activities

These centers also coordinate the work of professional rescue brigades within the region. The Regional Rescue Services Centers are financed and equipped through the Estonian Rescue Board. The local government does not own resources and is only coordinating in a disaster while the Regional Rescue Services are operational because they own resources. Local:






What is the chain of command, who is in charge? The highest Fire and Rescue-Officer will be in charge until specialist coordination arrives (when necessary): The Rescue Work Coordinator or the Emergency Situation Response Coordinator then will take over the command (Emergency Situation Act 1996 Paragraph 19+20). If there is are explosives such as bombs involved the bomb squad will be in charge until the danger is mitigated. Again the rescue officer will take over command. However if national security is threatened the defence police or defence will be in command and control Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? The highest authority in charge either the Fire-Officer, the Rescue Work coordinator or the Emergency Situation Response Coordinator (Emergency Situation Act 1996, Paragraph 19+20). They are supported by the county governor. In case of a USAR incident the voluntary rescue workers will be requested through the crisis management team. What organisations/companies will first respond and what are their tasks?

2a.

Depending on the incident normally: - Fire and Rescue Services - Police - Ambulance


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1. Public (Alarming) 2. Emergency Center (Dispatch of Emergency Response Services). 3. Highest officer on scene 4. Local Government Crisis Commission 5. County Government Crisis Commission 6. Estonian Rescue Board 7. Crisis Management Commission of the Estonian Government (National

Coordination Center in the Ministry of Interior). How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. There is no “formal” National USAR and most rescue workers will already be working in the field. However USAR can be requested and mobilized through the Estonian Rescue Board Duty Officer/Rescue Board Response Coordination Center. The team will be assembled of specialist of different areas on an ad-hoc basis. Because Estonia is a small country there are direct lines because people know each other from previous courses. Currently they are working on the formalization of procedures. Who grants the assistance? 2d. The USAR-Staff in cooperation with the Estonian Rescue Board Director General or his deputy will approve assistance. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

USAR is conducted by many active firefighters within Estonia (98% of the team) thus suggesting that national resources will already be in place on a local level. Also the team setting and participation is voluntary and firefighters already on duty might not be used by EDRT during a National USAR incident. The National USAR capacity is therefore not assured and it is unlikely to operate besides first responders. However this depends on the disaster. Specialist equipment is stored at the Rescue school and might be used in National USAR-disasters. Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? Because USAR-members are spread over the country there will be a level of knowledge at a local level. In each county several team members are working with the regional/local emergency services and they might act as a liaison between EDRT and the local rescue services. A limitation is the specialist equipment that is used for USAR which requires specialist training so not everybody is able to work with it. Estonia is a very small country and rescue workers and officers know each other from various courses (related to USAR). How is this maintained?

3a.

There is no formal procedure for informing about USAR and its possibilities. The Estonian Rescue Team however has an intranet that is used for alarming and providing information regarding EDRT/USAR within the team and to affiliates. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4. The team was established in 1997 as an ad-hoc response to … It first only contained Search and Rescue, Staff and a Field Hospital. Later the team was expanded by adding Eplosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) and Hazard Materials Specialists to it. Also in the past there was a strong military influence in the EDRT team, this however changed over the years and nowadays the team consists of professional Fire and Rescue Workers.

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1. Public (Alarming) 2. Emergency Center (Dispatch of Emergency Response Services). 3. Highest officer on scene 4. Local Government Crisis Commission 5. County Government Crisis Commission 6. Estonian Rescue Board 7. Crisis Management Commission of the Estonian Government (National

Coordination Center in the Ministry of Interior). How is USAR assistance requested? 2c. There is no “formal” National USAR and most rescue workers will already be working in the field. However USAR can be requested and mobilized through the Estonian Rescue Board Duty Officer/Rescue Board Response Coordination Center. The team will be assembled of specialist of different areas on an ad-hoc basis. Because Estonia is a small country there are direct lines because people know each other from previous courses. Currently they are working on the formalization of procedures. Who grants the assistance? 2d. The USAR-Staff in cooperation with the Estonian Rescue Board Director General or his deputy will approve assistance. How does (national) USAR support fit in this system besides defence, commercial companies and other emergency responders?

3.

USAR is conducted by many active firefighters within Estonia (98% of the team) thus suggesting that national resources will already be in place on a local level. Also the team setting and participation is voluntary and firefighters already on duty might not be used by EDRT during a National USAR incident. The National USAR capacity is therefore not assured and it is unlikely to operate besides first responders. However this depends on the disaster. Specialist equipment is stored at the Rescue school and might be used in National USAR-disasters. Are the local coordination mechanisms familiar with requesting and using USAR? Because USAR-members are spread over the country there will be a level of knowledge at a local level. In each county several team members are working with the regional/local emergency services and they might act as a liaison between EDRT and the local rescue services. A limitation is the specialist equipment that is used for USAR which requires specialist training so not everybody is able to work with it. Estonia is a very small country and rescue workers and officers know each other from various courses (related to USAR). How is this maintained?

3a.

There is no formal procedure for informing about USAR and its possibilities. The Estonian Rescue Team however has an intranet that is used for alarming and providing information regarding EDRT/USAR within the team and to affiliates. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION FIELD (local) and REGIONAL LEVEL 4. The team was established in 1997 as an ad-hoc response to … It first only contained Search and Rescue, Staff and a Field Hospital. Later the team was expanded by adding Eplosive Ordnance Disposal (EOD) and Hazard Materials Specialists to it. Also in the past there was a strong military influence in the EDRT team, this however changed over the years and nowadays the team consists of professional Fire and Rescue Workers.

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The 4 Regional Rescue Services Centers are a very important mechanism when it comes to coordinating disaster response but they also have a very important role in mitigation, prevention and preparedness (planning, training, logistics, etc.). Within EDRT there are two INSARAG Focal Points.

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The 4 Regional Rescue Services Centers are a very important mechanism when it comes to coordinating disaster response but they also have a very important role in mitigation, prevention and preparedness (planning, training, logistics, etc.). Within EDRT there are two INSARAG Focal Points.

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How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. Local:






There tasks are described in the Estonian Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, Chpt 2+3 What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 5a. The Rescue Work Coordinator or the Emergency Situation Response Coordinator will be in charge and directing the County Governor or Municipality to execute tasks. The Local Governments and Counties will hereby supported by the Regional Rescue Centers and the Estonian Rescue Board National Duty Officer who will coordinate in a large crisis. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? According to the Estonian Civil Protection System:

1. The regional rescue centers will consulate the local Governments and County Governments. They will participate in the local government crisis committee or/and the county crisis commission.

2. The Rescue Board will consult the County Government and the Ministry of Interior. The rescue board will also participate in the Government Crisis commission.

The information Flow therefore will be similar to the above mentioned coordination structure. How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

This is not arranged in procedures or policy but, the Rescue Board is the highest likely authority to provide information to an international level as they consult also on a National level based on the information and participation in the County Government. They are a kind of intermediary and are also familiar with the international systems as they are also running the EDRT/USAR team. Additionally the Estonian Rescue Board will provide information through the virtual OSOCC, European CECIS System or via NATO.

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How does the National coordination structure operate? 5. Local:






There tasks are described in the Estonian Emergency Preparedness Act 2001, Chpt 2+3 What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 5a. The Rescue Work Coordinator or the Emergency Situation Response Coordinator will be in charge and directing the County Governor or Municipality to execute tasks. The Local Governments and Counties will hereby supported by the Regional Rescue Centers and the Estonian Rescue Board National Duty Officer who will coordinate in a large crisis. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? According to the Estonian Civil Protection System:

1. The regional rescue centers will consulate the local Governments and County Governments. They will participate in the local government crisis committee or/and the county crisis commission.

2. The Rescue Board will consult the County Government and the Ministry of Interior. The rescue board will also participate in the Government Crisis commission.

The information Flow therefore will be similar to the above mentioned coordination structure. How will this information flow through to the international coordination mechanisms that might be in place in case of international USAR assistance

5b.

This is not arranged in procedures or policy but, the Rescue Board is the highest likely authority to provide information to an international level as they consult also on a National level based on the information and participation in the County Government. They are a kind of intermediary and are also familiar with the international systems as they are also running the EDRT/USAR team. Additionally the Estonian Rescue Board will provide information through the virtual OSOCC, European CECIS System or via NATO.

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How is national USAR assistance requested? Ad-Hoc: USAR can be requested through the Estonian Rescue Board Duty Officer/Rescue Board Response Coordination Center. Because Estonia is a small country there are direct lines because people know each other from previous courses. Specific National USAR-support (structures and policies) are currently under development and as stated in question 2c most of the National manpower and resources will already be in place. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5c.

There is a formal procedure for international requests and response but not for national response. Probably the normal procedure by contacting the Rescue Board will be used. How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?) The ministry of Interior will put in a formal international request and will be consulted by the General Director of the Rescue Board. It is also possible that the Rescue Board will already start requesting international support if time is limited because they are familiar as EDRT operates within the same structure. The ministry of interior is likely to contact the following international organizations:

1. European Union 2. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) 3. United Nations (UN)

Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5d.

There is no formal procedure available. Who grants the assistance? 5e. The minister of the Interior in consultation with the General Director of the Rescue Board will decide if support is needed. The ministry of the Interior is likely to approve support offered by other countries. How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

International USAR-teams will be connected to a National “Point of Contact” familiar with USAR however there is no formal procedure for this. EDRT will start setting up a RDC and OSOCC. How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

There is no formal procedure but it is likely that information will be communicated with the other responding countries using virtual OSOCC or CECIS. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8. NONE

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How is national USAR assistance requested? Ad-Hoc: USAR can be requested through the Estonian Rescue Board Duty Officer/Rescue Board Response Coordination Center. Because Estonia is a small country there are direct lines because people know each other from previous courses. Specific National USAR-support (structures and policies) are currently under development and as stated in question 2c most of the National manpower and resources will already be in place. Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5c.

There is a formal procedure for international requests and response but not for national response. Probably the normal procedure by contacting the Rescue Board will be used. How is INTERNATIONAL USAR assistance requested? (Who requests international USAR support?) The ministry of Interior will put in a formal international request and will be consulted by the General Director of the Rescue Board. It is also possible that the Rescue Board will already start requesting international support if time is limited because they are familiar as EDRT operates within the same structure. The ministry of interior is likely to contact the following international organizations:

1. European Union 2. North Atlantic Treaty Organisation (NATO) 3. United Nations (UN)

Is there a formal procedure? (Please provide)

5d.

There is no formal procedure available. Who grants the assistance? 5e. The minister of the Interior in consultation with the General Director of the Rescue Board will decide if support is needed. The ministry of the Interior is likely to approve support offered by other countries. How is international USAR response Nationally supported during arrival and departure?

6.

International USAR-teams will be connected to a National “Point of Contact” familiar with USAR however there is no formal procedure for this. EDRT will start setting up a RDC and OSOCC. How will international USAR be informed about lesson’s learned and the outcomes of any research after the disaster?

7.

There is no formal procedure but it is likely that information will be communicated with the other responding countries using virtual OSOCC or CECIS. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION NATIONAL LEVEL 8. NONE

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9.

There will be no change in the coordination levels. USAR will arrive and respond according to INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology. However there are no National Procedures in place in how these systems will compliment the National mechanisms and how they will cooperate and work together. What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. There will be no change of command on a local level. International USAR response will perform their tasks according to INSARAG and in cooperation with the local response. International teams will be assigned by the OSOCC to deliver their tasks according to INSARAG-guidelines. They will be supplement to the National System and operate under their own chain of command which will cooperate with the National Command through the various mechanisms. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. There is no formal procedure, but it is assumed that close cooperation with the local emergency services will provide international teams with the necessary information. Also the OSOCC that will be set up will play a vital role in this using liaison. This however has not been formalized. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

This depends on the disaster however it is most likely to occur that team members are already working within the disaster area on a local level as a operational firefighter. Also team members might be deployed to other countries. This reduces the manpower of the national USAR team. When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. This again depends on the disaster and the different mechanisms that should decide for requesting international support such as the Rescue Board and the Ministry of Interior. This decision will be made ad-hoc based on the circumstances at the time. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? The current USAR team is capable of conducting medium to heavy USAR tasks according to INSARAG. However the team has some specialist tasks such as EOD and Hazardous Materials. The most important limitation is the availability of resources and manpower because of money constraints, deployment and the voluntary aspect of USAR. What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

The USAR/EDRT Teams has the following range of possible missions: - Urban Search & Rescue (Medium to Heavy according to INSARAG

classification) - Medical assistance - Chemical rescue and decontamination - Explosive ordnance disposal - Logistical support

10c. Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site

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9.

There will be no change in the coordination levels. USAR will arrive and respond according to INSARAG Guidelines and Methodology. However there are no National Procedures in place in how these systems will compliment the National mechanisms and how they will cooperate and work together. What will the chain of command be if international USAR response arrives? 9a. There will be no change of command on a local level. International USAR response will perform their tasks according to INSARAG and in cooperation with the local response. International teams will be assigned by the OSOCC to deliver their tasks according to INSARAG-guidelines. They will be supplement to the National System and operate under their own chain of command which will cooperate with the National Command through the various mechanisms. How will information flow when international USAR response arrives? 9b. There is no formal procedure, but it is assumed that close cooperation with the local emergency services will provide international teams with the necessary information. Also the OSOCC that will be set up will play a vital role in this using liaison. This however has not been formalized. What are the limitations of the national USAR capacity in case of a disaster causing large-scale structural collapse?

10.

This depends on the disaster however it is most likely to occur that team members are already working within the disaster area on a local level as a operational firefighter. Also team members might be deployed to other countries. This reduces the manpower of the national USAR team. When will international USAR assistance be requested? 10a. This again depends on the disaster and the different mechanisms that should decide for requesting international support such as the Rescue Board and the Ministry of Interior. This decision will be made ad-hoc based on the circumstances at the time. What are the limitations of the National USAR capacity? The current USAR team is capable of conducting medium to heavy USAR tasks according to INSARAG. However the team has some specialist tasks such as EOD and Hazardous Materials. The most important limitation is the availability of resources and manpower because of money constraints, deployment and the voluntary aspect of USAR. What is the national USAR capacity?

10b.

The USAR/EDRT Teams has the following range of possible missions: - Urban Search & Rescue (Medium to Heavy according to INSARAG

classification) - Medical assistance - Chemical rescue and decontamination - Explosive ordnance disposal - Logistical support

10c. Is there enough National capacity to maintain both the national coordination mechanisms and set-up/maintain the international coordination mechanisms like e.g. an RDC (Reception and Departure Centre) or an OSOCC (On-Site

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Operations and Coordination Centre)? EDRT is capable of setting up an RDC and OSOCC in first instance. Maintaining the RDC and OSOCC for a longer period of time however requires (international) support of specialists. Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? The Estonian Rescue Board and possibly the Regional Emergency Centers, however there is no formal procedure and set-up will most likely be arranged by EDRT because they are familiar with setting-up and running these international mechanisms. Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

The mechanisms will be separated and performed as stated in the INSARAG guidelines and methodology. There is no formal procedure of integrating or combining the different coordination mechanisms. How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. The Regional Rescue Centers and the Counties are responsible for having plans in place regarding cross boundary USAR incidents. However it is assumed that every country will use their own system regarding the incident and it will adapt to the other system if it operates on another territory then its own. Currently there are no formal procedures that command is pre-arranged. In case of an emergency command is usual a cooperative effort. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. This is not arranged however it is assumed that this will be a cooperative effort and that National structures will be used depending on the territory. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 11b. Nationally this will use the mechanisms as described in question 5. However the Regional Rescue Centers or the Rescue Board might be supportive in coordination on a “higher’ level. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c. Unknown, most likely to use same structures as described before.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL None

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Operations and Coordination Centre)? EDRT is capable of setting up an RDC and OSOCC in first instance. Maintaining the RDC and OSOCC for a longer period of time however requires (international) support of specialists. Which National agency or mechanism is supportive of and taking part in the international coordination mechanism? The Estonian Rescue Board and possibly the Regional Emergency Centers, however there is no formal procedure and set-up will most likely be arranged by EDRT because they are familiar with setting-up and running these international mechanisms. Will there be international coordination mechanisms or are these functions integrated in the national mechanisms?

10d.

The mechanisms will be separated and performed as stated in the INSARAG guidelines and methodology. There is no formal procedure of integrating or combining the different coordination mechanisms. How will cross-boundary USAR incidents be coordinated? 11. The Regional Rescue Centers and the Counties are responsible for having plans in place regarding cross boundary USAR incidents. However it is assumed that every country will use their own system regarding the incident and it will adapt to the other system if it operates on another territory then its own. Currently there are no formal procedures that command is pre-arranged. In case of an emergency command is usual a cooperative effort. What is the chain of command, who is in charge? 11a. This is not arranged however it is assumed that this will be a cooperative effort and that National structures will be used depending on the territory. How does information flow (through which coordination mechanisms)? 11b. Nationally this will use the mechanisms as described in question 5. However the Regional Rescue Centers or the Rescue Board might be supportive in coordination on a “higher’ level. Who is responsible for expanding (USAR) capacity? 11c. Unknown, most likely to use same structures as described before.

12. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION INTERNATIONAL LEVEL None

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OTHER NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. In Estonia USAR is arranged on a national level consisting of professional firefighters from the 4 different regions. However participation in EDRT/USAR is voluntary. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

The European Union should apply the INSARAG guidelines and methodology for conducting USAR-response operations because this has been developed already over time and most USAR organizations are familiar with it. Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

Civil Protection, Crisis and Disaster Management (GER) Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.

Estonia has bilateral agreements with: - Sweden - Finland - Latvia

The countries can be contacted immediately through the Rescue Board when support is needed in responding to a disaster. Is there any political interference when requesting USAR support or other constraints?

15a.

The Ministry of Interior and the National Government will be involved when requesting International USAR-support and at the moment it is likely that there might be some political issues arise when Russia would be offering support. What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

Based on past experiences currently Estonia is facing the following threats that might require USAR-support:

- Forest Fires - Storms and Flooding - Spontaneous building collapse - Terrorism

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. The team leader will be in command in cooperation with the local community and the supporting teams. Decisions are made in cooperation and negotiation. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18. NONE

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OTHER NR. Question

How is USAR organised in your country: national, regional, local? 13. In Estonia USAR is arranged on a national level consisting of professional firefighters from the 4 different regions. However participation in EDRT/USAR is voluntary. How would you define the role of the EU if USAR coordination is arranged on a European level?

14.

The European Union should apply the INSARAG guidelines and methodology for conducting USAR-response operations because this has been developed already over time and most USAR organizations are familiar with it. Which mechanisms should still be in place in individual member-states or should be put on a European-level?

14a.

Civil Protection, Crisis and Disaster Management (GER) Does your country have any (bilateral) agreements in case of response to a disaster causing structural collapse?

15.

Estonia has bilateral agreements with: - Sweden - Finland - Latvia

The countries can be contacted immediately through the Rescue Board when support is needed in responding to a disaster. Is there any political interference when requesting USAR support or other constraints?

15a.

The Ministry of Interior and the National Government will be involved when requesting International USAR-support and at the moment it is likely that there might be some political issues arise when Russia would be offering support. What are the events which will most likely occur in your country resulting in structural collapse and requiring (international) USAR response?

16.

Based on past experiences currently Estonia is facing the following threats that might require USAR-support:

- Forest Fires - Storms and Flooding - Spontaneous building collapse - Terrorism

How is cross-boundary (USAR) command arranged? 17. The team leader will be in command in cooperation with the local community and the supporting teams. Decisions are made in cooperation and negotiation. ADDITIONAL INFORMATION OTHER 18. NONE

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urban search and rescue: preparedness and coordination when structures...

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