ùxn-i-im-kv{x-ßƒ...140 ùxn-i-im-kv{x-ßƒ is≠Øn ]ńi (12.1) ]q¿Øn-bm n kb≥kv ub-dn-bn¬...

$: ùXn-I-im-kv{X-ßƒ...140 ùXn-I-im-kv{X-ßƒ Is≠Øn ]ńI (12.1) ]q¿Øn-bm n kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq. amkv \º¿ At‰m-anI \º¿ Ce-Ivt{Sm¨ hn\ymkw]ncn-bUv …$
ùXn-I-im-kvX-ßƒ

Ãm≥tU¿Uv

IX

`mKw ˛ 2

tIc-f-k¿°m¿

hnZym- ym-k-h-Ip∏v

Xbm-dm-°n-bXv

kwÿm\ hnZym- ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT), tIcfw

2010

tZio-b-Km\w

P\-K-W-a-\- -A-[n-\m-bI Pbtl

`mc-X -`m-Ky-hn-[mXm,

]©m-_-kn‘p KpP-dmØ admTm

ZmhnU DXv°-e- _w-Km,

hn‘y-ln-am-N-e -b-ap\mKwKm,

D—e Pe-[nX-cwKm,

Xh-ip-`-\mta PmtK,

Xh-ip` Bin-j -am-tK,

Kmtl Xh- P-b- KmYm

P\-K-W-aw-K-e-Zm-bI Pbtl

`mc-X- `m-Ky-hn-[mXm.

Pb-tl, Pb-tl, Pb-tl,

Pb Pb Pb Pbtl!

]Xn⁄

C¥y Fs‚ cmPy-am-Wv. F√m C¥y-°mcpw Fs‚ ktlm-Z-co-

ktlmZc-∑m-cm-Wv.

Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPysØ kvt\ln -°p∂p; kºq¿Whpw

sshhn -[y -]q¿W-hp -amb AXns‚ ]mc-º-cy -Øn¬ Rm≥

A`n-am\w sIm≈p∂p.

Rm≥ Fs‚ amXm-]n-Xm-°-sfbpw Kpcp-°-∑m-scbpw apXn¿∂-

hscbpw _lp-am-\n-°pw.

Rm≥ Fs‚ cmPy-Øn-s‚bpw Fs‚ \m´p-Im-cp-sSbpw t£a-Øn\pw

sFiz-cy-Øn-\pw- th≠n ]bXv\n°pw.

Prepared by :State Council of Educational Research and Training (SCERT)Poojappura, Thiruvananthapuram 695012, KeralaWebsite : www.scertkerala.gov.ine-mail : [email protected] : 0471 - 2341883, Fax: 0471 - 2341869First Edition: 2010Typesetting : Computer Lab., SCERT© Department of Education, Government of Kerala

]nb hnZym¿Yn-I-tf,

Np‰p]mSpw kw`-hn-°p∂ am‰--ßƒ kq£va-ambn

\nco-£n-®pw hni-I-e\w sNbvXpw imkvX-]-T\w B\-

µ-I-c-amb A\p- -h-am°n am‰p-∂-sX-ß-s\-sb∂v Xncn-

®-dn-™-h-cmWp \Ωƒ. imkvXw Hcp XpS¿®-bm-Wv.

AXp-sIm-≠p-Xs∂ imkvX-]-T\w Hcp XpS¿-

]Inbbpw.

kzbw Nn¥n®pw hnh-c-ßƒ tiJ-cn®pw Iq´p-Im-tcm-

sSm∏w tN¿∂v A\p- -h-ßƒ ]¶n´pw \nßƒ \n¿an-

°p∂ Adn-hmWv ]T-\sØ apt∂m´p \bn°p-∂Xv.

Adn-hns‚ \n¿am-W-L-´-Øn¬ Ht´sd tNmZy-ßƒ

\nß-fn¬ cq]wsIm≈pw. F√m-‰n\pw DØcw In -W-

sa-∂n-√. IqSp-X¬ At\z-j-W-ß-fn¬ G¿s∏-tS-≠Xpw

DØ-cw- I-s≠-Øm-\p≈ am¿Kw cq]-s∏-Sp-tØ-≠Xpw

\nßƒ Xs∂-. AXn\p klm-bn-°m≥ ]mT-]p-kvX-I-

hpw A[ym]Icpw \nßƒ°v H∏-ap-≠m-hpw.

Adnhv B\-µ-am-Ip-∂Xv ]T-\-]-h¿Ø-\-ßƒ Bbm-

k-cln-X-am-Ip-tºm-gm-Wv. AØ-c-Øn-ep≈ \nc-h[n

]h¿Ø-\-ß-fpsS km[y-X-Iƒ Cu ]mT-]p-kvX-I-Øn-

ep-≠v. imkvX-Øns‚ hgn-I-fn-eqsS Iq´p-Im-tcm-

sSm∏w IS-∂p-t]mbn ]T\w BtLm-j-am°n am‰m≥

\nßƒ°v Ign-b-s´.

kvt\lm-iw-k-I-tfmsS,

s]m^. Fw.-F. -Jm-Z¿

Ub-d-IvS¿

Fkv.-kn.-C.-B¿.Sn.

kwÿm\ hnZym-`ymk Kth-jW ]cn-io-e\ kanXn (SCERT)hnZym-`h≥, ]qP-∏p-c, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw 695 012

]mT-]p-kvXI kanXnùXn-I-im-kvX-ßƒ IX

AssUz-k¿

s]m^. F-®v.-kn. ][m≥, sk‚¿ Ub-d-IvS¿, tlman `m`m sk‚¿ t^m¿ kb≥kv FUyq-t°-j≥,

Sm‰m C≥Ãn-‰yq´v Hm^v ^≠-sa‚¬ dnk¿®v (TIFR), apwss_

sNb¿am≥

tUm. ap-l-ΩZv jm^n, s]m^-k¿, Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v sIan-kvSn, Imen-°‰v bqWn-th-gvkn‰n, tImgn-t°mSv

AwK-ßƒ

tUm. Aem-hp-±o≥. Fw, ]n≥kn∏¬ (dn´.) Kh. tImtfPv, Ftf-cn-X-´v, Imk¿tKmUv

A\n¬Ipam¿.]n.sI, F®v.-F-kv.-F., kn.F®v.Fw.F®v.Fkv., Xn√t¶cn, Xe-t»cn, IÆq¿

_m_p- ]øØv, F®v.-F-kv.-F., Pn.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv., ta∏øq¿, hSIc, tImgnt°mSv.

]n.Un.-t__n, F®v.-F-kv.-F., sk‚v B‚Wokv F®v.Fkv.Fkv., ]q™m¿, tIm´bw

Pn._me-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿, slUv (dn .), Un∏m¿ vsa‚v Hm v nkn-Ivkv, F≥.Fkv.Fkv. tImtfPv, ]¥fw, ]Ø-\w-Xn

F≥.-sI.-tKm-]m-e≥, F®v.Fkv.F (dn´.), sI.sI.-Fw.Pn.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv., Hm¿°mtćn, hSIc

tUm.Fkv. taml-\≥, ^nknIvkv doU¿ & slUv (dn´.), bqWn-th-gvkn‰n tImtfPv, Xncph\¥]pcw

]Zo]vIpam¿.sI.hn, F®v.-F-kv.-F., aqtØSØv F®v.Fkv.Fkv., Xfn∏dºv, IÆq¿

ctajvIpam¿.Fw.sI, F®v.-F-kv.-F., ]m∏n\nt»cn ]©mbØv F®v.-F-kv.-F-kv., IÆq¿.

sI.Pn.kPn-Ip-am¿, F®v.-F-kv.-F., Pn.hn & F®v.Fkv.Fkv. t^m¿ tKƒkv, aW°mSv, Xncph\¥]pcw.

sk-_m-Ãy≥ eqt°mkv. Sn.sP, ske-. tKUv eIvNd¿ (dn´.), bqWnthgvkn‰n tImtfPv, Xncph\¥]pcw.

tUm.tkXp-am-[-h≥, slUv, Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v ^nkn-Ivkv, Fkv.F≥.Pn. tImtfPv, tImgnt°mSv

sI.kptcjvIpam¿, F®v.-F-kv.-F., F.Fw. F®v.Fkv.Fkv., Xncp-a-e, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw

hn.inh≥, F®v.Fkv.F, (dn´.), ]n.sI.F®v.Fkv., a∂-], ]me°mSv

Sn.sF.-D-Æn-Ir-jvW≥, slUvamÃ¿ (dn´.), F.sI.sI.B¿.F®v.-F-kv t^m¿ t_mbvkv, tNf-∂q¿, tImgnt°mSv

A°m-Z-anIv tImUnt\‰¿

tUm. B≥kn h¿Kokv, dnk¿®v Hmô-k¿ (^nkn-Ivkv), Fkv.-kn.-C.-B¿.Sn., Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw

NnX-Imc-∑m¿

A`n-emjv Xncp-thmØv, F≥.-hn.‰n. (sIan-kvSn), Pn.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv. AtØmfn, tImgn-t°mSv

_na¬Ipam¿.Fkv, tUmbnMv So®¿, Pn.Fw.hn.F®v.Fkv.Fkv. t^m¿ t_mbvkv, sIm√w

taml≥Zmkv ]n.Fw, tUmbnMv So®¿, aqtØ-SØv F®v.-F-kv.-F-kv., Xfn-∏-d-ºv, IÆq¿

hnZKv[kanXn

taml≥Ip-am¿. kn, sU]yqń Ub-d-IvS¿ (dn´.), tImtf-Pn-tb‰v FUyq-t°-j≥, sIm√w

sI. ]m∏qń, Ub-d-IvS¿, tÃ‰v C≥Ãn‰yq´v Hm^v F≥sskt¢m]oUnIv ]ªn-t°-j≥kv, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw

tUm. sI. kp_mjv_m_p, sU]yqń Ub-d-IvS¿, tImtf-Pn-tb‰v FUyq-t°-j≥. Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw

sI. kp-tcjv_m_p, slUv, Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v ^nkn-Ivkv, Kh. tImtfPv, aS-∏≈n

tUm. hn. DÆn-Ir-jvW≥ \mb¿, s]m^-k¿ (dn´.), Un∏m¿´vsa‚v Hm^v Hm]vt‰m- C-e-IvtSm-Wn-Ivkv,

bqWn-th-gvkn‰n Hm^v tIc-f, Xncp-h-\-¥-]pcw

8. ]Im-iØns‚ A]-h¿Ø\w ....................................... 95

9. sshZypXn ..................................................................... 114

10. sshZyp-XIm-¥n-IX ...................................................... 123

11. ]Ir-Xn-bnse Nne Atem-l-ßƒ ............................. 129

12. Im¿_-Wns‚ temIw ................................................... 139

13. BknUpIfpw B¬°-en-Ifpw .................................. 152

`mc-X-Øns‚ `c-W-L-S\`mKw IV I

auenI I¿Ø-hy-ßƒ

51 I. auenI I¿Ø-hy-ßƒ ˛ Xmsg-∏-d-bp-∂h `mc-X-Ønse Hmtcm

]uc-s‚bpw I¿Øhyw Bbn-cn-°p-∂-XmWv ˛

(I) `c-W-L-S-\sb A\p-k-cn-°p-Ibpw AXns‚ BZ¿i-ß-sfbpw ÿm]-\-ß-

sfbpw tZiob]Xm-I-sbbpw tZiobKm\-sØbpw BZ-cn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;

(J) kzmX-¥y-Øn-\p-th-≠n-bp≈ \ΩpsS tZiobka-c-Øn\v ]tNm-Z\w \¬Inb

al-\o-bm-Z¿i-ßsf ]cn-t]m-jn-∏n-°p-Ibpw ]n≥Xp-S-cp-Ibpw sNøpI;

(K) `mc-X-Øns‚ ]c-am-[n-Im-chpw sFIyhpw AJ-fi-Xbpw \ne-\n¿Øp-Ibpw

kwc-£n-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;

(L) cmPysØ ImØp-kq-£n-°p-Ibpw tZiob tkh\w A\p-jvTn-°p-hm≥ Bhiy-

s∏-Sp-tºmƒ A\p-jvTn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;

(M) aX-]-chpw `mjm-]-chpw ]mtZ-in-Ihpw hn`m-Ko-b-hp-amb sshhn-[y-ßƒ°Xo-

X-ambn `mc-X-Ønse F√m P\-ßƒ°p-an-S-bn¬, kulm¿Zhpw s]mXp-hmb

kmtlm-Z-cy-a-t\m-`m-hhpw ]pe¿Øp-I. kvXoI-fpsS A¥- n\v Ipdhp hcp-

Øp∂ BNm-c-ßƒ ]cn-Xy-Pn-°pI;

(N) \ΩpsS kΩnikwkvIm-c-Øns‚ kº-∂-amb ]mc-º-cysØ hne-a-Xn-°p-

Ibpw \ne-\n-dp-Øp-Ibpw sNøpI;

(O) h\-ßfpw XSm-I-ßfpw \Zn-Ifpw h\yPo-hn-Ifpw Dƒs∏-Sp∂ ]IrXym D≈

]cn-ÿnXn kwc-£n-°p-Ibpw A`n-hr-≤n-s∏-Sp-Øp-Ibpw Pohn-I-tfmSv ImcpWyw

ImWn-°p-Ibpw sNøpI;

(P) imkvXo -b -amb Img vN -∏mSpw am\-hn -I -Xbpw, At\z -j-W-Øn\pw

]cnjvIcWØn\pw D≈ at\m-`m-hhpw hnI-kn-∏n-°pI;

(Q) s]mXp-kzØv ]cn-c-£n-°p-Ibpw i]Yw sNbvXv AIaw Dt]-£n-°p-Ibpw

sNøpI;

(R) cmjvSw bXv\-Øn-s‚bpw e£y-]m-]vXn-bp-sSbpw D∂-X-X-e-ß-fn-te°v

\nc¥cw Db-c-Ø-°-hÆw hy‡n-]-chpw Iq´m-b-Xp-amb ]h¿Ø-\-Øns‚

F√m afi-e-ß-fnepw D¬Ir-jvS-X-bv°p-th≠n A[zm-\n-°p-I.

(S) Bdn\pw ]Xn-\m-en\pw CSbv°v ]mb-ap≈ Xs‚ Ip´nt°m c£y-_m-e-I-t\m,

AXXp kwKXn t]mse, amXm-]n-Xm-°tfm c£-I¿Ømthm hnZym-`ym-k-Øn-

\p≈ Ah-k-c-ßƒ G¿s∏-Sp-Øp-I.

`uXn-I-im-kvX-ßƒ 139

`£-W-]-Zm¿Yßƒ ]mNIw sNøp-tºmƒ

NqSp-Iq-Sn-bm¬ Ah Icn-™p-t]m-Ip∂

kµ¿ -ßƒ D≠m-Im-dp-≠t√m. as‰-s¥√mw

hkvXp-°-fmWv NqSm-°p-tºmƒ Icn-bp-∂Xv?

Hcp Ão¬kv]qWn¬ Ipd®p ]©-km-c-sb-

SpØv NqSm°n am‰-ßƒ \nco-£n-°q. Ah-

km\w e`n-°p∂ ]Zm¿Y-sa-¥mWv?

ac-°-cn, Nnc-´-°cn F∂nh \n¿an-°p-

∂-sX-ß-s\-bmWv?

`£-W-]-Zm¿Y-ßƒ, XSn, t]∏¿, Iºn-fn,

]´v, NWw apX-embh NqSm-°p-tºmƒ Icn-

bp-∂-sX-¥p-sIm-≠m-bn-cn°mw? Ch-bn-

sems° Im¿_¨ AS-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp

sIm≠m-hnt√? Cu hkvXp-°s-f√mw

ssPh (organic) hkvXp-°-fm-Wv. Ch-bn-e-

S-ßn-bn-´p≈ kwbp-‡-ßƒ ssPhkwbp-

‡-ßsf∂mWv Adn-b-s∏-Sp-∂-Xv.

ap´-tØm-Sv, I° apX-em-b-h-bnse ][m\

LSIw Im¬kyw Im¿_-tW‰v (CaCO3)BWv. NpÆm-ºpI-√v, am¿_nƒ XpS-ßnb

[mXp-°fpw Im¬kyw Im¿_-tW‰mWv. Ch-

bnepw Im¿_¨ AS-ßn-bn-´p-≠v.

CaCO3 NqSm -°n -bm¬ F¥p kw`-

hn°pw? Icn-bp-≠m-Iptam?

Im¿_-Wns‚ temIw12

tamt´m¿ hml-\-ß-fn¬ ]pI-]-cn-tim-

[\ \S-Øp-∂Xv ][m-\-ambpw GXp

hmX-I-Øns‚ Afhv a\- n-em-°m-

\mWv?

Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ, CO, CO2, apX-em-bh

Im¿_¨ AS-ßnb AssPh (inorganic)kwbp‡ßfmbmWv IW-°m°s∏-Sp-∂-Xv.

Im¿_¨ AS-ßnb at‰sX√mw ]Zm¿Y-

ßƒ \nßƒ°-dn-bmw. FgpXnt\m°q.

$ sagpIv $ am¿_nƒ

$ asÆÆ $ ......................................

$ aosYbv≥ $ ......................................

\nßƒ enÃv sNbvX-h-bn¬ ssPh

kwbp-‡-ßƒ GsX-√m-amWv?

AssPh kwbp-‡-ßtfm?

\ap°v Np‰p-ap≈ ]Zm¿Y-ßƒ ]cn-tim-[n-

®m¬ Ah-bn¬ Im¿_-WnI kwbp-‡-ß-

fmWv FÆ-Øn¬ hfsc IqSp-X-se∂v a\-

n-em-Ipw. Poh-Pm-e-ßƒ, Huj-[-ßƒ,

FÆ-Iƒ, πmÃn-°p-Iƒ, d∫¿, eX-dp-Iƒ

XpS-ßn-b-h-bn-se√mw Im¿_¨ kwbp-‡-

ßƒ AS-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂p.

]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ Im¿_-Wns‚

ÿm\w Is≠-Øq. Xmsg-∏-d -bp -∂h

140 ùXn-I-im-kvX-ßƒ

Is≠Øn ]ńI (12.1) ]q¿Øn-bm°n

kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.

amkv \º¿

At‰m-anI \º¿

Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw

]ncn-bUv

Kq∏v

kwtbm-P-IX

temltam Atem-ltam

Dƒs∏-Sp∂ aqeIIpSpw_w

Kq∏nse teml-ßƒ

Kq∏nse D]tem-l-ßƒ

]ńI 12.1

Im¿_-Wns‚ sFtkm-tSm-∏p-Iƒ

Im¿_¨˛12, Im¿_¨˛13, Im¿_¨

˛14 F∂n -h -bmWv Im¿_-Wns‚

sFtkm-tSm-∏p-Iƒ. ]Ir-Xn-bnse Im¿_-

Wnse 99% hpw Im¿_¨˛12 BWv.

Im¿_¨˛12 B‰Øns‚ amkmWv

At‰m-anI amkv Af-°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ ]am-

W-ambn kzoI-cn-®n- p-≈-Xv. Im¿_Wns‚

tdUntbm BIvSohv sFtkm-tSm∏mWv

Im¿_¨˛14. Ncn-Xm-XoXImesØ

hkvXp-°-fp-sSbpw t^mkn-ep-I-fp-sSbpw

]g°w \n¿W-bn-°m≥ Cu sFtkm-tSm-

∏ns‚ km∂n[yw imkvX-⁄¿ D]-tbm-

Kn-°p-∂p.

Im¿_¨ ]Ir-Xn-bn¬

]Ir-Xn-bn¬ kzX¥mhÿ-bn¬ ImW-s∏-

Sp∂ aqe-I-ß-fn¬ H∂mWv Im¿_¨.

Im¿_Wns‚ GsX√mw cq] -ßƒ

\nßƒ°v ]cn-N-b-ap-≠v. Fgp-Xn-t\m-°q.

$ ac-°cn $ ...........................

$ I¬°cn $ ...........................

$ ........................... $ ...........................

B`-cWßfn¬ D]-tbm-Kn-®p-h-cp∂ hPw

(diamond) Im¿_Wns‚ Hcp cq]m-¥-c-am-

sW∂-dn-bmtam? D∂X Xm]-\n-ebnepw

a¿Z-Ønepw `qan-°-Sn-bn-ep≈ Im¿_¨

(Kmss^‰v) cq]m-¥cw ]m]n-®mWv hPw

D≠m-bn-´p-≈-Xv. Adn-b-s∏-ń-´p-≈-Xn¬ h®v

G-‰hpw ImTn-\y-ap≈ hkvXphpw hP-am-Wv.

B`-c-W-ßfn¬ hPw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-

Xn -\p≈ Imc-W-ßƒ Fs¥m-s°-

bmhmw? kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.

•mkv apdn-°p-∂-Xn\v hP-kqNn D]-tbm-

Kn-°p-sa∂v tIń- n-t√. hP-Øns‚ GXp

KpW-amWv Cu Bh-iy-Øn\v ]tbm-P-

\-s∏-Sp-∂Xv?

ssUsk-√n¬ D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ Im¿_¨

Zfiv, s]≥kn¬seUv F∂nh Im¿_-

Wns‚ as‰mcp cq]m-¥-c-amb Kmss^-‰m-

Wv.

s]≥kn¬ \n¿an-°m≥ Kmss^-‰p-]-

tbm-Kn-°m≥ Fs¥m-s°-bmhmw Imc-

W-ßƒ? kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.

$ Nmc-\n-d-ap≠v

$

$

Im¿_¨ Zfip-]-tbm-Kn®v Pe-Øns‚

sshZyp-X-hn-t«-jWw sNbvXXv Hm¿a-bn-

t√.

s]≥kn¬ seUns\ NnX-Øn¬ (NnXw

12.1) ImWp-∂-Xp-t]mse Hcp sk¿°oń¬

_‘n®p \nco-£n-°q.

Kmss -‰ns‚ F¥p khn-ti-j-X-bmWv a\-

n-em-bXv? Ce-IvtSm-Up-Iƒ \n¿an-°m≥

Km-ss^‰v D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ ImcWw

CX-t√?

Kmss^‰v an\p-k-ap≈ Jc-]-Zm¿Y-am-Wv.

Kmss^-‰n\v _mjv]oI-cW-io-e-an -√.

NnXw 12.1

_m‰dn _ƒ_v

s]≥kn¬


Db¿∂ Zh-Wm-¶-hp-ap-≠v. AXn-\m¬ -AXy-

[nIw NqSmb b¥-`m-K-ß-fn¬ L¿jWw

Ipd -bv°p -∂-Xn -\p≈ kvt\l-I-ambn

(lubricant) Kmss^‰v D]tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

60 Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ tN¿∂p-≠m-bn- p≈

Im¿_-Wns‚ as‰mcp cq]m-¥-c-Øns‚

LS\ NnXo-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q

(NnXw 12.2).

Hcp sSÃvSyq-_n-se-Sp-°p-I. AXn¬ Aev]w

t\¿∏n® HCl tN¿°p-I. sSÃvSyq-_n-s‚

D≈n-te°v IØp∂ Xos°m≈n ImWn®p

\nco-£n-°q. Pzmebv°v F¥p kw`-hn®p?

Imc-W-sa¥v? GXp hmX-I-amhmw cmk

]h¿Ø\ê-am-bp-≠m-bXv?

cmk-]-h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hm-Iy-sa-gpXn

Is≠-Øq.

CaCO3 + 2HCl → CaCl2 + H2O + ..........

a‰v Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn®v ]co-

£Ww \S-Øn-bmepw CXp-X-s∂-bm-Iptam

êw? tkmUnbw Im¿_-tW-‰ v ,

s]m´mkyw Im¿_-tW‰v apX-em-bh D]--

tbm-Kn®v sNbvXp-t\m-°q.

Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ Bkn-Up-I-fp-ambn ]Xn

]h¿Øn-°p-tºmƒ CO2 hmXIw D≠m-Ip-

∂p. NnX-Øn¬ (NnXw 12.3) ImWp-∂-Xp-

t]mse D]-I -c -W-ßƒ Iao -I -cn® v

Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv hmXIw \n¿an-

°mw.

_°van≥Ã¿ ^p≈¿ cq]-Iev]\ sNbvX

sIń-S-Øn-t\mSv cq]-km-Zr-iy-ap-≈-Xn-\m¬

Chsb p≈-do≥ F∂p-hn-fn-°p-∂p. p≈-

do-\p-Iƒ _°n t_mƒkv (bucky balls)F∂pw Adn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. hyXykvX FÆw

Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-fp≈ p≈-do≥ X∑m-X-

Iƒ CXn-\Iw Is≠-Øn-bn-´p-≠v.

kwbp-‡m-h-ÿ-bnepw Im¿_¨ ]Ir-Xn-

bn¬ I≠p-h-cp-∂p.

Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv (CO2)

A¥-co-£hm-bp-hnse ][m\ Im¿_¨

kwbp-‡-ta-XmWv?

Im¿_tWm Im¿_-WnI hkvXp-°tfm

hmbp-hn¬ IØp-tºmƒ D≠m-Ip∂ ][m\

kwbp-‡-tam?

I° NqSm-°p∂ ]h¿Ø\w CXn-\Iw a\-

n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠-t√m. Hcp IjWw I°

NnXw 12.2

CO2 hmXIw Hcp sSÃvSyq-_n-se-SpØ

sXfn™ NpÆmºp sh≈-Øn-eq-sSbpw

as‰mcp sSÃvSyq-_n-se-SpØ Pe-Øn-eq-

sSbpw IS-Øn-hn-Sp-I. NpÆm-ºp-sh≈w

Xnkn¬^W¬

Ãm‚v

tIm¿°v

Im¿_ÜtbmIvsskUvv

t_mbn-enMvSyq_v

sSÃvSyq_v

t\¿∏n®HCl NpÆm-ºp-sh≈w

Im¬kywIm¿_-tW‰v

sUen-hdnSyq_v

NnXw 12.3


Im¬kyw ssltUm-IvsskUv [Ca(OH)2 ]emb-\n-bmWv.

NpÆmºp sh≈-Øn\v F¥p kw -hn®p?

Cu am‰-Øn-\p≈ Imc-W-sa-¥m-bn-

cn°mw? cmk-]-h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hm-

Iyw ]cn-tim-[n®v Is≠-Øm≥ ian-°q.

Ca(OH)2 + CO2 → CaCO3 + H2O

emb\n°v ]m¬\ndw \¬Inb ]Zm¿Y-

ta-sX∂v a\- n-em-bnt√? Cu ]Zm¿Y-

Øns‚ cmk-\m-a-sa-gp-Xq.

CO2 hmXI-Øns‚ km∂n[yw Xncn-®-dn-bm≥

Cu am¿Kw D]-tbm-Kn-°m-a-t√m.

Hcp ]Zm¿Yw Im¿_-tW-‰m-tWm-sb∂v

\nßƒ Fßs\ ]co-£n-®-dnbpw? hnhn[

Im¿_-tW-‰p-I-fn¬ t\¿∏n® HCl tN¿Ø-

Xn-\p-tijw ]pd-Øp-h-cp∂ hmX-I-Øn¬

sXfn™ NpÆm-ºp-sh-≈-Øn¬ ap°nb

•mkvtdmUv ImWn-®p-t\m-°q. \nco-£Ww

kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.

C\n, Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv IS-Øn-

hn´ Pew en‰vakv D]-tbm-Kn®v ]co-£n-®p-

t\m-°q.

]co-£-W- ew

Fs‚ \nK-a\w

Im¿_¨ Utbm-Ivssk-Uns‚ Peob

emb\n Im¿t_m-WnIv BknUv F∂-dn-b-

s∏-Sp-∂p. CXv Hcp hocyw Ipd™ Bkn-

Um-Wv. CO2PeØn¬ ebn-∏n-®mWv tkmUm-

hm-´¿ D≠m-°p-∂-Xv.

Im¿t_m-WnIv Bkn-Uns‚ cmk-kqXw

I≠p-]n-Sn-°m-a-t√m.

H2O + CO2 → .........

km[m-cW a¿Z-Øn¬ hfsc°pd®v CO2amXta Pe-Øn¬ ebn-°p-∂p-≈q. D∂X

a¿Zw ]tbm-Kn®v CO2 PeØn¬ ebn-∏n-

®mWv tkmUm-hm- dpw a‰v Im¿_-tW-‰Uv

tkm^v‰v Un¶p-Ifpw \n¿an-°p-∂Xv.

as‰mcp ]h¿Ø\w sNømw. NnX-Øn¬

(NnXw 12.4) ImWn-®n-cn-°p-∂-Xp-t]mse Hcp

S^n¬ hyXykvX Db-c-ap≈ sagp-Ip-Xn-cn-

Iƒ IØn-®p-h-bv°p-I. Hcp sUen-hdn Syq_v

D]-tbm -Kn®v CO2 hmXIw S^ns‚

D≈nte°p IS-Øn-hn-Sp-I.

F¥mWv kw`-hn-®Xv?

sagp-Ip-XncnPzme AW-bm≥ Imc-W-sa-

¥mWv?

BZyw AW™ sagp-Ip-Xncn GXmWv?

Dbcw IqSnb sagp-Ip-Xncn Ah-km\w

AW-bp-∂-Xn-\p≈ ImcWw Is≠-

Ømtam?

CO2 hmXIØns‚ kmµ-Xsb°pdn®v

F¥v Duln°mw? hmbp-hn-s\-°mƒ

IqSp-Xtem Ipdthm?

\nß-fpsS \nco-£-W-ßfpw \nK-a-\-ßfpw


NnXw 12.4

CO2→


hn\m-Kncn

tkmUnbw ss_Im¿_-tW‰v emb\n

Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUvAS-ßn-b -]X

\q¬

hmjvt_m- n¬

sSÃvSyq_v

NnXw 12.5

CO2 hmXI-Øns‚ a‰p Nne D]-tbm-K-ßƒ

Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂p.

$ hmjnMv tkmU, t_°nMv tkmU

F∂n-h-bpsS \n¿am-W-Øn-\p-]-tbm-Kn-

°p-∂p.

$ bqdnb t]mep≈ cmk-h-f-ßƒ \n¿an-

°p-∂-Xn\v D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

$ CO2 s‚ Jc-cq-]-amb "ssU sFkv'

ioXo-Im-cn-bmbn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

$ "ssU sFkv' tÃPv tjmIƒ°v taL-

ß-fpsS kvs]jy¬ CÎvSv \¬Im≥

D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

$ 95% HmIvkn-P\pw 5% CO2 Dw tN¿∂

"Im¿t_m-sP≥' IrXna izmtkm-—zmkw

\¬Im≥ Bip-]-Xn-I-fn¬ D]-tbm-Kn-

°p-∂p.

$ Im¿_-tW-‰Uv ]m\o-b-ßƒ Xbm-dm-

°m≥ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

Im¿_¨ tamtWm-IvsskUv (CO)

Im¿_¨ HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn tNcp-tºmƒ

CO2 amXamtWm D≠m-Im≥ km[y-X-bp-

≈Xv?

Im¿_¨ hmbp-hn¬ IØn CO2 hmXIw

D≠m-Ip∂ ]h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hmIyw

\¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q.

C + O2 → CO2

F∂m¬ HmIvkn-Ps‚ Afhv Ipd-bp-Itbm

Im¿_-Wns‚ Afhv IqSp-Itbm sNbvXm¬

A·n-i-a\n \n¿an°mw

Hcp hmjvt_m-ń -en¬ 20ml t_°nMv

tkmU (tkmUnbw ss_Im¿_-tW-‰v)

emb\n FSp-°p-I. Hcp sNdnb sSÃvSyq-

_n¬ hn\m-Kn -cn -sb-SpØv NnX-Øn¬

(NnXw 12.5) ImWp-∂-Xp-t]mse hmjvt_m-

ń-en-\-IØv Xq°n-bn-Sp-I. hmjvt_m-ń-¬

AS-bv°p-I. hmjvt_m-ń¬ Ncn®p ]nSn-®p-

t\m-°q. F¥mWp \nco-£n-®Xv?

Syq_neqsS ]pd -Øp -h -cp∂ hmXIw

IØp∂ sagp-Ip-Xn-cn-bn-te°v ImWn®v

t\m°q. F¥p kw`-hn®p?

Aß-s\-sb-¶n¬ CO2

hmXIw Xo sI-Sp-

Øm≥ D]-tbm-Kn -

°m-at√m. sIm≠p-

\-S-°m-hp∂ A·n-

i - a - \ n - I - f p s S

]h¿Ø-\-XØzw

CXm -Wv . Ch-bn¬ CO2

hmXIw AS-ßnb ]X-bmWv

Xo sISp-Øp-∂-Xv.

CO2 hmXI-Øns‚ Fs¥√mw khn-ti-

j-X-I-fmWv AXns\ A·n-i-a\nbmbn

D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ D]-bp-‡-am-°p-∂-Xv.

Btem-Nn®pt\m°q.

$ Pze\klm-bn-b√

$ .........................................

$ .........................................


Pze\w \S-°p∂Xv Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-

°p∂ coXn-bn-em-bn-cn-°pw.

2C + O2 → 2CO

Cu ]h¿Ø\ê-am-bp-≠m-Ip∂ COhnjhmX-I-am-Wv. Cu hmXIw izkn-°p-

∂Xv acWImc-W-am-bn-Øo-cpw.

CO.c‡-Ønse lotam-t•m-_n-\p-ambn

Ffp-∏-Øn¬ ]h¿Øn®v "Im¿t_mIvkn

lotam-t•m-_n≥' F∂ kwbp‡w D≠m-

Ip-∂p. AXn-\m¬ c‡-Øn\v HmIvkn-P≥

hln-®p-sIm≠p t]mIm-\p≈ Ignhv C√m-

sX-bm-Ip-∂p. ê-sa-¥m-bn-cn°pw?

Xmsg sImSp-Øn- p≈ kml-N-cy-ß-fn¬ CO

D≠mIm-\p≈ km[y-X-Iƒ Nn¥n®p

t\m°q.

$ hoń¬ $ .............................

$ hml-\-ß-fn¬ $ .............................

$ ^mIvS-dn-I-fn¬ $ .............................

AS-®n´ Kmtc-Pp-Iƒ°p-≈n¬ h®v hml-

\-ßƒ Ãm¿´v sNøp-∂Xv A]-I-S-I-c-

am-Wv. ImcWw Is≠Øn kb≥kv

Ub-dn-bn¬ Ipdn-°q.

A¥-co£aen-\o-I-c-W-Øn\p Imc-W-am-

Ip∂ hmX-Ißfn -sem∂mWv CO.

A¥co£aen-\o-I-cWw XS-bp-∂-Xn\v

Fs¥√mw am¿K-ßƒ \nßƒ°p \n¿tZ-

in-°m≥ Ign-bpw. Kq∏p-I-fn¬ N¿®sNbvXv

Ah-X-cn-∏n-°q.

hnhn[ Bh-iy-ßƒ°v CO D]tbm-Kn-®p-h-

cp-∂p. Ah-bn¬ NneXv \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp

t\m°q.

$ hmXI C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

$ hymh-km-bnI C‘-\-ß-fmb hm´¿

Kymkv (CO + H2) s]mUyq-k¿ Kymkv

(CO + N2) F∂nhbnse Hcp ][m\

LS-I-am-Wv.

$ teml-\n¿amW]In-b-I-fn¬ \ntcm-

Ivko-Im-cn-bmbn D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

Im¿_¨ ssk°nƒ (Carbon cycle)

Im¿_-WnI kwbp-‡-ß-fpsS sshhn-[yw

`qan-bn¬ Pohs‚ \ne-\n¬∏n\v AXy-¥m-

t]-£n-X-am-Wv. AssPhkwbp-‡-ß-fnse

Im¿_¨ ssPhkwbp-‡-ambn amdp∂

]h¿Ø\w CXn¬ hf-sc -b -[nIw

]m[m\yw A¿ln-°p∂p. qan-bn¬ Im¿_-

NnXw 12.6


Wns‚ hn\n-abw hyXykvX coXn-I-fn¬ \S-

°p-∂Xv NnXo-I-cn-®n-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q

(NnXw 12.6). CXns\ Im¿_¨ ssk°nƒ

F∂p ]d-bmw.

Im¿_¨ ssk°nƒ hni-I-e\w sNøq.

Im¿_¨hn\n-a-b-Øn¬ ][m\ ]¶p-

h-ln-°p∂ kwbp-‡-ta-XmWv?

Im¿_¨hn\n-abw ][m-\-ambpw \S-

°p-∂Xv GsX√mw ]h¿Ø-\-ßƒ hgn-

bmWv?

A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hnse Im¿_¨ Utbm-

Ivssk-Uns‚ Afhv 0.03% BsW∂v a\-

n-em-°n-bn- p-≠t√m. Iptd-°qSn IrXy-ambn

]d-™m¬ 280ppm apX¬ 360ppm hsc.

ppm (parts per million)

hfsc°pd™ Af-hn-ep≈ Hcp ]Zm¿Y-

Øns‚ km∂n[yw ]kvXm -hn -

°p∂Xn\v iX-am-\-Øn\p ]Icw ppm(parts per million), ppb (parts perbillion) F∂nh D]-tbm-Kn-°m-dp-≠v. Hcp

ppm F∂m¬ Zi-e-£-Øn¬ Hcwiw

F∂m-W¿Yw. Hcp ppb F∂m¬

Bbncw Zi-e-£-Øn¬ (iX-tIm-Sn-

bn¬) Hcp `mK-am-Wv. aen-\o-I-c-W-

Øns‚ tXmXv ]kvXm-hn-°m≥ km[m-

c-W-bmbn Cu bqWn-‰p-I-fmWv D]-tbm-

Kn-°p-∂-Xv.

A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hnse CO2 D]-tbmKn-

°s∏Sp-Øp∂ ]h¿Ø-\-ta-XmWv?

A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hn¬ CO2 s‚ Afhv

h¿[n-°m≥ Imc-W-am-Ip∂ ]h¿Ø-\-

ßƒ Fs¥-√m-am-Wv?

CO2 s‚ Afhv A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hn¬

Iam-Xo-X-ambn h¿[n-°p-∂Xv \√-

XmtWm?

kqcy-]-Im-i-tØm-sSm∏w AƒSm-h-b-e‰v

civan-Ifpw C≥^m-sdUv civan-Ifpw qan-bn-

se-Øp-∂p-sh∂v ]Tn-®n-´p-≠-t√m. C≥^m-

sdUv civan-Iƒ Xm]ob hnIn-c-W-ß-fm-Wv.

`qan-bn¬ \n∂p ]Xn-^-en-°p-Ibpw hnIn-

cWw sNø-s∏-Sp-Ibpw sNøp∂ C≥^m-

sdUv civ-an-I-fn¬ Hcp `mKw `uam-¥-co-£-

Ønse CO2 XS™p\n¿Øp-∂p. CXmWv qan-

bpsSbpw A¥-co-£-Øn-s‚bpw \ne-hn-

ep≈ Xm]-\n-ebv°p Imc-Ww. CO2 s‚ Afhv

h¿[n®mtem? hfsc°qSpX¬ C≥^msdUv

hnIncW-ßƒ XS-™p-\n¿Ø-s∏-Sp-∂p.

CXns‚ ^e-sa-¥m-bn-cn°pw?

A¥-co-£-hm-bp-hn¬ Im¿_¨ Utbm-

Ivssk-Uns‚ Afhv h¿[n-°p-∂-Xp-aqew

A¥-co£ Xm]-\ne Db-cp-∂-Xns\ lcn-

Xm-eb]`mhw (green house effect) F∂v

]d-bp-∂p.

lcn-Xm-eb]`mhw aqew `qan-bp-sSbpw

A¥-co-£-Øn-s‚bpw icm-icn Xm]-\ne

Db-cp-∂p. CXns\ BtKm-f-Xm-]\w

(global warming) F∂p ]d-bp-∂p.

Nne ]X-hm¿Ø-I-fpsS sImfmjv \¬In-

bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q. BtKm-f-Xm-]\w

FX-amXw ]m[m-\y-ap≈ hnj-b-amWv

F∂t√ Cu hm¿Ø-Iƒ kqNn-∏n-°p-∂Xv.

BtKm-f-Xm-]\w Fs¥√mw ]Xym-Lm-

X-ßfp≠m-°m≥ km[y-X-bp≠v?


H

H C H

H

CH4

aosYbv≥

H H

H C C H

H H

C2H6

CusYbv≥

$ a™p-]m-fn-I-fn¬

$ kap-Z-\n-c-∏n¬

$ Xmgv∂ ]tZ-i-ß-fn¬

$ kapZ Zzo]p-I-fn¬

$ Im¿jn-I-cw-KØv

$ Imem-h-ÿ-bn¬

Kq∏-Sn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ N¿®sNbvXv skan-\m¿

Ah-X-cn-∏n-°q.

BtKm-f-Xm-]\w ê-]-Z-ambn sNdp-°p-

∂Xn\p≈ am¿K-ßƒ \n¿tZ-in-°m-tam.

Hm¿Km-\nIv sIankvSn

(Organic chemistry)

Im¿_-WnIkwbp -‡-ß-fpsS FÆw

hfsc IqSp-X-em-sW∂v a\ n-em-°n-bn-´p-

≠-t√m. a‰p≈ aqe-I-ß-fpsS F√m kwbp-

‡-ßfpw tN¿∂mepw Im¿_¨ kwbp-‡-

ßfpsS ]Øn-semt∂ hcq F∂p IW-°m-

°-s∏-ń-cn-°p-∂p. Poh-Pm-e-ß-fp-sS-sb√mw

icocw AkwJyw Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-

ßƒ tN¿∂mWv \n¿an-°-s∏-ń-cn-°p-∂-Xv.

`qan-bn¬ \n∂p e`n-°p∂ s]tSm-fn-b-

Øn¬ At\Iw Im¿_¨ kwbp-‡-ßƒ

AS-ßn-bn-cn-°p-∂p. \mw Ign-°p∂ Hmd©v

Pqkn¬ amXw 200 ¬∏cw Im¿_-WnI

kwbp-‡-ßƒ AS-ßn-bn-´p-≠tX! Im¿_-

WnIkwbp-‡-ß-fpsS sshhn-[yhpw FÆ-

Ønep≈ _mlp-eyhpw ImcWw CO, CO2

Im¿_-tW-‰p-Iƒ F∂o AssPhkwbp-‡-

ßƒ Hgn-®p≈ Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-ßsf

Hm¿Km -\nIv kwbp -‡-ßƒ (organiccompounds) F∂ t]cn-emWv hnfn-®p-h-cp-

∂-Xv. Hm¿Km-\nIv kwbp-‡-ß-sf-°p-dn®v

]Tn-°p∂ ck-X-¥-im-J-bmWv Hm¿Km-\nIv

sIankvSn.

ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ

Hm¿Km-\nIv kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬ ][m-\-s∏´

Hcp hn`m-K-amWv ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ.

hym]-I-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ C‘-\-ß-

fmb asÆ-Æ, s]tSmƒ, Uok¬, F¬.-

]n.Pn, sagp-Ip-Xn-cn-bnse sagpIv, ]m‰-Kp-fnI

XpSßnbh-sb√mw ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-I-

fm-Wv.

X∑m-X-I-fnse cmk-_-‘-\-sØ-°p-dn®v

ap≥ A[ym-b-ß-fn¬ ]Tn®pIgn-™-t√m.

Nne ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-I-fpsS X∑mXm

LS\ \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q (NnXw

12.7).

Cu kwbp-‡-ßsf ssltUmIm¿_-

Wp-Iƒ F∂p hnfn-°m≥ Imc-W-sa-¥m-

bn-cn°pw?

C

H

H

H H

C

H

H

H C

H

H

H

NnXw 12.7


X∂n-cn-°p∂ kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬ Hcp

Im¿_¨ B‰w a‰v FX B‰-ß-fp-ambn

kwtbm-Pn-®n-cn-°p-∂p? Ch-bn¬ Im¿_-

Wns‚ kwtbm-PIXsbX-bmWv?

Cu kwbp -‡-ß-fn¬ ImWp∂

_‘\w Atbm-Wn-I-am-tWm? kl-kw-

tbmP-I-amtWm?

]ń-I-s∏-Sp -Ønb kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬

Im¿_-¨ B‰-ßƒ°n-S-bn-ep≈ kl-

kw-tbm-PI _‘-\-Øns‚ kz`m-h-sa-

¥mWv? icn-bmbh sNøpI.

(GI_‘\w/Zzn_-‘\w/Xn_-‘-\w)

Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°n-S-bn¬ GI-_-‘\w

amX-ap≈ ssltUm-Im¿_-Wp-Iƒ°v

IUPAC (International Union of Pure and

H

H C H

H

H H

H C C H

H H

Im¿_¨B¬s°-bv\p-I-fpsS

B‰-Øns‚LS\

X∑m-Xm-kqXw t]cv

FÆw

1 CH4 aosYbv≥

2 C2H6 CusYbv≥

3 C3H8 s]ms∏bv≥

4 _yqs´bv≥

5 s]s‚bv≥

6 slIvskbv≥

H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H H

]ńI 12.2

Applied Chemistry) B¬s°-bv\p -Iƒ

(alkanes) F∂v t]cp \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂p.

kwbp-‡-ß-fn-e-S-ßn-bn-cn-°p∂ Im¿_¨

B‰-ß-fpsS FÆ-a -\p -k-cn®v Hmtcm

B¬s°-bv\n\pw ]tXyI t]cp-Iƒ \¬In-

bn-cn-°p-∂p. Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw

A\p-k-cn®v Xmsg sImSp-Øn-cn-°p∂ ]Z-

aqew (word root) CXn-\p-]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

DZm : C1 - saYv (meth)

C2 - FYv (eth)

C3 - s]m]vv (prop)

C4 - _yq´v (but)

C5 - s]‚ v (pent)

C6 - slIvkv (hex)

C\n NphsS sImSp-Øn- p≈ ]ńI ]q¿Øn-

bm-°q (]ńI 12.2).


B¬s°-bv\p-I-fn¬ Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-

fpsS FÆw IqSp -∂-X -\p -k-cn® v

sslU-P≥ B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw

Fßs\ hyXym-k-s∏-Sp∂p?

B¬s°-bv\p-Isf Hcp s]mXp hmIyap]-

tbm -Kn®v kqNn -∏n -°m≥ Ign -bptam?

sImSpØn´p≈ ]ńI (]ńI 12.3) ]q¿Øn-

bm°n ian®pt\m°q.

Im¿_¨ B‰-ß-fpsS FÆw 'n'BsW-¶n¬ B¬s°-bv\p -I -fpsS

s]mXp-hmIyw F¥m-bn-cn°pw?

B¬s°-bv\ns‚ cmk-kqXw Im¿_¨ sslU-P≥

t]cv B‰-ß-fpsS B‰-ß-fpsS

FÆw FÆw

aosYbv≥ CH4 1 2 x 1 + 2 = 4

CusYbv≥ C2H6 2 2 x 2 + 2 = 6

s]ms∏bv≥ C3H8 3 --------------

_yqs´bv≥ ---- 4 --------------]ńI 12.3

C3H6

s]m∏o≥C

H

H

C CH

H

H

HH

H

NnXw 12.8

C\n a‰p Nne ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-I-fpsS

LS\ \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q (NnXw

12.8).

Cu kwbp-‡-ß-fn¬ Im¿_¨ ˛

Im¿_¨ _‘\w B¬s°-bv\p-I-fn-

teXp t]mse-bmtWm?

Im¿_¨ B‰-ßfpsSbpw sslU-P≥

B‰-ßfpsSbpw FÆ-Øns‚ A\p-]m-

X-sa-¥mWv?

CH

CH

H

H

C2H4

CuYo≥

H

H

H

H


Im¿_¨B¬°o-\p-I-fpsS

B‰-Øns‚LS\

X∑m-Xm-kqXw t]cv

FÆw

2 C2H4 CuYo≥

3 C3H6 s]m∏o≥

4 _yqó≥

5 s]‚o≥

6 slIvko≥

GsX-¶nepw c≠v Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°n-S-bn¬ Zzn_-‘\w ImW-s∏-

Sp∂ ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ B¬°o-\p-Iƒ (alkenes) F∂dn-b-s∏-

Sp-∂p.

C\n NphsS sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ]ńI ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.

H C≡C H C2H2

CussY≥

H

H

H

H

H

H

CH C H

H

H C≡C C H

H

C3H4

s]mss∏≥C C C

H

H

H

H

NnXw 12.9

]ńI 12.4

B¬°o-\p-I-fpsS s]mXp-hmIyw cq]o-I-cn-°q.

GsX-¶nepw c≠p Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°n-S-bn¬ Xn_-‘\w ImW-s∏-Sp∂

ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-Iƒ B¬ss°-\p-Iƒ (alkynes) F∂dn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. Nne

B¬ss°-\p-I-fpsS X∑m-Xm-L-S\ \¬In-bn-cn-°p-∂Xp t\m°q (NnXw 12.9).


NphsS sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ]´nI ]q¿Øn-bm-°q.

Im¿_¨B¬ss°-\p-I-fpsS

B‰-Øns‚LS\

X∑m-Xm-kqXw t]cv

FÆw

2 C2H2 CussY≥

3 C3H4 s]mss∏≥

4 _yqss´≥

5 s]ss‚≥

6 slIvssk≥

H C≡C H

H

H C≡C C H

H

B¬ss°-\p-I-fpsS s]mXp-hmIyw Is≠-Øq.................................................................

Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°n-S-bn-ep≈ _‘-\-Øns‚ ASn-ÿm-\-Øn¬ ssltUmIm¿_-

Wp-Isf FX-bmbn Xcw-Xn-cn-°mw?

ssltUmIm¿_¨

]´nI 12.5

ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-IfpsS t]cpw Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°n-S-bn-ep≈ cmk-_-‘-\hpw XΩn¬

Fs¥-¶nepw _‘-ap-≈-Xmbn tXm∂p∂pt≠m? Is≠-Øm≥ ian-®p-t\m-°q.

Nß-ebpw he-bhpw

Xmsg sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ssltUmIm¿_-Wp-IfpsS LS\ t\m°q.

H H H

H C C C H

H H H

H H H H

H C C C C H

H H H H

H H

H C C H

H C C H

H H

C CH

H

CH H

H

H

C3H8

s]ms∏bv≥

C4H10

_yqs´bv≥

C3H6

sskt¢ms]ms∏bv≥

C4H8

sskt¢m_yqs´bv≥


CS-Xp-h-iØpw he-Xp-h-i-Øp-ap≈

kwbp-‡-ßƒ LS-\-bn¬ Fßs\

hyXym-k-s∏-´n-cn-°p-∂p? sslU-P≥

B‰-ßƒ Hgn-hm°n Im¿_¨ B‰-

ßƒ amXw FgpXn t\m°q.

F¥p hyXym-k-amWp ImWp-∂-Xv. LS-

\-bpsS ASn-ÿm-\-Ønepw ssltUm

Im¿_-Wp-Iƒ h¿Ko-I-cn-®p-IqtS? Fß-

s\-bmhmw?

H H H H H H

H C C C C C C H

H H H H H H

Im¿_¨ F∂ am¥n-I≥

\nc-h[n Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-ß-fpsS

LS\ ]cn-N-b-s∏- n-t√. Ch-bpsS ASn-ÿm-

\-Øn¬ Xmsg sImSp-Øn-´p≈ ]kvXm-h-

\-Iƒ hne-bn-cp-Øq.

$ Cu kwbp-‡-ß-fn -se√mw Im¿_-

Wns‚ kwtbm-P-IX \mev BWv.

$ Hcp Im¿_¨ B‰-Øn\v a‰p \mev B‰-

ß-fp-ambn _‘-\-Øn-te¿s∏-Sm≥ Ign-

bpw.

$ Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°p ]c-kv]cw

kwtbm-Pn®v sNbn≥ cq]-Øn-ep≈

kwbp-‡-ßƒ D≠m-°m≥ Ign-bpw.

$ Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°v ]c-kv]cw

kwtbm-Pn®v heb (dnMv) cq]-Øn-ep≈

kwbp-‡-ßƒ D≠m-°m≥ Ign-bpw.

$ a‰v B‰-ßsftbm B‰w Kq∏p-I-sftbm

Cu sNbn-\ntem dnMntem _‘n-°m≥

Ign-bpw.

$ Im¿_¨ B‰-ßƒ°n-S-bn¬ GI-_-

‘\w, Zz n_-‘\w, Xn_-‘\w

F∂nh km[y-am-Wv.

Im‰n-t\-j≥ (Catenation)

Htc aqe-I-Øns‚ B‰-ßƒ°v ]c-kv]cw

kwtbm-Pn®v sNbn≥ cq]-Øn¬ \ne-

\n¬°m-\p≈ Ign-hmWv Im‰n-t\-j≥. a‰p

aqe-I-ßsf At]-£n®v Im¿_-Wn\v

Im‰n-t\-j-\p≈ Ignhv hfsc IqSp-X-

emWv.

Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-ß-fpsS FÆ-°q-Sp-X-

en\v, apI-fn¬ sImSp-Øn-´p≈ khn-ti-j-

X-Iƒ Imc-W-am-Ip-tam-sb∂v ]cn-tim-[n®p

t\m°q.

Adn-b-s∏- n- p≈ Hcp tImSn-bn-tesd Im¿_-

WnIkwbp-‡-ßfp≠v. Hmtcm Znh-khpw

]pXnb Im¿_-WnI kwbp -‡-ßƒ

Is≠ØpItbm \n¿an -°-s∏-Sp -Itbm

sNøp∂p.

IqSp -X¬ Im¿_¨ kwbp -‡-ßsf

°pdn®pw Ah-bpsS khn-ti-j-X-Isf

°pdn®pw Db¿∂ ¢mkp-I-fn¬ a\- n-em-

°mw.

C6H14

slIvskbv≥C6H12

sskt¢mslIvskbv≥

Im¿_-WnIkwbp-‡-ßƒ

Hm∏¨ sNbn≥kwbp-‡-ßƒ

heb (ssk¢nIvAYhm dnMv)

kwbp-‡-ßƒ


]Ir-Xn-bnse Nne Atem-l-ßƒ11

ac-ßƒ GsXms° coXn-bn-emWv a\p-jy-

Po-hs\ klm-bn-°p-∂Xv?

$

$

NnXw 11.1

]mW-hm-bphpw Blm-chpw \¬Ip-∂-Xn¬

kky-ß-fpsS ]s¶-¥mWv? F¥mWv

CXn\p ]n∂nse cmk-]-h¿Ø\w?

A∂-P-Ønse aqe-I-ßƒ Im¿_¨,

sslU-P≥, HmIvkn-P≥ F∂n-h-bm-sW∂v

a\- n-em-°n-bn-´p-≠-t√m. Blm-c-Ønse

a‰p ][m\ LS-I-ß-fn-setbm?

Blm-c-Ønseaqe-I-ßƒ

LS-I-ßƒ

Im¿t_m-ssl-tU‰v C, H, O

t]m´o≥ C, H, O, N

sImgp∏v C, H, O

Mg, Ca, Fe,temleh-W-ßƒ Na, K, Cl, P,

O, S apX-em-bh

Pew H, O

]´nI 11.1


HmIvkn-P≥

]Ir-Xn-bn¬ HmIvkn-P≥ kzX¥cq]-

Ønepw kwbp-‡-cq-]-Ønepw ImW-s∏-Sp-

∂p-≠v.

kzX-¥m-h-ÿ-bn-ep≈ HmIvkn-Ps\

Fß-s\-bmWp kqNn-∏n-°p-∂Xv? cmk-

kqXw Fgp-Xq.

HmIvkn-P≥ X∑mX Xmsg-s°m-Sp-Øn-

cn-°p-∂-h-bn¬ GXp hn`m-K-Øn¬s∏-

Sp-∂p?

(GIm-t‰m-an-Iw, Zzbm-t‰m-an-Iw, _lp-

Bt‰m-an-Iw)

hmbp-a-fi-e-Øn¬ HmIvkn-P≥ Xbm-t‰m-

anI cq]-Ønepw ImW-s∏-Sp-∂p-≠v. AXmWv

Hmtkm¨.

Hmtkm-Wns‚ cmk-kqXw F¥m-bn-

cn°pw?

Hmtkm-Wns‚ ]tXy-I-X-sb-∏‰n \nßƒ°v

Adn-bm-hp∂ Imcy-ßƒ Fgp-Xq.

]IrXn-bn¬ HmIvkn-Ps‚ km∂n[yw

kw_-‘n® hnh-c-ßƒ i≤n-°q. (]ńI

11.3)

`qh¬°w

(kwbp-‡-cq-]-Øn¬) 50%Pe-Øn¬ 89%[mXp-°ƒ 45 - 50%A¥-co£w 21%Poh-Pm-e-ßƒ:˛

kky-ßƒ 60 - 70%P¥p-°ƒ 60 - 70%

]ńI 11.3

A¥-co£hmbp-hnse HmIvkn-P-\mWv \mw

izk-\-Øn-\mbn D]-tbm-K-s∏-Sp-Øp-∂-Xv.

\sΩ-t∏mse Ht´sd P¥p-°fpw kky-

ßfpw izk-\-Øn-\mbn HmIvkn-P≥ D]-

tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

ss\S-P≥

HmIvkn-P≥

a‰p≈h

Ch-bn¬ teml-aq-e-I-ßfpw Atem-l-aq-e-

I-ßfpw D≠t√m. Hmtcm hn`m-K-Ønepw

s]´h GsXms°?

Poh≥ \ne-\n¿Øp-∂-Xn¬ apJy-]¶p hln-

°p-∂Xv Pehpw hmbphpamWv. Ch-bnse

LS-I-ßtfm?

Pe-Ønse LS-I-ßƒ sslU-P≥,

HmIvkn-P≥ F∂n-h-bm-Wv. A¥-co-£-hm-

bp-hnse LS-I-ßƒ t\m°q.

LSIw iX-am\w

ss\S-P≥ 78

HmIvkn-P≥ 21

B¿K¨ 0.934

Im¿_¨ Utbm-IvsskUv 0.033

a‰p hm-XIßƒ, Pe-_m-jv]w

XpS-ßn-bh 0.000256

]ńI 11.2

NnXw 11.2

Ch-bn¬ kwbp‡cq]-Øn-ep-≈-h- Gh?

Ah-bnse LS-I-ßƒ Ipdn-°q.

hmbp-hn-sebpw Pe-Øn-sebpw LS-I-ßƒ

Atem-l-aq -e -I -ß-fm -Wt√m. `£W

]Zm¿Y-ß-fnse apJyLS-I-ßfpw Atem-

l-ßƒ Xs∂.

hmbp-hnse GXp LS-I-amWv ]mW-

hmbp F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp-∂Xv?

HmIvkn-Ps‚ GsXms° kwbp-‡-

ßƒ \nßƒ°-dn-bmw?


tImSn-°-W-°n\v P¥pkky-Pm-e-ßƒ

Hmtcm \nan-jhpw HmIvkn-P≥ D]-tbm-

K-s∏-Sp-Øns°m≠ncp-∂m¬ A¥-co-£-

Ønse HmIvkn-P≥ Xo¿∂p-t]m-Int√?

HmIvkn-Ps‚ Afhv kwXp-en-X-am-°p-∂-

Xn¬ lcnXkky-ß-fpsS ]s¶-¥mWv?

Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-dm-°q.

¢mkvapdn-bn¬ HmIvkn-P≥ \n¿an°m≥ am¿K-

apt≠m?

Hcp sSÃvSyq_n¬ s]mSn® s]m´mkyw

s]¿amwKt\‰v FSpØv NqSm-°p-∂-Xns‚

ka-hmIyw i≤n-°q.

2 KMnO4+Xm]w →K2MnO4+MnO2+O2

sSÃvSyq_n-te°v Fcn-bp∂ Nµ-\Øncn

ImWn-®m¬ F¥p kw`-hn°pw?

sNbvXpt\m°q.

F¥mWp \nco-£n-®Xv?

F¥mWp ImcWw?

tai-∏p-dØv IØn-®ph® Hcp sagpIpXncn-

°p-ap-I-fn¬ Hcp •mkvSwª¿ IagvØn

hbv°q.

F¥p-sIm-≠mWv Xo- sI-´p-t]m-bXv?

hkvXp-°ƒ Pzen-°p∂ ]h¿Ø-\-

Øn¬ HmIvkn-Ps‚ ]¶n-s\-∏‰n F¥p

\nK-a-\-Øn-se-Ømw?

Pze\w F∂Xv Hcp ]Zm¿Yw HmIvkn-P-\p-

ambn kwtbm-Pn-°p∂ ]h¿Ø-\-am-Wv.

a·ojyw IØp∂ ]h¿Ø\w \nßƒ

sNbvXp-t\m-°n-bn-´p-≠v. F¥m-bn-cp∂p

Dev]∂w? ka-hmIyw ]q¿Øn-bm°n kao-

I-cn-°q.

------ + O2 → MgOIm¿_¨ IØn Im¿_¨ UtbmIv-

sskUv D≠m-°p-∂-Xns‚ ka-hmIyw

FgpXq.

Nne Atem-l-ßƒ HmIvkn-P-\p -ambn

]h¿Øn-°p∂Xns‚ ka-hmIyw Xmsg

sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂p. kao-I-cn-°m-Øh kao-

I-cn-°q. ]h¿Ø\w \S-°p∂ kml-Ncyw

_m°-‰n¬ kqNn-∏n-®n-cn-°p-∂p.

S + O2 → SO2 (S hmbp-hn¬ IØp-∂p)

H2 + O2 → H2O (H2 hmbp-hn¬ IØp-∂p)

N2 + O2 → NO (N2 Db¿∂ Xm]-\n -e -

bn¬ O2hpambn kwtbm-

Pn-°p∂p)

Atem -l-ß-sf -t∏mse teml-ßfpw

HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn ]h¿Øn®v Ah-bpsS

HmIvssk-Up-I-fmbn amdp-∂p-≠v.

4 Al + 3O2 → 2Al2O3 (A¥-co-£-Xm-]-\ne

4 Fe + 3O2 → 2Fe2O3 bn¬ kmh-[m-\hpw

Db¿∂ Xm]-\n -e -

bn¬ thK-Øn-epw).

Cu kµ¿`-ß-fn-se√mw teml-Øns‚

]pdØv HmIvssk-Um-h-cWw D≠mbn

AXns‚ teml-ZypXn aßp-∂p.

teml-ZypXn \jvS-s∏-SmØ teml-ß-

fpt≠m? F¥m-bn-cn°mw ImcWw?

At\z-jn-®-dn-bq.

GsXms° Bh-iy-ßƒ°mWv HmIvkn-

P≥ th≠nhcp-∂Xv?

$ C‘\-ß-fpsS Pze\Øn\v

$ tdm°‰v C‘-ß-fn¬ Pze\klm-bn-

bmbn

$ saUn-°¬ BhiyØn\v

$ Po¿W\Øn\v

$

hymh-km-bn-I-ambn HmIvkn-P≥ \n¿an-°p-

∂Xv A¥--co£hmbp-hns\ Zho-I-cn∏n®

tijw AwinItkzZ\w \S-Øn-bm-Wv.

ss\SP≥

A¥-co-£-hmbp-hn¬ G‰hpw IqSp-X-ep≈

aqeIw GXmWv?


ss\S-Ps‚ GsXms° KpW-ßƒ

\nßƒ°-dn-bmw?

]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ ss\S-Ps‚

ÿm\w Is≠Øn NphsS sImSp-Øn-

cn-°p∂ ]ńI ]qcn-∏n-°p-I.

]XoIw

At‰m-anI \º¿

At‰m-anI amkv

Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw

kwtbm-P-IX

ùXn-Im-hÿ

\ndw

Poh-Pm-e-ß-fpsS hf¿®-bv°pw \ne-

\nev]n\pw ss\S-P≥ A\n-hm-cy-L-S-I-am-

sW∂v \nßƒ a\- n-em-°n-bn -´p -≠v.

t]mó-\p-I-fpsS \n¿am-W-L-S-I-ß-fn-sem-

∂mWv ss\S-P≥.

P¥p-°ƒ°v Blm-c-Øn-eqsS ss\S-P≥

e`n-°p-∂p-≠v. kky-ßƒt°m?

CSn-an-∂-en-eqsS ss\S-P≥ eh-W-ßƒ

A¥-co£hmX-I-ß-fn¬ Gsd-°ptd

\njvIn -b -amb H∂mWv ss\S -P≥.

F¶nepw Db¿∂ Xm]-\n -ebn¬ CXv

HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn kwtbm-Pn-°p-∂p. CSn-an-

∂-ep-≠m-Ip-tºmƒ A¥-co-£-Ønse

ss\S-P≥ ss\SnIv HmIvsskUv (NO)Bbn amdp-∂p-≠v.

F¥mhmw ImcWw?

ka-hmIyw FgpXn kao-I-cn-°q.

... + ... → NO

Cu ss\SnIv HmIvsskUv IqSp -X¬

HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn kwtbm-Pn-°p-∂-Xns‚

ka-hmIyw i≤n-°q.

2 NO + O2 → 2 NO2

NO2 Pe-Øn¬ \∂mbn ebn-°p∂ Hcp

hmX-I-am-Wv. ag-sh-≈-Øn¬ ebn®p

tN¿∂v CXv ss\SnIv Bkn-Umbn aÆn-

se-Øp-∂p. aÆnse [mXp -°-fp -ambn

]h¿Øn-®p-≠m-Ip∂ ss\tS‰v eh-W-ßƒ

sNSn-I-fpsS thcp-Iƒ hen-s®--Sp-°p-∂p. CSn-

an-∂¬ ]e-t∏mgpw kky-ßƒ°v A\pK-

l-am-Ip∂p F∂p ]d-bp-∂-Xns‚ ImcWw

a\- n-em-bt√m.

ss\S-P≥ ÿnco-I-cWw_mIvSo-cn-b-bn-eqsS

]b¿h¿K-Øn¬s∏´ sNSn-I-fpsS thcp-

I-fn¬ Pohn-°p∂ ssdtkm-_nbw C\-

Øn¬s∏Sp∂ _mIvSo-cn-b-Iƒ°v A¥-

co -£-ss\-S -P≥ t\cn´v BKn-cWw

sNøm≥ Ign-bpw. Cßs\ ehWcq]-Øn-

em-°nb ss\S-P≥ thcp-I-fnse apg-I-

fn¬ kw`-cn®v hbv°∏Sp-∂p-≠v. Ch

kky-h-f¿®bv°v klm-b-I-amWv.

CSn-an-∂-en-eq-sSbpw kq£vaPohn-I-fpsS

]h¿Ø-\-Øn-eq-sSbpw hfsc°pd™

Afhv ss\S-P≥ amX-amWv sNSn-Iƒ°p

e`n-°p-∂-Xv. F∂m¬ kky˛P¥p-°-fpsS

Ah-in-jvS-ßƒ No™-gp-Ip-∂-Xn-eq-sS

ss\S-P≥ IqSnb Af-hn¬ kky-ßƒ°p

e`n-°p-∂p.

Fs¥ms° ssPh Ah-in-jvS-ß-fmWv

km[m-c-W-bmbn sNSn-Iƒ°p tN¿°m-

dp-≈Xv?

$

$

$

Irjn-bn¬ ssPh-h-f-]-tbm-K-Øns‚

]m[m\yw F¥mWv?

ssPh-h-f-Øns‚ ]cn-an-Xn-Iƒ Fs¥m-

s°-bmWv?

$

$

$


CXv Fßs\ ]cn-l-cn°mw?

ss\S-P≥, t^mkv^-d-kv, s]m´m-kyw,

kƒ^¿, ... XpS-ßnb aqe-I-ß-fmWv cmk-

h-f-]-tbm-K-Øn-eqsS ][m-\-ambpw sNSn-

Iƒ°p e`n-t°-≠-Xv. CXn¬Øs∂ hfsc

][m-\-s∏-´Xv ss\S-P-\m-Wv.

Atam-WnbhmX-I-amWv cmk-h-f-ß-fpsS

\n¿am-W-Ønse ][m\ Akw-kvIrX

hkvXp. ¢mkv-ap-dn-bn¬ Atam-Wnb \n¿an-

°p∂ eLp]h¿Ø\w sNbvXpt\m°q.

Hcp sSÃvSyq-_n¬ Ipd®v Atam-Wnbw

t¢mssdUv FSpØv NpÆm-ºp -ambn

[Ca(OH)2] Iqńt®¿Øv NqSm-°q. \nco-

£Ww tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.

Atam-Wnb

cmk-kqXw : NH3

kmµX : hmbp-hn-s\-°mƒ Ipdhv

aWw :

\ndw :

]ńI 11.3

hyh-km-b-im-e-I-fn¬ ]tXyI kml-N-cy-

ß-fn¬ A¥-co£ ss\S-P≥ sslU-P-

\p-ambn ]h¿Øn-∏n-®mWv NH3 D≠m-°p-

∂-Xv. CXns‚ cmk-k-a-hmIyw \¬In-bn-

cn-°p-∂p. kao-I-cn-°q.

N2 + H2 → NH3

]Ir-Xn-bn¬ ImW-s∏-Sp∂ ss\tS-‰pIƒ

BWv kky-ßƒ°v ss\S-P≥ e`y-am-

°p∂ a‰p tkmX- p-Iƒ. Ch-bn¬ ][m-

\-s∏-´h t\m°q.

t]cv cmk-kqXw

shSn-bp∏v KNO3

Nnen shSn-bp∏v NaNO3

]ńI 11.4

ss\S-P≥ ssk°nƒ(Nitrogen cycle)

A¥-co£ ss\S-P-s‚bpw ss\tS-‰p-I-fp-

sSbpw Pohafi-e-Ønse kwXp-e\w

Xmsg -s°m-Sp -Øn -cn -°p∂ ss\S -P≥

ssk°nƒ t\m°n hni-I-e\w sNøq.

ss\S-P≥

Atam-Wnb

cmk-h-f-ßƒss\S-P≥

^nIvtk-j≥

_mIvSo-cnb

CSn-an-∂¬

NO, NO2D≠m-Ip∂p

ag-sh-≈-Øn¬ ebn®v ss\S-

Ps‚ Bkn-Umbn amdp∂p.

aÆn¬ ss\SP≥

eh-W-ßƒ D≠m-Ip-∂p. ss\Sn-ss^-bnMv_mIvSocnb hgnss\tS-‰p-Iƒ

kky-ß-fn-te°v

kky ˛ P¥p arXm-h-in-jvS-ßƒ _mIvSo-cnb]h¿Ø\w hgn ss\S-P≥ kwbp-‡-ß-fmbnamdp-∂p. CXn¬ Ipd®v kky-ß-fpsS D]-tbm-K-Øn-\mbn aÆn¬ \n¬°p-∂p. Ipd®v, ss\S-P≥

cq]-Øn¬ kzX-¥-am-°-s∏-Sp-∂p.NnXo-I-cWw 11.1 ˛ ss\S-P≥ ssk°nƒ


ss\S-Ps\ kky-ßƒ F¥n-s\m-s°-

bmWv D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂Xv?

A¥-co-£-Øn¬ ss\S-P≥ ho≠pw

D≠m-Ip-∂-sX-ßs\?

A¥-co£ss\S-P≥ kky-ßƒ°v

e`y-am-Ip-∂-sX-ß-s\-sbms°?

sslU-P≥

Hcp hmjvt_m-ń-en¬ t\¿∏n® ssltUm-

t¢m-dnIv BknUv FSpØv AXn¬ kn¶v

Xcn-Iƒ C´p t\m°q. t_mń¬ AS®v Ipg-

ens‚ kzX¥ A‰w thsdmcp _o°-dnse

tkm∏p-em-b-\n-bn¬ ap°n-h-bv°p-I. D≠m-

Ip∂ Ipan-f-I-fn¬ IØn® Xos∏ńs°m≈n

ImWn-°q. F¥p ck-I-c-amb ImgvN-bmWv

I≠Xv?

ChnsS Ipan-f-Iƒ D≠m-bXv Fß-s\-

bmWv?

$ ]co-£Ww \S-Øm≥ Bh-iy-amb

kma-Kn-Iƒ

$ kma-Kn-I-fpsS Iao-I-cWw

ho¿Øp-h∂ _eq-¨ \qep-sIm≠v sIń-b-

Xn\p tijw ssIbn¬ \n∂p hn´p-t\m-°q.

s]m´¬i_vZ-tØmsS IØp∂ hmXIw

GXmWv?

ChnsS \S∂ ]h¿Ø-\-Øns‚ ka-hmIyw

t\m°q.

Zn + 2 HCI → ZnCl2 + H2

Cu ]h¿Ø\w hgn D≠mb hmX-Iw Hcp

_eq-Wn¬ tiJ-cn®v t\m°n-bmtem.

Fs¥√mw aps∂m-cp-°-ßƒ sNø-Ww?

NnXw 11.4

NnXw 11.5

F¥mWp kw -hn-°p-∂Xv? _eq¨ apI-

fn-te-°p-bcp∂p. CXn¬ \n∂v sslU-

Ps‚ kmµ-X-sb-°p-dn®v F¥p \nK-a-

\-Øn-seØmw?

sslU-Ps‚ km∂n[yw

]]-©-Øn¬ 99% hpw sslU-P\mWv.

kqcy-\n-sebpw \£-X-ß-fn-sebpw apJy

LS-Ihpw Ah-bnse Du¿tPm¬]m-Z-\-

Øns‚ Imc-Whpw sslU-P≥ Xs∂.

sslU-P≥ kzX-¥m-h-ÿ-bnepw kwbp-

‡m-h -ÿ-bnepw ImW-s∏-Sp -∂p -≠v .

\nßƒ°-dn-bm-hp∂ sslU-Ps‚ kwbp-

‡-ßƒ enkv‰vv sNøq.

$ NH3

$ HCl

$

$

H2

t\¿ØHCI

Zn

H2


]ncn-tbm-UnIv tS_n-fn¬ sslUPs‚

ÿm\w Is≠-Øq.

sslU-Ps‚ At‰m-anI \º¿ FX-

bmWv?

amkv \ºtdm?

a‰v B‰-ß-fn¬ \n∂p hyXy-kvX-ambn

sslU-P\v Fs¥√mw ]tXy-I-X-I-fm-

Wp-≈Xv?

$ hen∏w :

$ `mcw :

$ B‰wLS\ :

sslU-Ps‚ cmk-kqXw Fgp-Xq.

sslU-Ps‚ sFtkm-tSm-∏p-I-fn¬

\yqtSm¨ C√mØhbpw \yqtSm¨

D≈hbpw D≠t√m? ChbpsS t]cpw

]Xo-Ihpw Fgp-Xq.

sslU-Ps‚ ][m\ kwbp-‡-amWv Pew

(H2O). sslU-P≥ HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn

]h¿Øn®v Pew D≠m-hp-∂Xpt]mse

Uyq´o-cnbw HmIvkn-P-\p-ambn ]h¿Øn-®p-

≠mIp∂ HmIvssk-UmWv L\-P-ew

(D2O). BW-h-\n-e-b-ß-fn-emWv CXp

][m-\-ambpw D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂-Xv.

sslU-P≥ IØp∂ hmX-I-am-W-t√m.

sslU-P≥ C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥

km[n-°ptam?

Hmtcm Kmw hoXw hyXykvX C‘\ß-

fpsS Pze\w aqew D≠m-Ip∂ Xmt]m¿P-

Øns‚ Afhp ImWn-°p∂ Km^mWv

NnXw 11.6 ¬ sImSp-Øn-cn-°p-∂-Xv.

sslU-P≥ IØp-∂-Xns‚ ^e-ambn

A¥-co£ aen-\o-I-cWw D≠m-Im-\n-S-

bpt≠m?

sslU-P≥ hmbp-hn¬ Pzen-°p-∂-

Xns‚ ka-hmIyw FgpXn Is≠-Øq.

...... +...... → ......

sslU-P≥ C‘-\-am-°n-bm¬ D≠m-

Ip∂ ta∑-Iƒ Fs¥m-s°-bm-sW∂v

N¿®sNbvXv Is≠Øn Ipdn-°q.

$ sslU-Ps‚ e`yX

$ e`n-°p∂ Du¿Pw

$ aen-\o-I-cW km[yX

Cu ta∑-Iƒ D≠m-bn´pw sslU-P≥

F¥p-sIm-≠mWv Hcp km[m-cW C‘-

\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-°m≥ Ign-bm-ØXv?

Cu C‘\w ssIImcyw sNøp-∂-Xn-

\p≈ kmt¶-XnI _p≤n-ap´v F¥mWv?

Pze\kz`m-h-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn

Nn¥n®v DØcw Is≠-Øq.

Cu ]cn-anXn adnIS-°m≥ Ign-™mtem?

^yph¬ sk¬

sslU-P≥ hmX-Ihpw HmIvkn-P≥ hmX-

Ihpw D]-tbm-Kn-®p-sIm≠v ]tXyI

kwhn-[m-\-Øn-eqsS sshZypXn D¬∏m-

Zn-∏n-°p∂ sk√p-I-fmWv sslU-P≥ ˛

HmIvkn-P≥ yph¬ sk√p-Iƒ. Ch-bn¬

]h¿Ø-\-^-e-ambn sshZyp-Xn-tbm-

sSm∏w Pe-amWv Hcp D¬∏-∂-ambn e`n-

NnXw 11.6

143

5648

33 3023

1610

Pz-e

\w aq

e-ap

-≠m-I

p∂ D

u¿P

w (k

J/g)

ssl

U-P

≥ H

2ao

sY

bv≥

CH

4

s]

tSm

ƒ (

Oct

ane)

C8H

18

I¬

°cn (

Car

bon)

C

FY

-t\mƒ

C2H

5OH

saY

-t\mƒ

CH

3OH

Im¿

t_m ssl

tU

-‰p-I

ƒDZm

: •

qt°

mkv C

6H12

O6

Im¿

_¨

tam

tWm-I

vssk

Uv C

O


$ CaCl2

$

]Ir -Xn -bn¬ kwbp‡cq]-Øn¬

amXw ImW-s∏-Sp -∂-Xn¬ \n∂v

t¢mdns‚ cmk-]-h¿Ø-\-ti-jn-sb-∏‰n

F¥v Dul-Øn-seØmw?

]ncn -tbm -UnIv tS_nƒ D]-tbm -Kn®v

t¢mdn-\p-ambn _‘-s∏´ ASn-ÿm\hnh-

c-ßƒ tiJ-cn®v ]ńI ]qcn-∏n-°q. (]ńI

11.5)

At‰m-anI \º¿

At‰m-anI amkv

Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ymkw

kwtbm-P-IX

]ńI 11.5

t¢mdn\v cmk]h¿Ø-\-tijn (Inbm-io-

ew) IqSp-X-em-hm-\p≈ Imc-W-sa-¥mWv?

Ce-IvtSm¨ hn\ym-kw, kwtbm-P-IX

F∂n-h-bp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn \nK-a\w

cq]o-I-cn-°q.

t¢mdn≥ \n¿an°mw

et_m-d-´-dn-bn¬ t¢mdn≥ hmXIw \n¿an-

°p-∂-Xn-\p≈ k÷o-I-c-W-amWv NnX-

Øn¬. NnXw hni-I-e\w sNøq (NnXw

11.7).

KMnO4+

HClKmV H2SO4

t¢mdn≥ hmXIw

16 HCl + 2 KMnO4 → 2 KCl+2 MnCl2 + 8 H2O + 5 Cl2

NnXw 11.7

°p-∂-Xv. AXn-\m¬ aen -\o -I-cWw

C√mØ sk√mbn Ch ]cn-K-Wn-°-s∏-

Sp∂p. sslU-P≥ C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-

Kn® v hml-\ -ßƒ HmSn -°p -∂-Xn\v

CØcw sk√p-Iƒ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p-≠v.

_ln-cm-ImibmX-I-fnepw sslU-P≥

˛ HmIvkn-P≥ ^yph¬ sk√pIƒ D]-

tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

t^mkn¬ C‘-\-ßfmb s]tSmƒ,

Uok¬, asÆÆ F∂n-h-bpsS Afhv

Ipd™phcp∂ kml-N-cy-Øn¬ `mhn-

bnse C‘-\-ambn sslU-Ps\ Icp-

Xmtam? IqSp-X¬ hnh-c-ßƒ tiJ-cn®v

sslU-P≥ C‘-\-ambn D]-tbm-Kn-

°m≥ Ign-bp∂Xns‚ km[y-X-Isf

°pdn®v Hcp Ipdn∏v Xbm-dm-°q.

t¢mdn≥

IpSn-sh-≈-Øns‚ ][m\ tkmX- p-Iƒ

GsXm-s°-bmWv?

$ InW¿

$

$

ss]∏vsh≈-Øn\v Hcp ]tXyI K‘w

A\p- -h-s∏- n- nt√? IpSn-sh≈ ip≤o-I-c-W-

Øns‚ `mK-ambn t¢mdn≥ tN¿°p-∂Xp

sIm≠m-WnXv. t¢mdns‚ HmIvko-I-cW

kz`m-h-amWv PesØ AWp-hn-ap-‡-am-°p-

∂Xv.

t¢mdn≥ ]Ir-Xn-bn¬ km[m-c-W- kzX-¥m-

h-ÿ-bn¬ ImW-s∏-Sp-∂n-√; t¢mssdUv cq]-

Øn-emWv ImW-s∏Sp∂Xv. t¢mdn≥ kwbp-

‡-ß-fpsS enÃn¬ \nßƒ°v G‰hpw ]cn-

N-b-am-bh IqSn Iqńt®¿°q.

$ KCl$ AlCl3

$ MgCl2


t¢mdns‚ ªo®nMv ]h¿Ø\w

t¢mdn≥ D]-tbm-Kn®v Hcp ]co-£Ww

sNømw. \nd-ap≈ ]qhn-X-fp-Iƒ, ]®n-e, \nd-

ap≈ XpWn-°-jW-ßƒ XpS-ßn-bh \\-

®-tijw Hcp KymkvPmdn¬ FSp-°q.

t¢mdn≥ \n¿an®v CXn -te°v ISØn

hnSq.

F¥mWp \nco-£Ww?

\nd-ap≈ hkvXp-°sf ªo®v sNbvXv \nd-

an-√m-Xm°m\p≈ Ignhv t¢mdn≥hmX-I-Øn-

\p-≠v. hkvX\n¿amW hyh-km-b-Øn¬

XpWn- ªo®p sNøp-∂-Xn\v t¢mdn≥ D]-

tbm-Kn-°p-∂p.

t¢mdns‚ Nne ][m\ D]-tbm-K-ßƒ IqSn

t\m°q.

$ hnhn[ cwK-ß-fn¬ ªo®nMn\v

$ IoS-\m-in-\n-I-fpsS \n¿am-W-Øn-\v

$ d^n-P-td-‰dpI-fnepw Fb¿I-≠o-j-

\dpI-fnepw D]-tbm-Kn-°p∂ t¢mtdm-

^vfqtdm Im¿_-Wp-I-fpsS \n¿am-W-

Øn\v

$ Id If-bm-\p≈ Nne hkvXp-°ƒ \n¿an-

°m≥.

$ IpSn-sh≈ip≤o-I-c-W-Øn\v

IpSn-sh≈ip≤o-I-c-W-Øn\v InW-dp-I-

fnepw Ipf-ß-fnepw a‰pw tN¿°p∂

]Zm¿Yw GXmWv?

Aev]w ªo®nMv ]uU¿ FSpØv

aWØp t\m°q.

ªo®nMv ]uU-dns‚ K‘-Øn¬ \n∂v

AXn-ep≈ ][m\ LS-Iw Xncn-®-dn-

bm≥ Ign-bp-∂pt≠m? GXmWv B

LSIw?

DW-°nb IpΩm-b-s∏m-Sn-bn-eqsS t¢mdn≥

hmXIw ISØnhn´mWv ªo®nMv ]uU¿

kƒ^yq-dnIv BknUv (H2SO4)

et_m-d-´-dn-bnepw hyh-km-b-ß-fnepw

G‰hpw ]m[m-\y-ap≈ kƒ^yq-dnIv

BknUv, cmk-h-kvXp°-fpsS cmPmhv

F∂-dn-b-s∏-Sp-∂p. ssltUm-t¢m-dnIv

Bkn-Uv, ss\SnIv BknUv XpS-ßnb

_mjv]oI-cW-ioeap≈ Bkn-Up-Isf

Ah-bpsS eh-W-ß-fn¬ \n∂v Dev]mZn-

∏n-°m≥ Cu Bkn-Un-\m-hpw. KmV

k¿^yq-dnIv Bkn-Un\v an° ]Zm¿Y-ß-

sfbpw £bn-∏n-°m≥ Ign-bpw (highlycorrosive). Pemw-i-ap≈ ]Zm¿Y-ß-fn¬

\n∂v Pemwiw BKn-cWw sNøp∂

timjo-I-cW kz`m-hhpw Pe-aq-e-I-ß-

fmb sslU-Ps\bpw HmIvkn-P-s\bpw

Pemw-iam°n BKn-cWw sNøp∂ \n¿P-

eo-I-cW kz`m-hhpw ]I-Sn-∏n-°p∂

H∂mWv kƒ^yqdnIv Bkn-Uv.-

$ GsX√mw A`n-Im-c-I-ß-fmWv D]-tbm-

Kn-®Xv?

$ D¬]-∂-ßƒ GsXm-s°-bmWv?

$ •mkv Pmdnse hmbp-hns\ apI-fn-te°v

BtZiw sNbvXm-Wt√m t¢mdn≥ tiJ-

cn-°-p-∂Xv. CXn¬ \n∂v t¢mdns‚

kmµ-Xsb°p-dn®v F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-

seØmw?

$ t¢mdn≥ hmX-IsØ KmV H2SO4

eqsS IS-Øn-hn-Sp-∂Xv F¥n-\mhmw?

D¬]-∂-ßƒ hni-I-e\w sNbvXp

Is≠-Øq.

$ cmk-hmIyw kao-I-cn-®-XmtWm F∂p

]cn-tim-[n-°q.

NnX-Øn¬ ImWp-∂Xpt]mse D]-I-c-W-

ßƒ Iao-I-cn®v So®-dpsS klm-b-tØmsS

]co-£Ww \S-Øn-t\m-°q. \nco-£Ww


$ D≠mb hmX-I-Øns‚ \ndw

$ aWw (t\cn´v izkn-°-cp-Xv)

m'ldo'l oo; cm oi. crDc<rlc o6m croot uoJ

eonudeo;gg cgcolod cgmrcolegccol pd g"tccorcdlesr;cm;.

eglq16ri "-Llcud c"-Lr?oo eeLo,il'lo8cgccnoop mtccrn'lcr-rSo;c6rec

"OcmJ otolgcjl co)coA n ol ero€J; or o"l egam o roq oil.da<01 go"-Lco)or3cmcao].

o ccmcorrE o: cgllol go egr collm3o

cgccrl m2 o rororo-fl oop ffDo coJdo.,)6-6BgJo n c5oo

o-L c ro'l mm'l o-rl o 1crl crd co ecn <rE od a c o em o c ot;

cml dng. Gro crot o"l esj orot o el n c c cru c enO "-L

c gil

aDlos G@cotuemacerd pollererccrd.

rino oo o"l a,si ororl o s mi 1s c c g c mi ".o1

co; ci o8

or9en5 accm'lcord (Or) ags;torercool ocem

og s; cmoY. oroaor o"lo,sjoro-,1o4 accm:cond

oJoroHsJcmono€ ffDoolcaJo ccDc6oJ.

oa<;61sc orcor er oodol20..

cn c,r0 gsc or oor eL$ o cd o'1 aod targ uil o em o orl grl

cmo1lerSosoo;cerd O, ojl"prs'leoccocolUoJocao)

pncdeo eLre'lao;cmo5. p6cBocnoo;;drrecol;ffi)

ocdmrlsoE taqg6aBUa O, olcncioraor;occojl

crDo c cocel gcerd. o, perrecot] cmcfr .

)------ - - 'c,auaPcocolelfr

..' au6zi,a,u6 t ---.

/\u\

l\

'\oz 03ta/a/\/\/

\7\u

--+-rcncrElscocore.rf

ac:i,fla,gil

plc nccm)cand o.rou0Lscolao erd ocdo'l ag;eisrorgaflroemo orpl ojl"ets'lj cllene;o O, arOcot

ocolcml6nd.

6rBc aq m) (ruo@4 aa) 668 gc6tlt e* ccoc

"igscoc &c66tu6m)&cfi annoLc m:1."g1

"i.mfla,u6. adrzo ToLeac(D|2j "g)gJH@tol(o8 goL"la,alaacaqrD got atLc"dotT

a, @l eq coucud ag (o6tv) gg 6rB c&) (m).

ana ofl ot c rod o 6n7 a e o g oS a, ud, og aM a, a're"l

ae4 6rn oJ & uA, "g a; d a,S g oS a, ud a41 ottl oL ailoscoaa ou|. "g1"d.ou7a,ud otlcoLa,acalg^t eac cn7 aaS cmS. onLdnnSSo micyoLa,gl eL] o g ot gare a)cufl aoS cmS a'rd.

toro aD o"l esj olo'l1 o eL oror; oD c * c c o c "-d'

g; c o c

6cd6rx6rDj6od oil"ets1ql6rec6J(m cscctoaaccm)c 6rDi acool 1"_Lo.16orofl oo; cml. pCI;occmtc ernloop ong oL1o8 e;o o3 enecool

eicdmr'lgo0 - nccm)c6nd olcio1a1.Ltotcor)ocdro cT omtcot;ej1orocdoJcDl.

* o.OFioS tslauALsc crj oor etf ocrdal auamigsccgcm5"n1cocr'lo8 ogj orgar'l oemo

odgogsJcmai aSs;coc aJoeoJcoc?

* o0)oo)ColJo GrOCD(DCoonelo?

orood gsc oL cor et $ o od o1 o crd "-r

tofl ojl et u-r1 o o re; o1

col oer ororl c4 o3 cm<oi s"loL sc er ecnudeo;

GBCoqieOACAJo.

* accmtcend"tcgflaoJos oT adgcolos coDcr;l

cn'loslojl coronilocrp "jomootcen5 ?

* mlor5 s"lot'l o'r oror'l elJ ot caoc col ao;cmo$o(o..)cooo eot6@6lDd6Bgi1o8 cnlcm;o

Q(.lJ Gaoc cD ol miarrl ao gloS crrlcm; ocerd

mn. "g"-d.mn. crocroo"la,sjctrolos ogorilcqoco0 crDcctrJo'.l?

* porco;1o8 s"lollo"ron-jlo8 nnororScoL<;o5ac

ao)cx oJoocoeo oo;cen5 ? cccm;cerd olcglcor;os o'rad4cn'lood 6Jog re;o'lcor;osco;o

oo gcx o 6rr\D eL oto-rl erofl co;J o oD oco &r91 Grn

o]o-no5 mo]ed oo)ooo,co€o acdcneB3sA

Gnorpio6Dfl eocoa o,v1cor]o? 6l5l6co]occo;1 rorgcac"jlg cnldcacroeanud o;"_L"l

ao1oo3a.

30

€fr lco l on"gac0 I elr0eruern3e r0

a,cdenLanlcocoscflo cgcol od a@paanp]o

"n"gSo7od cDB ewap)o (Doe@)c Bl gJ

@iur- qP-!4,


]T-\-bm-Xm-th-f-bn¬ Ccpºp mIvS-dn-

bn¬ I≠ Hcp Zriyw cmPp-hpw A\okpw

N¿®sNøm-\n-S-bm-bn.

Iqºm-c-ambn C´n-´p≈ ]gb Ccpºp

km[-\-ßƒ ^¿W-kn-te°v \o°w

sNøp-∂Xv sIbn-\n¬ LSn-∏n® Im¥w

Xs∂-bm-sW∂v cmPp ]d-™-t∏mƒ,

""Fß-s\-bmWv CXbpw henb Af-

hn¬ Im¥-i‡n D≠m-°p-I-bpw C√m-

Xm-°p-Ibpw sNøp-∂Xv''˛ F∂mbn

A\o-kv.

CØcw kµ¿ -ß-fn¬ sshZyp-Xn-bpsS

]¶v F¥v?

Hcp eLp-]-co-£Ww sNbvXpt\m°mw.

sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂ EPpNme-I-Øn\p Np‰p-ap≈ Im¥n-I-a-fiew

kqNn-ap-\-bn¬ h® Hcp Im¥kqNn tai-

∏pdØp hbv-°q. Im¥kqNn°v Aev]w apI-

fn-¬ AXn\v kam-¥-c-ambn EPphmb sNºp-

Iºn hen-®p-]n-Sn-°q. AXn-eqsS _m‰-dn-

bn¬ \n∂v sshZyp-Xn hfsc sNdnb t\c-

tØ°v -I-S-Øn-hn-Sq.

sshZyp-XIm-¥n-IX10

F¥mWv \nß-fpsS \nco-£Ww?

kqNn°v hn`wiw (deflection) kw`-

hnt®m?

sshZypX]hmlw \n¿Øn-t\m-°q,

At∏mtgm?

sshZyp-X-]-hmlw FXn¿Zni-bn-em-°n-

bm¬ kqNn-bpsS hn`wiw F]-Im-c-

am-bn-cn°pw?

Im¥kqNn°v hn`wiw D≠m-hm≥ Imc-

W-sa-¥mWv?

N

NS

S

NnXw 10.1


sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂ EPpNme-I-Øn\v

Np‰pw Hcp Im¥n-I-a-fiew D≠m-Ip-∂p-

s≠∂p a\- n-em-°n-bt√m.

Cu Im¥nIafiew NnXo-I-cn-°mtam?

Hcp ]h¿Ø\w sNømw.

an\p-k-ap≈ Im¿-Uvt_m¿Un¬ Hcp kpjn-

c-ap-≠m°n AXv c≠p ac-°- Ifn¬ Xmßn

\n¿Øp-I. EPp-hmb sNºp-Iºn Im¿Unse

kpjn-c-ØneqsS ISØnh®v AK-ßƒ

_m‰-dn-bp-ambn _‘n-∏n-°p-I.

Im¿Un¬ t\¿Ø Ccp-ºps]mSn hnX-dp-I.

kmh-[m\w Im¿Uv X´nt\m°q. F¥p

\nco -£n -°p -∂p? Ccpºps]mSn -bpsS

hn\ymkw i≤n-°q.

F√m he-b-ß-fnepw Ccpºps]mSn-

bpsS hnX-cWw Hcpt]mse-bmtWm?

Iºn-bn¬ \n∂v AI-∂pt]mIp-t¥mdpw

F¥p hyXym-k-amWv \nco-£n-®-Xv?

Cu \nco-£-W-ß-fn¬ \n∂v F¥p \nK-

a-\-Øn-emWv \nßƒ FØn-t®-cp-∂-Xv?

\nßƒ I≠ hn\ymkw kb≥kv Ub-dn-

bn¬ NnXo-I-cn-°q.

\nßƒ°p e`n® hn\ym-k-Øns‚

BIrXn F¥v? Ch-bpsS tIµw GXv?

C\n dntbm-Ãm‰v Iao-I-cn®v sk¿°o-´nse

Id‚ v h¿[n-∏n®p t\m°q. (]co-£Ww hnP-

bn-°-W-sa-¶n¬ 2A¬ IqSp-X¬ Id‚ v ]h-

ln-∏n-°-W-sa∂v Hm¿°pI). Im¿Un¬ Ccp-

ºp-s]mSn hnXdn -]-co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-°q.

Ccpºp s]mSn-bpsS hn\ym-k-Øn¬

Fs¥-¶nepw am‰w D≠mtbm? F¥p-am-

‰-amWp \nco-£n-®Xv?

CXn¬ \n∂v F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-emWv

\nßƒ FØp-∂Xv? kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬

Fgp-Xq.

Zni-tb-sX∂p Is≠Ømw

EPp-Nm-e-I-Øn\p Np‰pw cq]-s∏-Sp∂ Im¥n-

I-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni GXp-hn-[-am-bn-cn-°p-

sa∂p Is≠-Ømtam? Hcp ]h¿Ø\w

sNøq.

t\ctØ sNbvX ]co-£-W-Øn¬ Im¿Uv

t_m¿Unse Ccp-ºp-s]m-Sn -am-‰n Hcp Im¥-

kq-Nn - h-bv°q. C\n Nme-I-Øn-eqsS

sshZypXn IS-Øn-hn-Sq. ]hm-l-Zn-ibpw

Ipdn-°q.

sshZypXn ]hln-®-t∏mƒ Im¥-kq-Nn-

bpsS Zni-bn¬ am‰-ap-≠mtbm?

Im¥kqNn-bpsS DØ-c-[phw \n¬°p∂

_nµp IS-em-kn¬ AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øq. AS-

bm-f-s∏-Sp-Ønb `mKØv B Im¥kqNn-

bpsS Z£nW[phw hc-Ø-°-hn[w AXv

am‰n-hbv-°q. At∏m-gp≈ DØ-c-[phw AS-

bm-f-s∏-SpØn ]h¿Ø\w XpScq.

sshZypX]hm-l-Zni

_m‰-dn-bpsS t]mkn-‰o-hv sS¿an-\en¬

\n∂v s\K-‰o-hv sS¿an\en-te-°mWv

sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p-∂Xv.

CXp-t]mse Im¥-kqNn Im¿Un¬ hnhn[

ÿm\-ß-fn¬ h®v ]co-£Ww Bh¿-

Øn°q.

Im¥-kqNn FSp-Øp-am‰n Hmtcm Xh-Wbpw

e`n® _nµp-°ƒ tN¿Øp hc-bv°q.

NnXw 10.2

A_ +

K

P


e`n® BIrXn F¥v?

Im¥nIafi-e-Øn¬ kzX-¥-amb

DØc[phØns‚ Ne\Zni-bmWv _e-

tc-J-I-fpsS Zni. Im¥nIafi-e-Øns‚

Zni F∂Xv _e-tc-J-I-fpsS Zni-bm-Wv.

Im¥nIafi-e-Ønse _etcJ-I-fpsS

Zni AS-bm-f-s∏-SpØn NnXo-Icn-°m-a-t√m.

Id‚ v hn]-coXZn-i-bn-em°n ]co-£Ww

Bh¿Øn-°q.

Hmtcm Xh-W-bpw Im¥nIafi-e-Øns‚

Znibpw sshZyp-X-]-hm-l-Zn-i-bp-ambn Xmc-

Xayw sNøq.

sshZyp-X-]-hm-l-Zn-ibpw X∑qew e`n®

Im¥nI-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni-bp-ambn Fs¥-

¶nepw _‘apt≠m?

\nß-fpsS Is≠-Ø¬

kb≥kv Ub-dn-bn¬ Fgp-Xq.

Cu _‘w heXpssI-

bnse X≈-hn-cepw a‰p hnc-

ep-Ifpw D]-tbm-Kn®v Is≠-

Øm≥ Ign-bpw.

sshZyp-X-]-hmlZni-bn¬

he-Xp-X-≈-hn-c¬ hc-Ø-°-

hn[w Nme-IsØ ]nSn-®v a‰p

hnc-ep-Iƒ kqNn-∏n-°p∂

Zni-bpw Im¥nIafie-

Ønse tImºkv kqNn-bpsS

DØ-c-[phw kqNn-∏n-°p∂

Znibpw XΩn -ep≈ _‘w tcJ-s∏-

SpØq.

heXp ssIbpsS X≈-hn-c¬ sshZypX

]hm-l-Zn-i kqNn-∏n°pw hn[w EPp

Nme-IsØ ]nSn-°p∂p F∂p k¶-ev]n-

°p-I. a‰p-hn-c-ep-I-fpsS A‰w kqNn-∏n-

°p∂ Zni-bm-bn-cn°pw Im¥nIafi-e-

Øns‚ Zni. CXm -Wv he-XpssI

\nb-aw (right hand rule).-EPpNme-I-Øn\p Np‰pw cq]-s∏-Sp∂ Im¥n-

I-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni F]-Im-camsW∂p

a\- n-em-°n-b-t√m.

C

F

NnXw 10.3

NnXw 10.4

NnX-Øn¬ ImWp-∂Xp-t]mse sNºp-Iºn

Im¿Uvt_m¿Un-ep≈ c≠p kpjn-c-ß-fn-

eqsS ISØn hrØm-Ir-Xn-bn¬ Iao-I-cn-

°p-I.

CXv _m‰-dn-bpsS sS¿an-\-ep-I-fp-ambn kzn®v

apJm-¥cw LSn-∏n-°p-I.

Im¿Uvt_m¿Un¬ Iºn hf-b-Øns‚ Np‰n-

ep-ambn Ccpºps]mSn- hn-X-dp-I. kzn®v Hm¨

sNbvXv kmh-[m\w Im¿Uv X´n-t\m-°q.

EPpNme-I-Øn\p Np‰p-ap-≠mb Ccpºp

s]mSn-bpsS hnX-c-W-Øn¬ \n∂v F¥p

]tXy-I-X-bmWv ChnsS \nco-£n-°p-

∂Xv?

Ccpºps]mSn- hnX-cWw sNø-s∏-´Xv

F]-Im-c-amWv?


\nßƒ FØn-t®-cp-∂Xv?

Iºn®p-‰p-I-fpsS FÆw h¿[n-∏n-®mtem?

C

K

A

B

NnXw 10.5

hrØm-Ir-Xn-bn¬ Iao-I-cn-°s∏´ Iºn-bn-

eqsS sshZyp-Xn- I-S-Øn-hn-´m¬ D≠m-Ip-∂

Im¥nIafie-Øn-s‚ Zni F]-Im-c-am-bn-

cn-°pw?

hrØm-Ir -Xn -bn¬ Iao -I-cn -°-s∏´

Nme-I-Øn\p Np‰p-ap≈ Im¥n-I-a-fiew


NnX-w 10.5 teXpt]mse Im¿Un¬ Iºn-h-

e-b-Øn\v ]pdØv A, C _nµp-°fpw Iºn

he-b-Øn-\-IØv B bpw t\¿tc-J-bn¬ hc-

Ø-°-hn[w AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øq. Ah Hmtcm-

∂nepw Hmtcm sNdp-Im-¥-kq-Nn-h®v kzn®v

Hm¨ sNøq. F¥p \nco-£n-°p-∂p?

A, B, C _nµp-°-fn¬ Im¥kqNn-bpsS

DØc[ph-Øns‚ Zni Hcpt]mse-

bmtWm?

Im¿Uvt_m¿Uns‚ Xe-Øn¬ ABCtcJbv°v ew_-ambn B bn¬IqSn Hcp tcJ

hc-bv°q. Cu tcJ-bnse hnhn[ _nµp-°-

fn¬ Hmtcm Im¥kqNn h®v ]co-£Ww

Bh¿Øn-°q. Im¥-kq-Nn°v ZnimhyXn-

bm\w D≠m-Ip-∂pt≠m? F]-Im-c-am-Wh?


\nßƒ FØn-t®-cp-∂Xv? tcJ-s∏-SpØq.

Htc Iºn-sIm≠v ASp-Ø-Sp-Ømbn ]c-

kv]cw kv]¿in-°mØ hn[-Øn¬ c≠p

he-b-ßƒ D≠m°n ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-

°q.

Hmtcm he-b-Øn\pw ]pdw`mK-Øp-≠m-

Ip∂ Im¥-a-fi-e-Øns‚ Zni F]-Im-

c-amWv?

he-b-ßƒ°v AItØm?

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un\v Np‰p-ap≈Im¥n-I-a-fi-ew

Hcp Im¿Uvt_m-Un¬ A¿[-kn-en-≠-dm-Ir-

Xn-bn-ep≈ ]n.hn.kn. ss]∏v Xmsgbpw apI-

fn-ep-ambn h®v hi-ß-fn-eqsS kam-¥c

tcJ hc-bv°p-I. Cu tcJ-bn¬ 12 cm CS-

hn´v kpjn-c-ß-fn-SpI.

k¿∏n -fm -Ir -Xn -bn¬ Np‰n -sb-SpØ

sshZypXNme-I-amb Hcp Ih-NnX Iºn-

®p-cp-fns\ tkmfn-t\mbnUv (solenoid)F∂p ]d-bp-∂p.

NnXw 10.6 te-Xp-t]mse kpjn-c-ß-fn-eqsS

Iºn-Np-‰n-sb-SpØv tkmfn-t\m-bnUv Xbm-

dm-°p-I. XpS¿∂v ss]∏ns‚ `mK-ßƒ

\o°w sNøp-I. ]co-£-W-Øn-\m-bp≈

tkmfn-t\m-bnUv Xbm-dm-bn.

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ AK-ßƒ Hcp dntbm-

Ãm-‰v, kzn®v, _m‰dn F∂nh Dƒs∏-Sp∂

sk¿°o-´p-ambn _‘n-∏n-°q. kzn®v Hm¨

sNøq.

Hcp ams·-‰nIv tImw]kv t_mIvkv tkmfn-

t\m-bn-Un\v AI-Øph®v \o°nbpw ]pdØp

h®v \o°nbpw kqNn-bpsS DØ-c-[phw

kqNn-∏n-°p∂ _nµp-°ƒ AS-bm-f-s∏-Sp-Øq.

Cu _nµp-°ƒ tbmPn-∏n®v Im¥n-I-_e

tcJ-Iƒ ZniklnXw hc-bv°q.

tkmfn -t\m-bn -Un -\-IsØ Im¥nI

afi-e-Øns‚ Zni F]-Im-c-amWv?

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ kzX¥ AK-ß-

fn¬ D≠m-Ip∂ Im¥nI[phX F]-

Im-c-amWv?

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ GX-KØv Im¥-

kq-Nn -h-®memWv Im¥-kq-Nn -bpsS

DØc[phw BI¿jn-°s∏Sp-∂Xv?

F¶n¬ AhnsS tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚

[phw GXm-bn-cn°pw?

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ at‰ AKØntem?

NnXw 10.6


_m‰-dn-bpsS GXp sS¿an-\-en¬ \n∂v

GXn-te-°mWv tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un-eqsS

sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p-∂Xv?

sshZypXn ]th-in-°p∂ (_m‰-dn-bpsS

t]mkn-‰ohv [ph-tØmSp LSn-∏n®) AK-

Ønse sshZypX]hm-l-Zni t¢m°ns‚

kqNn-bpsS Ne-\-hp-ambn _‘-s∏-SpØn ]d-

™p-t\m-°q.

]Z -£n -W-Zn -i -bn -emsW¶n¬ B

AKØv cq]-s∏´ [phX GXv?

A]-Z-£nW Zni-bn-emsW¶ntem?

sk¿°o-´nse sshZypX]hmlZni hn]-

co-X-am°n tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un-eqsS sshZypXn

IS-Øn-hn´v ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-°q.

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ kzX¥AK-ß-

fn¬ cq]-s∏-Sp∂ Im¥n-I-[p-hXbv°v

F¥pam‰-amWp \nco-£n-°p-∂-Xv?

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un¬IqSn sshZypXn ]h-ln-

°p-tºmƒ tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ AK-ß-fn-

ep -≠m -Ip∂ Im¥nI[ph-X -sbbpw

]hmlZni-sbbpw _‘-s∏-SpØn F¥p

\nK-a-\-Øn-emWv \nßƒ FØn-t®-cp-∂-Xv?

NnXw 10.8 ambn XmcXayw sNøq.

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Unse sshZypX ]hm-l-Zni-b-\p-k-cn®vAK-ß-fnse Im¥nI[phX Adn-bm≥ Hcp Ffp-∏-am¿Kw.

NnXw 10.8

Iºn-®p-cp-fn-\p≈n¬ \n∂p]pd-tØ°v sshZypXn

]h-ln-°p∂p.Iºn®pcp-fn-\p-≈n-te°v

sshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂p.

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ CuAK-ØmWv AXns‚

Z£n-W-[phw.

sshZypX]hmlw]-Z£nW Zni-bn¬

NnXw 10.7 (b)

Iºn-®p-cp-fn-te°vsshZypXn ]h-ln-°p∂p.

Iºn-®p-cp-fn-\p≈n¬ \n∂p]pd-tØ°v sshZypXn

]h-ln-°p∂p.

tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚ CuAK-ØmWv AXns‚

DØ-c-[phw.

sshZypX]hmlwA]-Z£nW Zni-bn¬.

Hcp _m¿am-·-‰n-s‚bpw sshZypXhmln-

bmb tkmfn-t\m-bn-Uns‚bpw Im¥nI

afi-e-Øns‚ -Nn-X-amWv X∂n-´p-≈Xv.

sshZypXnA]Z-£nW

Zni-bn¬

NnXw 10.9

sshZypXn]Z-£nWZni-bn¬

Ch Xmc-Xayw sNøq. F¥p \nK-a-\-Øn-

emWv \nßƒ FØn-t®-cp-∂-Xv?

sshZypXhmln-bmb tkmfn-t\m-bnUv Hcp

_m¿am-·‰v t]mse h¿Øn-°p∂p F∂p

Is≠-Øn-b-t√m. Cßs\ e`n-°p∂ Im¥-

Øns‚ i‡n h¿[n-∏n-°m-\p≈ am¿K-

ßƒ Fs¥ms°-bmsW∂p t\m°mw.NnXw 10.7 (a)


Hcp sNdnb ]n.hn.kn. (PVC) ss]∏v Ij-

W-Øn¬ Ih-NnX sNºpIºn-bpsS 25 Np‰p-

Iƒ Xbm-dm-°p-I. Xbm-dm°nb Cu tkmfn-

t\m-bnUns‚ kzX¥ AKØv kqNn-ap-\-

bn¬ Xmßn\n¿Ønb Im¥-kqNn h-bv°q.

tkmfn-t\m-bnUn-eqsS sshZypXn ]h-ln-

∏n®v Im¥-kq-Nn-bpsS hn`wiw \nco£n°q.

\nß-fpsS \nco-£Ww tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.

Np‰p-I-fpsS FÆw h¿[n-∏n®v ]co-£Ww

Bh¿Øn-°q.

\nco-£Wê-ßƒ tcJ-s∏-Sp-Øq.

Im¥-kqNn IqSp -X¬ hn`w-in -®Xv

Ft∏m-gmWv?

CtX tkmfn-t\m-bn-Un-\p-≈n¬ GXm\pw

sI´p-I-ºn-Iƒ (binding wires)/]®n-cpºp

tIm¿ ]th-in-∏n®v ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn-

°p-I.

Im¥kqNn-bpsS hn`w-i-Øn¬ F¥p

am‰-amWp \nco-£n-®Xv?

sI´pIºn-I-fpsS FÆw h¿[n -∏n -

®mtem?

\nco-£Wê-ßƒ Xmc-Xayw sNøq.

tkmfn-t\m-bnUv sk¿°o-ńse Id‚ v

hyXym-k-s∏-SpØn ]co-£Ww Bh¿Øn°q.

Im¥kqNn-bpsS hn`w-i-Øn\v F¥p

am‰-amWp≠m-Ip-∂Xv?

Cu ]co-£-W-ß-fn¬ \n∂v tkmfn-t\m-

bnUn\v Np‰p-ap-≠m-Ip∂ Im¥nIafi-

esØ kzm[o-\n-°p∂ LS-I-ßƒ GsX-

√m-sa∂p Is≠-Øn-bt√m.

Cu coXn-bn¬ tkmfn-t\m-bnUv D]-tbm-Kn-

°p-tºmƒ AXv Hcp sshZypXIm¥-ambn

h¿Øn-°p∂p F∂p ]Tn-®n-´p-≠-t√m.

F¶n¬ sshZypXIm¥-Øns‚ i‡n

h¿[n-∏n-°m-\p≈ am¿K-ßƒ Fs¥m-

s°-bmWv?

$

$ ]®n-cpºp tImdns‚ tOZ-Xe hnkvXo¿

Ww h¿[n-∏n-°p-I.

\nc-h[n S¨ hsc `mc-ap≈ Ccpºpw

Dcp°pw Db¿Øm≥ Ignhp≈ sIbn-\pI-

fn¬ sshZyp-X-Im-¥-ßƒ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-∂p-

s≠∂pw Ah-bpsS i‡n ]e am¿K-ß-

fm¬ h¿[n-∏n-°m-sa∂pw A\o-kn-s\m∏w

\nßƒ°pw a\- n-em-bn-t√.

sshZyp-X-Im-¥-ßƒ \n¿an-°p∂ hn[w a\-

n-em-°n-b-t√m. GsX√mw kµ¿`-ß-fn-

emWv sshZypXIm¥-ßƒ D]-tbm-Kn-°p-

∂Xv?

$ Ce-IvSnIv s_¬

$

$

NnXw \nco-£n®v Hcp Ce-IvSnIv s_√ns‚

LS\ ]cn-tim-[n-°q. kzn®v Hm¨ sNøp-

tºmƒ AXv Fßs\bmWp ]h¿Øn-°p-

∂sX∂pw N¿®sNøq.

Hcp Ce-IvSnIv s_¬ \n¿an®v ]Z¿in-

∏n°q.

]®ncpºptIm¿

Iºn-®p-cpƒ

kvIq

kv]nMvBIvj\p≈

XInSv

Ccp-ºpXInSv

lma¿

InÆw

kzn®v

NnXw 10.10

U ooilBJaol

\-_\i;\>

ei"r c ga6.u5od cu5cnr5cauor 3 o er oqd I o

(Current and potential difference)

moSed' o-r'leL loror6ororcn ear:ua o."rcoior;

Gfi)CdOCo"

* orceoJ mlo4 6rxerl emloop 1610loo

or]ocmco8 "gooi oromJccroc6rnlGrI3c

6J6? oOo?DCaOr'lO1eO]o &C(o5rDo?

U-.2<--<*__

\ . >\'

aO'a

-:-

etaS Qascnto Gra 4!€ ft)cosc.eJo c.,c(?n€^Jcor ra']^:3 gg oynJoa,ror"qg6'l

eraanap rrr.rot@d;o caJc(oqz "Gra1$c aex aJa',@],zrb .rt(d oneEai6tEl a;rlrll. .g1to c ab o o a: egofl -g) al7 a (n ar c owi a c ogcn]ord a3a,

gleetai 6t9lar6fra\?"

m"lgo e;oeoro amiloo;os

"-fls1g3oacend ocg Groloo

cmcdol. o.$ffocrl)eoloHSJ?

o'laei;o 6c@6IDo?

erumloHS 9-rtdqoo.r'leL;os pcDl mo8olqol (o1

6o)cm c-orcoSear:cded golo)oeBBUa eo6rB(6rDl.

* tsero of;oilerscnlcni "6lceanc5ced eiv)

e,loooit

(Dcolo "6oj1os crllcrd

"6ceanc5oerd 1"-tot

"rnqcill

orcao)l "0oj1os crjlcn5 "gcoo.nc5cerd 1"-toL

"rngrdt

gejo n9l63cmo'i1m;o (Dcolo Lo-toL"rr1eo]cm

oilm;o o:caoJLotolcocrtooilco;o "jl er cruc"rr

oroSec'nuE crgotcro5ocerd. .ojlloro s.r cDlo"l

oMao;.

noL(.DO',ro)

"lSSeOei'l

"61ooecd1

o3og1o8 oeoslorol luordoro'rmoor:g;occoi

@iryqes-,s&s?@

"illtolo g.t (a)

ojllolo s.t 1b;

A oillro'ro s.t (c) B

* orco8oL;ar.rd tolJodolcoxcrd "goiloergcaceni gero ap;oJcmcil? e,coemooooi?

Peto a9J6,1 <Orol; S eAr:'l cor or conco6 o6rorl

ercard BerLoroicooo pscoiad' crrlcml

c"-Lccorcoi ? oc<oemoocoi?

eEro dlgJolo "ocrn] crjleaesa aoeneoojlqoorcotoE

"6ro"i1 ercerd sero coJsdgco;cco;l

6JvJ6,JA? poilos selo oJsdgcorccol os;a1 ooocerrel o1 oo; cm rd

"0looloacerrd t

ol;srdgcoccol BeJo 619leloeocerre'lol

eo;crnlsoxil *ercrrlog;auE rorm'leL;gg

crJ Co"rJ c crD o crr'l el crrl d<orofl oo; (il "6 ean o cn

qo)c6dt

oOHc LoJolcoo6BBgJosco;lo tD(o.)l crjldemool

6oJCm n<o; o€JSoaJ6rBGHc. eeLotoJloof, cor;o

ot c oo;3 oL1 o op 0o J o or c oJ roro'l o op cot; o 6, c oJ

<o(D'loE paD oas6o "Eo(o) Hc oocmJ

GCDC€OCo.

Bero lotcroo'lesr]cmcil -) setco'lod.lggojJo)Jcm)o &C(06IDo

orcao; ov;a;cmo) -+ odeor5o'r3cm;o

6CCO6TDo

(Dc oro 1o-L or orrl eo; cm reil -+ o) c n-r cnl et oor'l o pt

, olJOJCffDo dro(D6rDo

oo8cCIJ gorordorormo cnsorrj'lccncaoco.

csc dlenLudeni, omt g3e,u0'gcrrll oL "Osldol6. poroao) Grdo)caocsJacao) o"lofl coio8

-outdld enLua6ni g"laccrolgf ao;.

* erllu86il" Lc'l6c oo1 gi1 eoc cnc ot uoJ ocao)

godeo n$o-rcenit ogol]oscnlcmcani

orool3 eLre14cilt

oootBJJ(o)l(-ltoLc"rrot]occo'l erumlergs e1"13

crLlcnsenecco; o!o<ro co)ro'ro'loi pcrr'l ecolooocoo8a,cacerc.

6U

ocGoc om;aoc('ler;ooQclolo_cLo: eelo A a;loE

I cn.lcni B coilcerao) cro;| ,-;c.c. GroLcoao)lo cooffD

E@) zJCpt&@ro1@8 ac@cgo 0)1@L@) gelaicpcans a,ud ens aonl afl o7 aoS rmS. pog et aic p c 6m) e, gJ o s 1oL otc oo a c eria o at BJ )

(D o e @ @n rD ot c g erci p7 ai & o og".

6J @J'Jcsa, ao>1 oo! a ares afl cns aou6 aa'l safl oE a aans)@ (9JaJcao aJ arE c a,erna an l ad

@rO @6tBJ atilrnsaoglod etmflocn @neaJ

6,s41d aega1a| gpLaip'lai'tcd*\o@gcd*nfleL, @nLnotc oaLcgod"w3aS a'SsS

arct c at'l a'l ao fir, o. Gn @) c e) oi, a ae 1a eon ud

otmlad n@) ooJcAo6"v5o6 otJ@Jcot)o

g6tec all a7 aa ano. geL aip7aigrt"stcd@n n otc o"Lc 5 o1"uS ad a,S s'l o mt-oc rnotoi

cn'lcmSo oaLcSoEavSaE a,soeraot recac oro aoc an>" a a ot aS S a7 a vS a,2 rm coi.

a "Lc5

od *t3 od otS ory c m-t orotl aol oS t rA gcoLccrLgcai (V ). gagaa2rmoflcnSgp p"-t

a,aen>aceri conrfij a1gd.

g_t"g1"Wi*\g''g".:!:W-

omrdao"l g3 agil o8 o""Lc5oE"sjJ 6i orJ oJcffDo

cnl er cnl 6 oro-r c cnc en5 m c o o m) Hl a uE g "-r

c oo; c

cr1lao;cmafr . ermg;agfl oer "CIcro)J Lorcldoo

maceni o"-Lc5crd"v5o8 orJtotJcffuo crr'ler

cnldoro-r3cmcfrt

cn1 eor:odao; "-Lo'l"jl

or occor emf oo$ GLCruco)

cpJd'ua a1g$ o"-r93.

. eorcuAscomroE (voltaic cell)

a

n@l euleoo'lo8 o;aoco8 GccDGorocpo

ccndg[lg m-lcdclo5lcrlaocm-fl o-U oCIsJdoJa.

oo; m-r'id oro,'ls;o cacgtdoralslo og'lsJord

cnco8 orccnc o1 g o3 accoi (ooor:53 rorl ao)Jos

mtccrrll cr-15 or J o rcrop orl o n1 co coJ o Gncll co;cm] g e

eorao6rDo) eumii gilao;. cnco8orecncolgtd

crllo1eMeo;.

en1o8 ogcroll Ecgac6rD] cnloleeiloo]cmcillo6)ooc6mJ am gg1 etcaol conil t "jdgo"tg)l.* plc 1o-Lcldot'o cD olo'floE cn'l eanuA

of)Ooo)codo cn1o1av1 g3l

* a]algood "6o13 olo,1s'leLcerl) ololodsScmoil

* o]olgouE oloergsco8 ocoomooooi?

* poLlos oolcgoE"v5o8 clJrorJccrDo mrolo

ocqot cn'lercrr'ldoro'rlcmo; "61cli gnctde

ocenit

paD ffDoojl(l)cmocerd co:c</d5com)o8.

emf oop aogcol cim;corqpcen5 oogcuomt<o8.

Qol Ge0)cc/)u0]mJ Dca0)

ooLuomroE errcg!9itcrool'loa oJo<olco@o

rec(/) @BUa ml scnud

eo3 oil o1 gcll cocoE adlco;

oocrDJ eo6rBorDl"

crule,Jorcil5

cmdg|4cruofl"ngcjldGDmtoi

cacgdcoraild

-oillroro s.:

pcrt prc orals;ou8 ,':om5o-ttoo mi"itdsol

€ocoro olror'lcotoE torqcrulaDlo8 rorcdotoll

or aoi ael r. oo e.,l cud o c ro8 olcrnc o"lo cr'l er e.r o"l ni-l'lE-do

Elpql;qr*'tqqo4

ffi,L11roro 9.S

5

6l

Gd

G

GG

a @) zJc pr & oa'la6 eLs as o>s sdg a;calloootasS ot'l LoJoJ aol aa 6m a a n'lco6'J c erc,orole>Q (uaLo easuEao'l s @16E 6r@J

a u c a od ovS a8 oJJ @J o cD o cit pL ot'l cd am an aepLc. ootlacai aat oecdsctmsca>mituo--naqoLaosacai. mLcgo'|, ooaD(Dccac @us

earsTanL aaoJcJJ @etffD c@ W) &gcai. gotaceacmtlool-)o onLoeanud a>m1 eqOe

ooLcSod"vSod oJJ@JccDDcai geLaiepccacgTot" c"ncdm;" (emf), paToo!a;SanlgSo eoLcudgcaf (V).

6L m;lat a cml1a eara ac at rara pLaimtcod

c(aDc coLcudsc at cai eanuEsc amtaS

egoS acaJl crfl d al4roi. 7745 en-nlmLSoLo7

18 oi ggeita;laE eot1gS. L800 d @neQaoo

raryoS a catl gerciasTai ntcgol cnl rd al gS.

a"l a n aj od ot I o) a, o a' aeS.Ll sl g 6n G Q no o

"L'lcmTd "Lcoilat aS an1 cot dmtl g7 @t6A

O bJ c an m) o c ai. aa e q "o

aofl en! mi a a anaiao c oi a oL c g od *S roE oLS atS c m oro>1 a op

a4m>191crt eoLcudi "41crfi

c"LoS cnolala)l

cscd4l er; or eaoccnl oei;cm ntoJ om-lo8,

oocooen:oEcoocernloop ocruoE, ao; acdeucgol "Ocml or oDlos o"-rc5oE"v5eoa

orJoJccrDo "g(oococrd <ono:cor'loerplctnaot

oleo;cmoi col o1enll mrooodmS olcorilcojlo8

GOO_rOHSlorol.

ooorrJjl(6.) goraosrD5aBog "-Lom5u@o

6Drol'n

o g s; oro'fl <aro o.r co;'l eL; o s oocr r:53 cri a s <oro'jl

oilgco8 orocil' oo3 oooroJ]CI) ocrudaerl$

roOcofl. ao; omrdeol5loop "jig<oo

oroco)eo;

cmLcua oroo'r1 er; "-r

ccoc arlg g.'r eoGTD 6Br:

g;os "j1

g<o oLSo oro co) oo3 cm<d 1"-rcccorccrjl aoR. croorao);os L"-ror"laeongceni ojoglcrdao;cmcfi . "j)a p"laoemecng;os (-ortol"l

aeangcen5 "jl Cor orojl oS acerril2| oloolcmcr;.

Lo-ttOtlAo golA,OS|Do

F omroE

* pol ncctoccmloa$cor;o GDoluoJAo')

")od?

"6cfr g"reoemonriloofl oenegcneanod o'rm'l

el]gts oorcsoEnv5cod olJoJcm)occdrDc Grog

cooeneo'rl GrO golatoemonrrlci cruocooo

acqoc6ni cocod$o1gd "ers1 gi1 cooenecil.

cD'leanua ao; eucdoei g"-racoo'lgi1g L"-LoLtd

oro cDo o-rd oj1 o;crrll c g. p<oi coE a o; c or coE ja"l g t6, cT om"l gd "g

crrno "-r1 *ild GrooLqoto el

olmla5 crogooDeltos. ot5olSmior ".06pqo

omgS ood AUaod s;orofl .':o"losemoorgordorojlaol.

-]ll- ll *,0'

1\M- ll c."roilcocoao

-,ts<.F crDn4

eniua6ni

corccrdiolgd

eromlgd

rncoSorccnca"lodo

olcoorcmrcdoo o

mo;odoctol ermdeol$ crjldo'l ooco. pojlosmoSa'lcojlo'laoJcm ocrudeol$ lcror:r.fl aerg.

* pcrrlas"rceorccolg|oleoJcrD 9cl6o6Tne6B0a eflc;B o.orgl.

"ilgtoro o.a

"Lcd*loop LaJatcao oaonssa'|.omtdaalgTaS a,Ss7 aoS am;aooplada,sffD) caJcail(rD ucdelaop aagonaigercias'tai a,o, (I).aoS om.taooflod aaS

8)egco oLcdd nsJai(mlooLe'toE getaiaslai a,oop" aaS arqmilatd rogan\a"taoso.

a@J omscdaal g\e4as 1o-tot aol aoS rmucde1ooP @npoeo (Q) ouaa;otSacafl (t)6Dt(nD og sSoo1 geL aip1ai eoog"rnlcden>at'laaco"

o-t Cd g"6O0D =o ml acD o

,oI = 7. anaacoroi, @J6trAd msaarcro>'loE

gdtonolaoS cm ondscoi eoq.g saipi ai eoog" aa gaos rmofl oS gA g"Ja, a ern acai aroml grd. aoudaal glategaen>la;c aitgceri an m\g d oercl gilcaoarre@i.

noJ om)ddo15flo8 ogs110 ercruasr$ eracend

6 o;cgco rcdd g"-ror.'o'lao3cm3ocrie,1ro8

eo o3" n6 1o) co;c co;1 olaei;o t

6orcoilco cco o (Res istance)

aorl,& ofigoer Ahaolod a;orrb ccncaflcnl crr: a @) c o c^JJ .ri 6t @l or.J o tro &l o

" ^6Sha'olorlcr5 g-t e acvfl 4 a -sm4acnfi,ej,o ott:trbonflcesgi a,onfd-gob cnob

a3crY? *tcqrrldr:'rar\aes amfla4o erca

or qQ atr eg a ge g c 7" ^6Sca c otfl co\nla,c@6Y)ol

ao; LuordorocDo oddoll ccDcdoco.

,.illroro s.s

ueLacor'lo8 PA oo3 eocgdomflqo)c6rd. PB

po;crr;amilcolo PC, PD "gcrn'lo cn'lclaco

amJlag;ocerfi. pcrocorgco 30 cm cn"lgo;sq

orceni" PD "6cm amileo;ocg(Do Go@B(DPl

oLlmiorldemo alslo.telceni. eucgci cor;os

omcng"loi osdalmenoE d*lgg crcocrlo8

m-)ro)looroccol on5flo']eoJcm ] "ocm GraLcDo

lcor:l'iq2orcgc.

pcrjl J oocrD GIaLcDo A, B, C "6cm"l rorolcn

56l:91CI8 aercmccmccofl m5udoo1eo;.

* ooaalgtd o1n-u'1es1o8 g6rec6lcrD orJcoJc

mrooooit

eu oE enil o ofl L"i ac uo <o"l LoL <or cojl <o8 "€)

croll

ocgoc6rDl crllole,dl4rol I

* pnc orJoJcmreancrSaer; acoemoacd?

"6 crfi "-rc

er ao o m-l d oo"l5'1 <o8 g oE o g s; oro-11

corcgcvced orooolgd o"lur'ler5 "EpoLSo

6Jsl to-.l erccoi ro;cm<oi t "gootc co'l o'1oo; o

6C(06IDo?

"6ro5 orcerao ocrudao"l5ilo8 guEogs]ooil

oorcgcvcen; onoolgd o1cu1a5 "6isoL3o

elo orc aoi co3 cmoi ? o')oolc co;1 olao3o

6CO6IDo?

I "Ocm GnLCDo cmo'l$ P otloS doLdoo14;

Gocdol. pcgcc,rE eooploE ngoo; ocg

oc6rD; crjlo"lo,cildo;cm<d t

oOHc dce]e66Bg]o oocxBJJtDloJolcooooro)

tor scpodsJoroscrrnc g ? pQD osq3ooro-rcocard

Lo-ttoil cocoo (resistance) "ocml "-rooo; cm ro5.

tDSQlo cru5.dsleo]cm ":ocdrnacerd t.lLo.jl

G@c0)6o (resistor).

or5 or5 m) or o-LceL aocnsaed oL5 rorl m5<or L"t o1l

ccoccltoco6TDcms omcpletcoolcoe gc.

pcnl orco)ciloog J "Ocm GnL(no C aotoS mi"-Ltd

<nlg;oaceni P oo;'leetaosldool. tc,roollm;

esooruo J orogcno ror'lo'loa C co'lGeJ€o"

o6c6rn;orol. A, B "Ocm1 orol<neangloE

ocorcrloof, Groloo J cn5udoolg pnl i.'lga'lcol

rorqoL6orrileoS.

* pnc ".erg eangloelHco errLc6eulocrp

Lcllec(o or"l Lo.r (Dqot(o8 "goot;acg oceni

gerrecco-lro) I

A

B

C

D

o a orcSS at'l a's rora'l ofl sS on "L

a c d n osr3

gcoi oLc s a, ocaud (conductor s). a,s aatloil s c rao ot at c oi g od ouS c eg oS a, uE (insu-lators). "OHc Ltcpt&5sBg)o Ee@ @ngoilptry aoorlJSofl a,sarotloilsScmai. a,o@'l

t) 6rEc&) (D as m;acai oaotassa>aLaflo o (ft)

G@CU)o. "OHC otCptA,eCnuda)lo AGcO (atcol

c@c o D pt. m)c(Dc aanaa'latlaS aca6U

atffi ot)o a ca olgots q gg uoJ BDeptcao6uB

fl@A 6to>7 cacao aggatJo a,SooiaoLggilaocai.

]EGrrold,uocrulglqPt4

al(lO GIJC Pl O @IO OeJeil,

05 aocoa LaJ@cffDo @)ofi\Q@l toJ@'lc@g@o GaJcaaL

o0oo c a q 6t 5i1 Hl s1 @ro o !o g oi cnot o atoi c^t ca,c od a'sl @ ) a' @)l et.-daootu

6t o) a odcu G pJ o d G oJ 2 0 pt@ra o(m.oo

,.fllroro s.o

* coao"lgd olait6B'lto8 o6cro)l ocgo

g6rBCaot?

pa' oJJoJcm)5aBUa€oJ 6co6ID

oDoo5?

pcrt oraoctoog J "ocm GroLoo cDBJo

C conoa miu6<.ro1eol. "gcrrn$ pnc

Groloo D ao1o8 mirdooleo].

* p.tl o6rBJ o€r5dcBglerJo eoLUa

*tibnp g"lacco or"l1o orooftoS "6)0oll

CIcgDc6ml6rBccocoil

po orJtoJcmrao3ua€oJ ec(o6TD

oaooit

6J<oJ dcaeoonoop g"lcrieoccoooro>

mrtcu.l"l m1 eo;cm -o-L'l eL oeLs a egnuA

cnleaeua omtp! eLceoleo)cgc. dcet&oronoop 1"-Lrofl coccoooro mlrctr"l cnl

doJcm Oo8coJ "elsoocerd o'noiloop

torc"-Lcn'ls. <ocn-Lcn'leL e]sJcmrcod ":cae56Bglos 1"-tcolle<occDo els]cmJ.

p <or J or o o crjl eBB uA aererrE oro-il co; crr'l cn o

m66Bg)os <srds'lcruncm6'Krtl<o8 GoJ elcel

aotonoop 1"-Lo'rleoccuoon m:Lccllcn'l

:r* "ersoecBua eLlgg o"-r91.

a

a

r otcel&olojloct$ orc"lcrile-r

* d5molgg eumr]omil go-Lecoccdl

eo3 cmLcuE <oraor'l erl os aElgg

ooolBJl o.)lojolcor)o a3 s3 ol eLcool O1

€olcoc? asooLcco'l oldolcac?

pcnl Gcoca cruloop ffuocro ao) oro.l'l cDl olocoo

moSacoE crlleonoEoo; as'lcdlcgl

"Odonil amjlocraoo;o olcmoSoorucatcer&

eancrEeo;o aslcolgg o-ormr;acnil porcaoc

aJl ool cm <r'i1 o ofl ac <o amo ocD qgil er c ao) G C c ?

,L11roro S.Z

* croaa"lod o"lo-o'leg'lcercto

eeqle@q!,l@e!dEiE

oco qjlcoroo (ohm's law)

aol [email protected] o]Jo6DrmD] 4-l sGo'roc$o

Loro'ilGoc(l)o, &oq, oorcsoaosiJoE cxJo)Jccruo

") crrt cx ror aa'l o8 oCI o oo€)' l er

J o 6ru o\D aJ GsITB c ?

"jl Lo'r olo'jl c s o.ll eolco el o cru d do15 Lea"l e ol

€oJ.

6J@J oCDdAOTSilOeL 6Lo>lcocctso @)s64a;cafl p" a"la, a'l aa c oq (n g rt a' o ern a c aiolca;cm.tcd.ooo

T-4 AM-

cmmlgd cmceo'l eoog" [) ccrc<rE$ olg<d

ccnceo'l o"-.rcgo0"v5oi oJJC6'rJc ffDo (V)

"Ocrrtd elcilgl cucJeo;. pcnl crlecocggc$

1aa"loo1! oro"losremo orgo-ldooilaoJ. acc@c

Lorcor@Jojlo ejre'leocm V, I "6crn1oL "1516

cor'l o8 c o o-ro d sl oro)J. d S'l 6 "-t3

rd <orojl oor c ao;.

":5:le S t

V* i o.r'lcooercno o"lco)rorcgcnE erreloo;cm

ojlerco;os LorGolJato "Ood? oerenEoojl

G(oorodsJo'ro)1.

cn'l oo:o8oo3 etre'l 4 rorogoL3 o<rE g "-t

coccrjl 9jelo; V-I Lcnc"-d oloql GcDcdoJ.

"4ycrocem"lgcnc"n'loofl LoJG(DJao)?

v+o11oro s.s

cnleong;ers a,oeneorooE coeriogslclol.

* eucgcrlco;;accol ao; g":oilcocoeooooeLsl gf gcgcua ocrDd€o15floa 6oop"

0.3A cor;o oorc5cdoeiJoS oltrorSccruo 3Vpo 6r$o6rDcm; aoeneoroll. g"-Lror'leoccr)o

66rndoc€o)e.

Cor co'l c @ ccn onad c 6coenjlcDcrrD f o

cruacclo@ocqDlo (Resistance -parallel and series)

1o,'lm,ior3ocni @gc-qo,-g aoflo:3 co:ot4

otc"LaTpL mtnla oa p,laE aaS'Jcpt &,

ooflenp anLotaeBrcA am'teqgg aoLcAod

^e1J@E otJ@JC @ot)o cn@l p4 as @)gg

a'ooflSo amletsgp cnolaJuao mtn1aac

aflo'laoSo. gaceti nco o)le)Do. gc @no)

oL c a a c ai oL c pt a, orc>'l o o! LnL o>1 c a c u; o.

o ojc5ctE"u3o6 og(o)Jcffuo

VD_t(---I

aaS coLcudi a"Lcgod*tSad oLSa>Scmt

@to)l@E aroS arqaitatd a,oo!- oLcpta,aaloE

a'S sl 1oL ot ntt'l aOS oa n7 ad oLceL a, aollO QTnLA>1 eACUto n@) 6!Co @06) OnJ.

IVOhm = -

n1o aQrTn@i Q "0m oLlamoIA

p.L c an uiQ ouS "jt gfl aoS cmS.

No. V IVI

1

J

4

@ i reuoilacocru"irorrontO

1a.'Joriro3acnils']ceraeta,61a[1a]a4aana.r-5.@ta@r@b &)c6c@o onsvbotlga*b acs a,g,cet g1al3crn1 erao|aetcaS otrvboti

crjlo.;crb pgdlacflae.qccub ^OHc auvbo'rzt3

a@1" @fa6-roaoa3. e@3 6,6fe o ^g)ua JaJeoLcrfl43z "nco antoeJ ozaS or>:rhotJ

g9olacffiatcego oel@1pan y-saorcla>1a

egc. paflos ^€)fro.c p6rlocr>7" 6o6ffi)ocn\arzvb ai 6.a ffi, Go\c I o c ?

enLcgol, oL5orScrdo o-ror o'1er;gg o6rBJ

eu od eu; a o8, o"r co o3 a tr6, m)il d <or3 s eanl co; or

g".rcco;ccn12i o6rBl a351auE m1da1g

omdeo"lg;agcen5 "j1goo e.10 (a) aofler;o s.to

(b) coleLlo oecs;oro'l1o1eo;cmci.

g"jl tolocco o1 ojlaol oE crom"lg6, corccd$ o1 gd

"Ocrrtil "€rsldlg 6-icc(oc eruodenflco]o errel

do)cm corcoEegd, eoog- "Ocrtd e<oorod

sJotoJ.

* "jlgoo s.to (a) cor'lo8 accoc enL<risnflcn;o

erreleo;cm eoooptorl

poilos 5lccoc euuEenflm;o errelao;cm

coLcude5d oolCI.)?

oerre" omdoo"l 51o8 mlcm;o nccocerusa6ni oL"loro glcolacgil oocoE "6toi

orudeol 5i1 sceni codrecooonD eilua6ni

Grd6TDoolo)JGoJCeJe?

* "6<ocerd al]stdcm; 1o-.lac<,ro1ao3ot

"-ttd4co;1a;os 6co6rD66BuE aoeneroror;.

crjleong;os 6o6rreolo)el3auE mcoadmi nqo)

cnaotoS GoorogsJolol.

erucrEenL;ao8€o; .'lecoo 2f) o;etSolgg 4

1"-r oi1 coc cr-la eanud g"-L ccotc ar'12] pnl o-ro"l

6r9i 6rD o <arg oL d oro-il eO]. Cri O"l ov em crn et o613 sA

GOOTOd S)OrOl. m)o-OelLol<ofl cocclo a3s3

6aoJo oloo)Jaao]o o-ojQlcDftfr "gor3 omd

ao"l5fl ercoemoD; 6o6rn<ool.

* oene; om-ldeer1gfler;o oceoc 1o-Lrollctocm

oro'flm3o eLrel eo;cm o"-rcgodnolS<o8

orJo)Jcm)oCILo)?

"6<ril omrdeer"l5ilercen5 eoop" a;s;<oro8t

"63<oilacerd a;ooit

6cl0g" a;s1cor omldaol gfl oE 1"-roilcocuto

"ersl gp4il o1 oo3 cm<oi orJaccroo acqo)c5rd.

6oop" e;oaoro omdeol5lo8 g"-ror1

coco)o "6o13 o1<o'i1qo)'lerc6rd *r.ldl4loleo;cmrd t cLuo6rrt ao)'l elc6rDcgc.

ao] euuEeni oCIsloto]acglcorcgc<d ocg

eilua6Di cra6rDeioro;G"-rccor ocru6ao15ilo8

o6o13 o1<ollcor'lerceni euoderu;acd "ets1gpsiloloolcmoir

L"l<oilcoccloecnud clcoernl colo8 "eLsl gil

4cgcoE (6looe g.'rroileoccr,lo (mtclnet

1orofl coc cr,ro ) alsocotc cemc/a;ocor]oao)cGsTDC?

* cruacffoooccojl "etslg[lgcdccec?

gjlLoo g.to (a)

orlltolo s.to 1l;

ie-q"es 0lE

bJ @l e @ c o e, d6B ua e LUo 6tnl at (oa

ailo1aoScm oL'l(a aceri s. r r.

"ptsl*t1

R1

,Ll1toro S.tt

gailas ou"neL6Lofle@cu)o R "gnlaER = Rr+Rr+R,

1"1 ot'l c a c a a' eaa 0d m.t a c oo a a c ajl "at s1 il2fla7 aoS cm oilLa acerrt s. p.

"L11roro s.tz

goilas m.t"net6La>1e@c(Do R "gala61111 -r-RRrR2R3

eruuEenlacsqotoel ao; eruoEeni goolocgilcor

egcod "ORc euuderuS6gJo cn6rD6(oro)J

e"rccoroj oCIoo)Jooc6rBccofl oleer]o t 6l5J6co3 accoil 164ol oo)afr crjl cnomoanod m:aoroO m5

o.DqocneotoE a3cl1oo1.

* 8 f), 4 f), 1"-LrollcoccDoasBUA omrdeol

Sil o8 ctco errjl coccojl "eL s1 gp g c gcuE, go-L ollc octt.l e5cB g)o s GtaLco5cBuado'l s aot CI8 6V

o"-.tc5o0"sz5o8 oL5o'rtrcmto arelqco8 ooo o$ Cor oor c cotl o1 eo; o I

* 20 Q,5 f),1oojlcoccDaosBoA m)Dcoo)@

" acco'l oeLslgl4cgcua om)ddol5fleLgos

eolgg eoog 3,A (erucgoloojlod crjlcrd eLrel

do)cm) orgoeme,loS 1"jcrr'l cocrDoecBsA

eo1 saor'l erJgg oacgaE"sz5oS oL5ro)Scmto

66TD€OC€OJ6.

1"-Loj1 cocoaoancrd clooernloce)Jo cruocoo

oocaoJo "ets1glao]* ^g] mtcntdre56BUA

ololl ":5fl

o "-L3doloj1coceo3.

clcroernlcol1od m;ocnoonccoil

a

a

a

"nccn')oop ocn]cergd a

a

a

q

1 rto16c1i $fl laftrtflt;*'| a;I'#

aJCgAQo A,SODCGPIaa(o@)" a2doeLso aocm. 7"-tol1

c @ c u) & a c go an1 ail en arctS

,Llloro S.t:

@i:s,'@e irgla s.r

ffi Ld d, c m roroil o 4 or0 ol 0l ril ronn fi) o

"jlto'r eanua tuoad4ilcg. pnc o"l<or'l cofl alggGro cD I e or 66t: crd crrl oon sa eo

3 ene c cot'l 5 J c dre c ?

"0loorcaoio'l€oco p(o)'lcDJ 6co6rno? cD'leBB

gl o s g ,l9 ooo cru cood cni ctl corcjl aot'l o8 o3 cil eo;.

aoJ 1o-rorrioomo er-ald<oJGCDC66)Co

mi.n slagcLo'r coro'r'l cetod' ceLm;<d oadal

"-ro14; "-Lo'r1 91 6oJe. ad"nslagclororoil m;ggi occot'l iotaccroo o-l<oi14 ffD-occDo

( orrtl cn: ) cro s acDc A o H s) oro; e. n-t c Lo'r orojl o8

oDcorcDcff)o geLo crr'loqo)doJ6. gso crtoaoJ

cm rorl m cn; mr o1 9j t"-r o c co enll cn; oL'l m ; errs c

6l crD crunccDoc go cri ola'*fldo j6. crllon g;os

crr'lo"l eszemon alo'-td4o"-t91. (eeLm:d

cscrd2ilad otlonJ at@JffD br&cuoo eaal1S

eMaA oLo aoca a1aocod 1nodaoano).

cDlecBg;os crio"lasi6m"n elo $Dcct.llao'l6o;

cmor'lmcco;'l Dogcol 1-"-tot6oocno oo-JQco.

og3e,couoo 30cm m"lgol;o 15cm olarilcor;

Dl99 ooretscHHd "OSl(oId c'ooiloop ocutr

re c o o.ror c oojl g c cn5 ag c eni or co) aer 1. op c enil o op

eoroolo;ood Grosaocgogsloyol. trgceniloop

6J oJ or coolDl crt cd c"-L gcjloop L"l or eLorrjl o8

a;s1 ce--rmdcscd "i@'l4l 6olaccrol gileo;o.

"iromoudo'lao]os otco.)cor]o $cm5crgcerrilo8

mlcm; orlo etolo€oJ olcrD ocro"ol ao)Jos

' anacm, mi"LSafi as1 oora2cacal'

oJcoleo)Jo Grdsaolcgods]orol. Scmoc6Dloc

91 corrofl co; Goo ovo opcenil eLl os o;gg Lor6c

cro olorloop cru5.Iolrc o orc<o "-Lg6oor1

aoc €oJ.

Lorec uo ocro'ol "rtorl 4 eu1 cn; oL'l o8

tAcmio:lceniloi eLoeuaccol ao; G@6u orto6U 6D

daer;o.

g-cgilqq!q[tq66]r@J1_5_

cDcrrn 01 €o;$n corcBJ dGB<6od crr'lear: g;os

cn'lo"l og 6rD 6cB glos <oros'l cnr-oc cn ololo8

gCtrOOo eO6rB(oTOJ.

* g"raccroordo'l "6ootgco occr-:JooangiloS

o;slcorcem; moorLol4cil I

o) oo)] o 6 c 6rl3c cojl o1 oo3 o Lo-L o c oo oroi cri raro "-r

oldrorlcno mroreofloo;cmrd ?

"-j11oro 8.2 (a),

"jl1roro 8.2 (b)

"gcrn'lor <orco

o)oJo o-al(gl. g"-Loccrooudo'led' mi"nslaorollto8 gGrrecao) cnco.'r'locgo cgscg!ed' scd

coccutoA g6recao coo-fl ocgo Golcoereo)c

o6rDCmJ eoJcDco. aamoSl"leooo Glsc$'l

aol os d er cn orotl cd a3 s3 o) o8 o) s(R o, Gro Lo ol c

1"-ro'1 cocuro cru5.d s1q3. (o)cEJ ero egscgil oem

ejlcered g"rcoruolqcgcod r:luocJad ocgo

aruocojl€o)cml.

L"jocoolom;cLcB(o alos'olo acclS aorrrlo8

Lojec(oloreol(/)o el sJ (o) elco;1 O1 aOo. a;s'] co;

ac cl; o roo'il o8 Lor GCr cDo o;o or3 oc cojl o1 eo;o.

crr'le6BC/ado] "ro'l"rora)gg o-fl er m3o)co5

Dc(l.)J o 6B13 glos Lorec oolacruclcn o'') o)Jos

GDGOC or)6rDleoo Coffrll Ol AO;Cm<O] GCDCdOJ.

orcao)J ( BEro < Rccrd < orLgo.

gccrrSopcenilcer€ol

1"-.laccoocrdal oo]os

mocojlg)?

L"-rcoLoo'lao]emlcuE

"-rcOcOied' "$;crol

L"-roccoocdoled o5rol1 colcmo cruoreol4cil

"olojlersoaoHco or4c6ni ?

Lor6cooou6o'l n(oJ oc(I)JDoatoS crjlcml

oogccrnl coaei "roleotol; t"-Lcoi <lo'l oo3

cmrcuA oronrllocr! ".rcrolaoied

ofloo] a])ore

ojleo;cm;l

1"-toc<rooodol aogco; occl5ooro'il caeo]olo6DJDCaOI

"-r<Oi1eo;ccrucG9c ?

pcil <oroc'roLdororcno (refraction) "gcmcr1 co;og s2cm3.

"Ote''l<o8 rsnot otdololcn

olo,lcd no; Lorccaocajla crjl6oL"-tcDo o;oJ'l

oo'leoccoc?

/\\a)

lcr6l0ao 5q:ml"cplsnlltu0 a3s1 oolemn"

cruerotoleo3rm3.

6618e

6el6OJo

d1;roro a.l

oLS otS mion c @ (ru) @ c@J a c aS a anz gil etS a s

oJ&CU\o &sm\ eoJca'Semt,ctd anOflriGn a) B ot a H s) mt 6L a>1 e a c u)o E G @ ca c aleL c a,fl ol aaS a, ail g. ec 6L a>'l c a cut o a c oS

aowloop lrta,cuola, m)c(R@a@) @tOL(n

a'\4'l a'l aoS cmS. ataotcatai. ace@ccD) @c @J D c a3 a aro>l oopa1 o LoJ a, c uol e)

n)cLB@ (optical density) o4a>Sajatacai. @(E)pto 6La,caa'laaiasi oLSal

@)cao oDoeajlao)(m).

Ei,s-"glp6$

-ajlgro'ro 8.1 cn1o1o,*ilao1.

* pro-r1oE Lor6c oo1 amrcgcr:o'r a;s1 oor

ac(l)J0o "63olcerdl

* luaccro'lam.lcLcBo.t 6Jo6oro accllJoeoc?

L"-roc <,ro1om)cL(Bo) 6io6rorD ac(l)J a

oroilo8 crrlcm; a;s1 co;o1lceLdoJ Loraccroo

guccr oo1 4c gcu8 <ooo'r1oop cr-tcclcoiad

"oca)l ocBo cruoeojl4]?

"jllroro 8.1 CI8 1"-Loccrooroj1oop "-Lccor crjlo"l

osl q c g c. en: "rjl

d cn a cn o <rd o1 cor; o s "-r

c o.l qot

ejJos Lolaccroo cri1o14; uarr'l g[lqco8, ojco)

"6arrc coi oleoJo ? or 01 eMl4]emcdol. crudlsuc

o ot c o) m co; oE mi u cor crl col co8 "j1

gol"l o o1 ao;.

GraorcxdoDmcl;occol eumlos5 a]s]rouo8

m)cndreeor:c/A ol5Jeco)occoi r64o-Lco)o'r3

66)6113(olo)J.

o Ber6ro-)'lo8 oJlsao;cm cDc6rDQOo gcordcm

. -rt ccDccrD]crnJ.

l"raccn<om'l1m]6rre c6loD roro o-.ror 6 oror cnooJl o op

o'ros'lmrnccnolono8 gcmioa eetordloS o gil

oJcm mi"-L]ena asleomorccoi corccmcca

&cooDo "jlgro)o

8.3 (a) go-rcoo;ccri12] oiluo

BDc6ol. p(o)]cotcoel "jllroro 8.3 (b) eotoS

o oru5 orril ero$ flD-oc ff) o occll eo c em; ffD o o) 56t:

omocorcni ooru5orolloS crrlcml oto;cm or.do')

ao)]os olco) oo9] or5earroc€ol.

,i11olo a.: @)

€9qlq *"r'@E

goacoooudo'l eroenLc<ottrtcd

ao)ccdrDc Gae el]e a0)cc6rDc

crdsidoJeo"-.rqoio)cil

1.1 accro'l acrucl(Bo) a3 sloo occu; aoo'il oE

crjlcml o;oelomlo'ilceldo; Lotocuoo ascmcgcod "-rctoqJ€d DcBo m)oeojlcgc?

* pojlos oloocacgo ogLorec@occotlo3cm3t

cn1 oa: 93 er s 6el6rrg orD s3 ood m co;crE mi cr.n co;

olaotoS a3o1ao1.

poJ p"r ccoc ar12i oro.l oldommol;accol'l

6rrlmlod5 ormSor;oreu8 "6v3oi1

ccDcdol.

rsaor c6ilcdmio8 alcrnl o'loo;cmorco;; occojl

- : t='- :..e\: 14,

"La,cuoordal a@J ac(DJa6fi)16E oflon

aagconlceLaaS oLo'lanas 6tccuuo'laaS

cancuA aceJ a 6uB gJos aflrE ern a> pt

oraTad oLfi aaofloop "Lca>aiaei ou@il.

@) c 0) o o'D o B oil ao| oD*

a aS ncras aorotlad cnlcm2 aag c rmlc ercoS

et o 6Dt a c @)l .L afl aaS cm |nL a, c n o ut a't aei

oLS all a;crno oDoe oil aq m)l H."LA, C OO'l A, m)C L(B @ ArlO6rOA A CQJ D

om)laE ofl oq a'S s'l arc>1e eLaei &t 6 o uoo

"Lo'taroro2 6LcoL n'laoS emLcud oraoiQt o 6Dt G @tD c d Ora ss aos cms.

6L a' c cto? a, m; o LB (O a, 2

s7 al a c u.tS

cn'lcmS &Jo 6roro ot1 cetaas LaJ6cuoooLoTaora2 6LeoL uo'laoS cmtcud anaipto6Dt aD'l a6 o>1 nrt ara a, ets cms.

,L11rolo a.f (a)

Lol6cuolam)cL(Bo)c orJo)JcmoJgg 6loJ

acoJooro1o8 crrlcm; DogcoJ occu5aoml

Ger€oJ L"-LCol oo1 eo] G(rxcogHco loJac(ro

ocro'a'loei o'ro.'-t o.t6torolcno ffDocol'l6etJ

crnJG6rBc?

d Ed 6rD GrO qo cd Ccljcol'lotcncPo

(Total internal reflection)

ojleL g.,-LcorJ6ooo peLdts'ld csccojetccu]

aud eene15flcg. c'ooLco;'1oeL 6cggld mco;

egJos oroLcnoroi Lot&c(oo no; oolcs;Golcoel

L"Jo)J 6)ej od s3 crnl c g t "ooo)c oo'l olaoco

po.)'lml ac@5lDo? L"-locuoCIIcrr'loog "6joo.)e,'ler;o mrojlccro"sjoaocc6mc? cno;eo; lo1cuocct.l'ldoco.

6J@l -oro)lo gcm)"jciorotolo8 oeocoS rec(n

co'tlDcpo sero crilo coieo; a. geL om)loE

of](DccDlo o.rlg.gl "lc<o8

odleo]a. "-lclto)ooiloS

ao; ocrooril "jloa'letcaofl oolggcolg<d aSl

ao]e. erL.tlcLscdscrlcelor]e"lcoel G6c6filJ

aua Grdseocgogs;oro'ilacD nol asacmigc m5

"-Lclror oron oo$ or"l oil a3 s1 co o <,ro roni a5i1

6oJA. "-ilLo'ro,ojlceLoJcolcos ("jllalo e.+)

cermtd enr"lo o-roilgildoJe. colgcllo8 Lolacroo

"-r o.ilao;cm rec coo crjl o"la,cfl 6ell a. crDc ol o)cff)o

cermrd "lo'i1oo;cm eocemgrd 6l5le. Lolec

uo a nd d "roilao;cm cnmccDo crilol aM ao;a.

a o; cn1<.rojl co cec6lD goilto8 cn-r occro o cd o'l

"-r coil 4 c g coE oro oi s c el c

"-L o1 <or el ooil el; o s

Gorca]oDo..)ccojl 1corzu14pcH. olo.)cDcacena

Gro e:.ilo a; dl o td ut gi1 gJ G cDc@ol. crjloaBg;o s

,illtoto a.s

crilo"lasremeor:g;o "jlgcolo

8.s eo olc(o<oloJo

o"JqJ.

* orgraS "j16ooroto8 rrorcnooda'ldd "Ooo)l

. cruocoil4J?

"jolcncacend eJsloDom;auo'l rora"-r

cldoormogdol "f)cec'nc5] mleon]cmt

48.6' cocamgonoS "iomosdo'l "lotgcgcc,rE roa"r ordoomoadol ao;os

oD6.rolCoo o)Lojoc (o oC col O3cm3 I

48.6' aotoE a;s'lcor cacemgojloS ocdo'l

"rtollgcgcuE p(o)lcd

"OCa)l crDoeojlg]?

pojlers i.r.tocua olofl cri cT o"-roLdGroo)o

m)ocojlc4c?

pol1os Lor6c oolamtcgcr:to'r a;s1cot

DctDJDo "63ocen5t

(b)

"il;toro 8.a

-/'-l-->s--:r--::l--

- - l- - - -z

lI

I

I

qfu1"qs-qlees!@

bJ&cuo'l&(ucLBJ@ &ls'lo acoJ n@m:loE

(nl(m) &)o Groro@l cp-ta;i 6]@) cnltailae a' c em g oil a6 bL a, c Uo a ud a'l oL o'l ewas

"L atl

aoS eancud an aL oLd raoaa crda'l a ceJ D

om1aop g"L o') a> eL oral etsos m;aoL ala6U crnJ. rora egcctd ara a oL d ara a e a' cend

90o ogallalaa2o. GnoJotd@t>aea'cafi 90o

@rO@1 otaseancud m)cLG(o a,Ss7a;

a c oS a oro'l a at aJ 6) o) G a, cern'l ent La'l 91

aoaE ea,cafi "!)oD) aJo@))cDJ. oL'lsorco

gcmflo| goi 42" 6OB)oq. eaorolaEgroi 48.6" aqdi.

* Cajlsileoo8 cacernl ccnooc<;d ogs'loor orog

ol'lo8 L"lacooo otollgcgcc.d oociloQ

"-lc(orqoidd oooDjocgo crDocojl4]?

crjloa:uA ooeuoocruoo'lg|oop cfl "dgdsoSauEaene15i1cg. "jlgcrro B.6 goteaoccnogs;orril

"-r; d em oro cro o L"l nrr'l ol o) cn olojl o op oro s1 mm c

monrrloS poraolos g"-Lotdorormo oL'loon"lo

o'1 eo; e. cruDc cDoceol mtcndreooBuA aoene oT oil

mcoodmi olootcr'lcor'loE "jl1or1ao'14o1.

goac r.roo <.rd o1 oo3 ac cl5ooroilod cn'l cm; aogc

crrr'l cereo; es oo) emrcu8 Gro"r ordorormo

cruo e or'l €oJcm<orcqot Dtr, Sil erc ao1 corc gc"oroo-r o.rd o16) m crr]ac aojl 6r)l crtl)o HS .ajl er mr o ojl

cuccnecBUa uol.orcoogsco.

oqcrdcru3ecrd (Lenses)

"jli<oro a. z gcroal'l 4[cH. o4]cto.l)eracerrecenj

polrD@o gore (o6ID6B13gl er]os ccoceol cor

cgc<6 orm5oseouE oLersorccojl a,cem;cmcilt

cn'lean<6ad taacnleorogs Egl "jler mrcndre

eBBUa .,CIs;CoJ.

o orcg] cDfiDc€oloDord g"jc<o5ao)@o poJ

&@5rDo aepglcmcs; c"-j6oror3or4j p"-r

cooccrjloo;cm;.

6L a, c ua'l a' mt c 6n a> a"S s'l a; afl ad cnl cmS a,S o

eroroo>l e pLaai p,l 97 aoaS ca, c em g anl eLS o

a,Ss\at ca,canlod aJaculo nLa'tgcad

an a>'tri anoL oL d aro> o o (D oB oJ'l aoco @)

@n e@) actas a raal cerco| 6Lal nL ot'l aaS o.

gacoi "-t2

rdan aooo o t"La>'l aJc6) c)o.

,.il1roro s"z

.t. 18

mialod eLcouco gcrl qotos ojlojlct-r <oroesot

dtlgg oetcOm;;aod cn'lolaseleog.

h^u

W Wffi(u) (b) (.)

% ru \% ffi N(d) (") (f)

oxn esBUA cacg"lo g a-t o'l a> et aon cgcda,S s'l a; a4 a c @J D c a3 a a c ai a eLod mi.

polooo oerodmr]aod cDleaeuA eieiaoaceni

ar5"-Ldoo'l9i cmcool co1 5lc6rec? "gaoceniGnorao)Jos ergo5oilt

,jlgoto a.a

ojlojlcutoroo oerodm;a<rE

cn5 u 6 oo1 41 c cnc ao1 co; o oro or coil er; o s or m5 to"r ;doog cn1o"l osl1 q;o oeLo8m:;acrE ro)@o

ro'l"lo1ao;.

* "goocen5 cn'leonglos ooeneoroo8?

cDleaeua oroo oJ1to'14 oetodru;og1oE o'oo'l

a;ocrf, ecDo 6Jo6oroolJo DcDJeccDo ocDoal

@iseqq qdq

s1 o o3 ac cor o eLadmts oog eo; cr1 43 o oroo'1 a3aud acno a;slcoro'r;o a@JrecDo 6mo 6cr

6rdro rorJocao eieLodmtsaogao;cri4;o elsJCI)

ercco'l <orool aot; cm or'lcri mDJ€o- n@J

1"-Lru6oocoo odeoi(o.)Je0)cdoco.

o0JeGBcrDo 60cm m"lgot]o 30cm ot"ltoiloo;]o

15cm oorc€oorJo)gp aoJ ocdnr5cerucdui

o"r5fl "gs]ao]a. po')1oop cnlgo]gg or('oo

mlao'l e'roojlos gcm5c"-Lgd o5fleo;o. ot1afl

elocrorD orcoonil ao; Blc@o psl6. 40cm

cnlgo;gg "-L1.on.mt"

oo"-rgfocrp aoLcnord

' crjl o6BUA <or o o oJ1 o'1 4 o eLoE m3 a gi1 <o8 ei o o q o

go g[1 oer; e. "j. oI. mt. oo"l g] ntco rorrJl etgos

o)eoDcgJo cr.i1ccmcg;o olej1 gileoooeo o"kojl

qoto8 tooloo1eo;e. oo,Lgiloop ojocrD

GrdL(/)o o"r5flcoJoS ojloolo)l olo6rno. ootgl

6olgg]6E "jcemCI,lo'lo'l

aonr;]4 "-r;a cnlo

doo3o.

eillroro B.s

"i. on. mt. o o "j gil oog o.lJ o crD rorolcn onril eL; o s

csc6 gjoeroglod crAcm;gtr loJoccoo "-L,otd€ole. oougj 0lcoDc5lo n:'locac53om"loerl oo;o oercr8 mr; auE occjl occjl gol G ao)c

ajlglo .ro"lagemo c'rgord<oroJ1eo3.

* act'tJcccno omo a;slcor oerodm;;agilet;ers

ascrDJoroD Lolacooeu"lalocr$ o-rcot og go-r

ocrooccot'lo3cm;l

ocDJreccDo ecDo e)1c)6101o) eretodmJagil

erlos esffDlolcrD tolac<lotocdolog]osolCO)GeO)C?

ereLcrdml e.r;os asoDlor(oloD LoJocuoosdol

auE a o3 enjlcn;oj1o8 colcn"lao'leo;cm (mtoloL

el gilaolcm) oeLodm:;aog cacen0oordmioeLcrEmi "ocml oroao]CrDl.

monelo 6loldoJ.

oL1 pt ototl etS I ts @) c aJ c o pt cD a,J

a'| atS gg or) @) c @J ot m aS aa ud

o eLod mtS a, g c afl L"L otd orotl aaS a'A;'l*. A,CAAno, @ldoJQ))AS "0HCBcD@tDJo 6t@JcoJcas afi)o PPPo4 aa,card anoLa,l eLsos &s ffDJ

caJC&J(n LUA'Cfu ACrdAlA'ud aLA

rn a crt n'l ad (D a c oa @ a c at1 c "L

c a'S

ffnJ. @noJ oJdata a a,'l o an avz ud m;o pL *'laoJ a, e a) c oil 1ot *'l aoS a, e a; c a oL gS onl g.

o6rrEc oooro cr'lrecoo oao0ml; ooE

cacenS caoi oetodmt; aod "gcmcll

cor o gsJcml. cacen0cacri oeto8m;SauEad ao;

crjl<dorlcno "CIeJo)J.

(b)

-ofl1olo 8.to

crrl ecn g3 o s crjl o"l aei 6m 6cB g3 er s oT o s' mmc m

ororlCI8 oj11o'ro a.ro (a), a.to (b) "Ocrrjlolcolto8

"-L(o-r m o crdo'laua@d GlocDJ m)S o)aceo Grool

oldorocn ocdolco;os "-Lcor olo2] ll6cloi1

a0)c€o).

oaoEcru3acofl 6rxmDodt5 cnrcce,ofleoiosnga

#%.oilloro a.tt

g"-rccoccril g3 oeleroroor)o nG@ olejl gotttll

erlggo'rlo o3<o5m5o cnlooro-ilel]CgCI'.)laceo)

oeni Hcggld o"gmigalo G6rxcplaua "CIsJ

€oJ6. Oene; oJs'laopeo)Jo uom5"-too o]er,l

€03p0 1 ctn3Qo 2

"L11too 8.tz

Goro)CSl Dl o-ro G-oi d orol or ! aro cr cor;os G&LCB

5aBglo8 a3s1 amjlascrole. po;oloooroJ

co'lcm;o ceucg;aod acogaorg ":olecocu-r'l

eo;. crileong;os gao"looemo -ajllroto a.tz occot'l

olcocoroJo O-al9]4.

* JLo'r oroloE ABCD ogcm eccllo

"gcrolerm m;3.l-t1 gJ eo;cm;l mlecBUA

Gmtocoro oroo oilo'lg "6o13

ereto0*u'lonp

o'rqa5cor1 cor; acqo)c6rd ptollml m)cal oJ

ggcr;?

potlo8 A B C o$crD oruoo of3o.l] ccDcg

on-noo$ eccooceni?

* pno ecncgoroilocrp calcnenilcn; "6o52

ADC "6cm olcroo ofJc6.'r) culcg<ooiloQ

reccnocenS?

* p.rc ccncgoro1loop cogcnenflcn; "63<tilt

C1, C2 nCIcm1 errilcn;eouE olLotolceeLcB

ear:oO <ogcorcoS - orLeotccegceorirr'lcr5

(centre of curvature) oo3 crjldotolmo

o3"r"lao1eog.

a end mfl aop a oS atilcns oil ocn 6La,c ao'| a,

c6L(Ro (optic centre) "Om) oto@JaD].

aJLa, @)cc& LB6oBog ow'lad eace1g|aaJm) eaaLatcoi oendmiloop aSa4

sn a*ro (principal axis).

ie iil's,iee@@

pc(o)cnrcoel "goi16or<roo,

or] crjlcrd o3er-5

oraeszoro-ilm; m)ocooooccojl .'-roi1ao;cm

oudolouadd "oclo)l rDoreojldolo?

L"-Locco oad zflla,<fi crDoU)o'l dolcm p.]D

enjl.el alilJ eonceomi ngcmcrlooog

SJml. "go1oE ao) cacendooLd'mi

oeLoamt'lc5 oOLo) olojJ cclncoomtseuE

genecaorlol eo;o t

.o-tlLoro "rgdoror1 corceol cocenEoord'mj

oe-Lo8mr'l oofl c.'n caomi crdsaoc gog sl oroJ.

CJlroro a.ta

clr16 oH 51 "j o'l asi 6m 0lo','lo8 cocenE cocrioeLodmtloS "rofl eo;cm g"-Locr.roo<rdol auA

oi1 gcr e1 g3 c or c el crD ol c ao;'l crjl ean od o cn q$ er c

,L'11toro a"t:

"r'l1or oor1o8 6c6mJ cm ttr.l; Gotcoet @6rBJ

c cn c c a c "-t

o'l o) ej eae ua €o'l s coi o8 o J ol o o e c 6Yr3

m)Joc@JOc(r)Joo 1uoao1eo]. pali "01o)l

oeLo0mierop or9a5o'i1 oocard I

-il tor oojl o8 o e-L od mtl o erp i": ac cro'l a c6lcBo,

orle(o)ccaLcl:leBBua "Ocrrtoj (slosaocgoHsJ

olo)ie. olorJ crd6)ejo oroco)oo;4.

* mlean g;os "-Lllor"l& o 6TD ooflro8

orl6o)cc6Lcn5oBog ormlo8 ccorcel gi1

€o]cm o]o$ cYa6)s/o Lolec('olocalcnorri)elJos aScrDJGolceJCrDJG6IEc?

o;orJ Gyoasiolo'ilergos oo3 L":accroo<.do')

u<or1 gcoE oncriloop m;aotc o o'l cocoied

"Ocro)J ocpo cruocojleo]o ? -a-Ld goo"lcoi<o]

GooJodsloror].

coec6)cnf (Focus)

oll a o H 5'l g "-t

c co c crjl g3 o "-L

co) or "j o"l esj 6m

clrotloE cocendooldm5 oe-roO mfl eLJos ascrDJ

croonfr ao; enilcn;oL1at;os colceJcmolccol

oenelcg.

"i.on.mt. ooagiloS oetadmioer$ oo)ol@o

c s c 6 4i1 cd <oro re'l o3 er ac cot'l oL o otor eo o.t'l or o

oeradmi go,il|q .'jo"lasj5rDo rorgodoolleo3"

* al6'uJ crde,sjoro'jlcn; cruaccrooocaojl ao;

orcoolo;cn'1cm; oto-Iloo;cm oodo'log;os

"-rco"raoiad oro.l-lotdorlcnorrilm] G(o ogjo

"f)clo)l cruo re ol'l do]cmJ ?

@iFI L^g':I

ojliol toro'jl o8 o eroO mrl o8aol sl eoJ g-g or(D cD o

ud o1 co;; o s cor J o Gyd oJ or d ofiD m o ud a'l eol o s co;l o

ucor crlloleMleo;.

* cocen3cool oeLadm-r'lo8 o]orJ Grdo,si

<lor'im3 cruoc cro) o occo;l ":to.'r1

eoScm

Lol6C('O OCrdO']Ag]OS CrudoJo@olCo) Grool

ord oro-rmorojl cDJ Gco oslo o0)tol 6c@ acoot (o1

aoJo?

crou ordolirrmosdol aua ooJ or ooololl

crjlcm] ccnceo'lcorcoS "gojlos cn1cm oo;cmorccot coccrDlo?

o.r11oe14;corcelcrn cCISc oa6o1og3o

Geo errt'lcelol'l<o3 crrlcml oro;cmorccol

Scc6rDc corccm3cmo5t

p.o eu1cn] oL'lom cacen0caoioeroamtioop DIoJJ eonceerm5 "gcm]"joaQ)lcml. ogo]o8 col cacenacooioeioEmicd oOLo) EJoIJ concaoml]e<rE

geneccololoo;ot

crrlean g;ers eocTre oro nl"np oros'lmrnc cn

olotCI8 ojllo"ro 8.16 orldooileocdol.A

C

,i1;roro a.t0

oeLo8mlcri o6rBJ concaorusauE go6recrD]

om qgl eLc eol ao cHc. cacendootolmt"oeroEcruloQ Gon c€o m-l"o;Oo o0)6613ocD

eo6rEcororco?

cor c6nd ocx o"clu" oet cr8*l" d coq c6)qD"o$@o erOffiCIoEfiP oilcDo

noj cacar6ooreicrd oe"rcr8crd olgooGroooeraolgg ao; ormSor;crLlci ororeio;ei-t

acco;l "-fls'l€oJ. Dololso6rd oelo/dml1msS

om-rcoojl ao; m5ia"lo0 Grdmolc ccncjeru;ed

orcoiao;. oerodmi D)ccmc5Jo o-r'locac5;o

m"leo;. crjleaesa "Ocro-)l

crjl olaeil dolcml ? crt @1

6r9i6'rDonelo aucorodari ucocfl cOt'lo8 o;cr1

€oJ6.

* crmicrr] oLloop t":<or1 enLlo6Dlo oJgorJo

or5eorocaojl oroJCrD ounccDoJJo oancEmtso

olaal er;gg GE&Ero mSerooor'lo8 eorcao)c

cr)l3j ooeneooj1 o6v3or1.

o.0 croloec 6rl3ccor'l o'l eoco p']D mmccnori

1,',-L<oi1 erriloeruo e;SJ rooS or5 ao) ocaotcil t

cro"-tordorormosdoloua ao; enflm;o-Ilo8

cagcn"l a o1! crunccno oercr8mrs occor'l

enLmlofl 5 oCI(o)l ec(.Daccoi<o'lao]ot

ca'cafiaoLaimi aeLodmiladaossl a'srmS

cal c &J cD 6L A,CA A UtA'l A, Ud At nC rd n(otol @E mt o <n a'l aaS rm a>S a a, c ard c

".o c aa mi

ancdn ac eti. "grmcad ca,csndea,oiopLodmjlaS 6La'caarda')a,ud aaS aillottailat cn?cmS oLascmacatl c@cffD)& Ec@)

aceti. @a@) oa,cend ca,cendea,oia eL od ou'l oo! G on c ao m;" a'l n7 a;c eri.C"nCAAmi F aDfi) CnA&cOo AAtC6tdouS'17 gll aaS rmS. L"La, c uo\ a, e6 ((Ro aS a> ro6

c"n c ao mi oL a @ a) gg aS a a c ai e ".n

c aa miasoo (focallength). g@; f aecrn @rd&81@o

a & e 6tEJ m;s o-tt gfl aa| ms.

igq"-!CI:Lg l@

pCIiloE cnlcml oero0m>leetod

ocrD 9i ro'lcor r:3ro aceni p9

cclnceom5r:;roo.

oil oS a a> ailod ofl oq oJ @J(rn bt a, c a a cda'l

a' ud mt a c oot @ a c a) (o) o & c atd c a, c end a ot

aimi apLodmi eO 6La,ccroauta'la,oga eL od otJl aop c

"nc ao m.t"l aE ot-t o toL x7 gfl

eoJon)"

oL:;ocorcotlolgg ECIJ oLdol;olloofl c"lo-n

enilo5riro eieLodmi onofl oofl cclnceom;lo8

o;"-l1o ol oo; cm occotl 66I.13 GHc. 6jo]

cacenEerord'mi oerodmi o3or"l a o1 eo;cm

|o-lto.'i1 enil o erleanoE "9 gco oCIG dcaJo DJoIJ

ccln ooo mt'l oSoroocrD org col o1 oo; cac t

o er cr6 cru" o g Jl a o'l m 3 crn ("r colonil o oru on crd

cacenEooLdmi oero0mioofl ao; oruooYd

ooro'flg oov3o3<oi1o1 oroo)oo;. ao;oLoooni

miCelcn'lo8 orJa<ol o.laoJets to-to.'rl eniloeuo

o;"r"1 a o'l oo oro eo ot'lc.t-lo adlo"l cmc

oeroSccruc oJGCrDccSc "jlococc5c acg'l coo"l

ooleo;. oLmS<o3o:3o eretodm>;o o"raalet;o

Lojrojlenjloeuor]o oeroacrD]o o.)zolelJo gtsts

ccBAelo GrogooDg]6.)l.

ao; oerodmloff) crDo6Dl mll 4i1 s ccmrcAo

loacuo'lacelmolio oLm5ol;o.t;o om1 et;gg

c6rd&ero u oac6lTSlo luacclo'lacetcBolJo

L"-LrOr'l enL'lo 6ilojJo Orml eLJgg Grd6elo voec6rBJo rcrgeni au]Jgleolcmo;. fc"ncaomie]@orJo cDeJCmJ.

om5or; oeroEmt'lo8 cnlcm) oL5<o;m5ro'r to'oa

ereangfoE oL2i "-ro"levd,

Do G@otdototd

d5'le "-L;donilcorceog.

LdrE.

fi)o.u

(.-)v

(.*)

;$e a.t

TO + I ; eu,o'na qgqU'to, 6oYt@

cnloanud cnog

eiersdmr]eroEo

cacen0caoi oeLodmi pnlccorcai4i uo"l&rei6rDo c'r9o6oojl asr].

* L"-rro'r'l6il1o6rro crdLolmloE arel oo3

crDlG6YT3C?

ool or uoorolcrr'i cmJ o aof, mi a;o s orm) or3

crr1 om cmcooJcmLcod o.rmi<o;nnonp

crLeil go "6;i"-Lacoocen5 t

ao] oerodmrloel3 u, v, f "6;crrr'loL

oloaloS

ao; crjluorftor orumla;eni. cn5;acdglnsl5o0

"jl crrno"kojl p "-r

cco;ccrJl9] eD 6Txcrtuooro 6JoJ

ouJltororcoJocoo'l ocgco. proilom oeroSmj

ffDoolcaJo "$cml o]oeoJloDJ.

cnlcni

^ uv ufl- _ v-u-v Lt+l

fvu: f-v "ocmloo.lSlcml.

111* -:-.- qDo)looIVII-

mJe €,rdslsJfio

aeLodmtSac@t 6ntru)o#g rLtpr B)@dsBglo

ran g aoS rm rd otSS a,ccdgl *S od tilam ola>1

2 "L C A; C ut1 4 C ai. g A rn| tu 01 4

. aJAJJ(6nAac4o X ArOA,caAcA;l'5o hJ&Ccol a, c a, 6n o a

S et mLl rnS @ r i gi n) @rO at A o

ounei"LlgflalaaScmS.

. "OHc BJ@oUo aagaascmroi L"La,Cco'la,

ea,LnorctlaE aTcmcai.

. oJ(oo@uda1oSes Gnca) oTaa;1od aogaaJ(m asaeonud c"Lcrns'lg1oi Grecolo

a41a7da7 n all et g aaS cm oL arnco g1o1

crQ a;) o "L

a'l co an1 aaS rmS.

mt c a,oS ao>lrnScoLarE1 ota cnaoda'l g gataJ

a7 cri oL pte(6ra c SJ "lofl aaS cm a canl m;nd"LTgTalaaSrmS.

:tt rt:i::: I i t:t l

t:l- .. I

::l::l::l:::::l l:ll1 i ili-fiil l:"'

"jl Cor oT ojloS coJJacd 5"1 oej3 o0 oj1 omol ojl g "-l

ccorcullg] v, v, f coolo(dslolo]6.

m3; acd g"l "oz;od "-t'l ornolo)l aoltoE cacen8

oordmi oercdmioop c"ncoom5r:]oo Golcmt

g"leorc omcng'lco.rct

"Ote'1o8 cocen0cooi oeLodmiocrpccorct

LScm cooceocninJ@aJgg eito; cocend

oordmi oerodmioE crilcni 20cm ra,oa

oeLoorccot aororlg GoJ oaeJ6]onto1

oco)ao; cm;. oow; o3 <rr1 o'l cor;os 1"tcrr'l

6Dfl o5l-ro ogor"l o5toroce]cmcil "4;oj1

oscolc

co;1o1ao;ot

f =+L5cm

u =-20cm

uf:-Y u*f

= 2Q--x---!]i - -3oo-20+i5 '-l:+bucm

L5cm e"ncaomiolo algg ncol

cacfficaoi ereroEmt'loE co'lcni 10cm

c6ro&oel oorccot CIql o'l dolcm otmior;

n long lolror'1 enL'loeruo 6Jc6lDoSsScmoi

"6oilos <or9cor1 oleocot

f = -15cm

u: -10 cm

v=?

ufr/ :

-

" u*f-10 x -15 150 _,-10 +-15 = '25 : ocm

g<oror o <ilo'il oE ercnco g"loi "jl orno cru;"jl gil oo;

cm<d 1"-rnrJl6niloeuo o'lLntrcocoemcmcenS.

oeLoEmi o3u1oo1q p.lD go-rojlenilo6rudcBog

co orc"jl 1or ean g1 er] o s acerrrl qccerc ?

cco otcail CCD esns0 cro col"e,r co

s.r11ro'ro 8.18 1coau1 eo3. ecDo el o6roro

cacen6oordm5, cacenOcocri oero0crDlagl

eelao] "-rroilao]cm oL5ol5m5or "jormooda'la gceni o crrr'l o1 oo2 cm oi. oroor co.r; o s cordor

or d oror cn uc <o or co 1] -e.j1 1o'r o or; 6 oro'11 coc oo;.

o:3 6 ororl co c eo1 co -ojl 1o) ean g3 o s toro s1 mrnc m

otono8 crileang;os 6o5lrsoros;au8 mcoroEm5

olao;cr'l cor'lod o)g] oco.

r Gacerdoordm5 oerodcnlloop o;orJ Grdasj

oloJlm; m)occo<oocqot oeloAcru'lrod "-Lcrjl

dOJCm L"-loccrooudole,Ua rs, o.,lcxdolo)Cn

on-Jlco;cco"vo oo)o.luoo'liil DjorJ eCIncoo

m:1 er;os ascrD;corca;cmJ.

a

crjleonua orco4 Ga.LrordonDmoudolouE g"-L

cco;ccn19j mo;od oeroEmi o;"r"lao1oer;cm

gol<or'l enilo eu eor:Ua -oilLo"l ao'l eo co.

V :?1_ 1_1fvu

eesile!eeq:e"q!@l@

(f)"fl1oro

a.ta

bJ &c uo'l &e e' L@ aro:l @E a,S s7 a's tmS cotc

&)on @udalaudaos oLSo>1@)oao (DoBoLl

aqoDlH

cacendooLdmi oeio8mierof, oo3 orsooloil@'l

6o]cm o.rmjor] oil oof, C""L<ofi eoil o6rxo 6rel o0 m5

ao; or cro oni o3 "-11

e o1 aer; cm ol c ool c cD to G o'ro>

e6rBJ cx GHc. pc gcod "-LStdoor'1

corc eolq0)

"63ooro1eLJo oenS cro"jotdoromouda'l auA

g "-r

c corc <ril 9] po Lu roll erril o6rx 5613 gl os G ool c

o.jlloro oroco)eoco.

Gonc€offD"Bl(oo ono'l coc olJcm 6JoJ

eocendocrdmi oero0mi Sgcofllon god€ol.cacog;oonil ccndcoot o.ro9] re'no'iloofl aco5

@ : q"

"r_.!f &C,qr"ts, qq@

rec<nonncaojl oscdmi oLco)eog. oeroEmiocf,

p oJ or clooroccojl F, 2F "gcrrlloL

c oor aojloE oros

aOCAOoIS)OltD).do

oero0mfoo$ ao; orcoord 2F cd croglooa <m'i1 g oa v3 a; oi1 o'l or aJ oo3. 1or oi enil o enL o

miCal cn1o8 o:5 eor oceol "-Lroi1

gil eo;. poil os

og"r"la5orocaor Luo'jleniloeucm'lerop coerc"jl

Loro (cjlLo'ro a.ts) crflo"le,*il cnleaBg;os crjlol

esi6mc6BUa mcorcrEmS olcorcrlooltoS eoCIrog

s)oro)l.

clou"cot3 2F m"oro.ugoo

,.[]goro e.ts

go"t<oileniloerrLoroJloop ff\)-oco)o :

1o-toileniloenLot<d'loQ orejlgo :

iortorleniloeuoonocfl GDrGcoJo :

oLmia2 oilaE crfl cmS o a endmfl eLSos a,s (nJ

e oJ c &] m) am ot oL 6 ara rn a (/t a'l a' uA eJ 51 DJ

52 eanccrd g6tBc e)(n 6La'l ay'loaruo

atncd n acai. ogcmc a6 rsnoJ ohd @raa

oud ala, ud a,S5il aS gS rm a> cajl e a> cotfla;ca|gaLa>'l aill oauo a7 rnS anc ai. n7 nS c 6L a'lotil o 6tu o mi rc'"l cnl a8

"L otl a;S a, ail g.

orm5ol;ofloop mrncmo oeLcr0mtloop 2F q1

c6ro fl I o o or o olol ael o-Ll rl) o p o-l G eoc cnl oo; cm

olcnr0rco eJSl6coJacot -ot64odoio..lleo6retoroil ruco)oacn5 nucorcjlqoto8 eoldeo;.

Lo-trofleniloeuo olorla5(o)acco) F co]o 2Fm;o

psoo;lo8 ao; oLm5o.'r; oL4co8 <org oLm5or;

nno€ gorarrl oniloeuo olot"l 6J to-.l oca,; cmroi

"g oi1 o s oo-r c ooi o1 eer; o t c o ei-Lc "-t'l

go) o ol co 9]ononoop LoJcolJoolecd coarogs;olol.

cxcru"o)8 F m3o 2F m3o gso)'1('6

,L11toro a.2o

Lo-rro'jlaniloeuoo'noerp ffD-ocoo :

1o-ro.'ieniloeuoonerop oLejlgo :

1o-ro.ilenfl oeruoo-ilemfl $DlGcolo :

plD o6rBJ ojlgoloang]o crrcoooJo o"-Laoicil

cnleong;ers aoerrecnoroS mcocdcrJ uco.rer'l

colcoS o;crleo;.

pnc oloilcoloE oerodm5 g"lccorculloo;cm

m;cndeeor:cd eo6lrecorDl ?

cxqu"(o)S 2F $6

"L11oro a.2t

u1 6 o'nrr1 ooc eo1 co; c o ei-Lc -oL'l ltol oo-r1 oE crrl cn)

io-r ro.'i1 enilo enLonil ercfl oD-ocff)o ao6lT36'ro] :

* Lo-t<o'r'leniloeruoro-Aoof, o.rejlgo o6Lol6c@

occor'lo1eo;o? '

* g"-Lor'l eru'lo eru oto'rloQ ffUIGC Olo

o0)Ooo)CO€O?

1o-to'ieniloeuo p6ITdcaO mmomor<il om5al;cr co) eer; a cor c o em n'l od io-r o'r'l enil o eru otojl o aQ

ffD-occ)o "4;

ojl os co;c ol'l olaerJo t

ploJec(oo OerodmtSo</a gcltco;ccnleO]cm

mrcedeo aoerreororco0 1ma1ao;.

oro; cacenSoordmi oero0mioQ co; orcroo,d

"goIos orcrdor] oL41 o2 cr-oceJlo g.'-ror1

6Dfl o6rIo Oloj"les(o.)oceleoc?

FcoA

dgroro a.:z

* gc'ro'ileniloenio o]ot"l65(o)accaoc? "0)oo)c

oolo'laerco 6c(o6rDo?

Go6xc dl tor <oo'r'l<08 d*lgg cn'lean g;osaoene onn o8 mr coroE mi nr-l cor crl coi o8 ") sJ o..)l.

clcru"olE F cngo oorcr8crulm3o gscol'l<td

p oi1 o s o3 crr"l a5 ol o c cor L"-L o'jl anil o eu oliril octp

ffDocG)o "oojlOscoroerd

t

go-LoJlenjloenoroiloop orejlgor;o ocn5ror;onoof,

oreilgor;o cDcocDaJo o"rgtl.

aronil4 ooe;a;oi1o1 oeroOm-fl m;o Gonc€o

m;1 m3 o1 scol oE . q .,-L o"l asj 6mo o"-r 93. t"-r toil

6[rjlo6fio m5ta"lcrjloS o;"-r"lo5olac6jcrD]e6rec?

* Doloruoolo;cnlcni oeLodmr'ieL;os orm)o;

ojlerm GcDc€olccnicud om5<or; o4;Lorec

oacan5 ec6rDodsJcmcill

"0&,1co4 coerc"jllroro

1o-L oi1 enil o eu roron o op

oleer;o?

orogcgccld elel.g

oDlGcolo "gClOOool'l

o0)ffo;o6c6rrecerl5 poLlos orocJao;cm

go-loi1enfloeruo a1Lntrcolcen5 "Ocml ojoao)]

cmoYl

cucru(D3

,lllroro a.:s

crll eon g;er s ooerre olo.l ejl oA crrl crd c ".lc

et"l m;3

cr:5c cn mmd erorgl oor sJ H1m) cotenel

cacenierordmi oero0mi p"-r cootc crr'l eo;cm

rno€ &co6lDo c6ucctlJocaDcgc.

pec oloilco,loS cocendoordmi oeroOm5 g"-L

ccocailoo;cmrcua olD(il crulo"-flua ooaclecmScoc"i rorqcori oLdorofl do)cmJ.

ce c6rr8 Ge of oar crd cru o gJlo ra'lel gcro

("JcD'l6Dilo6Ixo

eocen8cooi oerodcruloop a@l or uoolo)"

ooro'i14 oov;e;o'i1o1 oro)4o3. oo;or<;ooni

o e.r c0 mjlms;oncoojl crritalod or doo;a. mtcot

o)co)o mYgalcrE ocg]oaocend oetoaml]o

m)1a"1 cn; o or oo'1 et; gg Grd6 elo ott? ut1 gil €o3.

Lo-L rojl enjl o euo mS ta"l crjl oS o3 o-r"lo5 to r oca;crDJG6rrdC?

oolorcrooro;cn'lcrd oerodm;1a;ers orm)ro;

oL'lerm ccDc€ol - omJcl;oLloop oLeJlgo

"6;L"lecoocen5t

Loro)lerrjloon]o cnlordcmco)c, olae"lvce0)G(o)c?

* Lo:rojleniloeruoniloop crunccDo oJocB(roo

"goLloscorccor'l 5cerd acemlcmcfr t

f . lr,:liI ii i

:l-.=t; ,llrl

1...:::::::::::l:::::::::::::

::::::::l:::::::::::

,, t,t..-,,1

LI

ruol"or3oL'10ofl rrM)cDoJJo 1"*troflenlomlomiloofl runrmcl3o oJ?ooJo.JotDo

oLlloro a.la

oLmior;ojloo! mmccno ocglooocarri "-Lo"l

osj6rDo orqordoroileo]. cDleoBg]os oro6r-i3

otor tod mr co o0 mi oD cor cr'1 qot o8 c to o-t o g s j otol.

cn'lea'Bg;os aoeneono8'jlLollaol2ilo'l€o;

oil1,roro a.2s

* o3t1 a5 (o) acao) g"-Ltor1 eru1o enL amlerofl

crunccDo noojlosoocenSt

* Lojojlenjloeuo oJelJco)c? odo)co.)c?

of)oo)]odc5lrBcenj tuarrl enjloerlo o1Ln5

qoc6rd "ocml "-loco-);cmo5t

Loroilenfl oeuo m5Co"lcrjl<08 o3"-r"laoleoo gscoloroilm] 6c@6IDo

"goolccollo'1eoco?

omior; or5orSmio mmccneanglon oLoL'l oll cu coo,tc "-tllorocBua

olo doo3. cn'lean

gJos 6o6rBororod mqo)oAcrd nrlqocrlcotoS

o$eltol]e.

ccDcCI)€cd crn oilool"qr ei g0 o3o'lailoet(oJfiD@I(DGC0)o

"'' tP !" 1o9

)tttw

-

OP.IHALMIC SURGEON

tr,t,)

oc$"rdod eu3rau1a353gg aocuA ccnl6)G(octn

oL'loc.r)tlom aerrecgccd crdBQooo 6amsorcececcnccor'l oecsJonD a;crl gcernloi.

* a3o1g1o8 cucoJsd m;":1Hlgoi.'6 coi o cneo; ci1 g c erd t

o oroil g o a w3 a3 <or'l o1 cor; o s 1u arll 6D.fl o 6ru o

ao; cacenEoordmi oero0mi p"-rcco;ccri19]

mitel crjl o8 o3 c'r"l a o'1 ool e. o o e J e

J oJl o1 co; o s

crunccDorlo oaodcrd go d'l 41 o1 eo;cm

mco8leio0 cruncff)or)o acocoo) mco8loEooooooooocr5 crrtr mi ror c

"n coo mi n

J ro 5613 g

J gg er er crE mr;

ocd gogileo;a. m5ga1crJ1o8 ocem;cm o5cro5

orolletofl LorcolJattr'loryE criloleMloola"

* BJcroJo olJd<o.lacc6rric?

e5cro; eanod ccrdorJ d(o oc oLcod "6;croc0ot

01

dOCo &C@6IDo?

oae;43ofl olcor;o m51a"lmlo ocscoror

BJUoJo olJaoocolcod "9clOl3o"-tQ5TDo?

.Os'lCI8 aqsouE p"lccorccriloolcmo;

"g oo1 m; c or erre'l ao)c6rd a

o enE mfl o op c "n

c ao mias o oLS a c o7 6Dt (rw

oaJs oto acen>- otoLd. alo o7 Ptl qo.rJJ O o*

c"-o caamjos a roro>1 oo! oLS2 aE6' a a coi (re -

ciprocnl) aendoulaop "LoLrd. "LoL

c>la@

a4onlgcai aoeancigd. gotlaog 6La"la,oD cog a,S cmS. ea,c ardootai mi oendoulaop

"LoLd e"Lcmfl gloi ogatso ca,c6rrAca'oi

aendmiaop nLoLcd acnag1ai aryaSo "-ta't

a onl aoS cmy "-toLcd

&) s) @ ptc a.)ca| t"La>'l

6Dil o 6rtto erctodmll cn sS oroi oS"L agsS cmS.

N B P ease trino thrs pres*;ttian in yol' luture visil

;0,on e ro!,!' tol rou dl nT-g"

GnxcdsoJos eJcfl iloo$ o'rodLno c6ruccr'lJ

oHSeRc. cn'loang;os aereneomroS mqo)oAcrr5

uaocjlcoio8 e2cr1oo3.

66pil @8 go.i <or'1 enLl o enL o o3 al"l a o'1 ao; cm roi

o€) Lor ec o ac ed I a5 c oo cojl o8 Lo-l o'r'l enjlo eu

oJ"r"laoomo pLojoc(oacc6mc? amlogiJc(r)

IrorolJo AJcooQ)Jo olm'lo8 "goctoulel]om)c6suoJ5aBgJG6rBc?

olffi|o eJcaocD$o

"-jliroo B. 26 o eL aepgloop co-t;o eJ cooeo)]o s ao))o

ojltaDeaBua to-lcto<olaJo o"lgJ. DmlosJcmLo)

oToJloaoo;;o a5caocoiooao)Jo Lorct.lccD ec<n

e6noa enSB o'rcoioj mcorodmi uaorcrlco;lo8

i.-'a

* cmgororoilerlo oJcaoo)'lerlo ggg oeloami

"63O13 o.)oocedt

por oerre'leL;o "61o.r1osooceni Lotorl

enilo6Dro og"-r"lao1 eo;cmo5 t

por oerreleL;o oogilcn/cn51a1cn'loE ".lo,1

do]cm io-Lror'lenjloenLoto-noop Lotco,.)Jeo)

"0oO;?

cru ocff)ocao m)c65 soJ56BUa oi Co.loroiloE cn1 cm;

6o6rBoloJ. mcoodmi uqo)ct ao)'lCI8 a3cr1eo1"

oll oLl cl <nroa eL mr: gil eL1 o'1 ao; cm or m5 or3 eog3 o s 1"-r <o'i1 enil o 6il o &J c oo qot o a .-o'l ejl D1 o8

e5or5ocaotl o3"-L"lao'leolcml. ptol cncco'l

oeroEmi CIJGCrDcc5c "-L'locacc5c m"leeil

oeLo0mr;o "nlefla;occor;a9 crdaeJo Leo"leoleo;cm;.

ogcmco8 ccntorroo'jlo8 p<til "OeBBocn

mtcut6oJcmJ? ccnl<ororoioeL oetadmi oJecDcGSc

ojlocace5c mloon;cm;carrect

@i'e"s!

,L11oro a.2o

(('roo6)coG0tJoscr8 (Acc ommodation)

rucru"ot3oLloofl G.rd€:Pro o,esemo)m3 m o14 1;orl mrLlo eu oo1oaflcleLl"ro e,3oo3cm3.

"il1oro a.zz

-ojlgo'ro e.zz 1ooadeo;.

* oLm)o'r;ojloQ <a'neero oeroEmlo8 crr'lcml

6lsJ crD ofl mcn; cru o19i 1orofl eulo eu

roror'loop mmccnoojlm; acgo cruocojldo;

cmJG6rBC?

crlleo:g;os aoeneoroo8 cLocm"loo'loqe;co.tl.

eDo.lc6rd aernloa8 orooaelcocn-D.sioA.6ID O

Groo€ocacaD"ucd ao] g"-LcCcoccrjle crjldot

-oJcr)OoPJCDJ.

ooHcoro]osaoJo cml(o.)otrDloE cnslo,o-)Jo

Grd6 oer aoJ olgg oLmicor; €o glos Loro'l6frjlo6fro a5olJacco.fl oogilmooloSonocm o;"_L"l

aoleo;cm;cerrect

crjleon g; o s ag g;aco'l o8 "jl erd o,epg secrE g "-r

qooc ai oo3 crnlc g t "gooi m3 co: errel cotceni t

"OHc e6m s a 91er]o Qor cao)c or'l eo;cm

oeLodmi aco o)o0cc6rDc?

cmgoloriloer oe"ro8mr'lcd cnrnccnacqo

cruocojldolcm]c6rl3c?

ereroEmloop oD-ocff)o ococo(D otm5ol;

nnoQ ou-ocff)o oco;cmtccld 1"-tto,len-flo

euoro'netofl oDnccDorlo occo6reolcg?

ecDLo.r oro'lo8 L"-Lo'r'l eu1o eu ortrlloctfl

CruncCDo 0goloD)G6T13c?

crocgcuE Lo-ror'l 6Dl'lo6Dro 656.)J OCaO)

cunc(r) oro.)] ": o'r'l ao em oo s'loE

ereLoamioop "6ro19orccoio'leoemo

olJ6')Jc

m;ogcseneo5l

* "6;$,1to8

am)oejJccDLro-lom-jloE GDsJoorJo

Groeoereo)lo;gg orm5or;aog;os 1o-Lcril

6niloeuo a5<o5occol o0)66Bocn oogilcn

co;1od .jtorleer;cm;l

Coo clul cJos"$ (Myop ia)

"jlgcoro icroadeol. rorgc@ccnJo;gg 6-J@l ccDltor

ctro,l o8 oL m5o-r3 oL1 erop i".l crn enflo6ilo ol ot1 eo1 oer; cmor;

"-j1 1or1a o1 9i1 o1 ao; cm;.

oL1et aggsa,udasi arasSamsgg oLmia>Saoud

oLSaaacafl 6>c6rDco. "gcmcaS @naoeJ@)gpoJ otsaroacan'l a,cancod a,v1a;lg.gc oJJo@ocai 4omtaSodsT.

"jl goro ojl soaer cno orco) oi cdl oo:93 os oocrrg

onDo8 mrqo)odmi ucocr'laofloE "geJo)J.

oLllroro e.le

a a),-rvJ c m torcratl a6 p;l gp atI a a eL od m.t c

6mJ gp @y, aaofl enp oL@, a>an'l od otJ @J c m)o

atosorocod ancoi pog|4ltalaascm eoLual

a,udaas m-nutTaoSo. oendmfloop oJLa,@)

otJ @J c m.t at g 5 c coE c nn c aa mi q @ ae o

atJ@Jc(ruoHsJo.

a M ool @n a aoc DeeDo%aleuao%oq o oLl pL

@Jas eo(@@DlaE yaLoflatL'loatLo &J@J

a c at'l a o g0 a al ad oro a on aS "L'l

a,S ro a c a,S

orlet. @@loDgg,r-rlpt a,caanosBuA:6D

. aEtoam)\aop "LoLd cDotuoJcm)ffD@ 6rD o oJJ @J c cD o (H s c@ro an ai.

o op-todou\anp "Loto\acn anc"LataT2jeot@eocgoroflenp (aendouSo oogilaa))o rotm'latsgg ona,eLo) cn"lgo

DcoloD).

gs0,lse9iqq€P@tE

"j11olo 8.28, ,.jllroo e.zs "gcrn'lo fd'rcoco'roJo

o"l9J.

* "-lgo'ro s.28 o8 Lo"rol6njlo6uo oloJoHSJ

cmafr "gojloseo)c6n5?

rflc6.er e5"ab'l ( Hyp ermetro p ia)

aq s a<rE g"-rccorccnlaerl cmlH "golod"jlerded oosjoro)lgg cumSror;oood orJ6o')

ocaol acemcaE mrcur'l eol crrrl H. "61oolc cot'l

olaoco pallm3 6c@6FDo? mlecng;oscn5a3gi1o8 porortoo a,;gfl ouE ec6rec?

"jlioro 8.28, -ojlL6)o s.st "6crn1or coco<olaJo

o"J9l. o$5)noflco olJo)Jc Cru 5613 gc6m"

cnlear:cd crllolatilgo5t

* ."il(oro s..sr ro8 O oepglccncssJoto]gg

ao; orm)or;ojlom crul-i1gi1eo;m;. pno

o m5ol3 crjl oerfl 1o-r roi l oril oeru o I o3 "-r

o g 5 ail

"goLloscorcen5t

prolDroo mcr:dreeangflo8 oLmS<o;o:'lom

ecem] cmcfr o0Lor 6c o oc oo;'1 o1ao]o ?

poilcDl ac@6rDo oercdmioof, ":o.rtd

o2o

6roro cDceGTDc? als'l eo)o.lcc6'mc?

oao0mrloop rorcjlcd ocgo orcntgcaot

o3cm3 "ge,'1o8 ccnlo)curcgom'flocp m1g

(o'ro1oE "oca)J olJ(o-.)Jc m) oc ao'.l olaoco

geneccornilt

cnlear:g;os aererreotoleilo8 crtcrd r:"l6"er

a5.ds1oor;ers 6c<o6rDo o;d1eo;e.

cocen8eaoi oero0mJ g"-iccocajlg] LoocruJ

r:5"ds1 cl-Lo'1clcro'l4oicojcoel e1d"ete5.ds1

oto'l ooto'loer;cm ojlclo .o"rd go.o-roo)rd .ojlto'r1

ao'leo;a.

-"-fl1o'ro 8.29 08

oelao)tqq 6J@)

Lo-ltO'l'l eruloeUo

ersoo;cen5?

O oepgtoE cnlcm;o oroa

om5to'r;orcen5 potoogoJol od s; cmoi

"0o"r1

I:r-

ero g1 mco)eo; a;cnilod Lo-t <or'l enjl oen-ro @l oJ

odslcmJ "ObloE oeLcdmtloofl "loLd aJs;

ol ercco;'l o'l eol eac ? 6lcl orc of ol dol coc ?

roroerg eJlo8 cmLol ccncAoro'r1onA m1g

oto'Acd "0)oo,l olJoJcm)DJ6TIBceJGmlcpceni

C"-r <ojl enil o6TUo oo$'1 cn oo) ao; o3 ml oE

o3"-rogsScmoil

D(D]osiJccDLooo"ilocfl paD mJlcn6.) Loocrul

r:5"ds1 "Ocmcllcorogslcml.

(.16)8''lo6 LoomlL

r:5"ds1ccu;os acoemecBsd ooocRDHcac

corloleo;ot

pc mJJcno)

aemsaq'loiffD

cacen0caoi6rBCil"

u o'l clo o1 oo c cn; "--t

c cor c aJ1 oo J cm

GrocDlcao)csJocao orord gtsP

oeroEm:ceni g"-r cooc cn1 ceer

".to1.ora1eo3cm ntloo

,Ll1olo a.ao

oL'1go'ro a.ts

,L11roto a.St

e o c arE e o cri o er a0 orl p l e o; : ar'1 a[ L"o n'uL aJ.,gH

EiBro't

oorogg eArorur' (Presbyop ia)

cD'l eoeua cr c cor'l eo3 cmr ccr8 "r3

mi or a oan c,rd

eup# oE crjl cn5 "6) cor (G'roa er orojl ercen5 t ccoral'l

4i15;canect

"r;m5<orao aepglcmcd casJoIDJo Gro&el

omrle-r;o o9] oLccol4lcmcdo;.

* mr;cnoaccol orcaor'loocctd mrc<deo;cm

e]ocrolo Grooelo "611o1

oruofl'lo"lgocerd e

crogocYDeJ(DJ.

io-lor<drorolcno oJAl Lolcol UoJo Org oldon'j1 aerl.

crrlosBoA aoeneolojlco; crfdaoro cnleang;os

orJaoocao acd"-rcoieo]gg 6,1c)6101o) Blooc

erd. poi *ungnoQ cn'lcorrd c"-Lcoojlo$1 (near

point) GerdoJge B;too o0)oDcilao)ogs;cm).

g<d orgcoccnJo;g.g e6pgld 25cm roroaotto'l

eo;o. crileaeg;os aeplcri poi o5or5m5o'r

ocG6mc?

Lorcao)acao)ord eeps pHcoo) "-tlolocmr'laaod orcco;'leoJcmo)J aene15fl cg.

* "6oocan5 LoJGCo)JA6.)?

o0)oo,lo ec5rBccor'l ol eerco oroorrd paD o"loil

cojloS "-rLo)ocml'laac,rd "jlsleo;cmail t

rsnord€d' orJ€<o oceo) acw"-Lco)ao;gg

6]c)6r0l0.) Bloo c6r0c(0c(,JoJg.g G(r)l(Dooto)

<oroco-leM oJsjo-lcerc a)ocolc?

plc cDJJmooao) oorogtsu;oro) onLoorc Lumieru cco.rc gi1 co.r "Ocml oro ao)J m)J. GncDl Gaoc sJacco o-ro-rd gOe cocffioordm) oetcrdm5 g"-r

ccorcall p<or; "-ro'l"ooleoco.

porJoro@ cnlean<6 omqieLcoolcor<ojlo8 cn'lcm

ecDLtococcD ojlnc.r)cooop L -1,.75D, R -1.25D

"6ycm o;cr1dona srodroo o;5;aco]accor')

rtd gorcJcfi ruaoxr8mi ucocjlcolo8 a2ci1eo1.

a oLa gp vS aoi ar c @ a c a) ot aS o s a, epgl o@

LnL oL d ara cn caotl eL S ote c a,S cm uo c a 7 a'l a, a c gacai (physiological change). oraai aoS

e@cany. affia@ cnla;cd c"LcalQleeLffiJgg BJ@o (oJc@)o at)sJffDcoasoua12j

a,Ss\orcScmS.

.*glg",e_r ,.dj@

ffi

"goofl mced aeploeL roromn ul gil a;oco)eo;

cmaill

0t"0 mtl nila e gao crq roil ao sil d, 03o

=t\----/-'-\

ir''

tr Jr*'^-^*ll^'^'rr

^tFil.E oOmrlo-d c6laocooJo6rr3crd

"61eanomrorl o1 4 o1 ao c o ? crr'l ec'e ua oo cr1 cot c ot; cm oc 6 <n

ea'nuE "gs3ror1.

oomn orn 91 a;o cr) ooc crE .ep|.8 a,;mcao)o ofkoro; cm a, ri osia, d

oilgeuOeo"eonul4 agicsca,rno>loop aceac ecoamJ DJgp a,cd"sila,otlg a, gTou aaoLotl cuS ara\cnS &c@Grnoa

aoamu'L7oa7 47 SSefirec? 6tcc@c LaJeB uo

6) @A @l o A) C pl C Ot m)n @l o I P] Q] r$ cA @] o n fl oa W1 a q aeo (D a4 o cora oLl s o roro a, c r6ov1 a, oil ga,ag m)tce1cnlaa2cmS. a@J bJc@J& LoJcB

uo a @rcD a'5,'>v'l o a; o1t o aru mD'l 2j rara oll s o oroDgloog cDtBcoJo otga@ cnldancana,acai.

"Llet oilga,udaei arOmjlai eraouoo azss'l@) a%JJo

"Llptorciasi aryalaoeLl (DlaootlJgg D%JJI

eane'lgo>cai. "galetSo oaJc@Joot 6.5 aSorc|7.2 oLao pH aSetSa2gg agcoi rnau;1a, ailga,udaaso cnoJe@JsJo.

rnlrn" -qff]ffi"raocttlaoaoor4ouiled roroon5

Ei.gpreslsl'

"jler 1"-rm5orcoicnaua dJolos olcrnlo'leo;

oDJ. Grdol uo1 coocurl gj corg mjl m3 accojl eru mr-r

og5or aoenerotojl calcelmioS '/' aotg;a,.

! cac"oeo:g;occo'1 Ldodorot4 oooolcu)

eod geneceo;cm;"

I I Ol9)Ol9)oJ)qA(DC6IT).I I o oojo*

! r;orcm ell$omiom m"le.icoceo;cm3.

[ "rncmc"-dalejlod erdororctoS crfl oa;srrec

alcrriler"o 6tJ

f, mlo ej1$omiom orloigcdolcmJ.

I a;gcoroc5, ocdenilud, &do ol;soanlao;

ocol1 er;gg acdenL ** Bl o g3 occorl

luordonflj acden-ren8 olcconaloomrnriolco)6o 96rBc€O]cml.

[ "rncmc"-dorejlod c-.rdoroco8 .,.ild cnlo

oJ6necorlcml.

l-l "irsl ol o-r'l aol sgorao)c6n5.t___J

or'looeiomrs3oTol 1"-Lm5orcoLmosA sool aoc

cemcococrd &o6rrEoroccDcol@JocaD "-tto"le,si

emeBBUa cDmlLo6TDo O-ol9l. (".lel crgmi

ctD] e gl o <oO o8 eo eR agJ o or"l oJ Go cll oor cll corJ o

<n o"l o oroil cd oo-rcts g erJ 6rB cdo) crD an aol oc ecorctod oroor to;"-flc4c o6IDGoroc mi.'.ld

uilc 4c "ro'leMaoolco ! ).

r o"l es em orojl cD c oJ ro J a c eo) p ":

a ro am ecn crd,

ocmt ot miorJ douA, .,io'l asjsmo odgl;aDo"l tojl, crjl o"l enz em eBB oa e @ ar o H s] oloc cDl pp

"r Sl e D J

(o) er c eo) or o oo; oer] cll 4 o1 53 o c o3 o c co')

ogcerc"jl! mtqooaad olcorcrl cojloS Goalod

sJorol.

orocnjlcru3e,gllos o.'rcanlaelsecuf o

o16 ar8oreilo glleis o.'J can 3 oet se al I o

o-ro"la,si6rDoro'tcnccojl crjlecBr-d o'iloeleolors;oror

<orqmiao;ogloscoJo erceruco5cllcotloret o$

rorgmfl ol;egloscolo c"-Ld l5ileco,flo8 "6w3

o'r3. clr o1 "jl <o o H colo ojeo)l o s G oJ rol o (oc m) m)l

lo) oll o Grd oJ aOJ o S c eLeu el] a ud .'-t o1 e oocul'l 9j65)6113OlDl.

o

a

"l$e ts.t

<argmrlol;og;os @cm)mt3Lo'roonud uo1

c<loc tr1 eo;. oroo coioE oorcol; orccot

ol@lcrD o€ls6o "64'rcerdl

mr'ldceLc"o orold <argmi ctu; a gl oc eolgg

L"ro-rdoocno ecDcdol. @cm)cruoolcaSeanoa

o-L;6oo'ilco-lceo3.

Zn + 2HC1 -) ZnCl, +

Zn + HrSO, -+ +

Gocrd, o-t391 or;sean'l ooroL <coa3o1 crrlcor

gcloeangilo8 crules4eo;crrr1H. .,Oca)l

oocerrecoololao;ot

,uFBlooA rargmin r5mrecoro e;o cJeocod

oOot; otBcdLo oceni a5"su1 cotl soro'r'lo8

crdeei;ot

p,lD "locdLnoro-noop ffurecoro m)lde

ecBua gorcaoccri j "-rolcc,rocuigcr'l

ccucod

avl cor;cact osJo<orcodo mt;": o oBBUA

poil mccoi g"-rccoccnleoco ?

olo"lesemo o"rcoioj &odlreooeJ;ood "-r5fl

ars.ztoS o3ci1ao3.

cromtad oc(ruffDJLo)o

oooocLaDccgccnai

rorgmtai

HCI

crucd"ngcllei corgmtar)

rancrug'lei Gqmtal5 cH3cooH

o'laJ(6.)l

GmcaolaD

oto"la,gr6rD56I](/a

fi1'coa

a,o6rrconD'lAODCt;c 6rx fiu e o, gf o Grg 08 o5r eil o, g3o

ap mtlat-tSa, g2os oilas at(rute coJD) gp oDoalaaMaBpc6ni

c atL mtS a, u3. g ot'-U oJ (n efl a m;1 o o> a7 erc; c aaS rmS.

c otL ot-t2 a g! oE s eL rorot'l od eL a;'l aa S cm oL a; c ai @rO @8 aopi a, ud. c pt c ao 6sB g ) a s o a ao c Lao c al o o mt at:S a' gil o6

s pL arcfl a6 eL aI aoS rm oL n arot'l c a; c>l at aq o8 ao eil a,

g c ail 6L ot rd roml ao S rmS. c ms c ap'l a o a a

"o c 1al c ai et a mt

at|, anL c g c m;S o o o oo G LeD c al a a m; ai q @ ep @ at g oro

a oro>1 et S gg oL a; c eri. arq ad ao ell a' g! a8

"n't c a c "d a pL\ od

olei cnloo 6La,s7ol7aaSo.

"l$0, ts.z

el mcaoo orgo8ao efl mJlec olol99 oco6TncrDl ol1 o'l 4 cl1 eonn c gc.

crqosaoejlmlccolo)gg "jler "-rocdLo6aBg;os "r5'la (ts.e) uolcoocorlao;. ocm;mr;loreancrE

ojl<roaelcoo o"-Ldctil rc'rgoEeoeflcugJos oolco.lJoalsar:o usflaaolioE "-t3o1gjioet3.

* crom'lor-l"ercao m1a g1o8

oo"olol-raoa cnciloQ (aO$

DC aDCG6lnC rorOcco;cen0

c6roeo)cc6rDc ec6rD od s]e ?

crooSdo er'l e gloeL OHlCn)GolC?

crom1 o.uloei oolco)oAlS6ro

orqo8ao eL1 co,i'l er g oolccDl

.IelS&o

GoJO OcOlDmC0lo ocffDffDlL6)o OolCo)loelSdro

AloACeOo ocoEmr;o oooocgooceioocrunl Ca(oH),

acmr'ld ecrucu)oo ccrucmt'l qo)o eiooo c golcd oomt atj NaOH

acggld o"-rc5c.d Oo-lC$CffUJo OOooGLA-Dc6oOm)Al) KOH

a'lodod ac"-d

Ocm"l"sjt

acrn"l"vSo oo"oclu)cdoom)ai Me(OFI)"

1a a

610 @'l aD) & a p at) o rorg roE ao eLl at a p@) o

a4 o1') @rO BJ o @a a cmi ya"l omilap coo o'ora

oL o> o7 g| g ai aro o1 cnl a; crt rero dis pt om'l 6E pt @)l ao) c oJcud oa,>oLal sod@n c a) c fi TA (H*) g are c a,S rm oL at c ai rsq (Dl ff, :,!'at-tS a, ud

"0 oD) o e pL awfl a6 et a)l ao2 e mLccrd ffi'

o a "o

c gao c ai a et mt ai @n e @) c 6m) ar (tA (OF- ) I aB c & J 6) ol

a; cani arq ad ao eil a, ud "g rmS a c aJl aS cmS aa o1 cnl a mfl a o!

m-f I at; c oo o. "A

rai aO nui aD J o @IO aA ao eil o S o s pL oot'l od pt afl

aaseancuS @nat @ne@)cansa,gca'1 oilea;c*laoS oD] aann) o

HCI -+ H* + Cl-NaOH -+ Na*+ OH-

@1llg,$tlqnjclo"Lnterli

-

cn'ldoilca5o@6rDo (Neuhalisation)

rorq m-r'l oi mrL c cor ol I g eL c co-l cril co; o aro o8 eo ejl

(rulec il oJgg elcco m'lco;o .lo mi.'-too

cltdomcoE oooo.)c6rD] m)oeojl€ole?

oE co c cn J o (o-,1 991 "nl

c cn c od or ejl od c "-L

6 onrr

rorg oE eo ejl o c co; cn'l oojl c eL ed c'ro d "l

s el "i o c qot

Gromtrui crdoroi pgoo'lcmcao;.

o0ooc6rDJ cruoe ofl dd ? eLcao ml aoJos

ffule c olo oc cjl c aoc ? ejl dami o I caorccrjl "i u ol

cclocu-r'loo;.

accrDc oG5rBc to.llggl ccrucmlcolo

oo.'rrclucdoomlari elccocn'l "dgcar5aJlo8

cl<dorl G(onluo ot"lene;o Io1cooccu'leo3.

* o.00oc6lDl crj]o"ld,sj6rDot

oOcrulo-ri

roroelao onlcmc "-d'roeLla8

co.t<dorol oroo8aoejl

d)1oro t:.t* oi"lene;o oene;cor)gg1 cromtruS eltdeo;.

cnlo"lasi6mo a3cl1eo1"

cn1 d or"l o5 er o co cnl o gil o8 cro 6m c H c c cn o'l cor

oro g oL1o8 targcrulo-ri c"-rdororcoEcoJcetl o

olgcru1ru5 m)recoJor;o ccno'lqo oogofloE

rarg o6 eo eL1 e "-.r

d <oror c od carg o8 eo e.t'l mtt re c

olcl]lo LoleSDColJA.

crrl ecnud oud or 1"-LoLdrolo"rcncrtot'.l to8 cT ooS d6)

eilco;o torgmr1m.r;o "-L<o

cniuoo l"lodoto-I14

cgcuE ffDoe ojl gocoooccoi o'laei;o t

orgm:1 n.t.l;o crgoSoo ejlcolo lo-roLdoml'ld .omi "-Loo cn16 or"l o; oc oL;cm g"-r ord oT or cn aceni

(DJJLSOOeTGm)"sjoa c6roLoorc crjl6oj"l<o5ooomo"

,mo8 e;Dcaoo c"rdeo;ccrucu8 po'r;o-r

ocm co;c oLl c g auore oI q[l 5] 6rre ccx;6 ?

6Jaace0)o aJsJto)elceoccelc?

moal os c.rg accro co;oro'il o8 orgmn n ti Gfoo(oo

&Jsl ttrl ercorloD m.lcsdre eanerg gg1 orool

eoccDc? "ooorcerd

GrdGHc 95)(o, o cgrocDleoro ?

o)56BOCDaO)Ceni UO'l"OOlOO]cmCil t

no] LorG(o)Jo crdgo: rarqoSooeilooor crildcdo5

6@6IDo o"-r9)]ccrrLcuE cmdg[]4 orgmiu]oocftre torgm.:1u;o neo rarog ciloSorocm

ao c G 6rD c c or orre'l or o'l a o co) crn) ni o'l e co c ut€OCo.

crq o8 do er'l er c co cnl ol co c o c aer'l ao) G uo oru o

oJerJ c'rdgcrl o.r"loro oene; ou"leoo;agfoE

") sl €ol. oenel eL;o rcro d ol o "nl c mc

"-d cor ejl cri

cordoxlccroosjo a rrtoS cmd gil g rargmfl u;oo c g o-'il o8 o c ors torg mr'l crD I o'cala el or c ej o-l o c oojl

c"-Ldolo'i1geo;.

aq a c uo a; coroll cn a, atoi o o "o

e gts c c g c c>1 aiaq m;1 ao c oi a

"o a orotl cnS ms a c atl aaS rm

roi. ^tca,u, aqosaDlaoi Gtoouoo 6JsJot)

ai oL an o al glt eil rn2 o oLS g7 !) a>1 a, 5 eLt aS o

oL g a a aa S

s'l an aE o "-t

i g'l ai on ud ms c>1 aS o

ar c (o 6tD D c &) o. @to D c uo @ aroll a pt aa m.t'l

au1g7 enetsa,o'laocasgg ao"vrooangcartora @ c m;7 at-t

S a, cfi . era eLS all crfl a; o o a oo c LaD c

ai a a m., ai, ao e,tS a7 al a;o a, c d atL ean ,e m-t c atil an o et mL a, c d atL G fln d. n ctn"l oaS o

a a ao c &D c ai a a mt ai D) @ pt c @ at an erig oL all o eL q oJJ "81 s a, 6g8 uA.

*rlq,l.!qr'!g p@lE

5lGo crgoS€oeiloco.r crlldot"lotrocaocct6

"giroi orgmtcucen5 a;s;rooE o'ogoj.lo8

corene'lorcmcilt

cromtari aco crogo-r'lo8 "6s3oro-rco8

"g oil a c cofl o1 oo3o crll d oL"l o5 o o em orol l cr)

6loq rorOo8oereLl aarr'l cocol;o?

pH e"Lgcoc pH pLcatcrllcan gaJea)c

atq pH Dlpuo &tafiBrnroco. "Lo'leuocatl

e ao fiTe oL a cd Ln o a' pt d am;1 o eL c a; otl ail a8

pH e"L grd aS ao'l oass oroGUl ae4 o pH e"L gc>1a ac g aS gp a,gdoLcd 5S a cail a>ca a a5 o

A,oJQ6rDo.

pH eLcaxnl a;ceri pot ean utl aoS (D oo)e"l o8,

"Lo'l cuo cat caofiTE aLa cd nool aop

o a g! ewro pL c a; rnl os g] sSS aill a eL sS raoi

rsno)lcpte6i 6GCDI @eilTec qggl pHpLca;otl a v7 g c n "sto a, grlolcd gS a call@9@@AJo Ot-tg6rno.

6 C@ av I&, Ot I g &Ud AA AlgbJ G@) I Oo A SOrO)

eatce)o aeg\od otlg afl o aaS couce) o

affiool pH "Ldleuocea as@racoSad.

a,Sasil a;7 s oral a pt ail oLl <p re ctn acn g'l atcr>1crrt aegs m;cmilgSa,uE eaaLa'l2j aaoL

uoa'l a;cat olal atlroE a,etdcao>'la;

e aa osa a c fii pH on't e n c a a orc oras cm coi.

oL'lmc eDl OScollo

"io"la,sj6rDoro'ter;os "6orollcgtdcm crjlcnocno

coo'lcorccomc "Ocml "ro'1 cuocu.l'leo3.

ronmnodgl aene;"jlsleo;cmoiloE m;oaMcDorJo cocmiLo"looorlocao acdcoo pH oler5o

cnldemcolooerceni. o)coe orcrn'1o'lao;cmor

cor;os pH oJerJo pH c.Lgri g"-reaoccrjlgj

eo6rBo'roJ.

":g1e ta.a

pH a;er5orgoccoi enLmr:of,S o.lcoe rorcrnlol

do;clDor o3o1ii1ao;o.

* rorgmnndoop pH oger5o z oE

(a;o ocen5 /a; s; o-r aced )

ca cnjlojl glGD A o s tard gof

cn c o o:al: m"l o3o ojl cn c aJl co1 aol o to.D crDl aii el c ao)

cn1 a g c em c e.l c. er c 6rx c o g cr1 co;'l eL; "-t

e co c rjlN

6olcm oooocl(tl)c cgc o1d' rcrqm)]u]o

orgminriorocm.

or'l mc crr'l o'l corccamc oooo GLRr:c egc o1d'

orqmr'lm.rccemc or'lo5o e;s'lco c'rgmt'lruil

aco cncareto.laoJgg or;er5 rongol (crLSc"jclo)

paD cromtnrieLccocnlogil ceLad acdenilud

a"sj6m56B0a PSJGCDodO].

crflo"le,e6TDo

crflcnacn"

pH afe$o

eL c a; cr>1 all eq gp o o oo LaD a od cara e a; c anS

& gJ a s (ne are @ om sl mtn c cn etg sS onnT a aS

"Lacdnaofloo! r&Ooflat; - aqoEaaeilffDlecato 6Lmia> c ofl aqon a"ta>1 anoipH miaa,afla|. cmtcoodasafi "g)mtoo c mi La eera cn c ai g coi aq oil "d a' a7 q coi.

e ercrofl aop @Jo ept @ml pI gg cn1 doLI oS

ena;cnla,g2as@)o pH aSeLSo 7 aOarrt.

pH aSeLSo 7 ad a,SootSgpoL agmslons

a$)o pH qprJo 7 a6 a,ss'loot G6D1m4

a,92acai.

_pH7 8 9...

<_l_+(6omtnjj crilcdotlo;o rinqaflaoeLl

rorgcrulculoopcoJo pH DlerJo uo'lccoccnl

olncdmoGrOmtad/

crgoEaoerlpH oger5o

,l)6IDCCDI) OOlqqoU 6TI)carOoEeerpil

s'rd er €oJ ec o erc qo cril orgo6ooeL'l

BPlo crrldorlo5o 7

eilmccrilo'l rcrgcrulaii

HCI crgmto-d

Ei6ggfqqrqas",o

corqo8eoefloo;;os pH oJerJo 7 od

(o3 o ocen5 /a3 s3 nrr ercen5 )

crgm:1ol1erap oL1o5o oss;cmLcod pHDlerJo (e1s3o/ aJocorJo)

ao; ercoocolcor;os pHolaJo elsl olo;

cffoco]o Glao)loog oromr'lo.rimlecolo

(o3s3o/ oJocorlo)

Groo'rc qoo; gerl eo sc eo) cDl cot] oeL H*

<oroecocerd cncors<o) o;s;ccrrLcod pHogeL5o

elo aol6 ao)cem] o'-l g; cm <ei.

to) c o e or crril o1 ao; cm oL cot'koE cD1 o6rl ua do; a e5

ocQcDor, Grdolaolos pHoler5o aoeneoro'r'l

c'rg mjl nri, orgo8eei ejl, crJld oL"l o5o (cngcso8 )

"6crrr1 eanom orrooo'11 o'leo;.

O C @ 6g8 A Al gg o, oJ C d6, aJ 6fLl OD C @ eL C @;tnl,

a' g od a' c gfl, c cvc HJ pn@ cn1, a,c>'l atS gS

en e) ol, @n H aa c @ pt c @ o)1.

cn:ldofl o5e @ 6rD orol'lo gd o cru col6crrn o

(chemisky of neuhalisation)

"n'l ccoc"-do'l eil od c"-Ldoror crgo8ao ei1 etccot

crt ootoS Gromto-lj c"-rdoo'rcgcua "6oolcem3cru o re oj1 g cfi ? o0) cro

J 6)6 c enec en5 <org mt'l al] o

orgoSeoejlco)o orocrio-too crildo"loSoceolcoxfi t

* .SJd cqcrulal'lomcor;o "6oY orgoSeoejl

g"-rccoc ar'14;o crr'ldol"lo5 ac aocoE av1

ao)JGoc?

ccnlcol'lco.lo ooooGLct.rlc doomlo.ri elcao)

crjl o cor cn1 d or"l o3 o c oo c o8 a crrjl er cr-r'l ao p cD o

cmqmtl ru-l;ocd g"lccocd14; ccnceo'leo)cgc.

ag; .njla csr4m1ru:;aod ogsl g"-Lcoo;ccrlj

GCDC€OJ.

NaOH cd uaroo KOH g"-rccocdl4l ccDcdoJ.

crflan g3os soenEcororarE e,3cfl o3

* oggc ogmtal)aglo CIoggc crgo8do

ejleogcor;o cnldcrLlolocooccrE &ccodrDo

Gnol otoel ootcco]o€l se5cBgJos m:ccrn'l

. oJDcorJGDc?

osJ CI.) c cD J o <org mr1 or-r3 o g

J o s co] o org o8 eo ejl a

Slosco;Jo "els aeBBUA ogv]cofl oo "lto(uSla rs.s) ocrnloldo;Cml. d5'le "il@ldao;" a3s3oro8 gocooo6ln6aBuE e"-rtdord ojh;eLlaolg ruco;odmi olcorcilao;'loerv3or3.

* oJJLSooerem"srerop ocmrmro"laoemo

")elo)].Nu lbH +ECl-+

tt**ra (Salts)

cDJ JLSOOeTGm) "sjcd O 9'l € erorl o el oL6rrr6BB$lo

g6rBceloDl. o0JO(DOO€O eloj6rD56Bgcerd cnco

crr'l <oU g"l oLl ror aml'l o8 g "-L

c cor c crrl eo 3 cm <oi tdS16 ts"o

"-r1o'1 giloocaE gooo'leo3"

cDmtod o€(,=!Jc

eC]

?G

rcrgodaoefl o€(tde

eo?G

OolCCOlo€lSAr

ecn<rd c'ldcm;orrccorcod

m)coJJ0)acD]9a

ffDoACDIAO)o

Ororuc<ro"s/l

ao)on Gc(')o

crdcni perrec

orcrn'lsoorrqq

ODoQDld0)o

oo1v

5b

E

&at

-f(()

d'

60do

J

EO

sall-i,

-oo.o

d-HCl

H25O4

HNO3

H2CO3

H

H

H

H

CI

SO?

NO;

co3-

NaOH

Mg(oH),

Ca(OH),

KOH

Na*

Mg'*

Ca2n

K+

OH

OH

OH

OH

MgSOn

Ca(NOr),

K2CO3

dslo rs.s

-ewg9g-ss$w

elOl6IDo goIGqOC(.D5ABUA

. Gm)colta0)o G6,coooa.dN

. OoICSC(ru(o G6,COOOOjNGgoit"l"sjd cocdl

6uadd ggilcd raCoo, olQaeedl

oocnLssoa ocm)org

0caQt

a

a

otgl6 13.6

er or 5rD56BO9fl Co GncaoCern'l A CrUo COI6o.) 66T3

gcdrd. goldolecao)c oor9g(o'ro'loE ocolgil

6OJeG0Oc oerg]Goxcua po (crdo..)(o,looa

corcmt gloi <o'nccorc 6yDJ epJo omul gloiGacccDC6rDJAgJDcot aco]o. cotcodBloiGlacao)c6rD]eog ecg GCo)c6IDJeOa n$cmlo

ocncD g"lol GnGaoc6YDl 66)9 GrocDcao)c6rDl eua

"$cmJo oloao]oDJ.

or5il acotlo a er or 6ID5BB gii o8 oro seonl co; ec g

G@C6rDlo GDCnGaO)C6lDlo L(roAD'IdOJ. 6JCGOC

crnloopco]o oOemor;o o-Lo'l coocct-l'loo3.

.lsila 13.7

erotsrD5BBglos occrucrulL(')olo-iloE crjlcrfi <orocl

cn1 d o'l eo o g s c crt s 0o c ao rirg mt'l o-u; o cD oE €o

eiloo;o crilol gcr'l corccd eslcor;eact

* Cl Gros66B'le) com]cLd o$o.rc6n;?

* K* Gro s 5cBl ao) <orq oE eo eL'l "4J

d ?

u5ilare.z oer ercr6rD56Bg;os CI'rgmiu;o

CI'rqo8ao ejlco;o coilo1qcrleronfr .gw;or;"

6lsJ tol@a eror 6rD 56t: glos occru ffDJLolo

aosrBorot G'roorao)Jos crgmtlru:;o C6rooS€6)

Ei'e-qteerys*p@

ejl co] o "93

o ro r cn5 m: cotoE mi or-l co; cr'l eol o8 a3 cr'l

€ol.

0l oI 6ID @B g t 6'l s cd cclu cru$ (fiD o

Gloceoc6rDlaglos dcdg;o etotemorriloop

oc m) m)J Lol or2 oc cojl 6ruo\D oJ c 6rcco ao;cm; "-r

o'1

c(oc0t66)l.

lgle rs.a

onoroj Gyaeaoc6TD)ag;os rcdelom mt;"jl

dl"oi.- toroeoeanu8 ocm)m)llrorooiloE "geJoil coi o1 ao;cmcil

"goL1os aocerd ? ocm; mt;1oro

ooe]o)lccDrccrE ecgcco)cend <crgcemc cDcD

ccorceni GDG6rDc cDBJo "gw]coeneafit .lo')

elaoalgg elolfiD6cBg]Os @cm)CruJLo'lo olol

ccoc<d3] cnlcnacno e;cllao;.

Grdcaoc6TDlard "6oorcd cncileolo'i1 oJcmcod

om or c "-L

d cm] 6rB c e) crD et ot em <orar'l oo$ o c cru

ffDJLCOo O2u"l a O1 oerJ crD (D 6CB OCO OCO-)Cni

GmcdoJ"

. GYaGaoc6rDlag]os i"-Lor"laeoncd "9e3o)le.

rcdd crugJ 91€olcm crDo6uJ auE

uomi"too ocg'l Lolo"laon-noofl oroc€)

occol "gv]ro)]e. (acrn1o8eols;<oo8 orqg

ea'nuA cddcm Grdcao)c6rD;6gllo8 leucdaerg1 s3 cmoi m)orlo eo) 6occ6rDc o4crDl

"jlooAeo;)"orr:cgeonu6 eL"eileto'leoccxJcrnolaoco6rr

e,'lo8 rarao et"et]aologeJ<or]o.

(CaCO, oOCrD ocm)cruJLoro "-tO'lcooc(lt

ml)'

sroeonen0 cro m cot:ord eroremromioafl

GlrrucruSLOolnLOrleo ,L:dd lnltOleo rlt0s'

K+ 1+ CT l- KCI

Ca2* 2+ CI I- CaCl"

Nan l+ SO? 2- NarSOo

A0i6l'Do 610€0)1ffro .tSDo c'om€0)36n0"0gR(

KCI K+ 1 CT

CaCO. Ca2* I co3-

NarSO,. Nan 2 sol'

6)coe rorcrnloloo;cm "r5fl

oagiloa ( ts. s, t:. to)

ecg eao)c 6TD; aod orEm cao)c 6rnJ e g; accoi

c "-L

d cni g arre c oo c crr'l s aor J g-p oD o ao J €o'r 5cB

g]os ocm)crulloro mcorodmi culco;olo;'lo8

")elo)J"

orc$cqDc6rnSols0

d56 13.9

('r0cD€qDc6rDSesE

"lgle ts.to

osJs:lec/Eo.) lo Qtot 6rD @Bc/E

crjl eanua o g c'"r"l a o1 g ffD o eo)J ao.) 6613 gi oE "6

o cl

e,1 er; o ffD o co)J 6o.1 6cB ud cl g oan g c cor'l g o-t c cotc

ajlao;cm;cerrect

"6ar; rucr:dreolojletceni o"-rslauEod olgL"l

GQQ)C6)o CnSCOrOerrelOrrOSCmroS I

' cn'l mn ua €o cr'l ao; c or) crD

ooBololg6613Qloseo)o

nu co ci1 co;1 o ei v3 <or3.

ocmJoJg5BB$JosccDJo

c"-Lo;aod mcorodmi

o c cru or g 568 gc oojl p or e aoc cri eo; cm "jl eL er o.r

emeor:ua mo8a,'l cojl to'l 6erl cm;.

o GnGocdrDlaoo oruAco-og - (NHJTSO4

oolcgcffDJo cgcooonrS - KC1

ccrucnD'lqo)o oomcls$ - NaNOu

SolG 1n:Ot16rodr6eelofif,

,4mo

cmrcmilcoo arrocaorcend Na* 1

OolC SccrDJo raroCCOlOerd KO 1

acoEmr5o G'rdco)c6rd Cz2* 2

oro er;o1 crilco;o croccorcend A13* .)

rcncoc ernlcoo croccorcsnd NH; 1

,'flgtoro t:.1

GolO 6lm)

fiulICDo

drdslofl0

"61ffi0

ei ei"o c Lo-pc d eiel mr o-lj

rsrdcaDc6na oH- 1

ca,ceieioo-6 G'rdcaocsna6D

CT 1

acdeucemd <c'rocco;cendo co3 2

erereuacrdarcsmf

<onccocon6

HCO; 1

mruac"nd Gacolc6rAo SO? 2

ereieumrsde"ndO

rsncaoc6na

HSO; 1

c"l cmic"n <j sraccorcerdo Po?- J

ogr slo s0 eo l nt rnJ qe @ qe er o, 6T'B u0

aoLsla,gSos oLgcd4aiaei ailoila Dleta,

6muA crqduoJlJ6te". gruafla| oLlsaica@l@ @ragoilaE Da)1@)coqd (A4icro nu-

trients) (gac: Fe, Mq Mo, 8.....) agS 'L1et

q pt & 6sB uA 8J s7 @) @a g oit @3 c oJ 6r'rel oJ @] o.

(macro nutrients) (gac : N, P, K, C, H,q S, Si ....). m;c<acaffi)a@1@,)7@3 poJ@)l@E

aEBoLSo a,Ss'la aragoila1 ^N@8

a'Js'l a,aAaq EJe'l eaa 6tE ai ooap ecr6,

Goncm;aaomi, aoLca cm;so (N,P,K) aCIm7

oJ@)c6ni. ec@cgo oorcla'ud atTeoriloLg

@) (n m)cao oLos ao>\eLso a6m1@E a a soJoJ

miasaaud aIdanflfi oJg DcotcorD (rDcao

LLAS OW>'I eLS AtDCOAa gp DJ plA66Bg7AE "LpL

a>1 o op a4 o &) o ai o'J s'l a, cfi aei aa rnS re oL et g

pCI eror 6TD 66BUa ser mJc crn'l otr ooflo8

Gracaoc6rD;egccofl occrl cocerd orslauEad

eorao]a(o..)ocoscmoi. o6niloi crrlcrd pnc

Grdcao)c6rDlegcerd m;mrJ6BBUa orgcrji oemo

orLgscm<d.

* @cm)orgLolG@ccr)o saJccrudcDorsocoot')

o0)56BocD erum-uofl S'lo1eo;o t

clg oL co5 coro-J1 er ur'l oo or tol crD ocolJ oJeo

oepgl om .,4; 5cBocnoao)co€o 6rxcutdoco ?

mgadae"lojlaog

pHolerserrorn

* 06n#er03 cnrrreccrorojleLl6recajon acso

crrl ooioo'l eo; cm arrl m;o eL".er; e o1 eo; cm

rorlmSo mmJos cnc5'lero odosiado)o(nDco€o mc5crlor]ogcan5 g"lcao-)ce

cDoHSlonD)cmnilt

olg LoJ GaOc(J)o ms olo)J ccrxceJo D5Fil,ofl

elmcao)o cojcellgg "jocdLneanua

cordord

cn5SgsooeLmi oelqrl ccruceJo LUo€Dlc€o6rre

ecoJ6BBogdoJctq 6JS]6crolocco;1 o.rqcetc

oI9] C"-rcccoccrjlacnldcr: uoeoBUA o3"t"looleog.

srorsnc/a o3".r"leo14 crildeocnsnoE

pnc c'rocr1 oLSaoE mc5iloet

oc eercod ooo(rDco€o

orgocoocrd rorg cerc"jl2j

adnsjodeo] elcJ

1"-roL6o,o m ec'eua

msgilercaoJ.

Pt Ot 6mlo@ 0t Jo fiuf ofl"aeeloil €, g3o

o Ml os uo a"l a onl ot az @D) o 04 o @q q ggoJ pr aagata-tB ccd n songs ascCIso uo'l n'l efla, a anrorofl ad m;S ad a *1 oit a,udaos nL nS

6tTd. aLg ao o7 a,gJo aJg 6sI3 gJ O\coaoe"lcd m>'l aoS cmoi ouS a'd a s"l ol a, ud a, caemacai. ps&gJo aoaoLoLmiasaag2

oEcoao ag\aE eLafl gSe'J@JrD@Jo

m;S ad a u"l oit a' g) o s bJ at d @ra o o EJ pt D c

eni. go m;5a,fr a alaila,ud aai a aS oflwilotpH

"L a7 u-t1 a,ttad acp> ca cnl errltod aocod

a, v7 a2. erq mfl aion ouo o &J s\a) pLcaxnl

a, glad got auo'lgScoLc&) cT)@)

oa,coecai angcoSa,gileLSo Dg)o onacutl al c rLcdaas rmroi. geacaJcas @A@Eaa

eilatsos (eno(./oo elflon@)o nsada*Iolla,ag cnuo'lqilaalo. ocao@ aSsla eLotat

on pL c axi| a, gil (oE oDS ad a *"1 oL'l a' g! a eL

sptco(too cn"ds ag ss cmo4aa'cand goL

@iq-rs!s @-

ùxn-i-im-kv{x-ßƒ...140 ùxn-i-im-kv{x-ßƒ is≠Øn ]ńi (12.1) ]q¿Øn-bm n kb≥kv ub-dn-bn¬...

Documents