(valid) · 2015. 2. 12. · i am convinced that the valid project results are helpful in supporting...
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Join
t B
oar
d o
f Geo
spat
ial
Info
rma
tio
n S
oci
eti
es
Th
e V
alu
e o
f G
eo
info
rma
tio
n
for
Dis
ast
er
an
d R
isk
Ma
na
ge
me
nt
(VA
LID
)
Inte
rna
tio
na
l Co
un
cil
for S
cien
ce -
Geo
Un
ion
s
Ed
ito
rs:
Orh
an A
ltan
, R
ob
ert
Bac
kh
aus,
Pie
ro B
occ
ard
o,
Fab
io G
iuli
o T
on
olo
, Jo
hn
Tri
nd
er,
Nie
ls v
an M
anen
, Si
si
Zla
tan
ova
Bo
ok
des
ign
: Nat
alie
Ep
ler
Pu
bli
shed
by
: Jo
int
Bo
ard
of
Geo
spat
ial
Info
rmat
ion
So
cie-
ties
(JB
GIS
)
Co
pyr
igh
t © In
tern
atio
nal
Co
un
cil f
or
Sci
ence
(IC
SU) -
Geo
-
Un
ion
s 201
3, Jo
int B
oar
d o
f Geo
spat
ial I
nfo
rmat
ion
So
ciet
ies
(JB
GIS
) 20
13,
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s O
#ce
fo
r O
ute
r Sp
ace
Af-
fair
s (O
OSA
) 20
13
Lau
nch
ed a
t th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
O#
ce f
or
Ou
ter
Spac
e A
f-
fair
s (O
OSA
), V
ien
na,
Au
stri
a, o
n 3
Sep
tem
ber
201
3.
Th
e V
alu
e o
f G
eo
info
rmati
on
fo
r D
isaste
r an
d R
isk M
an
ag
em
en
t (V
AL
ID)
$is
pu
bli
cati
on
is
the
resu
lt o
f th
e co
llab
ora
tio
n o
f m
any
scie
nti
sts
wh
o a
re d
edic
ated
to
th
e im
ple
men
tati
on
of
geo
-sp
atia
l in
form
atio
n f
or
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent.
DIS
CL
AIM
ER
$e
des
ign
atio
ns
emp
loye
d a
nd
th
e p
rese
nta
tio
n o
f m
ater
ial
in t
his
pu
bli
cati
on
do
no
t im
ply
th
e ex
pre
ssio
n o
f an
y o
pi-
nio
n w
hat
soev
er o
n t
he
par
t o
f th
e se
cret
aria
t o
f th
e U
nit
ed
Nat
ion
s co
nce
rnin
g th
e le
gal s
tatu
s o
f an
y co
un
try,
ter
rito
ry,
city
or
area
or
its
auth
ori
ties
, or
con
cern
ing
the
del
imit
atio
n
of
its
fro
nti
ers
or
bo
un
dar
ies
rega
rdin
g it
s ec
on
om
ic s
yste
m
or
deg
ree
of
dev
elo
pm
ent.
Exc
erp
ts m
ay b
e re
pro
du
ced
wi-
tho
ut
auth
ori
zati
on
, on
co
nd
itio
n t
hat
th
e so
urc
e is
in
dic
a-te
d.
Vie
ws
exp
ress
ed i
n t
his
pu
bli
cati
on
do
no
t n
eces
sari
ly
re%
ect
tho
se o
f th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
O#
ce f
or
Ou
ter
Spac
e A
&ai
rs, t
he
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s an
d it
s M
emb
er S
tate
s.
All
rig
hts
res
erve
d b
y:
Join
t B
oar
d o
f G
eosp
atia
l In
form
atio
n S
oci
etie
s
c/o
In
tern
atio
nal
Fed
erat
ion
of
Surv
eyo
rs (
FIG
)
K
alve
bo
d B
rygg
e 31
–33
DK
-178
0 C
op
enh
agen
/ D
EN
MA
RK
Tel
. +45
38
86 1
0 81
/ F
ax +
45 3
8 86
02
52
E
-mai
l: F
IG@
FIG
.net
ww
w.'
g.n
et/j
bgi
s
Pu
bli
shed
in
En
glis
h i
n C
op
enh
agen
, Den
mar
k, I
SBN
978
-87
-909
07-8
8-4
Cre
dit
s to
tit
le p
ho
to: A
igu
ille
de
Tsa
, Den
t B
lan
che
nap
pe,
Sw
iss
Alp
s, b
y R
ola
nd
Ob
erh
änsl
i
Join
t B
oar
d o
f Geo
spat
ial
Info
rma
tio
n S
oci
eti
es
In
tern
ati
on
al C
ou
nci
l fo
r Sci
ence
- G
eoU
nio
ns
4
TH
E V
ALU
E O
F G
EO-I
NF
OR
MA
TIO
N F
OR D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T -
VA
LID
Spac
e-b
ased
in
form
atio
n c
an b
e a
very
use
ful r
eso
urc
e in
di-
sast
er m
anag
emen
t. S
atel
lite
s p
rovi
de
reli
able
an
d r
apid
ob
-
serv
atio
n t
oo
ls,
sup
po
rtin
g e&
ort
s in
em
erge
ncy
res
po
nse
as
wel
l as
in d
isas
ter-
risk
red
uct
ion
. Bu
t th
e ap
pli
cati
on
of
spac
e
tech
no
logy
to
dis
aste
r ri
sk m
anag
emen
t an
d e
mer
gen
cy r
es-
po
nse
is
a w
ide
and
co
mp
lex
'el
d. K
now
led
ge a
nd
exp
erti
se
are
wid
ely
dis
per
sed
, an
d i
nst
itu
tio
ns
and
pra
ctit
ion
ers
nee
d
ori
enta
tio
n to
acc
ess
and
use
ava
ilab
le d
ata
and
ser
vice
s. In
re-
cogn
itio
n o
f th
ese
nee
ds
the
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s G
ener
al A
ssem
-
bly
has
est
abli
shed
th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
Pla
tfo
rm f
or
Spac
e-
bas
ed I
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r D
isas
ter
Man
agem
ent
and
Em
erge
ncy
Res
po
nse
(U
N-S
PID
ER
) as
a p
rogr
am o
f th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
O#
ce f
or
Ou
ter
Spac
e A
&ai
rs (
OO
SA),
wit
h t
he
man
dat
e to
“en
sure
th
at a
ll c
ou
ntr
ies
and
reg
ion
al o
rgan
izat
ion
s h
ave
ac-
cess
to a
nd
dev
elo
p th
e ca
pac
ity
to u
se a
ll ty
pes
of s
pac
e-b
ased
info
rmat
ion
to
su
pp
ort
th
e fu
ll d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
cycl
e”
(res
olu
tio
n A
/RE
S/61
/110
of
14 D
ecem
ber
200
6).
As
on
e o
f
man
y co
ntr
ibu
tio
ns
to f
ul'
ll t
his
man
dat
e, O
OSA
has
pu
bli
s-
hed
, to
geth
er w
ith
th
e Jo
int
Bo
ard
of
Geo
spat
ial I
nfo
rmat
ion
Soci
etie
s (J
B G
IS),
th
e b
oo
kle
t en
titl
ed “
Geo
info
rmat
ion
fo
r
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent
– E
xam
ple
s an
d B
est
Pra
cti-
ces”
(C
op
enh
agen
201
0).
Mea
nw
hil
e,
incr
easi
ng
con
cern
ab
ou
t d
amag
e an
d
loss
es
cau
sed
by
dis
aste
rs t
rigg
ered
by
nat
ura
l h
azar
ds
has
led
to
com
pre
hen
sive
stu
die
s ex
plo
rin
g th
e ec
on
om
ic d
imen
sio
n o
f
dis
aste
rs, h
igh
ligh
tin
g th
e im
po
rtan
ce o
f e#
cien
t dis
aste
r ri
sk
man
agem
ent.
In
vie
w o
f th
is d
evel
op
men
t I
hig
hly
ap
pre
ciat
e
the
dec
isio
n o
f th
e JB
GIS
an
d t
he
UN
-SP
IDE
R t
eam
to
car
-
ry o
ut,
in
co
llab
ora
tio
n w
ith
sci
enti
sts
fro
m t
he
Un
iver
sity
of
Am
ster
dam
an
d w
ith
ad
dit
ion
al s
up
po
rt f
rom
th
e IC
SU G
eo-
Un
ion
s, a
glo
bal
in
terd
isci
pli
nar
y st
ud
y ad
dre
ssin
g q
ues
tio
ns
abo
ut
the
eco
no
mic
val
ue
and
th
e o
per
atio
nal
an
d s
trat
egic
ben
e'ts
that
can
be
real
ized
by
app
lyin
g ge
oin
form
atio
n in
ef-
fort
s in
all
ph
ases
of
the
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t cy
cle.
$e
'n
al
rep
ort
of
the
VA
LID
stu
dy
pro
vid
es b
ene'
t as
sess
men
t d
ata
as w
ell
as s
cien
ti'
c b
ack
gro
un
d i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
th
e re
spec
-
tive
geo
spat
ial
pro
du
cts
and
ser
vice
s. I
t is
par
tial
ly b
ased
on
a gl
ob
al s
take
ho
lder
su
rvey
wh
ich
was
fac
ilit
ated
by
the
UN
-
SPID
ER
co
nta
ct d
atab
ase,
in
clu
din
g th
e n
etw
ork
of
Nat
ion
al
Fo
cal P
oin
ts. I
ts r
esu
lts
clea
rly
show
the
emp
has
is g
iven
by
the
par
tici
pat
ing
use
r co
mm
un
ity
to t
he
app
lica
tio
n o
f ge
oin
for-
mat
ion
, n
ot
just
to
su
pp
ort
of
emer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se b
ut
also
to m
ap a
nd
mo
nit
or
risk
s, w
ith
ben
e'ci
al e
&ec
ts s
uch
as
re-
du
cin
g p
ub
lic
loss
es a
nd
su
pp
ort
ing
risk
red
uct
ion
str
ateg
ies.
$e
VA
LID
pro
ject
rep
ort
pro
vid
es o
rien
tati
on
ab
ou
t th
e
valu
e an
d i
mp
act
of
dis
aste
r-re
late
d g
eoin
form
atio
n, a
ccen
-
tuat
ing
the
chal
len
gin
g is
sue
of
pre
ven
tive
act
ion
. A
s th
e
form
er S
ecre
tary
Gen
eral
of
the
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s K
o'
An
nan
stat
ed in
199
9: “
Bu
ild
ing
a cu
ltu
re o
f p
reve
nti
on
is n
ot
easy
.
Wh
ile
the
cost
s o
f p
reve
nti
on
hav
e to
be
pai
d in
th
e p
rese
nt,
thei
r b
ene'
ts li
e in
a d
ista
nt
futu
re.”
I am
co
nvi
nce
d t
hat
th
e V
AL
ID p
roje
ct r
esu
lts
are
hel
pfu
l in
sup
po
rtin
g p
rogr
amm
atic
as
wel
l as
op
erat
ion
al d
ecis
ion
s
and
I a
m c
on
'd
ent
this
'n
al r
epo
rt w
ill
enjo
y w
ides
pre
ad
dis
trib
uti
on
am
on
g co
mm
un
itie
s w
ith
a r
ole
in d
isas
ter
ma-
nag
emen
t al
l o
ver
the
wo
rld
an
d t
hat
co
ncr
ete
app
lica
tio
ns
and
act
ion
s w
ill b
ene'
t fr
om
th
e p
rin
cip
les
and
rec
om
men
-
dat
ion
s o
f th
is r
epo
rt.
Ma
zlan
Oth
man
,
Dir
ecto
r of
th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
O"
ce f
or O
ute
r Sp
ace
A#
airs
5
TH
E V
ALU
E O
F G
EO-I
NF
OR
MA
TIO
N F
OR D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T -
VA
LID
$e
bo
ok
let,
Geo
info
rmat
ion
for
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
age-
men
t -
Exa
mp
les
and
Bes
t P
ract
ices
, p
ub
lish
ed o
n J
uly
2n
d
2010
by
the
Join
t B
oar
d o
f G
eosp
atia
l In
form
atio
n S
oci
e-
ties
(JB
GIS
) an
d t
he
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s O
#ce
fo
r O
ute
r Sp
ace
A&
airs
(O
OSA
), o
utl
ined
th
e p
ote
nti
al u
ses
of
Geo
info
r-
mat
ion
tec
hn
olo
gies
fo
r re
du
cin
g th
e im
pac
t o
f n
atu
ral
or
man
mad
e d
isas
ters
an
d r
isk
s. I
t b
rou
ght
toge
ther
co
nci
se
scie
nti
'c
con
trib
uti
on
s fr
om
exp
erts
aro
un
d t
he
wo
rld
an
d
crea
ted
a d
ecis
ion
su
pp
ort
fo
rum
bas
ed o
n t
hei
r k
no
w-
led
ge.
$e
arti
cles
in
th
e b
oo
kle
t co
vere
d n
atu
ral
even
ts
such
as
eart
hq
uak
es,
%o
od
s, v
olc
ano
ou
tbre
aks,
tsu
nam
is,
lan
dsl
ides
, d
ust
sto
rms
and
wil
d'
res,
as
wel
l as
so
ciet
al i
s-
sues
su
ch a
s h
ealt
h c
are,
ref
uge
e ca
mp
s, u
rban
sp
raw
l an
d
tra#
c in
fras
tru
ctu
re s
ecu
rity
. C
ase
rela
ted
reg
ion
al s
tud
ies
are
com
ple
men
ted
by
pre
sen
tati
on
s o
f gl
ob
al i
nfo
rmat
ion
syst
ems.
$is
pu
bli
cati
on
aim
s to
rai
se a
war
enes
s am
on
gst
gove
rnm
ents
, dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t p
rofe
ssio
nal
s an
d o
ther
dec
isio
n-m
aker
s, o
f th
e p
ote
nti
al u
ses
of
Geo
info
rmat
ion
tech
no
logi
es t
o r
edu
ce t
he
imp
act
of
nat
ura
l dis
aste
rs a
nd
to
assi
st in
su
pp
ort
of
dec
isio
n-m
akin
g in
all
ph
ases
of
dis
aste
r
man
agem
ent,
pre
ven
tio
n a
nd
mit
igat
ion
, as
wel
l as
imm
edi-
ate
resp
on
se a
nd
rec
ove
ry.
$e
seco
nd
pu
bli
cati
on
of
this
ser
ies,
wh
ich
is
bei
ng
pu
bli
s-
hed
by
the
JB G
IS, I
CSU
-Geo
Un
ion
s (I
nte
rnat
ion
al C
ou
nci
l
for
Sci
ence
-Geo
Un
ion
s) a
nd
OO
SA o
utl
ines
th
e p
ote
nti
al
'n
anci
al b
ene'
t o
f G
eoin
form
atio
n t
ech
no
logi
es u
sed
to
re-
du
ce t
he
imp
act
of
nat
ura
l o
r m
anm
ade
dis
aste
rs a
nd
ris
ks.
It c
on
tain
s ex
amp
les
and
cas
e st
ud
ies
of
Geo
info
rmat
ion
Tec
hn
olo
gies
res
ult
ing
fro
m d
i&er
ent
stak
eho
lder
ass
ess-
men
ts.
We
bel
ieve
th
at t
his
pu
bli
cati
on
wil
l co
ntr
ibu
te t
ow
ard
s h
ar-
mo
nio
us
co-e
xist
ence
of
hu
man
bei
ngs
an
d n
atu
re b
y cr
ea-
tin
g aw
aren
ess
of
po
ten
tial
nat
ura
l an
d m
an-m
ade
haz
ard
s
and
mea
sure
s th
at c
an b
e ta
ken
to
man
age
thei
r im
pac
ts.
Wil
liam
Car
twri
ght,
Ch
air,
JB
GIS
Ron
Abl
er, C
hai
r, I
CSU
-Geo
Un
ion
s
Geo
rg G
artn
er, I
CA
Ch
ris
Riz
os, I
UG
G –
IAG
Ch
eeH
ai T
eo, F
IG
Dav
id C
olem
an, G
SDI
Ton
y M
iln
e, I
EE
E-G
RSS
Vla
dim
ir K
olos
sov,
IG
U
Ch
en J
un
, ISP
RS
Rol
and
Obe
rhän
sli,
IU
GS
Ph
il W
ilki
nso
n, U
RSI
Orh
an A
ltan
, Coo
rdin
atin
g E
dit
or
6
TH
E V
ALU
E O
F G
EO-I
NF
OR
MA
TIO
N F
OR D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T -
VA
LID
Tab
le o
f C
on
ten
ts
Pre
face
by
the
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s O
#ce
fo
r O
ute
r Sp
ace
A&
airs
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....4
Pre
face
by
the
Join
t B
oar
d o
f G
eosp
atia
l In
form
atio
n S
oci
etie
s an
d t
he
Inte
rnat
ion
al C
ou
nci
l fo
r S
cien
ce-G
eoU
nio
ns
......
.5
1. I
ntr
od
uct
ion
.....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
9
O
rhan
Alt
an, R
ober
t B
ackh
aus,
Pie
ro B
occa
rdo,
Nie
ls V
an M
anen
, Fab
io G
iulio
Ton
olo,
Joh
n T
rin
der
an
d S
isi Z
lata
nov
a
2. H
ow
to
det
erm
ine
the
eco
no
mic
val
ue
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
in
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent?
.....
......
......
......
......
......
......
..10
N
iels
van
Man
en, H
enk
Sch
olte
n, T
essa
Bel
infa
nte
an
d G
eorg
e C
ho
3. W
hat
are
th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t ge
oin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s an
d s
yste
ms
in D
isas
ter
and
Ris
k M
anag
emen
t? A
glo
bal
sta
ke-
ho
lder
ass
essm
ent
.....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...20
R
ober
t B
ackh
aus,
Nat
alie
Epl
er a
nd
An
a M
arti
nez
Mol
ina
4. W
hat
are
th
e o
per
atio
nal
an
d s
trat
egic
ben
e'ts
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
in
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent?
An
ap
pra
isal
fro
m
the
end
-use
rs’ a
nd
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs’ p
oin
t o
f vi
ew ..
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...24
R
ober
t B
ackh
aus,
Ju
la H
eid
e an
d A
nn
e K
nau
er
4.
1 F
loo
d a
nd
%o
od
ris
k: M
app
ing,
mo
nit
ori
ng
and
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..33
Si
si Z
lata
nov
a
4.
2 E
arth
qu
ake
risk
an
alys
is a
nd
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
.....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....4
4
A
less
and
ro D
emar
chi
and
An
na
Fac
ello
7
TH
E V
ALU
E O
F G
EO-I
NF
OR
MA
TIO
N F
OR D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T -
VA
LID
4.
3 D
rou
ght
haz
ard
ass
essm
ent
and
vu
lner
abil
ity
map
pin
g ...
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...54
Ir
ene
An
gelu
ccet
ti a
nd
Fra
nce
sca
Per
ez
4.
4 F
ire
risk
map
pin
g an
d '
re d
etec
tio
n a
nd
mo
nit
ori
ng
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
....6
2
W
alth
er C
amar
o, S
ara
Ste
#en
ino
and
Ros
sell
a V
ign
a
4.
5 L
and
slid
e H
azar
d A
sses
smen
t ....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...77
Ir
ase
ma
Alc
ánta
ra A
yala
4.
6 G
eosp
atia
l dat
a p
rovi
sio
n a
nd
co
sts
asp
ects
....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
...82
N
iels
van
Man
en a
nd
Joh
n T
rin
der
5. R
esu
lts
sum
mar
y an
d d
iscu
ssio
n ..
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.85
R
ober
t B
ackh
aus
and
Joh
n T
rin
der
6. R
efer
ence
s ....
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
..89
7. A
nn
exes
A
nn
ex I
: Ch
apte
r 2
Qu
esti
on
nai
re ..
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
98
A
nn
ex I
I: C
on
tact
in
form
atio
n o
f ed
ito
rs a
nd
au
tho
rs ..
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.....
102
A
nn
ex I
II: P
ro'
les
of
con
trib
uti
ng
inst
itu
tio
ns .
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
......
.103
8
9
INT
RO
DU
CT
ION
11.
Intr
od
ucti
on
Orh
an A
ltan
, R
ober
t B
ackh
aus,
Pie
ro B
occa
rdo,
Nie
ls v
an
Man
en, F
abio
Giu
lio
Ton
olo,
Joh
n T
rin
der
an
d S
isi Z
lata
nov
a
Maj
or
dis
aste
rs c
ause
mas
sive
dis
rup
tio
n t
o s
oci
etie
s an
d
ove
rbu
rden
nat
ion
al e
con
om
ic s
yste
ms.
$o
usa
nd
s o
f p
eo-
ple
are
kil
led
an
d t
ens
of
tho
usa
nd
s m
ore
are
dis
pla
ced
fro
m
thei
r h
om
es e
very
yea
r b
y n
atu
ral
dis
aste
rs t
rigg
ered
by
sto
rms,
%o
od
s, v
olc
anic
eru
pti
on
s an
d e
arth
qu
akes
. M
any
tho
usa
nd
s m
ore
lo
se t
hei
r li
veli
ho
od
s an
d h
uge
dam
age
is
cau
sed
to p
rop
erty
. By
win
dst
orm
s, %
oo
ds,
ear
thq
uak
es, t
su-
nam
is, d
ebri
s %
ow
s an
d la
har
s, v
ital
res
ou
rces
are
des
tro
yed
,
infr
astr
uct
ure
is
dam
aged
, an
d t
ran
spo
rt a
nd
co
mm
un
ica-
tio
n a
re j
eop
ard
ized
. En
du
rin
g p
erio
ds
of
dro
ugh
t d
ecre
ase
cro
p y
ield
s, i
ncr
ease
wil
d'
re r
isk
s, a
nd
a&
ect
hu
man
hea
lth
.
Ho
wev
er,
thes
e e&
ects
co
uld
be
min
imiz
ed a
nd
co
nsi
de-
rab
le l
oss
es o
f li
fe a
nd
pro
per
ty c
ou
ld b
e av
oid
ed t
hro
ugh
imp
rove
d r
isk
ass
essm
ent,
ear
ly w
arn
ing,
an
d d
isas
ter
de-
tect
ion
an
d m
on
ito
rin
g. R
isk
ass
essm
ent
pro
vid
es i
nfo
rma-
tio
n a
bo
ut
the
com
bin
ed e
&ec
t o
f h
azar
d a
nd
vu
lner
abil
i-
ty,
allo
win
g im
pro
ved
ris
k r
edu
ctio
n a
nd
mit
igat
ion
. $
e
ou
tco
me
of
earl
y w
arn
ing
is i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
th
e o
nse
t o
f
po
ten
tial
dis
aste
rs,
wh
ich
can
im
pro
ve p
rep
ared
nes
s in
th
e
a&ec
ted
are
a.
Ear
th o
bse
rvat
ion
can
hel
p t
o p
rovi
de
this
in
form
atio
n.
Tec
hn
olo
gies
fo
r p
roce
ssin
g, s
tori
ng,
an
alys
ing
and
vis
ua-
lisi
ng
geo
spat
ial
dat
a h
ave
adva
nce
d g
reat
ly i
n r
ecen
t ye
ars
enab
lin
g b
uil
din
g n
atio
nal
an
d g
lob
al S
pat
ial
Dat
a In
fra-
stru
ctu
res
(SD
I).
$es
e n
ew d
evel
op
men
ts c
an c
on
trib
ute
to i
mp
rovi
ng
pre
dic
tio
n a
nd
mo
nit
ori
ng
of
haz
ard
s, r
isk
red
uct
ion
an
d e
mer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se.
How
ever
, th
ese
tech
no
logi
es a
re s
till
no
t fu
lly e
xplo
ited
fo
r
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent.
$e
succ
essf
ul i
mp
lem
enta
ti-
on
of
geo
spat
ial t
ech
no
logi
es r
equ
ires
a s
oli
d b
ase
of
po
liti
cal
sup
po
rt, l
aws
and
reg
ula
tio
ns,
inst
itu
tio
nal
res
po
nsi
bil
ity,
an
d
trai
ned
peo
ple
. K
now
led
ge s
ho
uld
be
tran
sfer
red
fro
m g
eo-
scie
nce
sp
ecia
list
s an
d i
nte
rnat
ion
al b
od
ies
to p
rofe
ssio
nal
s
and
dec
isio
n m
aker
s w
ork
ing
on
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
age-
men
t w
ith
di&
eren
t te
chn
olo
gica
l bac
kgr
ou
nd
s.
Man
y in
tern
atio
nal
org
aniz
atio
ns
are
tack
lin
g th
is i
ssu
e,
amo
ng
them
th
e Jo
int
Bo
ard
of
Geo
spat
ial
Info
rmat
ion
So
ciet
ies
(JB
GIS
), a
nd
th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
O#
ce o
f O
u-
ter
Spac
e A
&ai
rs (
OO
SA)
wh
ich
is
carr
yin
g o
ut
the
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s P
latf
orm
fo
r Sp
ace-
bas
ed i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r D
isas
ter
Man
agem
ent
and
Em
erge
ncy
Res
po
nse
(U
N-S
PID
ER
).
To
fac
ilit
ate
the
pro
cess
of
gett
ing
fam
ilia
r w
ith
geo
spat
ial
tech
no
log
y, J
B G
IS a
nd
OO
SA h
ave
emb
ark
ed o
n a
maj
or
init
iati
ve t
o d
emo
nst
rate
th
e p
ote
nti
al o
f ge
osp
atia
l te
chn
o-
logi
es f
or
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent
to d
ecis
ion
tak
ers
in g
ove
rnm
enta
l an
d a
dm
inis
trat
ive
bo
die
s, t
o d
isas
ter
ma-
nag
emen
t p
rofe
ssio
nal
s an
d t
o o
ther
sta
keh
old
ers.
As
earl
y as
July
200
9, J
B G
IS a
nd
UN
-SP
IDE
R jo
intl
y in
vite
d
the
glo
bal
sta
keh
old
er c
om
mu
nit
y to
co
ntr
ibu
te a
rtic
les
for
a co
llec
tio
n o
f ca
se s
tud
ies,
ap
pli
cati
on
exa
mp
les,
an
d b
est
pra
ctic
es. M
ore
th
an 7
0 re
spo
nse
s w
ere
rece
ived
an
d e
valu
a-
ted
, an
d '
nal
ly 1
6 w
ere
acce
pte
d fo
r p
ub
lica
tio
n, d
ue
to t
hei
r
exem
pla
ry c
ove
rage
of
di&
eren
t re
gio
ns
of
the
wo
rld
, ty
pes
of
dis
aste
rs, a
nd
ph
ases
of
the
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t cy
cle.
$e
resu
ltin
g b
oo
kle
t en
titl
ed: “
Geo
info
rmat
ion
for
Dis
aste
r
and
Ris
k M
anag
emen
t -
Exa
mp
les
and
Bes
t P
ract
ices
” w
as
o#
cial
ly la
un
ched
du
rin
g th
e C
ente
nar
y C
eleb
rati
on
s o
f th
e
Inte
rnat
ion
al S
oci
ety
for
Ph
oto
gram
met
ry a
nd
Rem
ote
Sen
-
sin
g (I
SPR
S) i
n V
ien
na
on
2 J
uly
201
0.
$e
bo
ok
let
is a
vail
able
on
-lin
e at
: h
ttp
://w
ww
.isp
rs.o
rg/
new
s/an
no
un
cem
ents
/ an
d
htt
p:/
/ww
w.u
n-s
pid
er.o
rg/
abo
ut/
po
rtfo
lio
/pu
bli
cati
on
s/jb
gis-
un
oo
sa-b
oo
kle
t. I
t co
n-
vin
cin
gly
dem
on
stra
tes
vari
ou
s as
pec
ts o
f ge
osp
atia
l te
ch-
no
log
y an
d h
ow
th
ey c
an b
e e#
cien
tly
inte
grat
ed i
nto
Di-
sast
er a
nd
Ris
k M
anag
emen
t.
$e
“Bes
t P
ract
ices
Bo
ok
let”
, as
it w
as t
erm
ed u
no
#ci
ally
,
pro
vid
es k
no
wle
dge
on
“w
hat
can
be
do
ne”
– m
eth
od
s, s
ys-
tem
s, a
pp
lica
tio
ns,
exp
erie
nce
s –
to
su
pp
ort
dis
aste
r m
a-
nag
emen
t w
ith
ap
pro
pri
ate
geo
info
rmat
ion
. A
s a
nex
t lo
gi-
cal s
tep
it s
eem
ed u
sefu
l to
ask
“w
hat
is t
he
imp
act
and
val
ue
of
the
geo
info
rmat
ion
?”
$er
efo
re,
a fo
llo
w-o
n p
ub
lica
tio
n o
n t
he
eval
uat
ion
of
be-
ne'
ts w
as p
rep
ared
, in
th
e fr
amew
ork
of
an i
nte
rdis
cip
lin
a-
ry p
roje
ct n
amed
VA
LID
($
e V
alu
e o
f G
eoin
form
atio
n f
or
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent)
. $is
sec
on
d p
ub
lica
tio
n i
n
you
r h
and
s, w
hic
h w
as p
ub
lish
ed b
y th
e JB
GIS
, th
e In
tern
a-
tio
nal
Co
un
cil
for
Sci
ence
-Geo
Un
ion
s (I
CSU
-Geo
Un
ion
s),
and
OO
SA, g
ives
evi
den
ce o
f th
e ec
on
om
ic, o
per
atio
nal
an
d
stra
tegi
c b
ene'
t w
hic
h c
an b
e re
aliz
ed b
y ap
ply
ing
geo
info
r-
mat
ion
to
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t.
A t
wo
-fo
ld a
pp
roac
h w
as f
oll
ow
ed i
n o
rder
to
en
sure
a h
oli
-
stic
as
wel
l as
det
aile
d v
iew
on
th
e b
ene'
ts o
f ge
oin
form
ati-
on
fo
r d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
and
th
e b
est
po
ssib
le c
ove
rage
of
the
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t cy
cle.
In
an
eco
no
mic
ben
e't
anal
ysis
, det
aile
d b
y a
ded
icat
ed c
ase
stu
dy,
th
e m
on
etar
y as
-
pec
ts w
ere
add
ress
ed (
Ch
apte
r 2)
. In
par
alle
l, th
e k
no
wle
dge
and
pra
ctic
al e
xper
ien
ce o
f th
e gl
ob
al s
tak
eho
lder
co
mm
u-
nit
y w
as e
xplo
red
by
way
of
a w
eb-b
ased
su
rvey
(C
hap
ters
3 an
d 4
), t
he
resu
lts
of
wh
ich
are
pre
sen
ted
to
geth
er w
ith
info
rmat
ion
on
th
e as
sess
men
t o
f th
e sc
ien
ti'
c an
d t
ech
ni-
cal
asp
ects
of
the
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts
(Ch
apte
rs 4
.1 t
o
4.5)
, an
d o
n t
he
cost
s as
pec
ts o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n p
rovi
sio
n
(Ch
apte
r 4.
6).
$e
ove
rall
res
ult
s o
f th
e st
ud
y ar
e su
mm
a-
rize
d a
nd
co
mm
ente
d i
n C
hap
ter
5.
$e
edit
ors
are
co
nvi
nce
d t
hat
th
is p
ub
lica
tio
n w
ill
shed
mo
re l
igh
t o
n t
he
spec
i'c
valu
e an
d i
mp
act
of
geo
info
rma-
tio
n w
hen
it
com
es t
o t
ack
lin
g th
e in
crea
sin
g ch
alle
nge
s o
f
nat
ura
l an
d m
an-m
ade
dis
aste
rs a
nd
ris
ks.
10
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2 2.
Ho
w t
o d
ete
rmin
e t
he e
co
no
mic
valu
e o
f g
eo
info
rmati
on
in
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk M
an
ag
em
en
t?
Nie
ls v
an M
anen
, Hen
k Sc
hol
ten
, Tes
sa B
elin
fan
te a
nd
Geo
rge
Ch
o
Rec
ent
stu
die
s h
ave
hig
hli
ghte
d t
he
vari
ety
of
way
s in
wh
ich
geo
info
rmat
ion
co
ntr
ibu
tes
to D
isas
ter
and
Ris
k M
anag
e-
men
t (D
RM
) p
ract
ices
. G
eoin
form
atio
n
and
as
soci
ated
tech
no
logi
es a
lso
pla
y a
cen
tral
par
t in
new
met
ho
ds
for
as-
sess
ing
cost
s an
d b
ene'
ts o
f D
RM
an
d o
f d
isas
ter
rela
ted
dam
ages
an
d l
oss
es.
Det
erm
inin
g th
e ec
on
om
ic v
alu
e o
f
geo
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
in
DR
M i
tsel
f, h
ow
ever
, re
mai
ns
an
un
der
stu
die
d t
op
ic.
$e
eco
no
mic
im
pac
t o
f d
isas
ters
of
nat
ura
l o
rigi
n i
s p
ro-
fou
nd
an
d f
elt,
to
var
yin
g d
egre
es,
acro
ss t
he
glo
be.
Sin
ce
1970
, to
tal
dam
ages
cau
sed
by
all
haz
ard
s co
mb
ined
acc
u-
mu
late
to
ove
r $2
,300
bil
lio
n (
in 2
008
US
do
llar
s),
equ
iva-
len
t to
0.2
3 p
erce
nt
of
the
cum
ula
tive
wo
rld
ou
tpu
t. A
gra
d-
ual
bu
t cl
ear
up
war
d t
ren
d c
an b
e o
bse
rved
, w
hic
h i
s li
kel
y
to c
on
tin
ue
into
th
e fu
ture
du
e to
th
e im
pac
ts o
f cl
imat
e
chan
ge a
nd
po
pu
lati
on
gro
wth
in
are
as e
xpo
sed
to
nat
ura
l
haz
ard
s ($
e W
orl
d B
ank
/ U
nit
ed N
atio
ns,
201
0).
$er
e is
a w
idel
y h
eld
bel
ief
that
geo
spat
ial i
nfo
rmat
ion
an
d
asso
ciat
ed t
ech
no
logi
es c
an p
lay
a vi
tal r
ole
in r
ever
sin
g th
is
tren
d. $
is b
elie
f is
fu
eled
by
the
incr
easi
ng
amo
un
ts o
f ri
sk-
rela
ted
dat
a av
aila
ble
- c
ove
rin
g h
azar
d,
exp
osu
re a
nd
vu
l-
ner
abil
ity
- an
d r
apid
tec
hn
olo
gica
l d
evel
op
men
ts.
Dig
ital
map
s an
d r
elat
ed s
ervi
ces
are
po
wer
ful
too
ls f
or
scru
tin
iz-
ing
and
co
mm
un
icat
ing
the
com
ple
xiti
es o
f n
atu
ral h
azar
ds.
Bet
ter
info
rmat
ion
can
fac
ilit
ate
mo
re e
&ec
tive
dec
isio
ns
in d
isas
ter
resp
on
se,
reco
very
an
d r
edu
ctio
n p
ract
ices
. $
e
2007
Nat
ion
al R
esea
rch
Co
un
cil r
epo
rt S
ucc
essf
ul R
esp
on
se
Star
ts w
ith
a M
ap,
pu
bli
shed
in
th
e w
ake
of
9/11
an
d h
ur-
rica
ne
Kat
rin
a, m
ade
a p
ow
erfu
l ca
se f
or
esta
bli
shin
g in
th
e
USA
a s
yste
mat
ic g
eosp
atia
l in
form
atio
n i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
to
sup
po
rt d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent.
$e
join
t W
orl
d B
ank
/ U
nit
-
ed N
atio
ns
rep
ort
Nat
ura
l H
azar
ds,
Un
nec
essa
ry D
isas
ters
(201
0) s
imil
arly
ad
voca
ted
wo
rld
wid
e in
vest
men
ts i
n e
arly
war
nin
g sy
stem
s an
d o
ther
geo
info
rmat
ion
ser
vice
s. O
ther
stu
die
s h
igh
ligh
t th
e n
um
ber
of
serv
ices
alr
ead
y b
ein
g d
e-
plo
yed
to
go
od
e&
ect
at d
i&er
ent
stag
es o
f D
RM
(A
ltan
et
al.,
2010
).
In r
ecen
t ye
ars,
geo
spat
ial t
ech
no
log
y h
as in
dee
d b
eco
me
an
imp
ort
ant
com
po
nen
t in
res
po
nd
ing
to d
isas
ters
of
nat
ura
l
ori
gin
. In
th
e U
nit
ed S
tate
s, f
or
exam
ple
, man
y fe
der
al, s
tate
and
co
un
try
emer
gen
cy o
per
atio
ns
cen
tres
are
usi
ng
a co
m-
bin
atio
n o
f re
mo
te s
ensi
ng,
glo
bal
nav
igat
ion
sat
elli
te s
ys-
tem
s (G
NSS
) an
d g
eogr
aph
ic i
nfo
rmat
ion
sys
tem
s (G
IS)
to
det
erm
ine
the
mag
nit
ud
e an
d i
mp
act
of
dis
aste
rs o
f n
atu
ral
ori
gin
. G
eosp
atia
l te
chn
olo
gies
hav
e b
een
use
d t
o a
llo
cate
reso
urc
es i
n b
oth
th
e re
spo
nse
an
d r
eco
very
ph
ases
of
the
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t cy
cle,
bu
t th
e ex
per
ien
ces
hav
e b
een
mix
ed (
Ho
dgs
on
et
al.,
2010
; 201
3).
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
e su
cces
sfu
l d
eplo
ymen
t o
f ge
osp
atia
l se
r-
vice
s re
qu
ires
org
aniz
atio
nal
mea
sure
s an
d t
rain
ing,
o>
en
at c
on
sid
erab
le c
ost
, as
th
e re
qu
ired
dat
a is
sp
read
acr
oss
di&
eren
t in
stit
uti
on
s an
d t
he
pro
du
ctio
n o
f u
seab
le g
eoin
-
form
atio
n r
equ
ires
exp
ert
skil
ls. $
eref
ore
new
geo
info
rma-
tio
n p
rod
uct
s h
ave
to c
om
pet
e w
ith
oth
er D
RM
inve
stm
ents
and
eve
n t
he
con
tin
uat
ion
of
succ
essf
ul
exis
tin
g se
rvic
es i
s
by
no
mea
ns
a gi
ven
. Fo
r ex
amp
le, t
he
Ger
man
BIR
D s
atel
-
lite
mis
sio
n w
as d
edic
ated
to
wil
d '
re d
etec
tio
n a
nd
mo
ni-
tori
ng,
bu
t th
e p
rogr
am h
as b
een
dis
con
tin
ued
. A
t a
tim
e
wh
en p
ub
lic
'n
ance
s in
mo
st p
arts
of
the
wo
rld
are
ser
i-
Fig
ure
2.1
: Dam
age
on
th
e ri
se i
n t
he
last
tw
o d
ecad
es (
glo
bal
dam
age
fro
m h
azar
ds,
197
0-20
10)
($e
Wo
rld
Ban
k/
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s, 2
010)
11
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2o
usl
y st
rain
ed, c
aref
ul
asse
ssm
ents
mu
st b
e m
ade
of
the
in-
vest
men
t re
turn
s o
f ea
ch g
eoin
form
atio
n s
ervi
ce. Y
et, u
nli
ke
man
y o
ther
asp
ects
of
DR
M,
the
eco
no
mic
s o
f ge
osp
atia
l
info
rmat
ion
ser
vice
s ar
e la
rgel
y u
nk
no
wn
.
$e
Ord
nan
ce S
urv
ey R
epo
rt (
OS)
(O
rdn
ance
Su
rvey
, 201
3)
on
th
e va
lue
of
OS
Op
enD
ataT
M t
o t
he
eco
no
my
of
Gre
at
Bri
tain
use
d a
co
mp
uta
ble
gen
eral
eq
uil
ibri
um
(C
GE
) m
od
-
el t
o a
sses
s th
e ec
on
om
ic v
alu
e ar
isin
g fr
om
th
e re
leas
e o
f
OS
Op
enD
ataT
M. $
e p
arti
cula
r C
GE
mo
del
use
d t
akes
in
to
acco
un
t tr
ade
%o
ws
wit
h o
ther
co
un
trie
s as
wel
l as
res
ou
rce
shi>
s w
ith
in G
reat
Bri
tain
. $
e m
od
el w
as c
ho
sen
to
ove
r-
com
e p
rob
lem
s w
ith
sim
ple
ben
e't/
mu
ltip
lier
ap
pro
ach
es
such
as
allo
win
g fo
r ch
ange
s in
mac
ro-e
con
om
ic a
ggre
gate
s
resu
ltin
g fr
om
ch
ange
s el
sew
her
e. $
e re
po
rt a
ckn
ow
led
ges
that
CG
E m
od
els
are
a re
cogn
ised
way
of
esti
mat
ing
eco
-
no
mic
val
ue
and
has
bee
n u
sed
by
the
Ban
k o
f E
ngl
and
.
Ho
wev
er, t
he
OS
(201
3) s
tud
y is
sta
tic
snap
sho
t o
f ec
on
om
ic
valu
e an
d d
oes
no
t es
tim
ate
dyn
amic
im
pac
ts.
Fu
rth
er,
the
dat
a fe
d i
nto
a C
GE
mo
del
to
est
imat
e th
e im
pac
ts r
elie
d o
n
dat
a fr
om
in
terv
iew
so
urc
es. $
e m
od
el is
dri
ven
by
a se
ries
of
assu
mp
tio
ns
and
dat
a ex
trap
ola
tio
ns,
is
no
t an
exa
ct s
ci-
ence
an
d t
he
resu
lts
sho
uld
be
inte
rpre
ted
mo
re q
ual
itat
ivel
y
than
qu
anti
tati
vely
.
$e
AC
IL T
asm
an (
2008
) st
ud
y o
f th
e va
lue
of
spat
ial
tech
-
no
log
y to
th
e A
ust
rali
an e
con
om
y at
tem
pte
d t
o e
stab
lish
the
aggr
egat
e ec
on
om
ic i
mp
act
of
spat
ial
tech
no
log
y in
an
eco
no
my.
$e
CG
E m
od
el w
as u
sed
to
cap
ture
th
e ge
osp
a-
tial
in
du
stry
fo
otp
rin
t th
rou
gho
ut
the
Au
stra
lian
eco
no
my
in t
erm
s o
f it
s im
pac
t o
n G
DP.
$is
met
ho
do
log
y o
&er
s an
emp
iric
al m
od
el o
f th
e ec
on
om
y-w
ide
imp
acts
of
geo
spat
ial
tech
no
log
y fo
cuss
ing
on
22
key
sec
tors
of
the
eco
no
my.
Wh
ile
the
resu
lts
ob
tain
ed f
rom
th
e tw
o C
GE
stu
die
s n
ote
d
abo
ve a
re n
ote
wo
rth
y, a
dra
wb
ack
of
the
CG
E f
ram
ewo
rk i
s th
e h
uge
dat
a re
qu
irem
ents
nec
essa
ry f
or
the
mo
del
to
per
-fo
rm e
&ec
tive
ly. $
is m
ay p
rove
a h
eavy
co
nst
rain
t in
man
y co
un
trie
s th
at la
ck a
dat
a in
fras
tru
ctu
re.
$e
pu
rpo
se o
f th
is c
hap
ter
is t
her
efo
re t
o e
valu
ate
wh
at
eco
no
mic
met
ho
ds
can
ass
ist
in d
e'n
ing
cost
an
d b
ene'
t as
-
sess
men
ts t
hat
can
be
mo
re u
niv
ersa
lly
app
lied
. $is
sh
ou
ld
ult
imat
ely
con
trib
ute
to
mo
re r
atio
nal
dec
isio
ns
in D
RM
spen
din
g.
Econom
ics o
f hazard
s o
f natu
ral origin
and
dis
aste
r m
anagem
ent
$e
eco
no
mic
val
uat
ion
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
in
DR
M -
her
e
de'
ned
as
cost
an
d l
oss
red
uct
ion
du
e to
bet
ter
dec
isio
ns
faci
lita
ted
by
geo
info
rmat
ion
- i
s p
art
of
a th
rivi
ng
'el
d o
f
stu
dy
dea
lin
g w
ith
th
e ec
on
om
ics
of
nat
ura
l h
azar
ds
and
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t. S
om
e o
f th
e fr
amew
ork
s d
evel
op
ed
in t
his
wid
er '
eld
can
be
fru
itfu
lly
app
lied
to
th
e ec
on
om
ic
asse
ssm
ent
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
. Bas
ed o
n a
sys
tem
atic
lit
era-
ture
su
rvey
, fo
ur
app
roac
hes
hav
e b
een
id
enti
'ed
:
Eva
luat
ion
of
the
dir
ect
and
in
dir
ect
loss
es c
ause
d b
y
di&
eren
t h
azar
d t
ypes
in
di&
eren
t p
arts
of
the
wo
rld
,
wit
h t
he
aim
to
su
pp
ort
dec
isio
ns
rega
rdin
g w
hic
h h
az-
ard
s to
tar
get
and
wh
ere
(e.g
. B
enso
n a
nd
Cla
y, 2
004;
$e
Wo
rld
Ban
k/
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s, 2
010;
Mu
nic
h R
e
Nat
Cat
SER
VIC
E D
atab
ase
of
loss
es f
rom
nat
ura
l dis
as-
ters
, 201
2);
Eva
luat
ion
of
the
eco
no
mic
co
sts
and
ret
urn
s o
f ri
sk
man
agem
ent
and
mit
igat
ion
mea
sure
s, w
ith
th
e ai
m
to o
pti
miz
e th
e ch
oic
e o
f p
reve
nti
on
mea
sure
s u
nd
er
di&
eren
t ci
rcu
mst
ance
s (e
.g.
Mu
nas
ingh
e an
d C
lark
e,
1995
; F
eder
al E
mer
gen
cy M
anag
emen
t A
gen
cy,
1997
;
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Age
ncy
, 19
98;
Smyt
h e
t al
., 20
02;
Mu
ltih
azar
d M
itig
atio
n C
ou
nci
l, 20
02;
Mec
hle
r, 2
003;
Ben
son
an
d T
wig
g, 2
004;
Ver
mei
ren
et
al.,
2004
);
Ass
essm
ent
of
the
'n
anci
al
arra
nge
men
ts
of
DR
M
acti
viti
es,
wit
h t
he
aim
to
op
tim
ize
the
regu
lari
ty,
e#-
cien
cy,
e&ec
tive
nes
s an
d t
ran
spar
ency
of
DR
M s
pen
d-
ing
(e.g
. Co
mer
io a
nd
Go
rdo
n, 1
998;
IN
TO
SAI,
201
3);
Ass
essm
ent
of
the
cost
s an
d b
ene'
ts o
f k
no
wle
dge
an
d
info
rmat
ion
in
aid
of
DR
M a
ctiv
itie
s, w
ith
th
e ai
m t
o
pri
ori
tize
sp
end
ing
on
in
form
atio
n s
ervi
ces
wit
h t
he
grea
test
ret
urn
(e.
g. S
tew
art,
199
7; W
illi
amso
n e
t al
.,
2001
; N
atio
nal
O
cean
ic
and
A
tmo
sph
eric
A
dm
inis
-
trat
ion
et
al.,
2002
; W
illi
amso
n e
t al
., 20
03;
Eb
i et
al.,
2004
).
Ou
r st
ud
y is
clo
sely
rel
ated
to
th
e la
st o
f th
ese,
bu
t th
e o
ther
app
roac
hes
als
o p
rovi
de
valu
able
in
sigh
ts.
$e
'rs
t p
ro-
mo
tes
stan
dar
diz
atio
n o
f p
ost
-dis
aste
r d
amag
e an
d n
eed
s
asse
ssm
ents
. $
is h
elp
s th
e ec
on
om
ic a
sses
smen
t o
f ge
o-
info
rmat
ion
, b
ecau
se u
nif
orm
rec
ord
ing
of
dam
ages
(w
ith
iden
tica
l ca
tego
riza
tio
n o
f ec
on
om
ic s
ecto
rs)
mak
es i
t p
os-
sib
le t
o c
on
du
ct c
om
par
ativ
e as
sess
men
ts o
f th
e (p
ote
nti
al)
con
trib
uti
on
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
ser
vice
s to
dam
age
red
uc-
tio
n p
er s
ecto
r. $
is i
s in
dee
d a
n i
mp
ort
ant
pre
req
uis
ite
for
exte
nd
ing
the
exp
erim
enta
l m
eth
od
ap
pli
ed h
ere
to o
ne
case
to
oth
er d
isas
ter
inci
den
ts.
$e
seco
nd
ap
pro
ach
als
o
bo
ost
s th
e p
ote
nti
al fo
r ec
on
om
ic e
valu
atio
n o
f geo
info
rma-
tio
n,
bec
ause
mo
st g
eoin
form
atio
n s
ervi
ces
are
rela
ted
to
a
spec
i'c
stag
e o
f D
RM
, so
met
imes
a s
pec
i'c
pre
ven
tio
n a
c-
tivi
ty.
By
scru
tin
izin
g th
e re
turn
of
inve
stm
ent
of
di&
eren
t
reli
ef, r
eco
very
an
d m
itig
atio
n p
ract
ices
, th
is b
od
y o
f w
ork
s
hel
ps
to p
rio
riti
ze g
eoin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s th
at c
on
trib
ute
to p
ract
ices
wit
h t
he
hig
hes
t p
ote
nti
al r
etu
rns.
$is
is in
dee
d
ho
w,
for
this
ch
apte
r, a
n e
arly
war
nin
g sy
stem
was
ch
ose
n
for
the
Nam
ibia
n %
oo
d c
ase
(see
sec
tio
n 2
.2).
$e
thir
d a
p-
pro
ach
hig
hli
ghts
th
at t
he
'n
anci
al a
rran
gem
ent
and
in
de-
pen
den
t au
dit
ing
of
DR
M a
ctiv
itie
s h
ave
eco
no
mic
imp
acts
,
by
stre
ngt
hen
ing
or
un
der
min
ing
tru
st i
n t
he
loca
l m
ark
et
bef
ore
an
d a
>er
dis
aste
r in
cid
ents
. Si
nce
th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Org
aniz
atio
n o
f Su
pre
me
Au
dit
In
stit
uti
on
s is
act
ivel
y p
ro-
mo
tin
g th
e u
se o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s in
DR
M a
ud
its
(IN
TO
SAI,
201
3),
this
wil
l b
e an
im
po
rtan
t av
enu
e fo
r fu
-
ture
res
earc
h r
egar
din
g th
e ec
on
om
ics
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
.
$e
fou
rth
ap
pro
ach
, mo
st c
lose
ly a
lign
ed t
o o
ur
ow
n s
tud
y,
has
th
us
far
focu
sed
on
th
e ec
on
om
ic c
on
trib
uti
on
s o
f fo
re-
12
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2 cast
ing
tech
niq
ues
in t
he
con
text
of
wea
ther
rel
ated
ext
rem
e
even
ts (
hu
rric
anes
, %
oo
ds,
hea
t w
aves
). $
ese
stu
die
s h
elp
-
full
y sh
ow
th
at
eco
no
mic
ev
alu
atio
n
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts
sho
uld
fo
cus
on
ho
w t
hes
e ar
e u
sed
in
th
e co
nte
xt
of
DR
M b
ecau
se t
hei
r u
se i
n%
uen
ces
the
dec
isio
ns
that
ult
i-
mat
ely
a&ec
t th
e ec
on
om
y. $
ese
sam
e st
ud
ies
also
hig
hli
ght
the
chal
len
ges
of
app
lyin
g a
con
ven
tio
nal
co
st a
nd
ben
e't
anal
ysis
to
a g
eoin
form
atio
n s
ervi
ce.
Wh
ile
an i
ntr
acta
-
ble
pro
ble
m,
at t
he
cost
sid
e, i
t is
o>
en h
ard
to
det
erm
ine
wh
ich
par
t o
f th
e co
sts
sho
uld
be
allo
cate
d t
o D
RM
usa
ge,
sin
ce m
ost
ser
vice
s ar
e al
so u
sed
fo
r o
ther
pu
rpo
ses.
At
the
ben
e't
sid
e, t
he
esti
mat
ed d
amag
e re
du
ctio
n o
r ec
on
om
ic
gro
wth
th
at w
ou
ld b
e ga
ined
wer
e an
e&
ecti
ve g
eoin
form
a-
tio
n s
ervi
ce a
vail
able
, is
inev
itab
ly m
od
eled
on
a f
uzz
y ‘w
hat
– i
f’ s
cen
ario
.
Eve
n i
f a
mo
net
ary
valu
e co
uld
be
ob
tain
ed t
he
mea
sure
is
a re
lati
ve o
ne
and
can
no
t b
e u
sed
in
a c
om
par
ativ
e an
alys
is,
as t
he
cost
an
d b
ene'
ts o
f p
rod
uci
ng,
dep
loyi
ng
and
mai
n-
tain
ing
geo
info
rmat
ion
ser
vice
s va
ry g
reat
ly d
epen
din
g o
n
wh
ere
in t
he
wo
rld
it
is d
on
e an
d a
t w
hat
sca
le a
nd
als
o b
e-
twee
n d
i&er
ent
serv
ices
. F
urt
her
mo
re,
even
if
CB
A w
ere
to
be
app
lied
in D
RM
act
ivit
ies
the
dat
a n
eed
s ca
n b
e d
escr
ibed
as ‘d
ata-
hu
ngr
y’ –
so
met
hin
g w
hic
h i
s ei
ther
un
avai
lab
le o
r
in a
po
or
stat
e to
be
use
d f
or
mo
del
lin
g re
qu
ired
. Fin
ally
, as
wil
l be
sho
wn
in t
he
Nam
ibia
cas
e, s
uch
mo
del
ing
req
uir
es a
sim
pli
'ca
tio
n o
f th
e im
pac
t o
f th
e ge
oin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
– “
than
ks
to t
his
pro
du
ct w
e w
ou
ld h
ave
x h
ou
rs/
day
s ex
tra
avai
lab
le t
o c
on
du
ct e
vacu
atio
n a
ctiv
itie
s” –
th
at i
s h
ard
to
bac
k u
p w
ith
em
pir
ical
evi
den
ce.
Bea
rin
g th
ese
chal
len
ges
in m
ind
, it
is i
mp
ort
ant
to e
xplo
re
ho
w w
e m
ay t
wea
k t
he
con
ven
tio
nal
CB
A w
ith
insi
ghts
fro
m
oth
er e
con
om
ic i
mp
act
asse
ssm
ents
. A
nu
mb
er o
f st
arti
ng
po
ints
can
be
de'
ned
. Fir
stly
, eco
no
mic
im
pac
t st
ud
ies
em-
plo
y ri
goro
us
con
cep
tual
fra
mew
ork
s th
at e
valu
ate
bo
th t
he
dir
ect
'n
anci
al i
mp
act
as w
ell
as t
he
eco
no
mic
ext
ern
alit
ies
that
are
lik
ely
to o
ccu
r. F
or
exam
ple
, $
e W
orl
d B
ank
an
d
the
Mil
len
niu
m C
hal
len
ge C
orp
ora
tio
n (
Mil
len
niu
m C
hal
-
len
ge C
orp
ora
tio
n, 2
008)
hav
e u
sed
var
iou
s m
od
els
to e
val-
uat
e p
ote
nti
al i
nve
stm
ents
in
lan
d a
dm
inis
trat
ion
pro
ject
s.
Seco
nd
ly, m
ult
ilat
eral
dev
elop
men
t org
anis
atio
ns
and
dev
elop
-
men
t b
anks
hav
e co
mbi
ned
qu
anti
tati
ve a
nd
qu
alit
ativ
e m
et-
rics
in
ass
essi
ng
pot
enti
al l
and
pro
ject
s. S
ome
com
mon
mea
-
sure
s in
clu
de
the
use
of
net
pre
sen
t va
lue
(NP
V)
esti
mat
ion
s,
'n
anci
al i
nte
rnal
rat
e of
ret
urn
(F
IRR
), a
nd
eco
nom
ic r
ate
of
retu
rn (
ER
R).
Of t
hes
e, E
RR
ap
pea
rs m
ost
use
ful i
n th
at r
ates
of
retu
rns
can
be
det
erm
ined
an
d t
hat
bot
h t
he
exp
ecte
d p
osi
tive
and
neg
ativ
e ex
tern
alit
ies
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
th
e p
roje
ct a
re c
on-
sid
ered
. Hig
h E
RR
val
ues
su
gges
t a
pro
ject
wil
l hav
e a
sub
stan
-
tial
eco
nom
ic r
etu
rn. A
10
% E
RR
or
mor
e su
gges
ts a
pro
ject
may
be
wor
thy
of in
vest
men
t.
$ir
dly
, ch
oice
of m
od
el is
cri
tica
l bu
t th
ere
are
no
‘silv
er b
ulle
t’
solu
tion
s as
som
e m
od
els
shou
ld b
e ta
ilor
ed to
res
olve
par
ticu
-
lar
issu
es a
nd
ass
esse
d o
n a
cas
e-by
-cas
e b
asis
. Wh
iteh
ead
an
d
Mar
bel
l (20
13)
focu
ssed
on
th
e ec
onom
ic r
ate
of r
etu
rn (
ER
R)
calc
ula
tion
s as
a c
rite
rion
for
th
e as
sess
men
t of
th
e ec
onom
ic
viab
ilit
y of
pro
ject
s.
$e
nex
t se
ctio
ns
wil
l fu
rth
er e
xam
ine
ho
w t
he
con
ven
tio
n-
al C
BA
may
be
revi
sed
to m
ake
it m
ore
su
itab
le fo
r ge
oin
for-
mat
ion
ser
vice
s fo
r D
RM
. Bef
ore
do
ing
so, i
t is
imp
ort
ant
to
stre
ss t
hat
th
ere
are
do
wn
sid
es t
o a
str
ictl
y ec
on
om
ic a
sses
s-
men
t. E
con
om
ic i
nd
icat
ors
do
no
t eq
ual
hu
man
wel
l-b
ein
g.
$er
efo
re,
cost
-ben
e't
anal
ysis
is
on
e m
eth
od
fo
r gr
asp
ing
the
avai
lab
le o
pti
on
s, b
ut
no
t a
road
map
th
at d
icta
tes
wh
at
sho
uld
be
do
ne,
esp
ecia
lly
as t
he
imp
acts
are
lik
ely
to b
e fe
lt
very
di&
eren
tly
by
di&
eren
t co
mm
un
itie
s an
d i
nd
ivid
ual
s
and
th
eref
ore
a p
oli
tica
l p
roce
ss o
f d
ecis
ion
mak
ing,
in
par
t
bas
ed o
n n
on
-eco
no
mic
co
nsi
der
atio
ns,
mu
st t
ake
pla
ce
($e
Wo
rld
Ban
k/
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s, 2
010)
. It
is w
ith
th
is p
hi-
loso
ph
y in
min
d, t
hat
th
e ec
on
om
ic e
valu
atio
n o
f ge
osp
atia
l
info
rmat
ion
in
DR
M w
ill b
e ex
plo
red
fu
rth
er.
Econom
ics o
f geoin
form
ation
Eco
no
mic
ass
essm
ent
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
can
be
con
du
cted
at t
wo
lev
els.
Eit
her
th
e co
st a
nd
ret
urn
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
serv
ices
fo
r d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
as a
wh
ole
can
be
eval
u-
ated
($
e B
ost
on
Co
nsu
ltan
cy G
rou
p,
2012
; O
xera
, 20
13),
or
the
cost
an
d r
etu
rn o
f sp
eci'
c se
rvic
es,
for
spec
i'c
com
-
po
nen
ts o
f D
RM
can
be
asse
ssed
. $e
form
er c
an b
oo
st t
he
wil
lin
gnes
s am
on
g p
ub
lic
and
pri
vate
par
ties
in
volv
ed i
n
DR
M t
o i
nve
st i
n t
his
kin
d o
f in
form
atio
n.
Ho
wev
er,
sin
ce
this
gen
eral
wil
lin
gnes
s is
alr
ead
y st
ron
g in
th
e D
RM
sec
tor,
the
focu
s h
ere
wil
l be
on
eva
luat
ing
spec
i'c
geo
info
rmat
ion
serv
ices
. $is
can
ass
ist
DR
M o
rgan
izat
ion
s to
dec
ide
mo
re
rati
on
ally
on
wh
ich
ser
vice
to
in
vest
in
wit
h t
he
grea
test
chan
ce o
f re
turn
. $is
ch
apte
r w
ill
dea
l w
ith
th
e (p
ote
nti
al)
ben
e'ts
; m
ore
wil
l b
e sa
id o
n t
he
cost
s in
ch
apte
r 4.
6. $
e
focu
s w
ill b
e o
n t
he
eco
no
mic
ad
van
tage
s to
DR
M a
ctiv
itie
s
on
ly; a
co
mp
reh
ensi
ve e
valu
atio
n w
ou
ld r
equ
ire
to a
lso
co
n-
sid
er t
he
eco
no
mic
act
ivit
ies
stem
min
g fr
om
th
e p
rod
uct
ion
and
dis
trib
uti
on
of
the
geo
info
rmat
ion
ser
vice
s th
emse
lves
.
Tec
hn
olo
gies
th
emse
lves
do
no
t re
sult
in
a r
edu
ctio
n i
n
dam
ages
an
d l
oss
es;
it i
s th
e b
ette
r d
ecis
ion
s, f
acil
itat
ed b
y
thei
r u
se, w
hic
h c
an b
rin
g th
is a
bo
ut.
$e
focu
s is
th
eref
ore
on
th
e ec
on
om
ic im
pac
t o
f b
ette
r d
ecis
ion
s fa
cili
tate
d b
y th
e
use
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
alt
ern
ativ
es fo
r cu
rren
t se
rvic
es (
Fri
tz
et a
l., 2
008;
Kre
k a
nd
Fra
nk
, 199
9) (
Fig
. 2.2
).
Fig
ure
2.2
: F
low
ch
art
of
(geo
)in
form
atio
n i
mp
act
(Fri
tz e
t
al.,
2008
)
13
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2St
ud
ies
that
an
alyz
e th
e va
lue
of
info
rmat
ion
fal
l b
road
ly
into
fo
ur
fram
ewo
rks:
(1)
th
e ec
on
om
etri
c es
tim
atio
n o
f
ou
tpu
t o
r p
rod
uct
ivit
y ga
ins
du
e to
info
rmat
ion
; (2)
hed
on
ic
pri
cin
g st
ud
ies,
ass
um
ing
the
valu
e o
f in
form
atio
n i
s ca
p-
ture
d i
n t
he
pri
ces
of
goo
ds
or
serv
ices
; (3)
co
nti
nge
nt
valu
-
atio
n s
urv
eys,
wh
ich
rel
y o
n t
he
Wil
lin
gnes
s to
Pay
pri
nci
ple
(Mac
aule
y, 2
005)
; (4
) co
st a
void
ance
stu
die
s, b
ased
on
an
esti
mat
ion
of
e#ci
ency
gai
n o
r lo
ss r
edu
ctio
n. $
e p
ote
nti
al
of
each
met
ho
d f
or
asse
ssin
g ge
osp
atia
l in
form
atio
n i
n a
id
of
DR
M i
s b
rie%
y re
view
ed.
$e
'rs
t m
eth
od
is
par
ticu
larl
y u
sefu
l fo
r es
tim
atin
g th
e
eco
no
mic
b
ene'
t o
f re
du
ced
u
nce
rtai
nty
. F
or
exam
ple
,
stu
die
s re
gard
ing
the
imp
act
of
wea
ther
fo
reca
stin
g (a
geo
-
spat
ial
tech
no
log
y) o
n a
gric
ult
ura
l o
utp
ut
ten
d t
o a
do
pt
this
pro
du
ctiv
ity-
gain
ass
essm
ent
(Mac
aule
y, 2
005)
. T
ypi-
call
y in
th
ese
stu
die
s, f
arm
pro
'ts
un
der
ave
rage
bu
t u
n-
cert
ain
wea
ther
pat
tern
s ar
e co
mp
ared
wit
h f
arm
pro
'ts
if r
ain
co
uld
be
accu
rate
ly f
ore
cast
ed.
A c
om
pil
atio
n o
f
exem
pla
ry s
tud
ies
incl
ud
e th
e o
pti
miz
atio
n o
f p
rod
uct
ion
leve
ls
acco
rdin
g to
p
roje
cted
te
mp
erat
ure
s o
r p
reci
pit
a-
tio
n r
ates
(Jo
hn
son
an
d H
olt
, 19
86).
Oth
er w
eath
er-r
elat
ed
sect
ors
su
ch a
s en
erg
y (R
ou
lsto
n e
t al
., 20
03)
and
avi
atio
n
safe
ty (
Mac
aule
y, 2
005)
, ca
n s
imil
arly
op
tim
ize
thei
r o
ut-
pu
t o
r p
rod
uct
ivit
y le
vels
. W
ith
in t
he
con
text
of
DR
M,
the
met
ho
d i
s su
itab
le f
or
geo
spat
ial
tech
no
logi
es r
elat
ed t
o t
he
fore
cast
ing
of
hyd
ro-m
eteo
rolo
gica
l haz
ard
s, b
ut
no
t fo
r th
e
full
sp
ectr
um
of
tech
no
logi
es a
nd
haz
ard
s. I
n t
he
pre
sen
t
exp
lora
tive
stu
dy
that
aim
s to
de'
ne
a co
mp
arat
ive
met
h-
od
olo
gy
suit
able
fo
r d
i&er
ent
geo
info
rmat
ion
ser
vice
s, t
he
met
ho
d o
f es
tim
atin
g ec
on
om
ic b
ene'
t o
f re
du
ced
un
cer-
tain
ty w
ill n
ot
be
ado
pte
d.
$e
seco
nd
fra
mew
ork
, b
ased
on
hed
on
ic p
rici
ng
anal
ysis
,
is s
uit
ed f
or
eval
uat
ing
wh
eth
er k
no
wle
dge
ab
ou
t th
e h
az-
ard
-pro
nen
ess
of
an a
rea
a&ec
ts t
he
pri
ces
of
lan
d,
goo
ds
and
ser
vice
s. H
edo
nic
pri
cin
g m
od
els
atte
mp
t to
id
enti
fy
pri
ce f
acto
rs o
n t
he
pre
mis
e th
at p
rice
can
be
det
erm
ined
by
the
inh
eren
t ch
arac
ter
of
the
goo
d b
ein
g so
ld a
nd
th
e ex
ter-
nal
fac
tors
th
at a
&ec
t it
. A c
om
mo
n e
xam
ple
is
the
ho
usi
ng
mar
ket
wh
ere
the
pri
ce o
f a p
rop
erty
is d
eter
min
ed b
y al
l th
e
char
acte
rist
ics
of
the
ho
use
in
clu
din
g it
s fe
atu
res,
lo
cati
on
,
age
and
bu
ild
qu
alit
y to
geth
er w
ith
th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f it
s
rela
tive
lo
cati
on
to
sch
oo
ls, s
ho
ps,
tra
nsp
ort
lin
ks.
Hed
on
ic
pri
cin
g m
od
els
esti
mat
e th
e ex
ten
t to
wh
ich
eac
h o
f th
e fa
c-
tors
iden
ti'
ed a
&ec
t th
e p
rice
. An
ad
van
tage
of
this
mo
del
is
that
it m
ay b
e u
sed
to
est
imat
e th
e ap
pro
xim
ate
valu
es b
ased
on
act
ual
ch
oic
es o
f p
eop
le a
nd
th
e re
al e
stat
e m
ark
et g
ives
a
goo
d in
dic
atio
n o
f val
ues
rel
ativ
e to
pro
per
ty s
ales
an
d o
ther
dat
a. C
om
par
ativ
e an
alys
is c
ou
ld t
hen
be
un
der
tak
en.
$e
maj
or
lim
itat
ion
to
th
is t
ech
niq
ue
is t
he
fact
th
at t
her
e
o>
en i
s n
o m
ark
et v
alu
e av
aila
ble
fo
r k
ey a
sset
s b
ecau
se, e
i-
ther
th
e n
atu
re o
f th
e at
trib
ute
th
at i
s im
pac
ted
by
info
rma-
tio
n m
akes
it d
i#cu
lt t
o p
ut
a m
on
etar
y '
gure
on
, fo
r ex
am-
ple
a n
atu
re p
ark
, o
r th
e im
pac
t o
f in
form
atio
n o
n p
rici
ng
is d
i#cu
lt t
o t
race
bac
k a
nd
th
eref
ore
is
di#
cult
to
cap
ture
.
$e
amo
un
t o
f d
ata
req
uir
ed w
ou
ld a
lso
be
very
larg
e. O
>en
it i
s n
ot
feas
ible
to
en
sure
th
at e
very
on
e h
vas
pri
or
kn
ow
l-
edge
of
bo
th t
he
po
siti
ve a
nd
neg
ativ
e ex
tern
alit
ies
imp
ing-
ing
on
a p
arti
cula
r at
trib
ute
. $
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
dat
a ca
n a
f-
fect
th
e am
ou
nt
of
tim
e an
d e
xpen
se n
eed
ed t
o a
pp
ly s
uch
a
mo
del
. In
th
e '
nal
an
alys
is t
he
inte
rpre
tati
on
of
the
resu
lts
fro
m t
he
mo
del
can
be
com
ple
x an
d t
her
e is
a n
eed
fo
r so
-
ph
isti
cate
d s
tati
stic
al k
no
wle
dge
an
d e
xper
tise
in
its
use
.
$e
thir
d m
eth
od
, a
con
tin
gen
t va
luat
ion
su
rvey
, m
akes
use
of
the
con
cep
t W
illi
ngn
ess
to P
ay (
WT
P).
$e
amo
un
t
peo
ple
are
wil
lin
g to
pay
fo
r a
cert
ain
pro
du
ct o
r se
rvic
e is
then
tra
nsl
ated
to
th
e va
lue
of
this
pro
du
ct o
r se
rvic
e. $
is
is a
su
rvey
-bas
ed t
ech
niq
ue
that
att
emp
ts t
o p
ut
a va
lue
on
no
n-m
ark
et r
eso
urc
es s
uch
as
the
envi
ron
men
t, w
ater
po
l-
luti
on
an
d t
he
imp
act
of
con
tam
inat
ion
. Wh
ile
ther
e m
igh
t
be
uti
lity
to
be
der
ived
fro
m t
hes
e, s
om
e as
pec
ts o
f th
e en
-
viro
nm
ent
do
no
t h
ave
a m
ark
et p
rice
as
they
are
no
t so
ld
dir
ectl
y. A
sce
nic
vis
ta m
igh
t n
ot
hav
e a
mar
ket
pri
ce a
nd
con
tin
gen
cy v
alu
atio
n t
ech
niq
ues
mig
ht
be
use
d t
o m
easu
re
thes
e as
pec
ts. $
e d
i#cu
lty
of
ob
tain
ing
accu
rate
eco
no
mic
valu
es t
hro
ugh
su
rvey
met
ho
ds
hav
e b
een
no
ted
by
a p
anel
of
hig
hly
reg
ard
ed e
con
om
ists
led
by
No
bel
Pri
ze l
aure
ate
Ken
net
h A
rro
w a
nd
Ro
ber
t S
olo
w c
on
ven
ed u
nd
er t
he
aus-
pic
es o
f th
e N
atio
nal
Oce
anic
an
d A
tmo
sph
eric
Ad
min
istr
a-
tio
n (
NO
AA
, 200
1). $
e m
eth
od
is w
idel
y ac
cep
ted
as
a re
al
esta
te a
pp
rais
al t
ech
niq
ue
par
ticu
larl
y in
in
stan
ces
of
con
-
tam
inat
ed s
ites
req
uir
ing
rem
edia
tio
n (
Mu
nd
y an
d M
cLea
n,
1998
). $
e te
chn
iqu
e h
as a
lso
bee
n u
sed
by
man
y go
vern
-
men
ts t
o e
valu
ate
the
cost
-ben
e'ts
of
pro
ject
s im
pac
tin
g
po
siti
vely
or
neg
ativ
ely
on
th
e en
viro
nm
ent,
fo
r ex
amp
le, i
n
Au
stra
lia
wh
ere
it w
as u
sed
to
pla
ce a
val
ue
on
th
e p
osi
tive
and
neg
ativ
e im
pac
ts o
f p
roje
cts
wit
hin
th
e K
akad
u N
atio
n-
al P
ark
(C
arso
n e
t al
., 19
94).
As
esti
mat
es o
f th
e va
lues
fo
r
goo
ds
and
ser
vice
s th
at a
re e
asil
y id
enti
'ed
an
d u
nd
erst
oo
d
by
use
rs,
the
resu
lts
fro
m t
hes
e st
ud
ies
are
no
t d
i#cu
lt t
o
anal
yze
and
des
crib
e.
$er
e ar
e, h
ow
ever
, so
me
pro
ble
ms
rega
rdin
g th
e co
nti
n-
gen
t va
luat
ion
met
ho
d a
s th
is m
eth
od
has
th
e te
nd
ency
to
pro
du
ce b
iase
d r
esu
lts
(Kla
[ a
nd
Mei
ssen
, 20
11).
Su
ch b
i-
ases
in
clu
de
tho
se o
f a
stra
tegi
c n
atu
re w
her
e re
spo
nd
ents
answ
er q
ues
tio
nn
aire
s in
ord
er t
o in
%u
ence
a p
arti
cula
r o
ut-
com
e, in
form
atio
n b
ias,
wh
ere
resp
on
den
ts a
re fo
rced
to
pu
t
a va
lue
to a
n a
ttri
bu
te f
or
wh
ich
th
ey m
igh
t h
ave
litt
le o
r n
o
exp
erie
nce
, an
d n
on
-res
po
nse
bia
s w
her
e th
e n
on
-res
po
n-
den
ts m
igh
t in
dee
d h
ave
di&
eren
t va
lues
to
th
ose
wh
o h
ave
resp
on
ded
. P
rob
lem
s en
cou
nte
red
are
th
at d
ue
to s
trat
egic
reas
on
s re
spo
nd
ents
may
mis
rep
rese
nt
thei
r W
TP.
$is
may
resu
lt i
n b
oth
ove
rsta
ted
an
d u
nd
erst
ated
an
swer
s to
th
eir
WT
P. A
lso,
res
po
nd
ents
may
fai
l to
co
nsi
der
th
eir
bu
dge
t
con
stra
ints
in
hyp
oth
etic
al s
etti
ngs
, as
des
crib
ed b
y D
ia-
mo
nd
an
d H
ausm
an (
1994
). A
co
mm
on
exa
mp
le i
s w
her
e
resp
on
den
ts a
re u
nfa
mil
iar
in p
laci
ng
a d
oll
ar v
alu
e o
n e
n-
viro
nm
enta
l go
od
s an
d s
ervi
ces.
As
such
th
ese
resp
on
den
ts
do
no
t re
ally
hav
e an
ad
equ
ate
bas
is f
or
stat
ing
thei
r tr
ue
valu
e. I
n s
om
e ca
ses
the
resp
on
den
t m
igh
t b
e ex
pre
ssin
g a
feel
ing
abo
ut
the
scen
ario
or
the
valu
atio
n e
xerc
ise
itse
lf.
Wil
lin
gnes
s to
pay
fo
r im
pro
ved
en
viro
nm
enta
l vi
sib
ilit
y
(th
rou
gh r
edu
ced
po
llu
tio
n)
cou
ld b
e in
terp
rete
d a
s h
ealt
h
14
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2 risk
s th
at t
he
resp
on
den
t as
soci
ated
wit
h p
oll
ute
d a
ir a
nd
the
hea
lth
co
sts
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
th
is a
spec
t.
In m
eth
od
olo
gica
l te
rms
it i
s im
po
rtan
t al
so t
o d
isti
ngu
ish
bet
wee
n t
he
Wil
lin
gnes
s to
Pay
(W
TP
) in
ord
er t
o r
ecei
ve
an e
nvi
ron
men
tal a
sset
as
agai
nst
th
e W
illi
ngn
ess
to A
ccep
t
(WT
A)
as a
co
mp
ensa
tio
n f
or
givi
ng
up
an
en
viro
nm
enta
l
asse
t. I
t co
uld
be
that
th
e d
i&er
ent
psy
cho
logi
cal
and
per
-
son
alit
y m
ake-
up
of
resp
on
den
ts m
ay p
rod
uce
di&
eren
t re
-
sult
s d
epen
din
g o
n t
he
way
th
e q
ues
tio
ns
are
ph
rase
d a
nd
ask
ed.
$e
fou
rth
met
ho
d,
the
Co
st A
void
ance
Ap
pro
ach
, ev
alu
-
ates
th
e d
amag
es a
nd
lo
sses
th
at c
ou
ld h
ave
bee
n a
void
ed
had
an
in
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
bee
n u
sed
oth
er t
han
th
e o
ne
curr
entl
y im
ple
men
ted
. $
e av
oid
ed
dam
ages
ar
e th
en
inte
rpre
ted
as
the
ben
e'ts
of
this
pro
du
ct.
Oth
er s
imil
ar
nam
es f
or
this
ap
pro
ach
in
clu
de
the
dam
age
cost
avo
ided
,
rep
lace
men
t co
st a
nd
su
bst
itu
te c
ost
met
ho
ds.
$is
fo
urt
h
app
roac
h a
ttem
pts
to
est
imat
e th
e va
lues
of
eco
syst
em s
er-
vice
s b
ased
on
eit
her
th
e co
st o
f av
oid
ing
dam
ages
du
e to
lost
ser
vice
s, t
he
cost
of
rep
laci
ng
eco
syst
em s
ervi
ces,
or
the
cost
of
pro
vid
ing
alte
rnat
ive
serv
ices
. E
xam
ple
s o
f th
e ap
-
pli
cati
on
of
this
met
ho
d i
ncl
ud
e va
luin
g w
ater
qu
alit
y an
d
pu
ri'
cati
on
, ero
sio
n a
nd
ru
n-o
&, s
torm
mit
igat
ion
an
d '
sh
hab
itat
s.
A li
mit
atio
n o
f th
is m
eth
od
is t
hat
it is
bas
ed o
n ‘w
hat
-if’
es-
tim
atio
n a
nd
th
us
reli
es o
n e
xper
t ju
dgm
ent
of
wh
ich
loss
es
cou
ld h
ave
bee
n s
aved
rat
her
th
an a
n o
bje
ctiv
e ev
alu
atio
n
of
actu
al l
oss
-red
uct
ion
s. I
mp
lici
tly
this
rel
ies
on
kn
ow
ing
the
actu
al c
ost
of
a lo
ss a
nd
ho
w m
uch
co
uld
be
save
d. $
ere
is a
lso
th
e in
her
ent
elem
ent
of
op
po
rtu
nit
y co
sts
as t
her
e
nee
ds
to b
e a
corr
ect
mea
sure
of
the
max
imu
m a
mo
un
t o
f
mo
ney
or
oth
er g
oo
ds
and
ben
e'ts
th
at a
per
son
is w
illi
ng
to
fore
go t
o h
ave
a p
arti
cula
r go
od
an
d s
ervi
ce l
ess
the
actu
al
cost
of
the
goo
d i
tsel
f. S
uch
a m
od
el w
ill
wo
rk w
ell
in c
ases
wh
ere
the
actu
al d
amag
e av
oid
ed o
r th
e re
pla
cem
ent
exp
en-
dit
ure
hav
e al
read
y b
een
in
curr
ed a
nd
th
e m
on
etar
y va
lue
has
alr
ead
y b
een
ass
esse
d a
nd
ob
tain
ed. W
hil
e ex
pen
dit
ure
s
to r
epai
r d
amag
es o
r to
rep
lace
ser
vice
s ca
n v
alid
ly b
e m
ea-
sura
ble
, co
sts
are
no
t re
ally
an
acc
ura
te e
stim
ate
of
ben
e'ts
.
An
ad
van
tage
of
the
Co
st A
void
ance
Ap
pro
ach
is
its
suit
-
abil
ity
to c
om
par
ativ
e an
alys
is b
ecau
se (
1) t
he
loss
-sav
ing
imp
act
is s
om
eth
ing
that
is
rele
van
t to
all
geo
spat
ial
tech
-
no
logi
es a
nd
(2)
th
e in
crea
sin
gly
stan
dar
diz
ed m
eth
od
s fo
r
dam
age
and
lo
ss a
sses
smen
t m
ake
it s
uit
able
fo
r si
mil
arly
stru
ctu
red
dam
age
rep
ort
s fo
r d
i&er
ent
dis
aste
r in
cid
ents
in
di&
eren
t p
arts
of
the
wo
rld
. $
e d
ata
may
pro
vid
e a
rou
gh
ind
icat
or
of
eco
no
mic
val
ue
give
n d
ata
lim
itat
ion
s an
d t
he
sub
stit
uta
bil
ity
of
sim
ilar
an
d r
elat
ed g
oo
ds.
$e
app
roac
h-
es a
re l
ess
dat
a in
ten
sive
an
d a
re b
ette
r su
ited
to
val
uat
ion
met
ho
ds
that
est
imat
e th
e W
illi
ngn
ess
to P
ay d
iscu
ssed
pre
vio
usl
y. $
e re
sult
s o
f th
e st
ud
y w
ou
ld p
rovi
de
surr
oga
te
mea
sure
s o
f va
lue
that
are
co
nsi
sten
t w
ith
co
nce
pts
of
valu
e
amo
ng
peo
ple
s an
d h
ence
a v
alu
able
co
mp
arat
ive
too
l un
der
di&
eren
t ci
rcu
mst
ance
s.
Giv
en t
he
com
par
ativ
e ai
ms
of
this
rep
ort
, th
e C
ost
Avo
id-
ance
met
ho
d w
ill b
e fu
rth
er d
evel
op
ed a
nd
dep
loye
d i
n t
his
chap
ter.
To
do
so,
a c
ost
-avo
idan
ce a
nal
ysis
wil
l be
des
ign
ed,
imp
lem
ente
d a
nd
eva
luat
ed f
or
a sp
eci'
c ge
osp
atia
l in
for-
mat
ion
pro
du
ct (
an e
arly
war
nin
g sy
stem
) in
aid
of
a sp
e-
ci'
c n
atu
ral d
isas
ter
(%as
h %
oo
ds
in N
amib
ia).
Pre
par
edn
ess
for
dis
aste
rs c
ause
d b
y h
azar
ds
of
nat
ura
l o
ri-
gin
is a
key
fac
tor
in r
edu
cin
g th
eir
neg
ativ
e im
pac
ts (
Al'
eri
et a
l., 2
012)
. $
e im
po
rtan
ce o
f in
crea
sin
g p
rep
ared
nes
s o
f
soci
ety
is a
maj
or
con
clu
sio
n o
f th
e ex
ten
sive
pu
bli
cati
on
Nat
ura
l H
azar
ds,
Un
nat
ura
l D
isas
ters
($
e W
orl
d B
ank
/
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s, 2
010)
. $
e re
po
rt i
den
ti'
es e
arly
war
nin
g
syst
ems
as o
ne
of
thre
e k
ey i
nve
stm
ents
des
irab
le f
or
risk
red
uct
ion
(a
lon
gsid
e cr
itic
al
infr
astr
uct
ure
an
d
envi
ron
-
men
tal
bu
&er
s).
Ear
ly w
arn
ing
syst
ems
hav
e b
een
fu
rth
er-
mo
re c
on
'rm
ed a
s an
att
ract
ive
pre
ven
tio
n o
pti
on
, bec
ause
sam
ple
stu
die
s sh
ow
th
at t
he
ben
e'ts
can
sig
ni'
can
tly
ex-
ceed
th
e co
sts
of d
evel
op
men
t an
d m
ain
ten
ance
(R
oge
rs a
nd
Tsi
rku
no
v, 2
011;
Tei
sber
g an
d W
eih
er,
2009
). E
spec
iall
y fo
r
hyd
ro-m
eteo
rolo
gica
l h
azar
ds,
wh
ich
can
be
det
ecte
d w
ith
a su
#ci
ent
lead
tim
e fo
r ad
equ
ate
acti
on
, ear
ly w
arn
ing
sys-
tem
s ca
n s
ave
live
s an
d p
rop
erty
in t
he
case
of d
isas
ter,
wh
ile
pro
vid
ing
add
itio
nal
ben
e'ts
at
oth
er t
imes
by
op
tim
izin
g
eco
no
mic
pro
du
ctio
n i
n w
eath
er s
ensi
tive
sec
tors
(H
alle
-
gatt
e, 2
012)
. N
ote
ho
wev
er,
that
car
e m
ust
be
tak
en t
o n
ot
ove
rest
imat
e th
e im
pac
t o
f an
ear
ly w
arn
ing
syst
em,
as n
ot
all p
rop
erty
is
suit
able
fo
r p
rote
ctio
n a
nd
/ o
r re
mo
val.
Case s
ele
ction
$e
Nam
ibia
%o
od
ing
even
t in
200
9 h
as b
een
sel
ecte
d a
s o
ur
stu
dy
case
fo
r th
e fo
llo
win
g re
aso
ns:
Nam
ibia
’s
geo
grap
hic
al
loca
tio
n
mak
es
the
cou
ntr
y
vuln
erab
le t
o r
ecu
rren
t h
ydro
-met
eoro
logi
cal
haz
ard
s,
incl
ud
ing
%o
od
s.
Am
on
g th
e su
b-S
ahar
an A
fric
an c
ou
ntr
ies,
Nam
ibia
is a
lso
co
nsi
der
ed o
ne
of
the
mo
st v
uln
erab
le t
o f
utu
re
clim
ate
chan
ge (
PD
NA
, 200
9). P
roje
ctio
ns
sho
w g
reat
er
ano
mal
ies
in r
ain
fall
, wh
ich
in
crea
ses
chan
ces
for
hig
h
inte
nsi
ty r
ain
fall
s an
d s
ub
seq
uen
t %
oo
din
g. O
pti
miz
ing
the
(fu
ture
) u
se o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n w
ou
ld t
her
efo
re b
e
hig
hly
val
uab
le.
Mo
reo
ver,
th
ere
is a
hig
h p
ote
nti
al f
or
the
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
an e
arly
war
nin
g sy
stem
du
e to
th
e n
atu
re o
f (p
art
of)
th
e %
oo
din
g ev
ents
, as
th
e h
ead
wat
ers
of
the
mai
n
rive
rs o
rigi
nat
e fa
r u
pst
ream
, th
ereb
y cr
eati
ng
the
po
-
ten
tial
fo
r a
hig
h le
ad t
ime
in c
ase
of
adeq
uat
e w
arn
ing.
$er
e is
als
o p
ote
nti
al f
or
dev
elo
pin
g o
ther
geo
info
r-
mat
ion
ser
vice
s, e
spec
iall
y sa
tell
ite
bas
ed o
nes
, as
th
e
15
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
220
09 %
oo
d c
ove
red
a l
arge
are
a an
d t
he
tim
ing
and
dy-
nam
ic b
ehav
iou
r w
as v
aria
ble
am
on
g re
gio
ns
(PD
NA
,
2009
) (F
igu
re 2
.3).
$is
mak
es i
t a
suit
able
cas
e fo
r fu
-
ture
co
mp
arat
ive
rese
arch
on
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts
oth
er t
han
ear
ly w
arn
ing
syst
ems.
Pra
ctic
al r
easo
ns
also
info
rmed
th
e ch
oic
e fo
r th
is u
se c
ase.
$er
e is
alr
ead
y a
his
tory
of
con
tact
bet
wee
n U
N-S
PI-
DE
R a
nd
th
e N
amib
ia H
ydro
log
y D
epar
tmen
t, w
hic
h
was
vit
al f
or
ob
tain
ing
con
text
in
form
atio
n a
nd
fo
r ef
-
fect
ive
dis
trib
uti
on
of
the
qu
esti
on
nai
re.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
e P
ost
D
isas
ter
Nee
ds
Ass
essm
ent
(PD
NA
) fo
r th
e 20
09 %
oo
d i
ncl
ud
es a
det
aile
d d
escr
ip-
tio
n o
f d
amag
es a
nd
lo
sses
as
wel
l as
med
ium
- an
d
lon
g-te
rm r
eco
very
an
d m
itig
atio
n s
trat
egie
s. $
is i
s
vita
l fo
r ev
alu
atin
g, w
ith
th
e ai
d o
f q
ues
tio
nn
aire
s, h
ow
mu
ch o
f th
e n
egat
ive
eco
no
mic
e&
ects
co
uld
hav
e b
een
pre
ven
ted
had
an
e&
ecti
ve e
arly
war
nin
g sy
stem
bee
n
in p
lace
. Si
nce
th
e P
DN
A w
as p
rep
ared
wit
h t
he
aid
of
the
Wo
rld
Ban
k,
the
UN
an
d t
he
Eu
rop
ean
Co
mm
is-
sio
n,
its
stru
ctu
re (
par
ticu
larl
y th
e ca
tego
riza
tio
n o
f
a&ec
ted
eco
no
mic
sec
tors
) fo
llo
ws
inte
rnat
ion
al s
tan
-
dar
ds,
mak
ing
this
cas
e st
ud
y a
suit
able
sta
rtin
g p
oin
t
for
futu
re c
om
par
ativ
e re
sear
ch.
Questionnaire d
esig
n a
nd d
issem
ination
$e
qu
esti
on
nai
re c
om
pri
ses
two
par
ts (
see
An
nex
I):
a q
uan
tita
tive
par
t, a
ttem
pti
ng
to d
eter
min
e th
e d
am-
ages
an
d l
oss
es t
hat
co
uld
hav
e b
een
avo
ided
, h
ad a
n
e&ec
tive
ear
ly w
arn
ing
syst
em b
een
in
pla
ce, p
rovi
din
g
a w
arn
ing
wit
h s
u#
cien
t le
ad-t
ime
to t
ake
pro
tect
ive
acti
on
;
Fig
ure
2.3
: Are
as im
pac
ted
by
Nam
ibia
n %
oo
d 2
009
(PD
NA
,
2009
)
and
a q
ual
itat
ive
par
t, d
eali
ng
wit
h t
he
cau
ses
of
inef
-
fect
ive
resp
on
se t
o t
he
war
nin
g in
200
9, i
mp
rove
men
ts
imp
lem
ente
d s
ince
th
e d
isas
ter,
an
d d
esir
able
fu
ture
dev
elo
pm
ents
.
$e
seco
nd
par
t w
as p
rim
aril
y d
esig
ned
to
gen
erat
e h
elp
ful
sugg
esti
on
s to
th
e au
tho
riti
es i
n N
amib
ia r
egar
din
g h
ow
to
op
tim
ize
the
earl
y w
arn
ing
syst
em i
n u
se,
ther
eby
retu
rn-
ing
a fa
vou
r to
th
e re
spo
nd
ents
fo
r th
eir
par
tici
pat
ion
in t
he
surv
ey. Y
et, a
s th
is c
hap
ter
is p
rin
cip
ally
co
nce
rned
wit
h t
he
Co
st A
void
ance
met
ho
do
log
y, t
he
focu
s is
her
e o
n t
he
'rs
t
par
t o
f th
e q
ues
tio
nn
aire
.
Fig
ure
2.4
: Ref
eren
ce s
cen
ario
of
the
case
stu
dy
qu
esti
on
nai
re
16
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2 Fig
ure
2.5
: Su
mm
ary
of
dam
ages
an
d lo
sses
(P
DN
A, 2
009)
As
an e
arly
war
nin
g sy
stem
su
pp
ort
ed b
y ge
osp
atia
l in
form
a-
tio
n c
an f
acil
itat
e ea
rlie
r ac
tio
ns,
it h
as t
he
po
ten
tial
to
red
uce
dam
ages
an
d lo
sses
. Vit
al in
pu
t n
eed
ed fo
r su
ch a
co
st-r
edu
c-
tio
n a
nal
ysis
are
th
e d
amag
e an
d lo
sses
'gu
res
resu
ltin
g fr
om
the
%o
od
, av
aila
ble
in
th
e P
ost
Dis
aste
r N
eed
s A
sses
smen
t
(PD
NA
, 20
09).
$e
asse
ssm
ent
is d
ivid
ed i
nto
fo
ur
di&
er-
ent
sect
ors
: in
fras
tru
ctu
re;
pro
du
ctiv
e; s
oci
al;
cro
ss-s
ecto
ral.
Bas
ed o
n a
lit
erat
ure
rev
iew
, it
was
fo
un
d t
hat
in
Nam
ibia
it
is p
oss
ible
to
fo
reca
st %
oo
din
g ev
ents
res
ult
ing
fro
m h
igh
in
-
ten
sity
rai
nfa
ll e
ven
ts o
n a
vera
ge,
app
roxi
mat
ely
10 d
ays
in
adva
nce
(D
e G
roev
e, 2
010)
. $is
is o
nly
the
case
wh
en r
ain
fall
take
s p
lace
in
th
e u
pp
er b
asin
, no
t in
th
e ca
se o
f %
ash
%o
od
s
in %
oo
d p
lain
s. B
ecau
se c
ost
-ben
e't
esti
mat
ion
s ar
e k
now
n
to h
ave
a re
lati
vely
low
acc
ura
cy l
evel
(K
la[
an
d M
eiss
en,
2011
), a
n o
rder
-of-
mag
nit
ud
e an
swer
str
uct
ure
was
use
d. $
e
par
tici
pan
ts w
ere
aske
d t
o i
nd
icat
e o
n a
sca
le r
angi
ng
fro
m
0-10
0 %
, wh
at d
amag
es a
nd
lo
sses
co
uld
hav
e b
een
avo
ided
,
per
eco
no
mic
sec
tor,
had
th
ere
bee
n a
n e
&ec
tive
war
nin
g 10
day
s p
rio
r to
th
e %
oo
d (
Fig
ure
2.4
). S
om
e as
sum
pti
on
s h
ad
to b
e m
ade,
in
clu
din
g th
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
the
mea
ns
to a
ct.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, p
arti
cip
ants
wer
e as
ked
wh
at p
erce
nta
ge o
f
live
s co
uld
hav
e b
een
sav
ed, h
ad t
her
e b
een
an
e&
ecti
ve e
arly
war
nin
g.
Sub
seq
uen
tly,
th
e p
erce
nta
ges
ind
icat
ed b
y th
e re
spo
nd
ents
wer
e co
up
led
to
th
e d
amag
e an
d l
oss
es '
gure
s (F
igu
re 2
.5),
to o
bta
in a
mo
net
ary
ind
icat
ion
of
the
cost
an
d l
oss
red
uc-
tio
n p
ote
nti
al o
f an
e&
ecti
ve w
arn
ing
syst
em.
In t
he
end
, th
ese
'gu
res
sho
uld
be
mo
di'
ed r
egar
din
g cu
r-
ren
cy s
tan
dar
d, t
he
occ
urr
ence
tim
e o
f su
ch a
sev
ere
%o
od
ing
even
t, a
nd
th
e co
sts
invo
lved
in d
evel
op
ing
and
op
erat
ing
the
pro
po
sed
sys
tem
, in
ord
er t
o e
stim
ate
the
add
ed v
alu
e o
f ge
o-
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
. $
is i
s h
owev
er i
s b
eyo
nd
th
e sc
op
e o
f
this
ch
apte
r an
d t
he
focu
s is
on
iden
tify
ing
the
ben
e'ts
.
$e
qu
esti
on
nai
re w
as t
este
d b
efo
reh
and
an
d t
he
par
tici
-
pan
ts w
ere
assu
red
th
at t
hei
r an
swer
s w
ou
ld b
e tr
eate
d c
on
-
'd
enti
ally
an
d t
hat
th
ey w
ou
ld r
ecei
ve a
su
mm
ary
of
'n
d-
ings
. $e
qu
esti
on
nai
re w
as s
ent t
o m
emb
ers
of t
he
scie
nti
'c
com
mu
nit
y re
late
d t
o t
he
Nam
ibia
n E
arly
Flo
od
War
nin
g
Sen
sorW
eb p
roje
ct a
nd
to
th
e H
ead
of
the
Nam
ibia
n H
y-
dro
log
y D
epar
tmen
t, G
uid
o v
an L
ange
nh
ove
. Mr.
van
Lan
-
gen
ho
ve i
n t
urn
dis
trib
ute
d t
he
qu
esti
on
nai
re w
ith
in h
is
dep
artm
ent
and
ext
ern
ally
to
mem
ber
s o
f th
e %
oo
d b
ull
etin
,
wh
ich
pro
vid
es r
egu
lar
up
dat
es o
n r
iver
leve
ls t
o lo
cal c
om
-
mu
nit
ies
(Fig
ure
s 2.
6 an
d 2
.7).
$e
resp
on
den
t ra
te w
as u
nfo
rtu
nat
ely
too
low
fo
r st
atis
tica
l
anal
ysis
. N
ever
thel
ess,
th
e 14
qu
esti
on
nai
res
that
wer
e re
-
turn
ed p
rovi
de
imp
ort
ant
insi
ghts
reg
ard
ing
the
feas
ibil
ity
of
this
Co
st A
void
ance
Ap
pro
ach
an
d t
he
step
s to
be
tak
en
for
furt
her
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
this
met
ho
d.
Questionnaire r
esults a
nd d
iscussio
n
Of
the
14 r
esp
on
den
ts, 8
co
mp
lete
d t
he
eco
no
mic
val
uat
ion
par
t. A
vera
ges
and
ave
rage
sp
ans
wer
e ca
lcu
late
d f
or
each
of
the
fou
r ec
on
om
ic s
ecto
rs (
infr
astr
uct
ure
; p
rod
uct
ive;
soci
al;
cro
ss-s
ecto
ral)
an
d f
or
live
s lo
st (
Fig
ure
2.8
). N
ote
that
th
e n
um
ber
of
resp
on
den
ts is
sm
all a
nd
th
at o
utl
iers
are
pre
sen
t in
a s
mal
l nu
mb
er o
f re
spo
nse
s.
In t
ota
l, 10
2 p
erso
ns
lost
th
eir
live
s d
ue
to t
he
%o
od
(P
DN
A,
2009
).
$e
per
cen
tage
th
at
cou
ld
hav
e b
een
sa
ved
, h
ad
an e
&ec
tive
ear
ly w
arn
ing
syst
em b
een
in
pla
ce,
was
est
i-
mat
ed t
o b
e 56
.88
%,
wit
h a
n a
vera
ge r
ange
of
33 %
. $
is
was
th
e la
rges
t ra
nge
am
on
g th
e d
i&er
ent
cate
gori
es.
$e
cro
ss-s
ecto
ral
cate
gory
, co
veri
ng
the
envi
ron
men
t, w
as e
s-
tim
ated
at
54.8
3 %
, w
ith
an
ave
rage
ran
ge o
f 16
.67
%.
$e
soci
al s
ecto
r h
as m
ost
to
gai
n f
rom
an
e&
ecti
ve e
arly
war
n-
ing
syst
em, n
amel
y 58
.44
%, w
ith
an
ave
rage
ran
ge o
f 25
%.
17
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2R
egar
din
g th
e se
con
d p
rob
lem
of
par
tici
pan
ts e
xper
ien
cin
g
di#
cult
y in
an
swer
ing
the
Co
st A
void
ance
Ap
pro
ach
qu
es-
tio
ns,
rea
son
s p
rovi
ded
wer
e th
at p
arti
cip
ants
did
no
t '
nd
them
selv
es t
o b
e q
ual
i'ed
or
info
rmed
en
ou
gh t
o m
ake
'-
nan
cial
est
imat
ion
s. I
n a
dd
itio
n,
the
scen
ario
of
a te
n d
ays
adva
nce
war
nin
g is
on
ly a
rea
list
ic a
ssu
mp
tio
n i
n t
he
case
wh
en %
oo
din
g o
ccu
rs d
ue
to h
igh
in
ten
sity
rai
nfa
ll e
ven
ts
far
up
stre
am,
as w
as t
he
case
in
200
9. F
lash
%o
od
s ar
e n
ot
acco
un
ted
fo
r b
y th
is m
eth
od
olo
gy.
$e
ten
day
s ad
van
ce n
oti
ce s
cen
ario
may
be
furt
her
dis
-
cuss
ed. I
n h
ind
sigh
t, t
his
war
nin
g ti
me
cou
ld h
ave
bee
n r
e-
du
ced
. $
is w
ou
ld b
oth
hav
e lo
wer
ed t
he
skep
tici
sm o
f th
e
par
tici
pan
ts t
ow
ard
s th
e re
pre
sen
tati
ven
ess
of
the
scen
ario
as w
ell
as i
ncr
ease
th
e re
liab
ilit
y o
f th
e w
arn
ing
usi
ng
mo
re
up
to
dat
e d
ata,
an
d l
ow
erin
g th
e p
oss
ibil
ity
of
fals
e al
arm
s
wh
ich
may
lea
d t
o l
ow
er r
esp
on
se t
o f
utu
re e
arly
war
nin
gs.
In a
dd
itio
n,
ther
e is
a m
axim
um
in
th
e am
ou
nt
of
dam
age
that
can
be
pre
ven
ted
. $
is h
as b
een
sh
ow
n b
y D
ay (
1970
),
Fig
ure
2.7
: Flo
od
rel
ated
act
ivit
ies
of
resp
on
den
tsF
igu
re 2
.6: B
ack
gro
un
d o
f re
spo
nd
ents
are
said
to
be
at U
S$ 0
.60
mil
lio
n.
In t
ota
l th
e fo
ur
sect
ors
add
up
to
a s
um
of
US$
95.
54 m
illi
on
. $
e n
um
ber
of
live
s
has
no
t b
een
cal
cula
ted
in
ter
ms
of
an e
con
om
ic '
gure
.
Tw
o m
ain
pro
ble
ms
wer
e en
cou
nte
red
wh
en e
valu
atin
g th
e
qu
esti
on
nai
re r
esu
lts:
(1)
a r
elat
ivel
y lo
w r
esp
on
se r
ate
and
(2)
par
tici
pan
ts i
nd
icat
ing
they
exp
erie
nce
d d
i#cu
ltie
s an
-
swer
ing
the
Co
st A
void
ance
qu
esti
on
s. R
egar
din
g th
e lo
w
resp
on
se r
ate,
rea
son
s co
uld
be
the
lon
g d
ista
nce
s an
d t
her
e-
by
the
dig
ital
dis
trib
uti
on
of
the
qu
esti
on
nai
res
by
e-m
ail.
In r
etro
spec
t, t
he
dis
trib
uti
on
co
uld
no
t h
ave
bee
n d
on
e d
if-
fere
ntl
y. $
ere
wer
e n
o r
eso
urc
es a
vail
able
to
per
form
th
e
rese
arch
in
sit
u, w
hic
h w
ou
ld h
ave
bee
n t
he
mo
st p
refe
rab
le
op
tio
n.
Esp
ecia
lly
bec
ause
an
oth
er m
ajo
r %
oo
din
g ev
ent
occ
urr
ed i
n 2
011,
th
at e
xcee
ded
th
e im
pac
t o
f th
e %
oo
d i
n
2009
in t
erm
s o
f d
eath
s, n
um
ber
of
a&ec
ted
peo
ple
an
d e
co-
no
mic
dam
age
cost
s (E
M-D
AT
, 20
12),
th
e 20
09 %
oo
d m
ay
hav
e b
een
of
less
sig
ni'
can
ce i
n t
he
resp
on
den
ts’ m
ind
s.
$e
avo
idab
le d
amag
es a
nd
lo
sses
fo
r th
e p
rod
uct
ive
sect
or
wer
e es
tim
ated
at
41.2
5 %
, w
ith
an
ave
rage
ran
ge o
f 18
%.
$e
sect
or
infr
astr
uct
ure
was
est
imat
ed t
o h
ave
the
low
est
po
ten
tial
gai
ns,
nam
ely
34.6
9 %
, w
ith
an
ave
rage
ran
ge o
f
33 %
. Su
mm
ariz
ing,
th
e re
spo
nd
ents
ind
icat
e th
at t
he
soci
al
sect
or
wo
uld
gai
n t
he
mo
st f
rom
an
e&
ecti
ve e
arly
war
nin
g
syst
em, c
lose
ly f
oll
ow
ed b
y th
e n
um
ber
of
hu
man
liv
es l
ost
.
$e
ran
ge p
rovi
ded
by
par
tici
pan
ts w
as l
arge
st i
n t
he
cat-
ego
ry o
f th
e n
um
ber
of
live
s lo
st,
ind
icat
ing
ther
e is
mu
ch
un
cert
ain
ty a
bo
ut
the
po
ten
tial
ben
e'ts
of
an e
arly
war
nin
g.
$e
aver
age
per
cen
tage
nu
mb
ers
wer
e su
bse
qu
entl
y co
up
led
to t
he
mo
net
ary
dam
age
and
lo
sses
'gu
res
(Fig
ure
2.9
),
wh
ere
the
curr
ency
is
fro
m t
he
year
200
9. $
e la
rges
t su
m
that
co
uld
hav
e b
een
sav
ed,
acco
rdin
g th
is a
pp
roac
h i
s in
the
pro
du
ctiv
e se
cto
r (U
S$ 5
0.08
mil
lio
n),
fo
llo
wed
by
the
soci
al s
ecto
r (U
S$ 3
1.27
mil
lio
n).
Dam
ages
an
d l
oss
es t
hat
cou
ld h
ave
bee
n a
void
ed i
n t
he
infr
astr
uct
ure
sec
tor
are
es-
tim
ated
to
be
US$
13.
60 m
illi
on
. $e
cro
ss-s
ecto
ral
savi
ngs
18
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2w
ho
des
crib
ed w
hat
is n
ow
kn
ow
n a
s th
e D
ay c
urv
e fo
r %
oo
d
dam
ages
. N
ote
th
at t
his
on
ly r
efer
s to
th
e ta
ngi
ble
ben
e'ts
of
the
war
nin
g sy
stem
. $e
Day
cu
rve
sugg
ests
th
at t
her
e is
a m
axim
um
po
ssib
le r
edu
ctio
n o
f lo
sses
of
35 %
, no
mat
ter
ho
w g
reat
th
e w
arn
ing
tim
e (C
arse
ll e
t al
., 20
04).
$e
tren
d o
f th
e cu
rve
tow
ard
s a
max
imu
m i
s fu
rth
erm
ore
con
'rm
ed b
y P
enn
ing-
Ro
wse
ll e
t al
. (2
003)
sh
ow
ing
the
sam
e tr
end
fo
r d
i&er
ent
inu
nd
atio
ns
dep
ths
(Fig
ure
2.1
0).
Bas
ed o
n t
hes
e st
ud
ies
it s
eem
s ad
visa
ble
to
in
clu
de
in t
he
qu
esti
on
nai
re a
max
imu
m t
o t
he
per
cen
tage
th
at c
an b
e
save
d,
in o
rder
to
eli
min
ate
ou
tlie
rs a
bo
ve t
he
per
cen
tage
that
is
actu
ally
fo
un
d t
o b
e fe
asib
le. $
is m
axim
um
am
ou
nt
sho
uld
ho
wev
er b
e d
eter
min
ed a
cco
rdin
g to
lo
cal
con
di-
tio
ns
and
th
is s
tud
y d
oes
no
t re
com
men
d a
sta
tic
valu
e o
f
this
max
imu
m p
erce
nta
ge.
By
com
par
iso
n,
a st
ud
y in
th
e U
.S.
emp
has
ises
th
at t
ime
is
of
the
esse
nce
fo
llo
win
g a
dis
aste
r. $
e H
od
gso
n e
t al
. stu
dy
(201
0; 2
013)
fo
un
d t
hat
in
th
e U
.S.
mo
re t
han
50
% o
f th
e
cou
nti
es a
nd
sta
tes
exp
ecte
d t
hat
sat
elli
te im
ager
y an
d o
ther
geo
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
of
dam
age
to c
riti
cal
infr
astr
uct
ure
mu
st b
e o
bta
ined
wit
hin
th
ree
day
s o
f th
e ev
ent.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
e C
ost
Avo
idan
ce A
pp
roac
h p
rop
ose
d o
nly
incl
ud
es t
angi
ble
dam
ages
an
d l
oss
es,
no
t th
e in
tan
gib
le
on
es s
uch
as
stre
ss,
fam
ily
des
tru
ctio
n o
r h
ealt
h e
&ec
ts o
n
surv
ivo
rs (
Car
sell
et
al.,
2004
). T
ran
slat
ing
thes
e in
tan
gib
le
e&ec
ts t
o a
n e
con
om
ic v
alu
e an
d a
dd
ing
them
to
th
e ta
n-
gib
le d
amag
e an
d l
oss
es w
ou
ld l
ikel
y fu
rth
er i
ncr
ease
th
e
valu
e o
f th
e E
WS
con
sid
ered
.
Fo
llo
win
g th
e lo
w r
esp
on
se e
nco
un
tere
d d
uri
ng
the
exec
u-
tio
n o
f th
e q
ues
tio
nn
aire
on
e m
ay a
rgu
e th
at t
he
mo
net
ary
'n
din
gs o
f th
e va
lue
of
the
EW
S b
ased
on
th
is C
ost
Avo
id-
ance
Ap
pro
ach
are
no
t sc
ien
ti'
call
y gr
ou
nd
ed.
Du
e to
th
is
low
nu
mb
er o
f re
spo
nd
ents
, th
e re
sult
s ar
e se
nsi
tive
to
ou
t-
lier
s w
hic
h c
ou
ld d
isto
rt t
he
tru
e av
erag
e va
lues
. $e
larg
er
the
nu
mb
er o
f re
spo
nse
s, t
he
mo
re s
tab
le a
nd
sig
ni'
can
t F
igu
re 2
.9: A
void
able
dam
age
and
loss
es i
n 2
009
US$
mil
lio
n
Fig
ure
2.8
: Avo
idab
le d
amag
e an
d lo
sses
per
eco
no
mic
sec
tor
(blu
e b
ars
ind
icat
e th
e av
erag
e; b
lack
lin
es in
dic
ate
the
aver
age
ran
ge).
19
TH
E E
CO
NO
MIC
IM
PA
CT O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N O
N D
ISA
ST
ER A
ND R
ISK M
AN
AG
EM
EN
T
2th
e an
swer
s b
eco
me.
$er
efo
re,
this
stu
dy
do
es n
ot
clai
m
to h
ave
fou
nd
a ‘'
nal
’ or
‘co
ncl
ud
ing’
mo
net
ary
'gu
re o
f th
e
valu
e o
f ge
osp
atia
l in
form
atio
n.
Inst
ead
, th
is s
tud
y ai
ms
to
pro
vid
e in
sigh
t in
to t
he
pro
po
sed
met
ho
do
log
y an
d i
nd
i-
cate
s th
e st
eps
that
nee
d t
o b
e ta
ken
to
ap
ply
th
is a
pp
roac
h
to o
ther
cas
e st
ud
ies.
An
oth
er i
mp
ort
ant
asp
ect
that
in
%u
ence
s th
e o
utc
om
e o
f
this
'n
al '
gure
is t
he
valu
e in
eco
no
mic
ter
ms
of
a li
fe s
aved
.
Est
imat
e ra
nge
s ar
e la
rge
and
th
e n
um
ber
ch
ose
n i
s li
kely
to
hav
e a
grea
t im
pac
t, o
r ev
en d
eter
min
ativ
e e&
ect,
up
on
th
e
'n
al m
on
etar
y va
lue
of t
he
geo
spat
ial p
rod
uct
eva
luat
ed. $
is
stu
dy
cho
ose
s n
ot t
o a
do
pt o
ne
par
ticu
lar
valu
e, b
ut i
llust
rate
s
how
larg
e th
e ra
nge
of e
stim
ates
is, s
how
ing
that
th
e in
clu
sio
n
of
this
‘val
ue
of
life
’ wo
uld
a&
ect
the
ou
tco
me
grea
tly.
Fin
ally
, th
e m
ajo
r at
trac
tio
n o
f th
e C
ost
Avo
idan
ce A
p-
pro
ach
ap
pli
ed h
ere
is it
s re
lati
ve e
ase
of
use
. On
ly t
he
dam
-
age
and
lo
sses
'gu
res
and
a g
rou
p o
f in
form
ed p
arti
cip
ants
are
req
uir
ed.
$e
do
wn
sid
e, h
ow
ever
, re
mai
ns
that
th
e re
-
sult
s ar
e st
ill
esti
mat
es t
hat
are
bas
ed o
n a
n e
xper
t fe
elin
g
rath
er t
han
a c
alcu
lati
on
of
fact
s. F
utu
re r
esea
rch
on
th
is
app
roac
h s
ho
uld
th
eref
ore
aim
at
mak
ing
the
mo
net
ary
'gu
re o
n t
he
ben
e'ts
mo
re p
reci
se a
nd
bas
ed o
n e
mp
iri-
cal
evid
ence
. O
bta
inin
g st
atis
tica
l si
gni'
can
ce w
ou
ld b
e
the
'rs
t st
ep t
ow
ard
s th
at g
oal
. $
e W
illi
ngn
ess
to P
ay a
p-
pro
ach
, wh
ich
is
the
oth
er m
ain
val
uat
ion
met
ho
d f
or
Ear
ly
War
nin
g Sy
stem
s, d
eals
wit
h t
he
sam
e d
i#cu
ltie
s re
gard
-
ing
the
erro
rs i
n e
stim
atio
ns.
Nev
erth
eles
s, w
ith
th
e C
ost
Avo
idan
ce A
pp
roac
h i
t is
po
ssib
le t
o p
rovi
de
a p
erce
nta
ge,
inst
ead
of
an e
xact
mo
net
ary
'gu
re.
$er
efo
re,
the
par
tici
-
pan
ts p
ote
nti
ally
exp
erie
nce
les
s st
ress
as
they
on
ly h
ave
to
pro
vid
e an
ord
er o
f m
agn
itu
de
inst
ead
of
an e
xact
mo
net
ary
'gu
re,
wh
ich
is
even
mo
re d
i#cu
lt t
o a
sses
s. F
urt
her
mo
re,
this
Co
st A
void
ance
Ap
pro
ach
o&
ers
a gr
eat
op
po
rtu
nit
y fo
r
rela
tive
co
mp
aris
on
bet
wee
n t
he
ben
e'ts
of
seve
ral d
i&er
ent
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts.
Wh
en t
her
e is
a c
erta
in a
mo
un
t
of
mo
ney
ava
ilab
le a
nd
a d
ecis
ion
mak
er w
ants
to
in
vest
in
the
geo
info
rmat
ion
wit
h h
igh
est
ben
e'ts
for
DR
M, t
hen
th
is
Fig
ure
2.1
0: I
mp
act
of
%o
od
war
nin
g le
ad t
ime
on
%o
od
dam
age
(Pen
nin
g-R
osw
ell e
t al
, 200
3)
Co
st A
void
ance
Ap
pro
ach
can
be
app
lied
to
co
mp
are
the
ben
e'ts
of
di&
eren
t ge
oin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s fo
r th
e sa
me
case
stu
dy.
$e
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
ct t
hat
has
th
e h
igh
est
ben
e'ts
can
th
en b
e p
rio
riti
zed
. In
th
is c
ase,
th
e b
ene'
ts o
f
a ce
rtai
n g
eoin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
hav
e a
rela
tive
mea
nin
g
inst
ead
of
rep
rese
nti
ng
the
abso
lute
'n
al e
con
om
ic '
gure
on
th
e b
ene'
ts.
20
STA
KE
HO
LD
ER R
AN
KIN
G O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N P
RO
DU
CT
S
3 tem
s i
n D
isaste
r an
d R
isk M
an
ag
em
en
t?
A
glo
bal
sta
keh
old
er
assessm
en
t
Rob
ert
Bac
khau
s, N
atal
ie E
pler
an
d A
na
Mar
tin
ez M
olin
a
Ass
essm
ent
by
exp
ert
stak
eho
lder
s is
an
in
dis
pen
sab
le a
p-
pro
ach
wh
en it
co
mes
to
val
uat
ing
the
ben
e'ts
of
geo
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
, ta
kin
g in
to a
cco
un
t th
e fu
ll r
ange
of
pro
du
cts
and
ser
vice
s ap
pli
cab
le t
o a
ll t
he
di&
eren
t ty
pes
of
haz
ard
,
and
all
ph
ases
of
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t, i
ncl
ud
ing
pre
ven
-
tio
n a
nd
ris
k r
edu
ctio
n.
Giv
en t
his
wid
esp
read
ap
pli
cati
on
po
ten
tial
, an
d t
he
lik
ely
wo
rklo
ad o
f an
y ex
per
ts in
th
is '
eld
,
an a
pp
roac
h t
o c
oll
ecti
ng
exp
ert
kn
ow
led
ge f
rom
th
e gl
ob
al
com
mu
nit
y h
as t
o b
e d
esig
ned
in
a p
ragm
atic
way
in
ord
er
to k
eep
th
e p
arti
cip
ants
’ e&
ort
wit
hin
rea
son
able
lim
its.
$u
s, in
a '
rst
step
a w
eb-b
ased
ran
kin
g p
oll
was
car
ried
ou
t
on
th
e U
N-S
PID
ER
Kn
ow
led
ge P
ort
al i
n o
rder
to
id
enti
fy
a to
p-t
en s
ho
rtli
st o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s an
d s
yste
ms
for
a m
ore
di&
eren
tiat
ed a
pp
rais
al t
o f
oll
ow
(se
e C
hap
ter
4).
All
sta
keh
old
ers,
i.e
. en
d-u
sers
, pro
vid
ers
or
valu
e ad
der
s o
f
geo
info
rmat
ion
, w
ere
give
n t
he
op
po
rtu
nit
y to
id
enti
fy u
p
to 1
0 ge
od
ata
pro
du
cts
or
syst
ems
on
a l
on
glis
t co
nta
inin
g
51 i
tem
s, s
uch
as
haz
ard
-sp
eci'
c ri
sk m
aps,
vu
lner
abil
ity
map
s, d
amag
e as
sess
men
t m
aps,
an
d m
on
ito
rin
g sy
stem
s,
wh
ich
th
ey r
egar
ded
as
mo
st i
mp
ort
ant
to s
up
po
rt D
isas
ter
and
Ris
k M
anag
emen
t (T
able
3.1
). B
eyo
nd
th
e sh
eer
pro
-
du
ct n
ames
in
th
e li
st,
no
fu
rth
er t
ech
nic
al s
pec
i'ca
tio
ns
wer
e gi
ven
at
this
sta
ge.
Haz
ard
Typ
eP
rod
uct
s/S
yste
ms
Vo
lcan
oV
olc
anic
Act
ivit
y M
on
ito
rin
g
Vo
lcan
ic T
op
ogr
aph
y
$er
mal
An
om
alie
s D
etec
tio
n f
or
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Glo
bal
Vo
lcan
ism
Sulf
ur
Dio
xid
e D
etec
tio
n
Veg
etat
ion
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Sev
ere
Sto
rmD
amag
e P
ro'
le
Det
ecti
on
an
d F
ore
cast
Fo
rest
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
Infr
astr
uct
ure
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
Rec
ove
ry P
rogr
ess
Map
Po
llu
tio
nD
ust
Sto
rm M
on
ito
rin
g
Oil
Sp
ill D
etec
tio
n
Oil
Sp
ill R
isk
Map
Op
en W
ater
Po
llu
tio
n M
ap
Nu
clea
r R
adia
tio
n M
ap
Mas
s M
ove
men
tL
and
slid
e H
azar
d A
sses
smen
t
Lan
dsl
ide
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
Inse
cts
Lo
cust
Hab
itat
Map
Fo
rest
an
d C
rop
Ch
ange
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Tem
per
atu
reE
xtre
me
Hea
t R
isk
Map
,
Co
ld W
ave
Map
Ep
idem
icIn
fect
iou
s D
isea
ses
Ris
k M
ap
Infe
ctio
us
Dis
ease
s Sp
read
Map
Ep
idem
ic T
rack
ing
Syst
em
Flo
od
Inu
nd
atio
n M
ap
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
Ris
k M
ap
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
Rec
ove
ry P
roce
ss M
ap
Dro
ugh
tD
rou
ght
Ind
ex M
ap
Dro
ugh
t In
dex
M
ap
for
So
il
Mo
istu
re
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Dro
ugh
t In
dex
Map
fo
r V
eget
atio
n
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Ris
k M
ap
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
Ear
thq
uak
e3D
Dam
age
Vis
ual
isat
ion
an
d A
nim
atio
n
Urb
an C
lass
i'ca
tio
n f
or
Ris
k A
nal
ysis
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
Rec
on
stru
ctio
n M
on
ito
rin
g
Tsu
nam
iD
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
ap
Ris
k M
ap
Lan
du
se C
han
ge
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
Inu
nd
atio
n M
ap
Haz
ard
Map
Rec
on
stru
ctio
n M
on
ito
rin
g
Ear
ly W
arn
ing
Syst
em
Fir
eR
isk
Map
Bu
rned
Are
a D
etec
tio
n
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g
Fo
rest
Ch
ange
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Tab
le 3
.1: L
on
glis
t o
f ap
pli
cab
le g
eoin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s an
d s
yste
ms
Haz
ard
Typ
eP
rod
uct
s/S
yste
ms
21
STA
KE
HO
LD
ER R
AN
KIN
G O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N P
RO
DU
CT
S
3
Fig
ure
3.1
: Geo
grap
hic
dis
trib
uti
on
of
po
ll r
esp
on
der
s
22
STA
KE
HO
LD
ER R
AN
KIN
G O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N P
RO
DU
CT
S
3 $e
lon
glis
t it
ems
wer
e n
ot
de'
ned
by
com
ple
tin
g a
gen
eric
sch
eme
of
haz
ard
typ
es a
nd
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t cy
cle
ph
a-
ses,
bu
t w
ere
sele
cted
by
the
VA
LID
ed
ito
rs g
rou
p, b
ased
on
a re
view
of
rece
nt
lite
ratu
re, i
ncl
ud
ing
the
con
ten
t co
llec
ted
in A
ltan
et
al. (
2010
) an
d in
th
e Sp
ace
Ap
pli
cati
on
Mat
rix
on
the
UN
-SP
IDE
R K
no
wle
dge
Po
rtal
(h
ttp
://w
ww
.un
-sp
ider
.
org
/sp
ace-
app
lica
tio
n-m
atri
x).
$e
po
ll w
as o
pen
ed f
or
1 m
on
th d
uri
ng
the
ann
ual
Gi4
DM
– G
eo-i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r D
isas
ter
Man
agem
ent
– c
on
fere
nce
in A
nta
lya,
Tu
rkey
, an
d a
nn
ou
nce
d a
t a
spec
ial s
ide
even
t o
n
4 M
ay 2
011.
In
ad
dit
ion
, th
e ca
ll f
or
par
tici
pat
ion
was
als
o
dis
sem
inat
ed v
ia E
-mai
l d
istr
ibu
tio
n b
y se
vera
l in
tern
atio
-
nal
org
aniz
atio
ns,
su
ch a
s th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
Geo
grap
hi-
cal I
nfo
rmat
ion
Wo
rkin
g G
rou
p (
UN
GIW
G),
UN
-SP
IDE
R,
and
th
e O
pen
Geo
spat
ial C
on
sort
ium
(O
GC
).
Po
ll re
sult
s
222
par
tici
pan
ts r
esp
on
ded
to
th
e ca
ll i
n f
ull
det
ail,
213
of
wh
ich
wer
e at
trib
uta
ble
to
co
un
trie
s o
r te
rrit
ori
es,
the
re-
mai
nin
g 9
to r
egio
nal
or
glo
bal
org
aniz
atio
ns.
Fig
ure
3.1
sho
ws
the
geo
grap
hic
dis
trib
uti
on
of
resp
on
der
s, r
esp
ec-
tive
ly.
Rep
rese
nta
tio
n o
f th
e d
i&er
ent
role
s in
th
e '
eld
of
geo
spat
i-
al i
nfo
rmat
ion
was
fai
rly
bal
ance
d,
hea
ded
by
the
gro
up
of
end
-use
rs (
39 %
), f
oll
ow
ed b
y va
lue
add
ers
(35
%)
and
dat
a
pro
vid
ers
(26
%).
In t
erm
s o
f h
azar
d t
ypes
ad
dre
ssed
, th
e ev
alu
ato
rs’ p
rofe
ssi-
on
al r
ole
had
no
maj
or
e&ec
t o
n t
he
ou
tco
me
(Fig
ure
3.2
).
Fig
ure
3.2
: Rel
ativ
e d
istr
ibu
tio
n o
f p
oll
res
ult
s b
y p
arti
cip
ants
’ occ
up
atio
n a
nd
ha-
zard
typ
e ad
dre
ssed
Fig
ure
3.3
: To
tal p
oll
res
ult
s in
co
un
ts p
er t
ype
of
haz
ard
In t
ota
l, o
n t
he
leve
l o
f h
azar
d t
ypes
, F
loo
d s
core
d h
igh
est
(17
%),
fo
llo
wed
by
Tsu
nam
i (1
3 %
), D
rou
ght
(12
%),
Fir
e
(11
%),
an
d E
arth
qu
ake
(11.
5 %
), w
ith
th
e o
ther
dis
aste
r
typ
es p
oll
ing
bel
ow
10
% (
Fig
ure
3.3
). $
is c
lear
ly i
nd
ica-
tes
that
th
e m
ajo
r co
nce
rn o
f th
e st
akeh
old
er c
om
mu
nit
y
is a
bo
ut
hyd
rom
eteo
rolo
gica
l h
azar
ds
(in
clu
din
g F
ire)
an
d
Ear
thq
uak
e (i
ncl
ud
ing
Tsu
nam
i).
Sca
lin
g d
ow
n f
rom
haz
ard
typ
es t
o s
pec
i'c
haz
ard
-rel
ated
geo
info
rmat
ion
ite
ms
give
s a
mo
re d
i&er
enti
ated
pic
ture
(Fig
ure
3.4
), r
esu
ltin
g in
Mas
s M
ove
men
t h
azar
d (
Lan
d-
slid
e) a
lso
sco
rin
g am
on
g th
e T
op
-10,
an
d T
sun
ami
sco
-
rin
g lo
wer
. $
is d
i&er
enti
atio
n i
s cl
earl
y d
ue
to t
he
focu
s
or
spre
ad o
f st
akeh
old
ers’
co
nce
rn w
ith
reg
ard
to
di&
eren
t
spec
i'c
pro
du
cts
or
syst
ems
add
ress
ing
the
sam
e h
azar
d
typ
e, r
esp
ecti
vely
. F
rom
th
e p
oll
ing,
a r
efer
ence
set
of
geo
-
23
STA
KE
HO
LD
ER R
AN
KIN
G O
F G
EO
INF
OR
MA
TIO
N P
RO
DU
CT
S
3in
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s an
d s
yste
ms
was
id
enti
'ed
fo
r a
mo
re
det
aile
d s
urv
ey (
Tab
le 3
.2).
$is
tab
le h
igh
ligh
ts t
he
glo
bal
com
mu
nit
y’s
con
cern
ab
ou
t %
oo
d,
eart
hq
uak
e,
dro
ugh
t,
're
, an
d l
and
slid
e h
azar
ds,
as
wel
l as
th
e im
po
rtan
ce o
f ri
sk
anal
ysis
an
d m
on
ito
rin
g.
Dis
aste
r T
ype
Pro
du
ct/S
yste
mC
ou
nts
Flo
od
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
Inu
nd
atio
n M
ap
97 95 82 67
Ear
thq
uak
eU
rban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
fo
r R
isk
An
alys
is
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
85 83
Dro
ugh
tV
uln
erab
ilit
y M
ap76
Fir
eR
isk
Map
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g
74 67
Lan
dsl
ide
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
Ass
essm
ent
68
Fig
ure
3.4
: To
tal p
oll
res
ult
s in
co
un
ts p
er g
eoin
form
atio
n it
emT
able
3.2
: To
p 1
0 re
fere
nce
set
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
item
s
24
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 in d
isaste
r an
d r
isk m
an
ag
em
en
t?
Rob
ert
Bac
khau
s, J
ula
Hei
de
and
An
ne
Kn
auer
Fo
llo
win
g th
e d
e'n
itio
n o
f a
refe
ren
ce s
et o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n
item
s (s
ee C
hap
ter
3, T
able
3.2
), t
hes
e it
ems
wer
e to
be
ap-
pra
ised
as
to t
hei
r li
kel
y b
ene'
cial
imp
act
on
sp
eci'
c o
per
a-
tio
nal
as
wel
l as
str
ateg
ic i
ssu
es i
n D
isas
ter
and
Ris
k M
an-
agem
ent,
co
mb
ined
wit
h a
n a
sses
smen
t o
f th
e cr
itic
alit
y o
f
thei
r te
chn
ical
qu
alit
y fo
r en
suri
ng
the
resp
ecti
ve b
ene'
ts.
In o
rder
to
ap
pro
xim
ate
the
logi
c o
f a
clas
sica
l Co
st-B
ene'
t-
An
alys
is a
pp
roac
h a
s fa
r as
po
ssib
le, c
ost
asp
ects
sh
ou
ld a
lso
be
add
ress
ed (
see
Ch
apte
r 4.
6). $
is a
pp
roac
h, b
ased
on
an
app
rais
al o
f re
fere
nce
in
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s th
rou
gh e
xper
t
stak
eho
lder
s, h
as b
een
dem
on
stra
ted
bef
ore
in
th
e fr
ame-
wo
rk o
f a
nat
ion
al s
tud
y o
n b
ehal
f o
f th
e G
erm
an F
eder
al
Min
istr
y fo
r E
nvi
ron
men
t an
d N
ucl
ear
Safe
ty (
Bac
kh
aus
and
Beu
le, 2
005)
.
As
a '
rst
step
, th
e re
fere
nce
ite
ms
had
to
be
char
acte
rize
d
in m
ore
tec
hn
ical
det
ail.
$e
resu
ltin
g te
chn
ical
fea
ture
pro
-
'le
s sh
ou
ld b
e d
istr
ibu
ted
to
a g
lob
al g
rou
p o
f p
ote
nti
al o
r
actu
al u
sers
(p
ract
itio
ner
s as
wel
l as
pla
nn
ers
and
dec
isio
n-
mak
ers,
a#
liat
ed t
o p
ub
lic
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t b
od
ies,
in
-
tern
atio
nal
org
aniz
atio
ns
and
NG
Os)
, to
geth
er w
ith
a t
em-
pla
te f
or
pro
du
ct a
pp
rais
al.
$is
tem
pla
te s
ho
uld
sp
ecif
y a
list
of
crit
eria
rel
ated
to
var
iou
s as
pec
ts o
f b
ene'
t. B
ased
on
a n
orm
aliz
ed r
atin
g sc
hed
ule
, th
e ex
per
ts w
ere
to e
valu
ate
the
refe
ren
ce it
ems
acco
rdin
g to
th
e b
ene'
cial
imp
act
wh
ich
they
wo
uld
att
rib
ute
to
th
eir
app
lica
tio
n. L
ikew
ise,
th
e te
ch-
nic
al f
eatu
res
of
each
ite
m w
ere
to b
e as
sess
ed a
s to
th
eir
crit
ical
ity
for
the
ben
e't
eval
uat
ion
.
A v
ery
det
aile
d a
nd
di&
eren
tiat
ed t
ech
nic
al d
escr
ipti
on
of
each
ite
m,
tak
ing
into
acc
ou
nt
the
vari
ety
of
mo
di'
cati
on
s
eith
er i
mp
lem
ente
d a
lrea
dy
in a
n o
per
atio
nal
en
viro
nm
ent,
or
advo
cate
d b
y re
sear
ch p
roje
cts
and
exe
mp
lary
dem
on
-
stra
tio
ns
in t
he
cou
rse
of
case
stu
die
s, w
ou
ld h
ave
resu
lted
,
toge
ther
wit
h t
he
cata
logu
e o
f ev
alu
atio
n c
rite
ria,
in
an
im
-
pra
ctic
al a
mo
un
t o
f e&
ort
exp
ecte
d f
rom
an
y re
spo
nd
er t
o
the
app
rais
al c
all.
$er
efo
re,
a m
ore
pra
gmat
ic a
pp
roac
h
was
fo
llo
wed
.
Fo
r ea
ch r
efer
ence
ite
m,
the
edit
ors
gro
up
jo
intl
y cr
eate
d a
Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
, co
mp
risi
ng
com
pac
t in
form
atio
n o
n t
he
maj
or
use
r-re
leva
nt
feat
ure
s an
d m
eta-
dat
a, v
iz.:
To
pic
ad
dre
ssed
(o
bje
ctiv
e o
f th
e in
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
)
$em
atic
co
nte
nt
(ava
ilab
le t
hem
atic
in
form
atio
n a
nd
un
der
lyin
g d
ata
laye
rs)
Acc
ess
(e.g
. via
In
tern
et)
Sca
le (
wh
ere
app
lica
ble
)
Acc
ura
cy (
in t
erm
s o
f ca
rto
grap
hic
rep
rese
nta
tio
n o
r
mo
del
val
idit
y)
Are
al c
ove
rage
(lo
cal,
regi
on
al o
r gl
ob
al)
Spat
ial r
eso
luti
on
Tim
elin
ess
(po
st-d
isas
ter
del
iver
y ti
me
for
rap
id m
ap-
pin
g p
rod
uct
s)
Up
dat
e fr
equ
ency
(fo
r m
on
ito
rin
g in
form
atio
n)
Dat
a fo
rmat
.
$e
Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
s w
ere
com
ple
ted
wit
h r
efer
ence
to
a
revi
ew o
f th
e re
spec
tive
lit
erat
ure
. $
e in
ten
tio
n w
as n
ot
to
dep
ict
any
spec
i'c
op
erat
ion
al p
rod
uct
or
syst
em, b
ut
to d
e-
scri
be,
in c
on
den
sed
form
, th
e st
ate
of t
he
art,
sh
ow
ing
wh
at
is f
easi
ble
giv
en t
he
pre
sen
t st
ate
of
scie
nce
an
d t
ech
no
log
y,
no
twit
hst
and
ing
if i
t is
in
op
erat
ion
al u
se o
r n
ot.
Dra
> v
er-
sio
ns
wer
e d
istr
ibu
ted
to
th
e JB
GIS
mem
ber
org
aniz
atio
ns
for
revi
ew a
nd
sci
enti
'c
end
ors
emen
t, r
esu
ltin
g in
ju
st m
i-
no
r ch
ange
s an
d e
dit
s. F
or
the
'n
al T
ech
nic
al P
ro'
les,
as
pre
sen
ted
to
th
e su
rvey
par
tici
pan
ts, a
nd
th
e re
fere
nce
d l
it-
erat
ure
, see
Ch
apte
rs 4
.1 t
o 4
.5, r
esp
ecti
vely
.
$e
invi
tati
on
to
par
tici
pat
e w
as d
isse
min
ated
via
th
e U
N-
SPID
ER
Kn
ow
led
ge P
ort
al a
nd
th
e U
N-S
PID
ER
E-M
ail
dis
trib
uti
on
lis
t co
nta
inin
g ab
ou
t 18
,000
ad
dre
ssee
s. I
n a
d-
dit
ion
, th
e U
N-S
PID
ER
Nat
ion
al F
oca
l P
oin
ts (
htt
p:/
/ww
w.
un
-sp
ider
.org
/net
wo
rk/n
atio
nal
-fo
cal-
po
ints
) w
ere
req
ues
t-
ed b
y a
per
son
al le
tter
fro
m t
he
dir
ecto
r o
f O
OSA
to
fu
rth
er
dis
sem
inat
e th
e ca
ll w
ith
in t
hei
r co
un
trie
s.
$e
call
was
op
en f
rom
11
Mar
ch u
nti
l 12
Ap
ril
2013
, p
ro-
vid
ing
end
-use
rs o
f ge
osp
atia
l in
form
atio
n i
n t
he
'el
d o
f
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent,
th
e o
pp
ort
un
ity
to e
xpre
ss
thei
r vi
ews
and
nee
ds
on
lin
e b
y w
ay o
f a
stan
dar
diz
ed a
p-
pra
isal
fo
rm o
n a
ded
icat
ed s
ecti
on
on
th
e U
N-S
PID
ER
Kn
ow
led
ge P
ort
al.
All
sec
tio
n c
on
ten
t w
as p
rese
nte
d i
n
En
glis
h,
Fre
nch
, an
d S
pan
ish
. P
arti
cip
ants
wer
e re
qu
este
d
to i
den
tify
th
emse
lves
as
end
-use
r o
r n
on
no
n-e
nd
-use
r.
$e
app
rais
al c
rite
ria
give
n i
n t
he
app
rais
al f
orm
had
bee
n
iter
ated
bef
ore
wit
h a
n i
nte
rnat
ion
al g
rou
p o
f ex
per
ts a
t
the
Gi4
DM
– G
eo-i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r D
isas
ter
Man
agem
ent
–
con
fere
nce
in A
nta
lya,
Tu
rkey
, on
4 M
ay 2
011.
$es
e cr
iter
ia
are
sch
emat
ical
ly o
utl
ined
in
Tab
le 4
.1.
In c
om
par
iso
n t
o t
he
fore
goin
g lo
ngl
ist
po
ll (
see
Ch
apte
r
3),
the
resp
on
se w
as m
ark
edly
lo
wer
th
is t
ime,
wh
ich
was
to b
e ex
pec
ted
tak
ing
into
acc
ou
nt
the
hig
her
e&
ort
nee
ded
for
com
ple
tin
g th
e fa
r m
ore
ela
bo
rate
res
po
nse
fo
rm. I
n t
o-
tal,
ther
e w
ere
70 r
esp
on
der
s,
51 o
f w
hic
h h
ad i
den
ti'
ed
them
selv
es a
s en
d-u
sers
, an
d 1
9 as
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
e.g.
fro
m
25
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4T
ech
nic
al p
ro"
les
of
10
ref
eren
ce g
eoin
form
atio
n i
tem
s to
be
eval
uat
ed w
ith
res
pec
t to
:
Op
era
tion
al
issu
esSt
rate
gic
issu
esC
riti
cali
ty o
f fe
atu
res
Hu
man
itar
ian
aid
Hea
lth
car
e
Cri
tica
l in
fras
tru
c-
ture
Sec
uri
ty
E#
cien
cy o
f p
lan
s an
d p
oli
cies
Pu
bli
c ac
cep
tan
ce o
f p
lan
s an
d p
oli
cies
Sup
po
rt o
f su
per
regi
on
al c
on
sist
ency
an
d c
oo
per
atio
n
Red
uci
ng
loss
es i
n p
ub
lic
eco
no
my
Sup
po
rt o
f p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s
$em
atic
co
nte
nt
Acc
ess
Sca
le
Acc
ura
cy
Are
al c
ove
rage
Spat
ial r
eso
luti
on
Tim
elin
ess
Up
dat
e fr
equ
ency
Dat
a fo
rmat
Ap
pra
isal
key
: hig
h -
med
ium
- lo
w
Tab
le 4
.1: S
chem
atic
co
nte
nt
ou
tlin
e o
f th
e ap
pra
isal
fo
rm
Fig
ure
4.1
: Geo
grap
hic
dis
trib
uti
on
of
surv
ey p
arti
cip
ants
(en
d-u
sers
/no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
26
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 rese
arch
org
anis
atio
ns)
. H
ow
ever
, th
ere
was
a m
ore
or
less
sim
ilar
glo
bal
sp
read
of
resp
on
ses
(Fig
ure
4.1
).
No
t al
l 10
ref
eren
ce i
tem
s w
ere
eval
uat
ed b
y al
l re
spo
nd
ers.
$er
e w
as s
om
e d
i&er
ence
in
th
is r
egar
d b
etw
een
en
d-u
sers
and
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
s 4.
2 an
d 4
.3),
wh
ich
mig
ht
be
exp
lain
ed b
y th
e en
d-u
sers
’ m
ore
pro
no
un
ced
en
gage
men
t
in s
pec
i'c
regi
on
al h
azar
d s
itu
atio
ns.
Bo
th g
rou
ps
sho
wed
a
rela
tive
ly h
igh
in
tere
st i
n a
ll f
ou
r %
oo
d-r
elat
ed it
ems.
In t
he
foll
ow
ing,
su
rvey
res
ult
s o
n o
per
atio
nal
an
d s
trat
e-
gic
ben
e'ts
of
the
10 r
efer
ence
geo
info
rmat
ion
ite
ms
are
pre
sen
ted
wit
h r
esp
ect
to t
he
seve
ral
eval
uat
ion
cri
teri
a as
list
ed i
n T
able
4.1
, se
par
atel
y fo
r en
d-u
sers
an
d n
on
-en
d-
use
rs.
$e
resu
lts
are
also
pre
sen
ted
an
d f
urt
her
dis
cuss
ed
wit
h r
efer
ence
to
eac
h s
ingl
e ge
oin
form
atio
n i
tem
in
Ch
ap-
ters
4.1
to
4.5
, re
spec
tive
ly,
toge
ther
wit
h t
he
resu
lts
on
th
e
crit
ical
ity
of
tech
nic
al f
eatu
res.
Op
erat
ion
al b
ene"
ts w
ou
ld t
ake
e&ec
t in
th
e im
med
iate
con
text
of
emer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se, b
ut
also
in s
up
po
rt o
f d
isas
-
ter
pre
par
edn
ess
foll
ow
ing
an e
arly
war
nin
g o
r in
th
e co
urs
e
of
a sl
ow
-on
set
dis
aste
r.
Hu
man
itar
ian
ai
d,
e.g.
lo
gist
ical
as
sist
ance
in
d
eplo
yin
g
sup
ply
go
od
s, o
r as
sist
ing
refu
gees
, is
a p
aram
ou
nt
req
uir
e-
men
t in
em
erge
ncy
res
po
nse
. H
ere,
th
e b
ene'
t o
f al
l it
ems
was
ap
pra
ised
as
hig
h b
y >
50 %
of
the
end
-use
rs,
wit
h e
m-
ph
asis
on
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t (9
3 %
). E
ven
Fir
e R
isk
Map
pin
g as
a m
ore
pre
ven
tio
n-r
elat
ed it
em s
core
d
52 %
(F
igu
re 4
.4).
All
item
s sc
ore
d lo
wer
in t
he
app
rais
al b
y
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.5
).
Hea
lth
car
e, e
.g.
emer
gen
cy m
edic
al a
ssis
tan
ce o
r d
isas
ter
pre
par
edn
ess
in h
osp
ital
s o
rgan
izat
ion
, is
a h
igh
ly c
ruci
al
and
tim
e-cr
itic
al is
sue
in h
um
anit
aria
n s
up
po
rt.
In t
he
end
-
use
rs’
app
rais
al,
mo
st i
tem
s w
ere
eval
uat
ed a
s h
igh
ly b
en-
Fig
ure
4.2
: Nu
mb
er o
f re
fere
nce
item
s ev
alu
ated
by
end
-use
rs (
n =
51)
Fig
ure
4.3
: Nu
mb
er o
f re
fere
nce
item
s ev
alu
ated
by
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
n =
19)
27
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4
Fig
ure
4.5
: Ben
e't
for
hu
man
itar
ian
aid
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.4
: Ben
e't
for
hu
man
itar
ian
aid
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.6
: Ben
e't
for
hea
lth
car
e (e
nd
-use
rs)
28
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 e'ci
al b
y >
50 %
, ex
cep
t fo
r L
and
slid
e H
azar
d A
sses
smen
t,
Fir
e R
isk
Map
pin
g, F
loo
d R
isk
Mo
nit
ori
ng
and
Flo
od
Ris
k
Map
pin
g. E
mp
has
is w
as g
iven
to
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e A
s-
sess
men
t (7
5 %
) an
d F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g (>
75
%)
(Fig
ure
4.6
). A
pp
aren
tly,
em
ph
asis
is
give
n t
o t
he
nee
ds
of
imm
edia
te m
edic
al a
id i
n e
mer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
ns,
res
ult
-
ing
in d
isti
nct
ly h
igh
er b
ene'
t sc
ore
s o
f d
isas
ter
det
ecti
on
and
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
vers
us
risk
an
d h
azar
d m
app
ing.
All
item
s sc
ore
d l
ow
er i
n t
he
app
rais
al b
y n
on
-en
d-u
sers
(F
ig-
ure
4.7
).
Cri
tica
l in
fra
stru
ctu
re
enco
mp
asse
s tr
ansp
ort
atio
n,
en-
erg
y su
pp
ly,
com
mu
nic
atio
n l
ink
s an
d f
oo
d p
rod
uct
ion
.
Mo
re t
han
70
% o
f th
e en
d-u
sers
eva
luat
ed a
ll i
tem
s ex
cep
t
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
erab
ilit
y M
app
ing
as h
igh
ly b
ene'
cial
(F
ig-
ure
4.8
). A
lth
ou
gh d
rou
ght
vuln
erab
ilit
y is
a c
riti
cal
issu
e
rega
rdin
g fo
od
pro
du
ctio
n,
app
aren
tly
the
maj
or
con
cern
was
ab
ou
t te
chn
ical
in
fras
tru
ctu
re w
hic
h i
s n
ot
dir
ectl
y
a&ec
ted
by
dro
ugh
t. S
core
s >
90 %
wer
e re
ach
ed f
or
Ear
th-
qu
ake
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
pin
g, U
rban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
for
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is a
nd
Flo
od
Ris
k M
app
ing.
$e
app
rais
al b
y n
on
-en
d-u
sers
fo
llo
wed
a s
imil
ar p
atte
rn, w
ith
mo
st h
igh
ben
e't
eval
uat
ion
s b
ein
g lo
wer
, exc
ept
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
A
sses
smen
t,
Fir
e R
isk
M
app
ing
and
F
loo
d
Ris
k
Map
pin
g (F
igu
re 4
.9).
Secu
rity
mea
ns
e.g.
co
ntr
ol
ove
r vu
lner
able
str
uct
ure
s in
emer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
ns
as w
ell
as p
rep
ared
nes
s o
f th
e p
op
u-
lati
on
an
d r
esil
ien
ce o
f in
fras
tru
ctu
re i
n t
he
pre
-dis
aste
r
ph
ase.
In
the
end
-use
rs’ a
pp
rais
al, a
ll it
ems
bu
t Dro
ugh
t Vu
l-
ner
abil
ity
Map
pin
g sc
ore
d >
50 %
fo
r h
igh
ly b
ene'
cial
, wit
h
sco
res
>60
% f
or
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
app
ing
and
Urb
an C
lass
i'ca
tio
n f
or
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
Fig
-
ure
4.1
0).
Wit
h t
he
exce
pti
on
of
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e A
s-
sess
men
t M
app
ing,
all
ite
ms
sco
red
dis
tin
ctly
lo
wer
in
th
e
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs’ a
pp
rais
al (
Fig
ure
4.1
1).
Fig
ure
4.7
: Ben
e't
for
hea
lth
car
e (n
on
-en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.8
: Ben
e't
for
crit
ical
in
fra
stru
ctu
re (
end
-use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.9
: Ben
e't
for
crit
ical
in
fra
stru
ctu
re (
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
29
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.10:
Ben
e't
for
secu
rity
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
1: B
ene'
t fo
r se
curi
ty (
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.1
2: B
ene'
t fo
r e"
cien
cy o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s (e
nd
-use
rs)
30
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Str
ateg
ic b
ene"
ts c
an b
e ex
pec
ted
mo
stly
on
th
e le
vel
of
pre
-dis
aste
r p
lan
nin
g fo
r ri
sk r
edu
ctio
n,
bu
t al
so i
n t
he
af-
term
ath
of a
dis
aste
r w
hen
it c
om
es to
co
pin
g w
ith
eco
no
mi-
cal l
oss
es a
nd
rec
on
stru
ctio
n.
E"
cien
cy o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s in
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
age-
men
t m
ay b
ene'
t fr
om
inte
grat
ing
the
geo
spat
ial d
imen
sio
n
into
th
e in
form
atio
n b
ase
for
stra
tegi
c d
ecis
ion
su
pp
ort
,
wh
ich
is
com
ple
men
tary
to
mer
ely
stat
isti
cal
dat
a. E
xcep
t
for
Fir
e R
isk
Map
pin
g, a
ll g
eoin
form
atio
n it
ems
wer
e ev
alu
-
ated
by
>50
% o
f th
e en
d-u
sers
gro
up
as
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al,
wit
h t
he
hig
hes
t sc
ore
s fo
r U
rban
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is
(75
%)
and
Flo
od
Ris
k M
app
ing
(>70
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
2). $
e
app
rais
al b
y n
on
-en
d-u
sers
fo
llo
wed
a s
imil
ar p
atte
rn w
ith
som
e sl
igh
tly
low
er h
igh
ben
e't
sco
res,
bu
t gi
vin
g m
ore
em
-
ph
asis
, ho
wev
er, t
o F
ire
Ris
k M
app
ing
(>60
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
3).
Pu
blic
acc
epta
nce
of
plan
s an
d p
olic
ies
may
be
incr
ease
d e
s-
pec
iall
y b
y th
e vi
sual
rep
rese
nta
tio
n o
f d
amag
e, v
uln
erab
ili-
ties
an
d r
isk
s, a
s p
rovi
ded
by
suit
able
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
d-
uct
s. U
nd
er t
his
asp
ect,
ho
wev
er,
the
ove
rall
eva
luat
ion
as
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al w
as lo
wer
by
end
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.1
4), w
ith
just
Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
pin
g sc
ori
ng
wel
l ab
ove
50 %
. In
co
mp
aris
on
, n
on
-en
d-u
sers
gav
e d
isti
nct
ly m
ore
emp
has
is t
o F
ire
Ris
k M
ap, D
rou
ght
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
, Ur-
ban
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is a
nd
Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap, a
ll s
cor-
ing
wit
h >
60 %
fo
r h
igh
ben
e't
(Fig
ure
4.1
5).
In g
ener
al,
the
resp
on
der
s as
sess
th
e b
ene'
ts o
f ge
osp
atia
l in
form
atio
n
as m
od
erat
e w
hen
aim
ing
to i
ncr
ease
pu
bli
c ac
cep
tan
ce o
f
pla
ns
and
po
lici
es.
Supp
ort
of s
upe
rreg
ion
al c
onsi
sten
cy a
nd
coo
pera
tion
, e.
g.
by
shar
ing
un
ifo
rm
geo
spat
ial
refe
ren
ce
info
rmat
ion
, is
a cr
itic
al s
trat
egic
iss
ue
in a
ll c
ases
wh
ere
a sp
atia
lly
ex-
ten
ded
tra
ns-
bo
un
dar
y h
azar
d h
as t
o b
e co
ped
wit
h, w
her
e
a gl
ob
al s
trat
egy
shal
l b
e im
ple
men
ted
, o
r w
her
e D
isas
ter
and
Ris
k M
anag
emen
t is
car
ried
ou
t in
a fe
der
al a
dm
inis
tra-
tive
sys
tem
. H
ere,
>50
% h
igh
ly b
ene'
cial
ap
pra
isal
s fr
om
end
-use
rs w
ere
give
n t
o F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g,
Fig
ure
4.1
3: B
ene'
t fo
r e"
cien
cy o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s (n
on
-en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
4: B
ene'
t fo
r pu
blic
acc
epta
nce
of
plan
s an
d p
olic
ies
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
5: B
ene'
t fo
r pu
blic
acc
epta
nce
of
plan
s an
d p
olic
ies
(no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
31
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.16:
Ben
e't
for
supp
ort
of s
upe
rreg
ion
al c
onsi
sten
cy a
nd
coo
pera
tion
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
7: B
ene'
t fo
r su
ppor
t of
su
perr
egio
nal
con
sist
ency
an
d c
oope
rati
on (
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.1
8: B
ene'
t fo
r re
du
cin
g lo
sses
in
pu
blic
eco
nom
y (e
nd
-use
rs)
32
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.19:
Ben
e't
for
red
uci
ng
loss
es i
n p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.2
0: B
ene'
t fo
r su
ppor
t of
pre
ven
tive
str
ateg
ies
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.2
1: B
ene'
t fo
r su
ppor
t of
pre
ven
tive
str
ateg
ies
(no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
app
ing
(>55
%),
Urb
an
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
55 %
), a
nd
Flo
od
Dam
age
As-
sess
men
t M
app
ing
(Fig
ure
4.1
6).
All
ite
ms
sco
red
lo
wer
in t
he
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs’
app
rais
al,
wit
h t
he
exce
pti
on
of
Fir
e
Ris
k M
app
ing
(>55
%)
and
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
erab
ilit
y M
app
ing
(>70
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
7).
Red
uci
ng
loss
es i
n t
he
publ
ic e
con
omy,
e.g
. b
y ri
sk r
edu
ctio
n
or
mo
re e
#ci
ent
emer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se, i
s ad
dre
ssed
in
mo
re
det
ail
in C
hap
ter
2. I
n t
he
glo
bal
ap
pra
isal
res
ult
s p
rese
nte
d
her
e, >
60 %
of
the
end
-use
rs g
rou
p e
valu
ated
mo
st i
tem
s as
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al, w
ith
on
ly m
ino
r d
i&er
ence
s (F
igu
re 4
.18)
,
and
wit
h D
rou
ght
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
pin
g an
d F
loo
d R
isk
Mo
nit
ori
ng
(bo
th >
55 %
) co
min
g ju
st s
ho
rt o
f th
is s
core
.
All
item
s w
ere
eval
uat
ed lo
wer
in
th
e ap
pra
isal
by
no
n-e
nd
-
use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.1
9).
Supp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s h
as b
een
pro
ven
as
a h
igh
ly
e#ci
ent
app
roac
h t
o d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
(see
Ch
apte
r 2)
and
may
ben
e't
fro
m g
eoin
form
atio
n e
.g.
in t
he
way
of
iden
tify
ing,
ass
essi
ng
and
lo
cati
ng
dis
aste
r ri
sks.
Acc
ord
-
ingl
y, i
n t
he
end
-use
r ap
pra
isal
of
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al a
ll i
tem
s
exce
pt
Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
(55
%)
sco
red
dis
tin
ctly
>60
% (
Fig
ure
4.2
0). F
rom
th
e n
on
-en
d-u
sers
po
int
of
view
,
the
resu
lts
for
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al a
pp
rais
al a
re m
ore
var
-
ied
, b
ut
wit
h m
ost
ite
ms
wel
l ab
ove
50
%,
and
wit
h U
rban
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
>80
%)
and
Flo
od
Ris
k M
app
ing
(>75
%)
sco
rin
g ev
en h
igh
er f
or
hig
h b
ene'
t in
co
mp
aris
on
wit
h e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.2
1).
33
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4assessm
en
t
Sisi
Zla
tan
ova
Flo
od
s ar
e am
on
g th
e m
ost
fr
equ
ent
dis
aste
rs
and
ar
e
ran
ked
as
nu
mb
er t
hre
e w
orl
d-w
ide
in f
req
uen
cy.
Eu
rop
e,
Am
eric
a, A
sia,
an
d A
ust
rali
a h
ave
rece
ntl
y w
itn
esse
d a
se-
vere
gro
wth
in
th
e sc
ale
and
fre
qu
ency
of
%o
od
eve
nts
. Fig
-
ure
4.1
.1 c
lear
ly s
ho
ws
that
sto
rms
and
%o
od
s ar
e th
e m
ost
extr
eme
and
fre
qu
ent
dis
aste
rs.
Fo
r ex
amp
le,
the
Elb
e %
oo
ds
in 2
002
cau
sed
a t
ota
l o
f
€ 8
bil
lio
n o
f ec
on
om
ic d
amag
e in
Ger
man
y, A
ust
ria
and
the
Cze
ch R
epu
bli
c. $
e ec
on
om
ic l
oss
es c
on
trib
ute
d t
o
red
uct
ion
s in
th
ese
cou
ntr
ies’
200
2 G
DP
of
0.54
%,
1.4
%
and
3.7
5 %
res
pec
tive
ly (
CE
A,
2007
). 9
1 %
of
the
mo
st s
e-
vere
cat
astr
op
hes
in
th
e w
orl
d h
ave
bee
n w
eath
er r
elat
ed:
300
sto
rms,
310
%o
od
s, s
torm
su
rges
an
d m
ass
mo
vem
ents
cau
sed
by
hea
vy r
ain
(M
un
ich
Re,
201
2).
Acc
ord
ing
to s
ta-
tist
ics
the
imp
act
of
%o
od
eve
nts
on
so
ciet
ies
and
eco
no
mie
s
wo
rld
wid
e is
lik
ely
to i
ncr
ease
, si
nce
po
pu
lati
on
den
siti
es
and
eco
no
mic
act
ivit
ies
alo
ng
rive
rs,
sea
sho
res
and
del
tas
hav
e in
crea
sed
an
d w
ill
incr
ease
fu
rth
er i
n t
he
futu
re.
Fu
r-
ther
mo
re,
the
freq
uen
cy a
nd
mag
nit
ud
e o
f %
oo
ds
are
ex-
pec
ted
to
gro
w d
ue
to t
he
imp
acts
of
clim
ate
chan
ge (
$ie
k-
en e
t al
., 20
06;
Tau
ben
bö
ck e
t al
., 20
11;
Sham
aom
a et
al.,
2006
; CE
A, 2
007;
Mu
nic
h R
e, 2
012)
. $e
ann
ual
max
imu
m
pea
k d
isch
arge
s o
f m
ajo
r ri
vers
are
als
o e
xpec
ted
to
ris
e b
y
3–19
% b
y 20
50 (
Mid
del
ko
op
et
al.,
2001
). F
or
exam
ple
, te
Lin
de
et a
l. (2
011)
est
imat
e an
in
crea
se i
n t
he
%o
od
haz
ard
(e.g
. ex
trem
e 1/
1250
per
yea
r %
oo
d e
ven
ts)
by
a fa
cto
r o
f
thre
e in
th
e L
ow
er R
hin
e d
elta
by
2050
.
$es
e tr
end
s re
qu
ire
spec
ial a
tten
tio
n t
o %
oo
d e
arly
war
nin
g
as w
ell a
s %
oo
d a
nd
%o
od
ris
k m
anag
emen
t p
rote
ctio
n.
Acc
ord
ing
to A
rtic
le 2
of
the
Eu
rop
ean
Dir
ecti
ve o
n t
he
As-
sess
men
t an
d M
anag
emen
t o
f F
loo
d R
isk
s (E
U, 2
007)
:
“Flo
od“
mea
ns
the
tem
pora
ry c
over
ing
by w
ater
of
lan
d n
ot
nor
mal
ly c
over
ed b
y w
ater
. &
is s
hal
l in
clu
de
'oo
ds
from
rive
rs,
mou
nta
in t
orre
nts
, M
edit
erra
nea
n e
phem
eral
wat
er
cou
rses
, an
d '
ood
s fr
om t
he
sea
in
coa
stal
are
as,
an
d m
ay
excl
ud
e '
ood
s fr
om s
ewer
age
syst
ems;
“'oo
d r
isk“
mea
ns
the
com
bin
atio
n o
f th
e pr
obab
ilit
y of
a
'oo
d e
ven
t an
d o
f th
e po
ten
tial
ad
vers
e co
nse
quen
ces
for
hu
-
man
hea
lth
, th
e en
viro
nm
ent,
cu
ltu
ral h
erit
age
and
eco
nom
ic
acti
vity
ass
ocia
ted
wit
h a
'oo
d e
ven
t.
Gen
eral
ly,
%o
od
ing
is a
nat
ura
l an
d r
ecu
rrin
g ev
ent
for
a
rive
r o
r st
ream
. It
is
cau
sed
in
mo
st c
ases
by
hea
vy o
r co
n-
tin
uo
us
rain
fall
, w
hic
h e
xcee
ds
the
abso
rpti
on
cap
acit
y o
f
soil
an
d t
he
%o
w c
apac
ity
of
rive
rs. S
uch
rai
ns
may
ori
gin
ate
fro
m s
torm
s, t
orn
ado
es,
etc.
Ho
wev
er %
oo
ds
can
be
cau
sed
also
by
rap
id m
elti
ng
of
sno
w c
aps
du
e to
tem
per
atu
re p
eak
s
or
the
regu
lar
spri
ng
thaw
, b
y ea
rth
qu
akes
an
d c
on
seq
uen
t
tsu
nam
i, a
nd
by
dam
an
d d
yke
bu
rsts
du
e to
nat
ura
l ev
ents
or
hu
man
fai
lure
. A
ll t
hes
e ev
ents
cau
se w
ater
cou
rses
to
ove
r%o
w t
hei
r b
ank
s o
r d
ykes
an
d i
nu
nd
ate
the
surr
ou
nd
-
ing
lan
ds.
$es
e %
oo
ded
are
as,
usu
ally
ref
erre
d t
o a
s %
oo
d-
pla
ins,
are
th
e m
ost
%o
od
-pro
ne.
Vo
lcan
ic e
rup
tio
ns
on
glac
iers
or
sno
w-c
ove
red
vo
lcan
ic p
eak
s ca
n a
lso
res
ult
in
a su
dd
en %
oo
d o
r fa
st-m
ovi
ng
mu
d%
ow
s, w
hic
h m
ay c
reat
e
stre
ams
that
are
ou
tsid
e th
e n
orm
al r
iver
bed
s, c
ausi
ng
even
mo
re d
amag
e an
d lo
ss o
f li
fe.
Fre
qu
ency
is
on
e o
f th
e m
ost
cri
tica
l ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f a
%o
od
eve
nt.
$e
%o
od
may
be
des
crib
ed a
s a
1 in
5-y
ear,
20-y
ear,
50-
year
, 100
-yea
r, o
r ev
en 5
00-y
ear
%o
od
eve
nt.
Fo
r
exam
ple
a 1
00-y
ear
%o
od
mea
ns
that
an
are
a is
su
bje
ct t
o a
1 %
pro
bab
ilit
y o
f a
cert
ain
siz
e o
f %
oo
d i
n a
giv
en y
ear,
i.e
.
the
chan
ce o
f th
e %
oo
d is
1%
eve
ry y
ear.
$at
do
es n
ot
mea
n
that
a c
erta
in s
ize
%o
od
wil
l occ
ur
on
ce e
very
100
yea
rs. $
e
bo
un
dar
y o
f th
e 10
0-ye
ar %
oo
d is
an
imp
ort
ant
mea
sure
an
d
com
mo
nly
use
d in
all
kin
ds
of
mit
igat
ion
pro
gram
s to
iden
-
tify
are
as o
f si
gni'
can
t %
oo
din
g h
azar
d (
OA
S, 1
991)
.
Fig
ure
4.1
.1: C
atas
tro
ph
es s
tati
stic
s p
ub
lish
ed b
y M
un
ich
Re,
201
2
34
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Giv
en t
he
com
ple
xity
of
and
th
e re
aso
n f
or
the
occ
urr
ence
of
%o
od
s, i
t is
alm
ost
im
po
ssib
le t
o c
reat
e a
com
ple
te a
nd
accu
rate
pic
ture
of
%o
od
po
ten
tial
. Si
mil
arly
, it
is
di#
cult
to p
reci
sely
est
imat
e %
oo
ded
are
as a
nd
dam
age
that
mig
ht
be
cau
sed
. $
e m
ost
co
mm
on
ap
pro
ach
is
to d
elin
eate
th
e
%o
od
pla
ins
or
%o
od
-pro
ne
area
s an
d c
on
sid
er t
hem
as
risk
area
s. $
e m
ajo
r an
d v
ery
valu
able
co
ntr
ibu
tio
n o
f re
mo
te
sen
sin
g is
th
at i
t p
rovi
de
rap
id m
eth
od
s o
f m
app
ing
and
mo
nit
ori
ng
%o
od
ed a
reas
an
d p
red
icti
ng
po
ssib
le e
xten
sio
ns
of t
he
%o
od
. Var
iou
s 2D
an
d 3
D p
rod
uct
s ca
n b
e p
rep
ared
to
asse
ss t
he
exte
nt
of
the
%o
od
pla
ins
and
act
ual
%o
od
ed a
reas
.
In t
his
ch
apte
r w
e h
ave
con
sid
ered
fo
ur
typ
es o
f p
rod
uct
s:
Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap,
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
, F
loo
d I
n-
un
dat
ion
Map
an
d F
loo
d D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
ap.
$e
pu
rpo
se o
f a
Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap i
s to
del
inea
te t
he
area
s
pro
ne
to %
oo
din
g. G
ener
ally
su
ch m
aps
sho
uld
be
avai
lab
le
in a
dva
nce
of
a %
oo
d e
ven
t an
d s
ho
uld
no
t o
nly
co
nsi
der
the
thre
at o
f %
oo
din
g b
ut
also
%o
od
mit
igat
ion
an
d i
ts i
m-
pac
t o
n u
rban
dev
elo
pm
ent.
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
s
sho
uld
be
able
to
det
ect
crit
ical
sp
atia
l ch
ange
s in
%o
od
haz
-
ard
an
d v
uln
erab
ilit
y o
ver
tim
e. A
Flo
od
In
un
dat
ion
Map
is
pre
par
ed m
ost
co
mm
on
ly i
mm
edia
tely
a>
er a
%o
od
eve
nt
has
tak
en p
lace
an
d a
ims
to d
elin
eate
th
e ac
tual
%o
od
ed a
r-
eas
incl
ud
ing
the
wat
er d
epth
s.
$e
fou
rth
pro
du
ct i
s th
e
Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
wh
ich
aim
s to
pre
sen
t d
e-
tail
s o
f so
cio
-eco
no
mic
dam
age.
$e
pre
par
atio
n o
f m
aps
for
%o
od
ris
k m
anag
emen
t, m
on
i-
tori
ng
and
dam
age
asse
ssm
ents
has
alw
ays
bee
n s
een
as
an i
mp
ort
ant
acti
vity
to
en
sure
in
form
atio
n i
s sh
ared
an
d
the
com
mu
nit
y is
in
form
ed a
bo
ut
the
even
t. $
e T
ech
nic
al
Pro
'le
s in
Tab
les
4.1.
1 to
4.1
.4 s
pec
ify
the
info
rmat
ion
th
at
mu
st b
e in
clu
ded
in
th
ese
pro
du
cts.
So
me
of
the
dat
a in
th
ese
tab
les
is a
lrea
dy
avai
lab
le i
n G
IS
laye
rs (
lan
d c
ove
r, a
dm
inis
trat
ive
un
its,
po
pu
lati
on
den
sity
,
urb
an f
abri
cs,
etc.
), w
hil
e o
ther
dat
a (s
uch
as
wat
er d
epth
,
Top
icA
reas
pro
ne
to %
oo
d d
amag
e
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
4 ri
sk c
lass
es, b
ased
on
top
ogr
aph
ic b
ase
map
,
inu
nd
atio
n
area
s as
re
fere
nce
scen
ario
wat
er d
epth
po
pu
lati
on
den
sity
lan
du
se
urb
an f
abri
c
loca
tio
n
of
vuln
erab
le
ob
ject
s
(as
sch
oo
ls, h
osp
ital
s)
loca
tio
n o
f cri
tica
l in
fras
tru
ctu
re
(pip
e li
nes
, ga
s st
atio
ns,
fac
to-
ries
)
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
le1:
2,00
0 -
1:10
,000
Acc
ura
cy0.
5 m
- 1
m g
eom
etri
c ac
cura
cy a
c-
cord
ing
to t
hem
atic
cla
ss
Are
al
cove
rage
Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
1 m
– 5
m
Tim
elin
ess
No
t re
leva
nt
for
risk
ass
essm
ent
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cy5
year
s
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
or
vect
or
(OG
C
stan
dar
ds
sho
uld
be
use
d)
Tab
le 4
.1.1
: Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
of
Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap
Top
icSp
atia
l ch
ange
s in
%o
od
haz
ard
an
d
vuln
erab
ilit
y o
ver
tim
e
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
To
po
grap
hic
bas
e m
ap
Ch
ange
det
ecti
on
map
s o
n
lan
du
se a
nd
veg
etat
ion
wat
er b
od
ies
urb
an f
abri
c
po
pu
lati
on
den
sity
asse
t va
lues
tota
l pre
cip
itat
ion
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
le1:
25,0
00 –
1:3
,000
,000
Acc
ura
cy5
m -
500
m g
eom
etri
c ac
cura
cy a
c-
cord
ing
to t
hem
atic
cla
ss
Are
al
cove
rage
Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
10 m
- 1
,000
m a
cco
rdin
g to
th
emat
ic
clas
s
Tim
elin
ess
No
t re
leva
nt
for
risk
ass
essm
ent
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cy5
year
s; <
1 w
eek
fo
r p
reci
pit
atio
n
dat
a
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
or
vect
or
(OG
C
stan
dar
d-
bas
ed)
Tab
le 4
.1.2
: Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
of
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
s-
tem
35
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4in
un
dat
ion
ext
ent,
to
tal
pre
cip
itat
ion
) h
ave
to b
e o
bta
ined
fro
m i
n s
itu
sen
sors
. In
man
y ca
ses,
th
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
the
map
pro
du
cts
is h
igh
ly d
epen
den
t o
n d
ynam
ic m
easu
re-
men
ts: i
.e. t
he
sen
sors
an
d t
he
pla
tfo
rms
that
co
uld
be
use
d
to c
oll
ect
dat
a. F
or
exam
ple
, %
oo
ds
are
freq
uen
tly
acco
m-
pan
ied
by
den
se c
lou
d c
ove
r, w
hic
h m
ay r
equ
ire
eith
er a
n
acti
ve r
adar
sen
sor
that
can
pen
etra
te c
lou
ds,
or
an o
pti
cal
imag
ing
syst
em t
hat
wo
uld
%y
ben
eath
clo
ud
lev
el (
Zw
en-
zner
an
d V
oig
t 20
09,
Zh
ang
and
Ker
le 2
008)
. H
ow
ever
,
rad
ar-b
ased
in
un
dat
ion
map
s re
qu
ire
add
itio
nal
pro
cess
-
ing,
lea
din
g to
hig
her
co
sts
and
del
ays
in i
nfo
rmat
ion
ava
il-
abil
ity.
Rad
ar i
nte
nsi
ty i
mag
es a
re m
ost
co
mm
on
ly u
sed
to
del
inea
te i
nu
nd
atio
n,
as t
he
wat
er a
pp
ears
bla
ck a
>er
th
e
imag
e is
pro
cess
ed (
Fig
ure
4.1
.2).
Jia
ng
and
Cao
(19
94)
rep
ort
ed o
ne
of
the
'rs
t o
per
atio
nal
air
bo
rne
rad
ar %
oo
d
man
agem
ent
syst
ems
in C
hin
a, w
her
e d
ata
wer
e o
bta
ined
real
-tim
e fr
om
a s
atel
lite
.
Air
bo
rne
sen
sors
typ
ical
ly h
ave
hig
her
sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
ns
(cen
tim
etre
s to
a f
ew m
etre
s) t
han
mo
st s
atel
lite
sen
sors
(met
res
to k
ilo
met
res)
, al
tho
ugh
th
e sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
ns
of
pan
chro
mat
ic im
ages
on
so
me
op
tica
l im
agin
g sa
tell
ites
can
also
ach
ieve
clo
se t
o 0
.5 m
. $
is m
ean
s th
at f
or
larg
e sc
ale
%o
od
ing
a re
solu
tio
n o
f 10
0-50
0 m
may
be
su#
cien
t fo
r a
gen
eral
ove
rvie
w
inu
nd
atio
n m
ap,
wh
ile
for
mo
re l
oca
l-
ized
vie
ws
and
info
rmin
g ci
tize
ns,
esp
ecia
lly
in u
rban
are
as,
sub
-met
re d
etai
l w
ou
ld b
e m
ore
ap
pro
pri
ate
($o
mp
son
et
al. 2
011)
. F
urt
her
mo
re, t
he
exis
ten
ce o
f a
pre
-eve
nt
Dig
ital
Ter
rain
Mo
del
(D
TM
) o
r D
igit
al E
leva
tio
n M
od
el (
DE
M)
is r
eco
mm
end
ed f
or
mo
re a
ccu
rate
co
mp
uta
tio
n o
f in
un
da-
tio
n l
evel
s. M
any
cou
ntr
ies
hav
e at
th
eir
dis
po
sal
nat
ion
al
DT
Ms,
bu
t th
eir
qu
alit
y va
ries
gre
atly
. In
tegr
atin
g 2D
wit
h
3D i
nfo
rmat
ion
ext
end
s th
e o
pti
on
s to
per
form
mo
re c
om
-
ple
x an
alys
is o
f %
oo
d b
ehav
iou
r. I
nu
nd
atio
n e
xten
t o
utl
ines
mer
ged
wit
h 3
D b
uil
din
g d
ata
allo
w t
he
esti
mat
ion
of
wh
ich
%o
ors
in
bu
ild
ings
mig
ht
be
secu
re f
rom
%o
od
s (F
igu
re
4.1.
3).
Giv
en f
req
uen
tly
rep
eate
d d
ata
acq
uis
itio
n c
ycle
s,
chan
ges
ove
r ti
me
can
als
o b
e es
tim
ated
. An
in
tere
stin
g ap
-
pli
cati
on
re%
ecti
ng
the
chan
ges
in t
he
%o
od
ove
r ti
me
was
Top
icF
loo
ded
are
as
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
To
po
grap
hic
bas
e m
ap
Co
nto
urs
of
%o
od
ed a
reas
Wat
er d
epth
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
le1:
1,00
0 -
1:1,
000,
000
Acc
ura
cy1
m -
100
m
Are
al
cove
rage
Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
0.5
m -
250
m
Tim
elin
ess
few
ho
urs
a>
er a
n e
mer
gen
cy
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cyS
ever
al h
ou
rs t
o 1
-2 d
ays
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
Map
s an
d
vect
or
dat
aset
s
(OG
C s
tan
dar
d)
Tab
le 4
.1.3
: Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
of
Inu
nd
atio
n M
ap
Top
icSp
atia
l d
istr
ibu
tio
n o
f ec
on
om
ic d
a-
mag
e d
ue
to %
oo
din
g
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
Agg
rega
ted
mo
net
ary
loss
es i
n
resi
den
tial
co
nte
nt
ind
ust
rial
str
uct
ure
agri
cult
ura
l cro
p
bas
ed o
n
lan
dco
ver/
lan
du
se
adm
inis
trat
ive
un
its
soci
oec
on
om
ic s
tati
stic
s
inu
nd
atio
n e
xten
t an
d d
ura
tio
n
wat
er d
epth
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
le1:
1,00
0 –
1:6
0,00
0
Acc
ura
cy15
m g
eom
etri
c ac
cura
cy
Are
al
cove
rage
Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
30 m
Tim
elin
ess
1 -
2 d
ays
a>er
an
em
erge
ncy
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cy1
- 2
day
s fo
r ac
tual
%o
od
mo
nit
ori
ng
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
or
vect
or
(OG
C s
tan
dar
d)
Tab
le 4
.1.4
: T
ech
nic
al P
ro'
le o
f F
loo
d D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t
Map
36
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 dis
pla
yed
by
AB
C N
ews
(Au
stra
lian
Bro
adca
stin
g C
orp
o-
rati
on
) to
ob
serv
e an
d c
om
par
e ar
eas
‘bef
ore
an
d a
>er
’ th
e
%o
od
eve
nts
(F
igu
re 4
.1.4
).
$e
cost
of
acq
uir
ing
the
map
pro
du
ct s
ho
uld
als
o b
e co
n-
sid
ered
. F
or
exam
ple
in
a
clo
ud
y si
tuat
ion
, w
hil
e ra
dar
dat
a m
igh
t b
e re
com
men
ded
fo
r in
un
dat
ion
map
pin
g, i
t is
un
lik
ely
that
su
ch d
ata
wil
l b
e av
aila
ble
an
d i
t w
ill
in a
ny
case
be
exp
ensi
ve. A
no
n-c
alib
rate
d o
pti
cal p
ho
togr
aph
, ac-
qu
ired
by
a ca
mer
a o
n a
kit
e m
igh
t co
st a
few
do
llar
s, w
hil
e
the
acq
uis
itio
n a
nd
pro
cess
ing,
dep
end
ing
on
th
e p
rovi
der
,
of
an i
nte
rfer
om
etri
c ra
dar
pro
du
ct m
igh
t ex
ceed
US$
100
0
(Ker
le e
t al
200
8).
Hen
ce a
sit
uat
ion
-sp
eci'
c co
mp
rom
ise
mu
st a
pp
ly.
$er
e ar
e se
vera
l sys
tem
s th
at r
esem
ble
th
e d
ata
con
ten
t an
d
fun
ctio
nal
ity
as s
pec
i'ed
in
th
e T
ech
nic
al P
ro'
les
in T
able
s
4.1.
1.to
4.1
.4.
A g
oo
d e
xam
ple
of
a F
loo
d R
isk
Map
mai
n-
tain
ed o
ver
the
inte
rnet
is
the
Du
tch
‘ri
sico
kaa
rt’
(ww
w.
risi
cok
aart
.nl)
. $
e w
eb s
ite
was
dev
elo
ped
in
res
po
nse
to
Act
12
of
Dir
ecti
ve S
ewes
o I
I (h
ttp
://e
c.eu
rop
a.eu
/en
viro
n-
men
t/se
veso
/),
wh
ich
ob
lige
s co
mp
anie
s an
d p
rovi
der
s to
ind
icat
e an
y d
ange
rou
s in
stal
lati
on
s o
n t
hei
r si
tes,
wh
ich
sto
re o
r u
se c
hem
ical
s, p
etro
chem
ical
s an
d m
etal
re'
nin
g
sect
ors
in
lar
ge q
ual
itie
s. $
e D
utc
h a
uth
ori
ties
hav
e in
-
clu
ded
%o
od
pla
ins
in t
hes
e m
aps.
$e
web
sit
e is
pu
bli
cly
avai
lab
le,
mai
nta
ined
by
the
Du
tch
pro
vin
ces
and
pro
vid
es
top
ogr
aph
ic b
ase
map
, %
oo
d p
ron
e ar
eas,
wit
h w
ater
dep
th
ind
icat
ed b
y co
lou
rs,
loca
tio
n o
f vu
lner
able
est
abli
shm
ents
(su
ch a
s sc
ho
ols
, h
osp
ital
s) a
nd
lo
cati
on
of
crit
ical
in
fra-
stru
ctu
re (
pip
e li
nes
, ga
s st
atio
ns,
fac
tori
es)
(Fig
ure
4.1
.5).
$e
iso
-are
as a
re g
iven
on
ly f
or
dan
gero
us
esta
bli
shm
ents
.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
e in
form
atio
n p
rovi
ded
is
rath
er l
imit
ed.
Iso
-are
as r
epre
sen
t th
e in
div
idu
al r
isk
at
the
give
n l
oca
tio
n,
wh
ich
is
de'
ned
as
the
stat
isti
cal
pro
bab
ilit
y th
at a
per
son
wh
o i
s p
erm
anen
tly
pre
sen
t at
a c
erta
in l
oca
tio
n i
n t
he
vi-
cin
ity
of
a h
azar
do
us
acti
vity
, wil
l be
kil
led
as
a co
nse
qu
ence
of
an a
ccid
ent
wit
hin
th
at a
ctiv
ity
(Zla
tan
ova
an
d F
abb
ri,
2009
).
Fig
ure
4.1
.2: R
adar
im
ages
: a)
ori
gin
al i
nte
nsi
ty i
mag
e, a
nd
b)
%o
od
ed a
rea
a>er
pro
cess
ing
(Ker
le e
t al
. 200
8)
Fig
ure
4.1
.3: 3
D v
isu
aliz
atio
n o
f %
oo
d Q
uee
nsl
and
, Au
stra
lia
(co
urt
esy
3VI)
37
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4
Fig
ure
4.1
.4:
Hig
h r
eso
luti
on
op
tica
l im
ages
, Q
uee
nsl
and
%o
od
s, A
ust
rali
a (c
ou
rtes
y A
BC
New
s)
In r
ecen
t ye
ars
man
y sy
stem
s h
ave
bee
n d
evel
op
ed f
or
in-
un
dat
ion
map
pin
g. A
n e
xam
ple
is
pro
vid
ed b
y V
IKIN
G
(htt
p:/
/ww
w.p
rogr
amm
avik
ing.
nl/
), w
ith
th
e co
op
erat
ion
of
two
pro
vin
ces
in t
he
Net
her
lan
ds
and
Ger
man
y. $
e sy
stem
has
man
y o
f th
e fu
nct
ion
alit
ies
of
a tr
adit
ion
al G
IS a
nd
al-
low
s m
any
laye
rs t
o b
e o
verl
aid
an
d a
nal
yzed
. $
e gr
aph
ic
use
r in
terf
ace
is b
ased
on
map
s an
d a
eria
l ph
oto
grap
hs.
In
-
un
dat
ion
are
as a
re i
nte
ract
ivel
y sh
ow
n o
n t
he
scre
en w
ith
pre
dic
tio
n a
nim
atio
n. S
ever
al m
od
ule
s h
ave
bee
n d
evel
op
ed
wh
ich
all
ow
fo
r in
un
dat
ion
war
nin
g in
form
atio
n o
r fo
r
trai
nin
g an
d s
imu
lati
on
s. D
el>
-FE
WS
(Flo
od
Ear
ly W
arn
-
ing
Syst
em)
(htt
p:/
/ww
w.w
ldel
>.n
l/so
>/f
ews/
int/
ind
ex.
htm
l) is
an
oth
er e
xam
ple
of
an in
un
dat
ion
map
pin
g sy
stem
.
$e
syst
em i
s b
asic
ally
a c
om
bin
atio
n o
f d
ynam
ic h
ydro
-
logi
cal
mo
del
s an
d h
igh
ly-f
un
ctio
nal
-rea
l-ti
me-
sim
ula
tio
n
so>
war
e. I
t p
rovi
des
ess
enti
al g
ener
ic G
IS f
un
ctio
nal
ity
for
han
dli
ng
real
-tim
e d
ata,
dat
a as
sim
ilat
ion
an
d m
anag
ing
fore
cast
ru
ns.
O
SIR
IS (
Erl
ich
, 200
7) i
s ye
t an
oth
er i
nu
nd
a-
tio
n m
app
ing
syst
em.
$e
emp
has
is i
n t
his
sys
tem
is
on
an
inte
rfac
e w
hic
h c
an h
elp
cit
izen
s u
nd
erst
and
o#
cial
fo
re-
cast
s. $
e sy
stem
als
o a
llo
ws
for
inte
grat
ion
of
vari
ou
s d
ata
such
as
risk
map
s, %
oo
d p
reve
nti
on
pla
ns
and
res
cue
org
a-
niz
atio
nal
ch
arts
.
Sev
eral
sys
tem
s h
ave
bee
n d
evel
op
ed a
s w
eb p
ort
als
to p
ro-
vid
e ea
rly
war
nin
g an
d o
n-g
oin
g in
form
atio
n o
n t
he
exte
nt
of
inu
nd
atio
n.
$e
goal
of
thes
e sy
stem
s is
pri
mar
ily
to i
n-
form
on
in
un
dat
ion
rat
her
th
an s
pec
i'ca
lly
mo
nit
or
inu
n-
dat
ion
ext
ent,
bu
t st
ill m
any
are
able
to
pro
du
ce m
aps
sho
w-
ing
inu
nd
atio
n e
xten
ts a
nd
dep
ths.
$es
e m
aps
then
can
be
re-u
sed
wh
en n
eed
ed.
Fo
r ex
amp
le t
he
JRC
Flo
od
s P
ort
al
(Fig
ure
4.1
.6)
pro
vid
es i
nfo
rmat
ion
ab
ou
t o
ngo
ing
inu
nd
a-
tio
n, %
oo
d d
isas
ters
, eco
no
mic
s o
f %
oo
d r
isk
, ru
n-o
& s
imu
-
lati
on
mo
del
s, c
lim
ate
imp
act
chan
ges,
etc
.
Bes
ides
th
e re
al-t
ime
info
rmat
ion
, sev
eral
map
s al
so e
xhib
it
%o
od
dam
age
pro
bab
ilit
ies
or
%o
od
dis
aste
rs o
ver
the
pas
t
50 y
ears
. F
igu
re 4
.1.5
: In
tegr
ated
ris
k m
ap r
epre
sen
tin
g %
oo
d r
isk
are
as,
dan
gero
us
esta
bli
shm
ents
acco
rdin
g to
th
e S
ewez
o d
irec
tive
an
d v
uln
erab
le o
bje
cts
(htt
p:/
/ww
w.r
isic
ok
aart
.nl)
38
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 $o
mp
son
et
al.
(201
1) h
ave
inve
stig
ated
th
e in
un
dat
ion
map
p
rep
ared
b
y D
artm
ou
th
Flo
od
O
bse
rvat
ory
, w
hic
h
cove
rs t
he
enti
re w
orl
d (
htt
p:/
/%o
od
ob
serv
ato
ry.c
olo
rad
o.
edu
/).
It i
s n
ot
bas
ed o
n c
on
tin
uo
us
map
pin
g an
d i
s tr
ig-
gere
d b
y p
ress
rep
ort
s o
f %
oo
d e
ven
ts f
rom
aro
un
d t
he
wo
rld
. $e
Dar
tmo
uth
met
adat
a is
lim
ited
. $e
actu
al t
ime
and
dat
e o
f th
e ra
w d
ata
is n
ot
imm
edia
tely
ava
ilab
le to
use
rs
and
nee
ds
to b
e co
mm
un
icat
ed m
ore
cle
arly
. R
esea
rch
has
reve
aled
th
at t
he
Dar
tmo
uth
%o
od
pro
du
ct c
on
sist
s o
f an
accu
mu
lati
on
of
six
MO
DIS
im
ages
(36
sp
ectr
al b
and
s) a
c-
qu
ired
ove
r th
ree
day
per
iod
s. $
e sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
n i
s 25
0
m (
ban
ds
1-2)
, 500
m (
ban
ds
3-7)
an
d 1
km
(o
ther
ban
ds)
.
Sev
eral
dev
elo
pm
ents
hav
e b
een
rep
ort
ed o
n F
loo
d D
am-
age
Map
s. H
erat
h (
2003
) p
rese
nte
d a
n e
xam
ple
of
a F
loo
d
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
bas
ed o
n s
tage
-dam
age
fun
ctio
ns
wh
ich
ar
e b
ette
r es
tim
ates
th
an
on
ly
inte
rvie
ws.
St
age-
dam
age
fun
ctio
ns
are
der
ived
fro
m a
nal
ytic
al i
nd
icat
ors
for
%o
od
in
un
dat
ion
an
d d
ura
tio
n. $
e st
ud
y el
abo
rate
d o
n
the
Jap
anes
e d
amag
e es
tim
atio
n m
eth
od
, w
hic
h u
ses
seve
n
dam
age
clas
ses
ind
icat
ing
mo
net
ary
loss
es d
ue
to d
amag
e
to r
esid
enti
al c
on
ten
t, i
nd
ust
rial
str
uct
ure
s an
d a
gric
ult
ura
l
cro
ps.
To
det
erm
ine
the
esti
mat
es a
gri
d %
oo
d d
amag
e m
ap
is p
rep
ared
co
nsi
stin
g o
f to
po
grap
hic
map
, la
nd
use
map
,
adm
inis
trat
ive
un
its,
in
un
dat
ion
ext
ent,
wat
er d
epth
an
d
du
rati
on
an
d s
oci
o-e
con
om
ic s
tati
stic
s. A
no
ther
exa
mp
le o
f
a F
loo
d D
amag
e M
ap i
s p
rese
nte
d b
y V
enk
atac
har
y et
al.
(200
1).
$e
mo
net
ary
loss
es d
ue
to c
rop
dam
age
wer
e es
ti-
mat
ed w
ith
th
e h
elp
of
a F
loo
d D
amag
e M
ap c
om
po
sed
of
lan
du
se/l
and
cove
r, a
dm
inis
trat
ive
bo
un
dar
ies,
agr
icu
ltu
ral
stat
isti
cs a
nd
in
un
dat
ion
ext
ent
and
du
rati
on
laye
rs. S
imil
ar
app
roac
hes
are
rep
ort
ed b
y $
iek
en e
t al
. (20
06)
and
Sri
vas-
tava
et
al. (
2000
).
Fig
ure
4.
1.6:
JR
C
Flo
od
s P
ort
al
exh
ibit
ing
info
rmat
ion
abo
ut
curr
ent
%o
od
s.
Fig
ure
4.
1.7:
Flo
od
dam
age
po
ten
tial
(av
aila
ble
at
Flo
od
s
Po
rtal
)
39
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4
Fig
ure
4.1
.8:
Maj
or
%o
od
dis
aste
rs i
n E
uro
pe,
195
0-20
05
(ava
ilab
le a
t F
loo
ds
Po
rtal
)F
igu
re 4
.1.9
: $e
Dar
tmo
uth
Flo
od
Ob
serv
ato
ry p
ort
al
Fig
ure
4.1
.10:
Exa
mp
les
of %
oo
d m
aps:
a)
Qu
een
slan
d %
oo
ds,
Dar
thm
ou
th %
oo
d s
up
erim
po
sed
on
Lan
dsa
t 5
($o
mp
son
et a
l., 2
011)
, b):
Flo
od
s in
Ger
man
y 20
13, p
rod
uct
pro
vid
ed
on
th
e D
artm
ou
th p
ort
al
40
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Les
s th
an 1
0 %
of
the
end
-use
rs h
ave
rate
d t
he
pro
du
cts
as
of
low
ben
e't.
No
n-e
nd
-use
rs g
ener
ally
hav
e gi
ven
sli
ghtl
y
low
er r
atin
gs e
spec
iall
y fo
r o
per
atio
nal
ben
e"t.
$e
stra
-
teg
ic b
ene"
ts o
f al
l %
oo
d p
rod
uct
s h
ave
bee
n e
stim
ated
as
hig
hly
rel
evan
t b
y th
e va
st m
ajo
rity
of
end
-use
rs.
Flo
od R
isk M
ap
Co
nsi
der
ing
the
op
erat
ion
al b
ene"
ts,
mo
re t
han
90
% o
f
end
-use
rs a
nd
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
lik
e h
ave
att
rib
ute
d a
hig
h
ben
e't
of
this
pro
du
ct w
ith
reg
ard
to
th
e cr
itic
al i
nfr
ast
ruc-
ture
, wh
ich
is in
dee
d m
ost
a&
ecte
d b
y %
oo
ds
(Fig
ure
s 4.
1.11
;
4.1.
12).
Mo
re t
han
70
% o
f th
e en
d-u
sers
eva
luat
ed F
loo
d
Ris
k M
aps
as h
igh
ly b
ene'
cial
als
o f
or
hu
man
itar
ian
aid
.
Ap
art
fro
m c
riti
cal
infr
astr
uct
ure
, b
ene'
ts t
o o
ther
op
era-
tio
nal
issu
es s
core
d d
isti
nct
ly lo
wer
in
th
e ap
pra
isal
by
no
n-
end
-use
rs.
Reg
ard
ing
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts,
the
end
-use
rs f
ou
nd
Flo
od
Ris
k M
app
ing
to b
e h
igh
ly b
ene'
cial
to
in
crea
se t
he
e#-
cien
cy o
f p
lan
s an
d p
oli
cies
(>
70 %
), t
o s
upp
ort
prev
enti
ve
stra
tegi
es a
nd
to
red
uce
los
ses
in p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(>60
%,
re-
spec
tive
ly)
(Fig
ure
4.1
.13)
. H
ere,
th
e ap
pra
isal
by
no
n-e
nd
-
use
rs f
oll
ow
ed a
sim
ilar
pat
tern
(F
igu
re 4
.1.1
4).
Reg
ard
ing
the
crit
ical
ity
of
spec
i"c
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res
(Fig
-
ure
4.1
.15)
, en
d-u
sers
hav
e in
dic
ated
th
emat
ic c
onte
nt
and
spat
ial
reso
luti
on a
s th
e m
ost
cri
tica
l fe
atu
res.
$is
is
no
t
surp
risi
ng
as t
he
them
atic
con
ten
t re
%ec
ts t
he
qu
alit
y o
f ri
sk
info
rmat
ion
, an
d s
pati
al r
esol
uti
on t
he
spat
ial
pre
cisi
on
of
Flo
od
Ris
k M
aps.
In
co
mp
aris
on
, n
on
-en
d-u
sers
ass
ign
ed
a h
igh
er i
mp
ort
ance
to
are
al c
over
age
and
acc
ess
(Fig
ure
4.1.
16).
Fig
ure
4.1
.12:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap (
non
- en
d-u
ser
appr
aisa
l)
Fig
ure
4.1
.14:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap (
no
n-e
nd
-use
r ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.16:
C
riti
cali
ty o
f sp
eci'
c fe
atu
res
of
Flo
od
Ris
k M
ap (
no
n-e
nd
-
use
r ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.11:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f F
loo
d R
isk
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.1
.13:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f F
loo
d R
isk
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.1
.15:
C
riti
calit
y of
sp
eci'
c fe
atu
res
of F
loo
d R
isk
Map
(en
d-u
ser
ap-
pra
isal
)
41
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
lood R
isk M
onitoring S
yste
m
Am
on
g th
e o
per
atio
nal
b
ene"
ts,
end
-use
rs
eval
uat
ed
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g as
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al a
gain
fo
r cr
itic
al
infr
ast
ruct
ure
(>
70 %
), b
ut
even
mo
re s
o f
or
hu
man
itar
ian
aid
(n
earl
y 80
%),
pro
bab
ly r
e%ec
tin
g th
e im
po
rtan
ce o
f u
p-
to-d
ate
risk
in
form
atio
n f
or
the
logi
stic
s o
f h
um
anit
aria
n
sup
po
rt (
Fig
ure
4.1
.17)
. $
e p
atte
rn o
f th
e n
on
-en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al w
as s
imil
ar, w
ith
a g
ener
al t
ren
d to
dis
tin
ctly
low
er
sco
res
(Fig
ure
4.1
.18)
.
Reg
ard
ing
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts,
it i
s n
ot
surp
risi
ng
that
en
d-
use
rs a
ckn
ow
led
ged
th
e h
igh
ben
e't
of
up
-to
-dat
e ri
sk i
n-
form
atio
n fo
r th
e su
ppor
t of
pre
ven
tive
str
ateg
ies
(>70
%),
for
the
e"ci
ency
of
plan
s an
d p
olic
ies
(>60
%),
an
d f
or
red
uci
ng
loss
es i
n p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(>50
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
.19)
. Aga
in, t
he
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs’
app
rais
al f
oll
ow
s a
sim
ilar
pat
tern
, w
ith
a
tren
d t
o lo
wer
sco
res
(Fig
ure
4.1
.20)
.
$e
end
-use
r re
sult
s fo
r th
e cr
itic
alit
y o
f sp
eci"
c p
rod
uct
feat
ure
s gi
ve e
mp
has
is t
o a
cces
s, a
ccu
racy
, ar
eal
cove
rage
,
them
atic
con
ten
t, a
nd
upd
ate
freq
uen
cy a
s h
igh
ly c
riti
cal f
ea-
ture
s (>
60 %
) (F
igu
re 4
.1.2
1), w
her
eas
the
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs fo
-
cus
on
acc
ura
cy,
upd
ate
freq
uen
cy,
acce
ss a
nd
are
al c
over
age
(>60
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
.22)
. Di&
erin
g fr
om
th
e F
loo
d R
isk
Map
resu
lts,
bo
th g
rou
ps
saw
a h
igh
er c
riti
cali
ty o
f u
pdat
e fr
e-
quen
cy w
hic
h i
s to
be
exp
ecte
d f
or
a m
on
ito
rin
g sy
stem
.
Fig
ure
4.1
.18:
O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Flo
od
Ris
k M
onit
orin
g Sy
stem
(n
on-
end
-use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.1
.20:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f Flo
od R
isk
Mon
itori
ng
Syst
em (
non
-en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.17:
O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Flo
od
Ris
k M
onit
orin
g Sy
stem
(en
d-
use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.1
.19:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.22:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f F
loo
d R
isk
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Sys-
tem
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.21:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f F
loo
d R
isk
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Sys-
tem
(en
d-u
sers
)
42
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Inundation M
ap
Sim
ilar
to
th
e re
sult
s fo
r F
loo
d R
isk
Map
pin
g an
d M
on
i-
tori
ng,
en
d-u
sers
att
rib
ute
d a
hig
h o
per
atio
nal
ben
e"t
of
Inu
nd
atio
n M
aps
to c
riti
cal i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
(n
earl
y 80
%)
and
hu
man
itar
ian
aid
(>
70 %
) (F
igu
re 4
.1.2
3).
$e
no
n-e
nd
-
use
rs c
on
'rm
ed t
his
eva
luat
ion
, ag
ain
wit
h a
tre
nd
to
lo
-
wer
sco
res
(Fig
ure
4.1
.24)
. In
co
ntr
ast
to t
he
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs’
eval
uat
ion
, th
e en
d-u
sers
gav
e m
ore
em
ph
asis
to
th
e b
ene'
t
for
secu
rity
(n
earl
y 60
%),
pro
bab
ly d
ue
to t
hei
r cl
ose
r in
-
volv
emen
t in
em
erge
ncy
sit
uat
ion
s.
In t
he
end
-use
r ap
pra
isal
of
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts,
Inu
nd
atio
n
Map
s sc
ore
d a
s h
igh
ly b
ene'
cial
esp
ecia
lly
for
supp
ort
of
prev
enti
ve s
trat
egie
s (s
ligh
tly
abo
ve 8
0 %
) an
d r
edu
cin
g lo
sses
in p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(>70
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
.25)
. It
can
be
assu
med
that
th
e h
igh
val
ue
attr
ibu
ted
to
In
un
dat
ion
Map
s fo
r th
e
supp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s, i
.e.
ou
tsid
e an
act
ual
em
er-
gen
cy s
itu
atio
n,
is d
ue
to t
he
info
rmat
ion
th
at t
hes
e m
aps
can
pro
vid
e al
so i
n t
he
po
st-e
mer
gen
cy p
has
e, e
.g.
for
the
vali
dat
ion
of
%o
od
sim
ula
tio
n m
od
els.
$is
ass
et w
as n
ot
con
'rm
ed b
y th
e n
on
-en
d-u
sers
wh
o g
ave
gen
eral
ly l
ow
er
app
rais
al r
esu
lts
(Fig
ure
4.1
.26)
.
Reg
ard
ing
the
crit
ical
ity
of
spec
i"c
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res,
th
e
maj
or
con
cern
of
end
-use
rs w
as a
bo
ut
them
atic
con
ten
t
(80
% f
or
hig
hly
cri
tica
l), f
oll
ow
ed b
y ac
cura
cy a
nd
are
al c
o-
vera
ge (
bo
th >
70 %
) (F
igu
re 4
.1.2
7).
$e
pri
ori
ty g
iven
to
them
atic
con
ten
t p
rob
ably
ref
ers
to t
he
com
ple
ten
ess
of
in-
form
atio
n s
ho
wn
in
th
e re
spec
tive
Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
s (T
able
4.1.
3) w
hic
h i
ncl
ud
es a
to
po
grap
hic
bas
e m
ap a
nd
in
dic
a-
tio
n o
f w
ater
dep
th.
Sim
ilar
to
th
e en
d-u
sers
, th
e n
on
-en
d-
use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.1
.28)
ass
esse
d t
imel
ines
s o
f th
e p
rod
uct
as
hig
hly
cri
tica
l (>
60 %
), w
hic
h is
to
be
exp
ecte
d f
or
use
in a
n
imm
edia
te e
mer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
n,
bu
t n
on
-en
d-u
sers
gav
e a
dis
tin
ctly
low
er a
sses
smen
t fo
r th
e cr
itic
alit
y o
f d
ata
form
at,
app
aren
tly
no
t ta
kin
g in
to a
cco
un
t th
e o
per
atio
nal
nee
ds
for
dat
a ex
chan
ge.
Fig
ure
4.1
.24:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f In
un
dat
ion
Map
(n
on-e
nd
-use
r ap
prai
sal)
Fig
ure
4.1
.26:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f In
un
dat
ion
Map
( n
on-e
nd
-use
r ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.28:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f In
un
dat
ion
Map
(n
on
-en
d-
use
r ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.23:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f In
un
dat
ion
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.1
.25:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f In
un
dat
ion
Map
( e
nd
-use
r ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.27:
C
riti
cali
ty o
f sp
eci'
c fe
atu
res
of
Inu
nd
atio
n M
ap (
end
-use
r
app
rais
al)
43
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
lood D
am
age A
ssessm
ent
Map
Wit
h r
egar
d t
o o
per
atio
nal
ben
e"ts
, en
d-u
sers
eva
luat
ed
the
pro
du
ct a
s h
igh
ly b
ene'
cial
mai
nly
fo
r cr
itic
al i
nfr
a-
stru
ctu
re (
>80
%),
an
d a
lso
fo
r h
um
anit
aria
n a
id (
>70
%)
and
hea
lth
car
e (n
earl
y 60
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
.29)
. $
e re
lati
vely
hig
h s
core
fo
r h
ealt
h c
are
cou
ld r
e%ec
t th
e u
sefu
lnes
s o
f in
-
form
atio
n o
n t
he
dis
trib
uti
on
of
dam
age
for
mo
re e
#ci
ent
org
aniz
atio
n o
f m
edic
al a
ssis
tan
ce d
uri
ng
and
a>
er a
%o
o-
din
g em
erge
ncy
. $
ese
pri
ori
ties
wer
e co
n'
rmed
by
the
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs w
ith
gen
eral
ly lo
wer
sco
res
(Fig
ure
4.1
.30)
.
As
to t
he
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts o
f th
e p
rod
uct
, th
e en
d-u
sers
’
app
rais
al g
ave
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
s es
pec
iall
y fo
r e"
cien
cy
of p
lan
s an
d p
olic
ies
and
red
uci
ng
loss
es i
n p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(bo
th >
60 %
) (F
igu
re 4
.1.3
1). I
n a
dd
itio
n, t
he
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs
also
hig
hli
ghte
d t
he
supp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s (F
igu
re
4.1.
32),
pro
bab
ly a
ssu
min
g a
hig
her
po
ten
tial
of
dam
age
in-
form
atio
n f
rom
pre
vio
us
dis
aste
rs fo
r o
pti
miz
ing
pre
ven
tive
mea
sure
s fo
r th
e fu
ture
.
Are
al c
over
age
and
th
emat
ic c
onte
nt
wer
e id
enti
'ed
as
hig
h-
ly c
riti
cal
feat
ure
s b
y th
e en
d u
sers
(b
oth
>70
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1.
33),
fo
llo
wed
by
acce
ss,
spat
ial
reso
luti
on,
tim
elin
ess
and
accu
racy
(>
60 %
). H
igh
cri
tica
lity
of
them
atic
con
ten
t sc
ore
d
even
hig
her
in t
he
app
rais
al b
y n
on
-en
d-u
sers
(n
earl
y 80
%)
(Fig
ure
4.1
.34)
, w
ho
are
per
hap
s ev
en m
ore
aw
are
of
the
met
ho
dic
al p
rob
lem
s in
der
ivin
g d
amag
e in
form
atio
n f
rom
avai
lab
le s
pat
ial d
ata
in a
n e
mer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
n.
Fig
ure
4.1
.30:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f F
loo
d D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
ap
(no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
Figu
re 4
.1.3
2: S
trat
egic
Ben
e'ts
of F
lood
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent M
ap (n
on-e
nd-
user
s)
Fig
ure
4.1
.34:
C
riti
cali
ty o
f sp
eci'
c fe
atu
res
of
Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.29:
O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.1
.31:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent M
ap (
end
-use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.1
.33:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f F
loo
d D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t
Map
(en
d-u
sers
)
44
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 4.2
E
art
hq
uake r
isk a
naly
sis
an
d
dam
ag
e a
ssessm
en
t
Ale
ssan
dro
Dem
arch
i an
d A
nn
a F
acel
lo
Sei
smic
ph
eno
men
a d
o n
ot
alw
ays
trig
ger
dis
aste
rs;
for
ex-
amp
le a
po
wer
ful
eart
hq
uak
e in
an
un
po
pu
late
d a
rea
is n
ot
a d
isas
ter,
wh
ile
a w
eak
ear
thq
uak
e w
hic
h h
its
an u
rban
are
a
wit
h b
uil
din
gs n
ot
con
stru
cted
to
wit
hst
and
ear
thq
uak
es,
can
cau
se g
reat
mis
ery
(Sch
wie
ger
et a
l., 2
006)
.
$e
Un
ited
Sta
tes
Fed
eral
Em
erge
ncy
Man
agem
ent
Age
ncy
(FE
MA
) d
e'n
es s
eism
ic r
isk
as
“th
e h
arm
or
loss
es t
hat
are
lik
ely
to r
esu
lt f
rom
exp
osu
re t
o s
eism
ic h
azar
ds.
$ey
are
usu
ally
mea
sure
d i
n t
erm
s o
f ex
pec
ted
cas
ual
ties
(fa
tali
ties
and
in
juri
es),
dir
ect
eco
no
mic
lo
sses
(re
pai
r an
d r
epla
ce-
men
t co
sts)
, an
d i
nd
irec
t ec
on
om
ic lo
sses
(in
com
e lo
st d
ur-
ing
do
wn
tim
e re
sult
ing
fro
m d
amag
e to
pri
vate
pro
per
ty o
r
pu
bli
c in
fras
tru
ctu
re)”
. A
cco
rdin
g to
Rei
ter
(199
1),
a se
is-
mic
haz
ard
is
the
pro
bab
le o
r p
oss
ible
occ
urr
ence
of
eart
h-
qu
ake-
rela
ted
nat
ura
l p
hen
om
ena
such
as
gro
un
d-s
hak
ing,
fau
lt r
up
ture
or
soil
liq
uef
acti
on
(F
igu
re 4
.2.1
), w
hil
e ac
-
cord
ing
to U
NIS
DR
(20
09a)
, vu
lner
abil
ity
is u
nd
erst
oo
d a
s
“th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s an
d c
ircu
mst
ance
s o
f a
com
mu
nit
y, s
ys-
tem
or
asse
t th
at m
ake
it s
usc
epti
ble
to
th
e d
amag
ing
e&ec
ts
of
a h
azar
d”.
Mo
reo
ver,
as
rep
ort
ed i
n t
he
EN
SUR
E P
roje
ct
(201
0a),
“th
e vu
lner
abil
ity
of
a sy
stem
rel
ates
to
its
cap
acit
y
to b
e h
arm
ed b
y a
thre
at. V
uln
erab
ilit
y ca
n b
e se
en a
s an
in-
tern
al p
rop
erty
of
a sy
stem
”. In
ad
dit
ion
, vu
lner
abil
ity
cou
ld
be
un
der
sto
od
as
a “…
wh
ole
wh
ich
has
sev
eral
fac
ets.
Eac
h
face
t is
in
trin
sica
lly
rela
ted
to
eve
ry o
ther
fac
et”
(EN
SUR
E
Pro
ject
, 201
0b).
Am
on
g th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t co
mp
on
ents
of
vuln
erab
ilit
y ar
e p
hys
ical
vu
lner
abil
ity,
so
cio
-dem
ogr
aph
ic
vuln
erab
ilit
y, e
con
om
ic v
uln
erab
ilit
y an
d t
he
po
liti
cal/
inst
i-
tuti
on
al/c
ult
ura
l vu
lner
abil
ity.
Geo
info
rmat
ion
to
ols
are
mo
stly
em
plo
yed
in
ph
ysic
al a
s-
pec
ts o
f vu
lner
abil
ity,
wh
ich
as
Ku
nd
ak (
2010
) st
ates
, is
the
susc
epti
bil
ity
of
all k
ind
s o
f h
um
an-m
ade
stru
ctu
res
such
as
bu
ild
ings
, ro
ads,
in
fras
tru
ctu
res,
an
d w
hic
h c
an b
e li
sted
in
mo
re d
etai
l in
su
b-c
ateg
ori
es s
uch
as:
Urb
an fa
bric
vu
lner
abil
ity:
sei
smic
ris
k in
an
urb
an a
rea
is c
lose
ly r
elat
ed t
o t
he
stru
ctu
re,
mat
eria
l an
d d
imen
-
sio
ns
of
bu
ild
ings
an
d t
hei
r sp
atia
l d
istr
ibu
tio
n;
thu
s
a b
uil
din
g in
ven
tory
is
the
pri
mar
y to
ol
to a
sses
s th
is
com
po
nen
t o
f vu
lner
abil
ity.
A b
uil
din
g in
ven
tory
can
be
ob
tain
ed b
y a
'el
d s
urv
ey, b
ut
a la
rge
amo
un
t o
f ti
me
and
e&
ort
is
req
uir
ed w
her
eas
sate
llit
e re
mo
te s
ensi
ng,
wh
ich
can
eas
ily
mo
nit
or
a la
rge
area
, can
pro
vid
e e&
ec-
tive
in
form
atio
n o
n t
he
urb
an f
abri
c (Y
amaz
aki
et a
l.,
2003
).
Infr
ast
ruct
ure
vu
lner
abil
ity
incl
ud
es a
ll c
ruci
al i
nfr
a-
stru
ctu
res
such
as
gas
stat
ion
s, p
ow
er p
lan
ts,
fact
ori
es,
uti
lity
life
lin
es (
tho
se s
yste
ms
com
mo
nly
use
d t
o t
ran
s-
po
rt w
ater
, oil
, nat
ura
l gas
an
d o
ther
mat
eria
l). D
amag
e
to s
om
e o
f th
ese
inst
alla
tio
ns
may
als
o l
ead
to
Nat
u-
ral
Ha
zard
Tri
gger
ing
Tec
hn
olog
ical
Dis
ast
ers
(Nat
ech
)
wh
ich
occ
ur
in r
elat
ion
to
nat
ura
l haz
ard
s an
d d
isas
ters
and
hav
e in
th
e p
ast
resu
lted
in t
he
rele
ase
of
haz
ard
ou
s
sub
stan
ces
lead
ing
to f
atal
itie
s, i
nju
ries
, en
viro
nm
en-
tal
po
llu
tio
n a
nd
eco
no
mic
lo
sses
($
eile
n-W
illi
ge e
t
al.,
2011
). I
n a
dd
itio
n, o
ne
of
the
pri
nci
pal
pro
ble
ms
of
mo
st N
atec
h a
ccid
ents
is
the
sim
ult
aneo
us
occ
urr
ence
of
a n
atu
ral
dis
aste
r an
d a
tec
hn
olo
gica
l ac
cid
ent,
bo
th
of
wh
ich
req
uir
e si
mu
ltan
eou
s re
spo
nse
e&
ort
s in
a
situ
atio
n i
n w
hic
h l
ifel
ines
nee
ded
fo
r d
isas
ter
mit
iga-
tio
n a
re l
ikel
y to
be
un
avai
lab
le (
$ei
len
-Wil
lige
et
al.,
2011
).
Fu
nct
ion
al v
uln
erab
ilit
y ad
dre
sses
th
e vu
lner
abil
ity
of
stra
tegi
c u
rban
fu
nct
ion
s, s
uch
as
ho
spit
als,
're
sta
-
tio
ns,
po
lice
sta
tio
ns,
wh
ich
may
be
loca
ted
in
in
ap-
pro
pri
ate
area
s, p
ron
e to
ear
thq
uak
e h
azar
d,
and
th
us
can
no
t o
per
ate
app
rop
riat
ely
in t
he
case
of
a d
isas
ter.
Fig
ure
4.2
.1:
Rel
atio
ns
bet
wee
n e
arth
qu
akes
an
d p
oss
ible
trig
gere
d h
azar
ds
(Tu
rk a
nd
Gu
mu
say,
200
8)
In t
he
asse
ssm
ent
of
seis
mic
ris
k, o
ne
of
the
'rs
t st
eps
is t
he
real
izat
ion
of a
n e
arth
qu
ake
haz
ard
s zo
nat
ion
, wh
ich
iden
ti-
'es
sit
es m
ore
su
scep
tib
le t
o e
arth
qu
ake
dam
age
and
rel
ated
seco
nd
ary
e&ec
ts d
ue
to l
oca
l si
te c
on
dit
ion
s ($
eile
n-W
il-
lige
et
al.,
2011
). I
n p
arti
cula
r, G
IS i
nte
grat
ed w
ith
rem
ote
sen
sin
g d
ata
and
geo
dat
a an
alys
is c
an b
e u
sed
to
vis
ual
ize
fact
ors
th
at a
re r
elat
ed t
o t
he
occ
urr
ence
of
hig
her
ear
th-
qu
ake
sho
ck a
nd
/or
eart
hq
uak
e in
du
ced
sec
on
dar
y e&
ects
($ei
len
-Wil
lige
at
al.,
2011
). M
ore
ove
r, G
ISs
pla
y a
fun
da-
men
tal r
ole
in
th
e h
azar
d e
valu
atio
n p
roce
ss i
nas
mu
ch t
hey
45
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4al
low
th
e re
aliz
atio
n o
f re
fere
nce
d g
eo-d
atab
ases
co
nta
in-
ing
map
s, i
nfo
rmat
ion
an
d s
pat
ial
dat
a la
yers
der
ived
fro
m
sate
llit
e d
ata
and
var
iou
s o
ther
so
urc
es (
e.g.
to
po
grap
hic
,
soil
, ge
olo
gic,
hyd
roge
olo
gic
and
lan
d u
se m
aps)
($
eile
n-
Wil
lige
et
al.,
2011
).
In g
ener
al, c
om
mo
n d
atas
ets
use
d i
n s
eism
ic h
azar
d a
sses
s-
men
t ar
e:
Seis
mic
ha
zard
zon
atio
n:
as s
tate
d a
bo
ve,
the
seis
mic
haz
ard
co
uld
be
asse
ssed
by
eval
uat
ing
po
ssib
le e
arth
-
qu
ake-
rela
ted
n
atu
ral
ph
eno
men
a su
ch
as
gro
un
d-
shak
ing,
fau
lt r
up
ture
, an
d s
oil
liq
uef
acti
on
. $
e m
ost
rele
van
t o
f th
ese
is g
rou
nd
-sh
akin
g w
hic
h p
red
om
i-
nan
tly
dep
end
s o
n f
acto
rs s
uch
as
the
mag
nit
ud
e o
f
the
eart
hq
uak
e, p
rop
erti
es o
f th
e fa
ult
pla
ne,
an
d t
he
dis
tan
ce b
etw
een
th
e fa
ult
an
d l
oca
l ge
olo
gic
stru
c-
ture
s ($
eile
n-W
illi
ge e
t al
., 20
11).
Gro
un
d-s
hak
ing
is
mea
sure
d u
sin
g th
e P
eak
Gro
un
d A
ccel
erat
ion
(P
GA
),
wh
ich
in
dic
ates
th
e m
agn
itu
de
of
the
shak
ing
a>er
an
eart
hq
uak
e, o
r th
e Sp
ectr
al A
ccel
erat
ion
(SA
), w
hic
h
ind
icat
es t
he
max
imu
m a
ccel
erat
ion
on
an
ob
ject
du
r-
ing
an e
arth
qu
ake.
Mor
phol
ogic
map
: th
e st
eep
est
slo
pes
, ar
eas
wit
h t
he
hig
hes
t cu
rvat
ure
an
d d
epre
ssio
ns
can
be
iden
ti'
ed b
y
par
amet
eriz
ing
Dig
ital
Ele
vati
on
Mo
del
s (D
EM
) o
f th
e
loca
tio
n,
wh
ich
may
be
com
bin
ed w
ith
lit
ho
logi
c an
d
seis
om
ote
cto
nic
in
form
atio
n
in
an
exh
aust
ive
refe
r-
ence
d d
atab
ase
($ei
len
-Wil
lige
et
al.,
2011
).
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, rem
ote
sen
sin
g to
ols
can
su
pp
ort
geo
logi
sts
in
det
ecti
ng
stre
ss i
n t
he
rock
s an
d h
ence
fo
reca
stin
g ar
eas
that
mig
ht
be
sub
ject
to
an
ear
thq
uak
e. I
nte
rfer
om
etri
c Sy
nth
etic
Ap
ertu
re R
adar
(In
SAR
) te
chn
iqu
es b
ased
on
sat
elli
te r
adar
dat
a ca
n m
on
ito
r ev
en v
ery
smal
l ch
ange
s in
th
e te
rrai
n s
ur-
face
th
at m
igh
t in
dic
ate
pre
ssu
re i
n t
he
geo
logi
cal s
tru
ctu
res.
Oth
er s
enso
rs, s
uch
as
hyp
er-s
pec
tral
sp
ace-
bas
ed o
r ai
rbo
rne
scan
ner
s, c
an a
ssis
t to
det
ect
ano
mal
ies
in t
he
envi
ron
men
t,
e.g.
th
erm
al e
mis
sio
ns,
gas
or
oth
er i
nd
icat
ors
th
at p
oin
t to
on
goin
g u
nd
ergr
ou
nd
act
ivit
y (A
ltan
an
d K
emp
er, 2
008)
.
Bes
ides
haz
ard
ass
essm
ent,
geo
info
rmat
ion
to
ols
als
o h
ave
a fu
nd
amen
tal
role
in
th
e as
sess
men
t o
f p
hys
ical
an
d f
un
c-
tio
nal
vu
lner
abil
ity.
Co
mm
on
dat
aset
s u
sed
in
th
e ev
alu
a-
tio
n p
roce
ss a
re:
Mac
rosc
opic
cla
ssi+
cati
on: m
ult
i-sp
ectr
al c
har
acte
rist
ics
of
sate
llit
e im
ages
rev
eal
di&
eren
t re
%ec
tan
ces
of
mat
e-
rial
s o
n t
he
eart
h’s
surf
ace
(Yam
azak
i et
al.,
200
3).
Fo
r
inst
ance
, u
rban
are
as i
n M
etro
Man
ila
wer
e cl
assi
'ed
into
six
lan
d c
ove
r cl
asse
s (c
on
gest
ed,
no
n-c
on
gest
ed,
vege
tati
on
, bar
e gr
ou
nd
, wat
er, a
nd
clo
ud
co
ver)
bas
ed
on
th
e co
mm
on
ly u
sed
No
rmal
ized
Di&
eren
tial
Veg
eta-
tio
n I
nd
ex (
ND
VI)
acq
uir
ed f
rom
Lan
dsa
t sa
tell
ite
dat
a
wit
h g
rou
nd
res
olu
tio
ns
of
30 m
(Y
amaz
aki
et a
l., 2
003;
Yam
azak
i an
d M
atsu
ok
a, 2
006;
see
Fig
ure
4.2
.2).
Mo
re-
ove
r, u
sin
g a
tim
e se
ries
of
sate
llit
e im
ages
, th
e u
rban
area
s ca
n b
e fu
rth
er c
lass
i'ed
acc
ord
ing
to t
he
age
of
bu
ild
ings
(F
igu
re 4
.2.3
), a
nd
th
us
thei
r co
mp
lian
ce w
ith
the
seis
mic
bu
ild
ing
cod
es i
n f
orc
e at
th
e ti
me
of
thei
r
con
stru
ctio
n (
Yam
azak
i an
d M
atsu
ok
a, 2
006)
.
Mic
rosc
opic
urb
an c
lass
i+ca
tion
: bes
ides
a g
ener
al l
and
-
cove
r cl
assi
'ca
tio
n,
hig
h r
eso
luti
on
sat
elli
te i
mag
es a
l-
low
mo
re d
etai
led
an
alys
is. F
or
inst
ance
, fro
m I
KO
NO
S
II s
atel
lite
acq
uis
itio
ns
(gro
un
d r
eso
luti
on
1m
) th
e b
uil
t
envi
ron
men
t in
Old
Man
ila
was
cla
ssi'
ed u
sin
g tw
o in
-
dex
es:
ND
VI
and
th
e u
nif
orm
ity
of
imag
e te
xtu
re i
n a
loca
l ar
ea (
Yam
azak
i et
al.,
200
3). S
pec
i'c
clas
si'
cati
on
resu
lts
are
sho
wn
in
Fig
ure
4.2
.4.
Loc
atio
n o
f vu
lner
able
obj
ects
: ac
cord
ing
to (
$ei
len
-
Wil
lige
et
al.,
2011
), g
eoin
form
atio
n t
oo
ls a
lso
all
ow
the
inte
grat
ion
of
dis
aste
r re
spo
nse
in
stit
uti
on
s su
ch a
s
're
sta
tio
ns,
po
lice
sta
tio
ns,
ho
spit
als
and
dis
aste
r m
an-
agem
ent
cen
tres
. In
par
ticu
lar,
a s
trat
egic
dat
abas
e co
n-
Fig
ure
4.2
.2: E
arth
su
rfac
e cl
assi
'ca
tio
n fo
r M
etro
Man
ila
esti
mat
ed f
rom
Lan
dsa
t im
ages
in 1
972,
199
2 an
d 2
000
(Yam
azak
i
and
Mat
suo
ka,
200
6)
46
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 tain
ing
info
rmat
ion
ab
ou
t th
e ca
pac
itie
s o
f h
osp
ital
s,
're
sta
tio
ns
and
po
lice
sta
tio
ns
(e.g
. in
ter
ms
of
sta&
,
bed
s, e
qu
ipm
ent,
etc
.),
may
be
incl
ud
ed i
n t
he
pro
cess
of
risk
ass
essm
ent
($ei
len
-Wil
lige
et
al.,
2011
).
Loc
atio
n o
f cr
itic
al i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
: a
dat
aset
co
nta
in-
ing
info
rmat
ion
on
in
du
stri
al b
uil
din
gs,
gas
stat
ion
s,
infr
astr
uct
ure
etc
. m
ay b
e in
clu
ded
in
th
e p
roce
ss o
f
risk
ass
essm
ent
thro
ugh
its
in
tegr
atio
n i
n t
he
spec
i'c
Geo
info
rmat
ion
Sys
tem
. A
no
ther
im
po
rtan
t as
pec
t fo
r
emer
gen
cy p
rep
ared
nes
s an
d d
amag
e lo
ss e
stim
atio
n
is t
he
actu
al i
nve
nto
ry o
f la
nd
use
an
d i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
of
ind
ust
rial
fac
ilit
ies,
set
tlem
ents
an
d c
itie
s, i
ncl
ud
ing
age,
str
uct
ure
, typ
e an
d f
un
ctio
ns
of b
uil
din
gs (
$ei
len
-
Wil
lige
et
al.,
2011
).
All
th
ese
dat
aset
s u
sed
in
th
e h
azar
d a
nd
vu
lner
abil
ity
as-
sess
men
t ar
e in
tegr
ated
in
th
e T
ech
nic
al P
ro'
le f
or
an U
r-
ban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
fo
r E
arth
qu
ake
Ris
k A
nal
ysis
sh
ow
n i
n
Tab
le 4
.2.1
.
Fig
ure
4.2
.4: R
esu
lt o
f m
icro
sco
pic
cla
ssi'
cati
on
in O
ld M
a-
nil
a u
sin
g p
an-s
har
pen
ed I
KO
NO
S II
im
age.
Ora
nge
an
d
yell
ow
: den
se a
reas
wit
h l
ow
-ris
e b
uil
din
gs, l
igh
t b
lue:
mid
-
hei
ght
bu
ild
ings
(m
ain
ly c
om
mer
cial
are
as);
blu
e: a
reas
wit
h
larg
e b
uil
din
gs a
nd
oth
ers;
gre
en:
vege
tati
on
are
as (
sou
rce:
Yam
azak
i et
al.,
200
3)
Fig
ure
4.2
.3: D
istr
ibu
tio
n o
f es
tim
ated
bu
ild
ing
ages
for
Me-
tro
Man
ila
by
tim
e-se
ries
an
alys
is (
sou
rce:
Yam
azak
i an
d
Mat
suo
ka,
200
6)
47
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4T
opic
Reg
ion
al v
uln
erab
ilit
y to
eco
no
mic
, en
viro
nm
enta
l, o
r so
cial
im
pac
ts o
f d
rou
ght
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
8 d
rou
ght
vuln
erab
ilit
y cl
asse
s b
ased
on
soci
o-e
con
om
ic d
ata
(su
ch a
s gr
oss
do
mes
tic
pro
du
ct p
er c
apit
a, d
epen
den
ce o
n a
gric
ult
ure
fo
r
inco
me
and
em
plo
ymen
t, t
ota
l an
d r
ura
l po
pu
lati
on
) an
d
bio
ph
ysic
al d
ata
(su
ch a
s la
nd
co
ver,
an
nu
al p
reci
pit
atio
n a
nd
riv
er d
isch
arge
, so
il d
epth
, so
il
deg
rad
atio
n)
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
leN
ot
app
lica
ble
Acc
ura
cyN
ot
app
lica
ble
Are
al
cove
rage
Glo
bal
/Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
0.5°
x 0
.5°
(ave
rage
) fo
r gl
ob
al r
aste
r d
atas
ets
use
d f
or
dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
ind
icat
ors
nat
ion
al a
ggre
gati
on
leve
l fo
r so
cio
eco
no
mic
dat
a
Tim
elin
ess
No
t re
leva
nt
for
vuln
erab
ilit
y as
sess
men
t
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cy2
- 10
yea
rs
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
Map
s an
d v
ecto
r d
atas
ets
(OG
C s
tan
dar
d)
App
rais
al re
sults
Op
erat
ion
al b
ene"
ts o
f an
Urb
an C
lass
i'ca
tio
n w
ere
gen
-
eral
ly a
sses
sed
as
hig
h b
y m
ore
th
an 5
5 %
of
the
end
-use
rs
(Fig
ure
4.2
.5),
wit
h a
sco
re o
f 90
% f
or
the
man
agem
ent
of
crit
ical
in
fra
stru
ctu
re,
and
th
e o
ther
10
% w
ith
a m
ediu
m
ben
e't
sco
re. I
nd
eed
, dam
age
to c
riti
cal
infr
astr
uct
ure
may
lead
to
oth
er a
ccid
ents
(so
-cal
led
Nat
ech
acc
iden
ts)
in t
he
a>er
mat
h o
f se
ism
ic w
aves
. $
eref
ore
, k
no
win
g th
eir
loca
-
tio
n a
nd
th
e co
mp
osi
tio
n o
f th
e su
rro
un
din
g u
rban
en
vi-
ron
men
t ar
e fu
nd
amen
tal
to t
he
asse
ssm
ent
of
risk
an
d i
ts
red
uct
ion
. A
lso
fo
r h
um
anit
aria
n a
id a
nd
sec
uri
ty,
sect
ors
mo
st i
nvo
lved
in
cas
e o
f a
dis
aste
r, t
he
pro
du
ct w
as e
valu
-
ated
as
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al b
y >
70 %
an
d >
60 %
o
f en
d-u
sers
and
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs, r
esp
ecti
vely
.
Co
mp
arin
g F
igu
res
4.2.
5 an
d 4
.2.6
, it
is n
oti
ceab
le t
hat
no
n-
end
-use
rs r
ated
th
e o
per
atio
nal
ben
e'ts
as
less
th
an e
nd
-us-
ers.
$is
is p
arti
cula
rly
tru
e fo
r h
ealt
h c
are.
Ben
e'ts
fo
r cr
iti-
cal i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
, ho
wev
er w
ere
also
rat
ed a
s h
igh
by
nea
rly
90 %
of
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs, p
rob
ably
du
e to
th
e sa
me
reas
on
s as
stat
ed a
bo
ve.
Ap
par
entl
y, e
nd
-use
rs a
nd
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
lik
e as
crib
e a
hig
h b
ene'
t o
f ri
sk a
nal
ysis
in
ad
van
ce o
f an
act
ual
ear
th-
qu
ake
dis
aste
r in
an
urb
an e
nvi
ron
men
t to
th
e m
ain
ten
ance
of c
riti
cal i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
in t
he
cou
rse
of e
mer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se
acti
viti
es.
En
d-u
sers
co
nsi
der
ed t
he
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts a
s h
igh
ly s
ig-
ni'
can
t (F
igu
re 4
.2.7
), i
n p
arti
cula
r fo
r e"
cien
cy o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s an
d s
upp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s (b
oth
wit
h
>70
%),
foll
ow
ed b
y re
du
cin
g lo
sses
in p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(nea
rly
Tab
le 4
.2.1
: Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
fo
r U
rban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
fo
r E
arth
qu
ake
Ris
k A
nal
ysis
48
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 70 %
). S
upp
ort
of s
upe
rreg
ion
al c
onsi
sten
cy a
nd
coo
pera
tion
regi
ster
ed w
ith
ju
st a
bo
ve 5
0 %
: ea
rth
qu
akes
are
ph
eno
m-
ena
that
gen
eral
ly a
}ic
t re
stri
cted
are
as a
nd
co
nse
qu
entl
y
an U
rban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
may
no
t b
e b
ene'
cial
fo
r la
rge
scal
e
acti
viti
es.
$e
low
er v
alu
e fo
r h
igh
ben
e't
to p
ubl
ic a
ccep
-
tan
ce o
f pla
ns
and
pol
icie
s (<
50 %
) is
pro
bab
ly d
ue
to t
he
fact
that
an
urb
an c
lass
i'ca
tio
n r
epre
sen
ts t
he
bas
e o
n w
hic
h t
o
dev
elo
p a
pp
rop
riat
e in
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s fo
r th
e p
ub
lic.
$er
efo
re,
this
tec
hn
ical
pro
du
ct a
s su
ch m
ay n
ot
imp
rove
pu
bli
c aw
aren
ess
of
risk
s an
d v
uln
erab
ilit
ies
wit
ho
ut
ded
i-
cate
d v
isu
aliz
atio
n p
rod
uct
s fo
r p
ub
lic
dis
sem
inat
ion
.
$e
vast
maj
ori
ty o
f th
e n
on
-en
d-u
sers
gen
eral
ly c
on
'rm
ed
the
stra
tegi
c b
ene'
ts a
pp
rais
al b
y en
d-u
sers
, w
ith
lo
wer
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
s ex
cep
t fo
r su
pp
ort
of
pre
ven
tive
str
at-
egie
s (>
80 %
) an
d p
ub
lic
acce
pta
nce
of
pla
ns
and
po
lici
es
(>60
%)
(Fig
ure
4.2
.8).
Wh
erea
s th
e h
igh
val
ue
of
an u
rban
dat
abas
e fo
r ea
rth
qu
ake
risk
an
alys
is
seem
s se
lf-e
vid
ent
wit
h r
egar
d t
o p
reve
nti
on
su
pp
ort
, th
e n
on
-en
d-u
sers
’ co
m-
par
ativ
ely
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
fo
r p
ub
lic
acce
pta
nce
of
pla
ns
and
po
lici
es m
ay r
e%ec
t a
less
cri
tica
l vi
ew o
n t
he
nee
ds
for
ded
icat
ed p
ub
lic
awar
enes
s ra
isin
g.
Reg
ard
ing
the
crit
ical
ity
of
spec
i"c
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res
(Fig
-
ure
4.2
.9),
acc
ess
(wh
ich
is
up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
)
is r
ank
ed a
s h
igh
ly c
riti
cal
by
mo
re t
han
60
% o
f en
d-u
s-
ers,
fo
llo
wed
by
spat
ial
reso
luti
on,
area
l co
vera
ge,
accu
racy
(wh
ich
ref
ers
to g
eom
etri
c ac
cura
cy)
and
th
emat
ic c
onte
nt
wit
h a
bo
ut
5 %
lo
wer
sco
re.
By
con
tras
t, s
cale
an
d d
ata
for
-
mat
wer
e co
nsi
der
ed a
s le
ss c
riti
cal.
Dat
a f
orm
at a
nd
upd
ate
freq
uen
cy w
ere
eval
uat
ed a
s o
f ve
ry
low
cri
tica
lity
by
the
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs, w
ith
on
ly a
rou
nd
20
%
of
resp
on
den
ts r
atin
g th
em a
s h
igh
ly c
riti
cal (
Fig
ure
4.2
.10)
.
&em
atic
con
ten
t an
d a
cces
s w
ere
asse
ssed
by
end
-use
rs a
s
the
mo
st c
riti
cal
feat
ure
s. N
ever
thel
ess,
so
me
resp
on
den
ts
com
men
ted
th
at m
ore
sp
eci'
c vu
lner
abil
ity
par
amet
ers
of
bu
ilt-
up
are
as (
e.g.
mat
eria
ls u
sed
, n
um
ber
of
%o
ors
, an
d
tech
nic
al c
od
e va
lues
on
ear
thq
uak
e re
sist
ance
) sh
ou
ld a
lso
be
incl
ud
ed. A
ccu
racy
an
d a
real
cov
erag
e, w
hic
h a
re i
mp
or-
tan
t is
sues
fo
r th
emat
ic m
aps,
wer
e co
nsi
der
ed b
y th
e m
a-
jori
ty o
f re
spo
nd
ents
as
hig
hly
cri
tica
l, w
hil
e th
e re
spo
nse
was
les
s si
gni'
can
t fo
r sp
atia
l re
solu
tion
an
d s
cale
. In
par
-
ticu
lar,
so
me
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
lso
co
mm
ente
d t
hat
a s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
of
5 m
is n
ot
su#
cien
t fo
r ev
acu
atio
n r
ou
tin
g an
d
for
iden
tify
ing
acce
ss t
o o
pen
sp
ace.
49
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.2.6
: O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Urb
an C
lass
i'ca
tio
n
for
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.2
.9: C
riti
cali
ty o
f sp
eci'
c fe
atu
res
of
Urb
an C
lass
i-
'ca
tio
n f
or
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
end
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.2
.5:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f U
rban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
for
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
end
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.2
.8:
Stra
tegi
c B
ene'
ts o
f U
rban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
fo
r
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.2
.7:
Stra
tegi
c B
ene'
ts o
f U
rban
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
fo
r
Ear
thq
uak
e R
isk
An
alys
is (
end
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.2
.10:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f U
rban
Cla
s-
si'
cati
on
fo
r E
arth
qu
ake
Ris
k A
nal
ysis
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
ap
-
pra
isal
)
50
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Dam
age
asse
ssm
ent i
nvo
lves
det
erm
inin
g th
e ex
ten
t of d
am-
age
to l
ife,
pro
per
ty a
nd
th
e en
viro
nm
ent
resu
ltin
g fr
om
a
dis
aste
r. E
arth
qu
akes
can
cau
se s
ever
e d
amag
e to
bu
ild
ings
and
in
fras
tru
ctu
re a
nd
mas
sive
lo
ss o
f h
um
an l
ife.
Fo
r th
is
reas
on
, it
is
imp
ort
ant
for
emer
gen
cy m
anag
emen
t an
d r
e-
cove
ry w
ork
to
cap
ture
th
e d
amag
e d
istr
ibu
tio
n im
med
iate
-
ly a
>er
th
e d
isas
ter
even
t in
ord
er t
o p
rio
riti
ze r
elie
f e&
ort
s.
In r
ecen
t ye
ars,
rem
ote
sen
sin
g te
chn
olo
gy
has
in
crea
sin
gly
bee
n r
eco
gniz
ed a
s a
valu
able
po
st-e
arth
qu
ake
dam
age
as-
sess
men
t to
ol.
Rec
ent
stu
die
s p
erfo
rmed
by
rese
arch
tea
ms
in t
he
Un
ited
Sta
tes,
Jap
an a
nd
Eu
rop
e h
ave
dem
on
stra
ted
that
bu
ild
ing
dam
age
sust
ain
ed i
n u
rban
en
viro
nm
ents
can
be
read
ily
eval
uat
ed t
hro
ugh
th
e an
alys
is o
f o
pti
cal a
nd
Syn
-
thet
ic A
per
ture
Rad
ar (
SAR
) im
ager
y (A
dam
s et
al.,
200
4).
A D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
ap g
ener
ated
in
th
is w
ay w
ill
dis
-
pla
y an
d h
igh
ligh
t th
e d
amag
e to
bu
ild
ings
an
d i
nfr
astr
uc-
ture
an
d a
llo
w t
he
de'
nit
ion
of
road
acc
essi
bil
ity.
On
e o
f
the
'rs
t st
eps
is t
he
iden
ti'
cati
on
of
the
spat
ial
dis
trib
uti
on
of
stru
ctu
ral
dam
age
by
com
par
iso
n w
ith
th
e si
tuat
ion
be-
fore
th
e ev
ent
(Fig
ure
4.2
.11)
. U
sual
ly,
the
dam
age
asse
ss-
men
t p
roce
ss d
ivid
es t
he
a&ec
ted
are
a in
to d
i&er
ent
clas
ses
dep
end
ing
up
on
th
e n
atu
re a
nd
in
ten
sity
of
dam
age
(sli
ght,
hea
vy,
coll
apse
d).
$
ere
are
seve
ral
met
ho
ds
avai
lab
le f
or
iden
tify
ing
and
eva
luat
ing
dam
aged
are
as,
the
mo
st f
re-
qu
entl
y u
sed
are
as
foll
ow
s.
A c
om
mo
n a
pp
roac
h i
s b
ased
on
hig
h s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
op
tica
l sa
tell
ite
dat
a e.
g. f
rom
co
mm
erci
al s
atel
lite
s w
ith
a
spat
ial
reso
luti
on
of
the
ord
er o
f 0.
5 m
, th
at c
an a
cqu
ire
im-
ages
in
a f
ew h
ou
rs a
>er
th
e ev
ent.
Po
st-d
isas
ter
imag
ery
is
use
d t
o a
sses
s th
e im
pac
t o
f th
e ea
rth
qu
ake
by
det
ecti
ng
and
enu
mer
atin
g th
e co
llap
sed
bu
ild
ings
an
d i
den
tify
ing
oth
er
a&ec
ted
in
fras
tru
ctu
re, s
uch
as
dam
aged
ro
ads
or
feat
ure
s o
f
inte
rest
(i.e
. tem
po
rary
sh
elte
rs).
In
an
op
erat
ion
al c
on
text
, a
visu
al in
terp
reta
tio
n a
pp
roac
h is
gen
eral
ly a
do
pte
d t
o e
nsu
re
that
res
ult
s ar
e as
rel
iab
le a
s p
oss
ible
. A
sim
ple
dam
age
as-
sess
men
t cl
assi
'ca
tio
n i
s co
nd
uct
ed b
ased
on
th
e E
uro
pea
n
Mac
rose
ism
ic S
cale
(E
MS-
98),
to
dis
pla
y b
uil
din
gs s
ub
ject
to d
i&er
ent
grad
es o
f d
amag
e b
y co
mp
arin
g th
e p
re-
and
po
st-e
ven
t im
ages
(Y
amaz
aki
et a
l., 2
005)
.
In t
he
case
of
the
2003
Bam
Ear
thq
uak
e a
Dam
age
Ass
ess-
men
t M
ap w
as c
reat
ed b
y vi
sual
in
terp
reta
tio
n u
sin
g th
e
hig
h-r
eso
luti
on
sat
elli
te i
mag
es a
cqu
ired
fro
m t
he
Qu
ick
-
Bir
d s
atel
lite
bef
ore
an
d a
>er
th
e ev
ent,
an
d s
ub
seq
uen
tly
a
dam
aged
bu
ild
ing
surv
ey w
as c
arri
ed o
ut.
Co
mp
arin
g p
re
and
po
st-e
ven
t p
an-s
har
pen
ed i
mag
es,
bu
ild
ings
su
rro
un
d-
ed b
y d
ebri
s, p
arti
ally
co
llap
sed
bu
ild
ings
an
d t
ota
lly
col-
lap
sed
bu
ild
ings
wer
e id
enti
fied
an
d c
ateg
ori
zed
as
slig
htly
dam
aged
, h
eavi
ly d
amag
ed a
nd
col
laps
ed (
Yam
azak
i et
al.,
2005
) (F
igu
re 4
.2.1
2).
Fig
ure
4.
2.12
: C
lass
i'ca
tio
n
of
dam
aged
b
uil
din
gs
(EM
S199
8) a
nd
pre
an
d p
ost
vis
ual
in
terp
reta
tio
n (
Yam
aza-
ki
et a
l., 2
005)
An
in
no
vati
ve a
pp
roac
h i
s a
dam
age
det
ecti
on
alg
ori
thm
,
wh
ich
all
ow
s th
e d
eter
min
atio
n o
f th
e lo
cati
on
an
d s
ever
ity
of
po
st-e
arth
qu
ake
bu
ild
ing
dam
age.
It
is b
ased
on
th
e co
m-
par
ativ
e an
alys
is o
f a
mu
lti-
tem
po
ral
seq
uen
ce o
f o
pti
cal
or
SAR
im
ages
, acq
uir
ed b
efo
re a
nd
a>
er a
n e
arth
qu
ake
even
t.
A p
air
of
‘bef
ore
’ an
d ‘a
>er
’ im
ages
are
pre
-pro
cess
ed t
o r
e-
mo
ve g
eom
etri
c er
rors
in
her
ent
in t
he
dat
a, a
nd
all
sce
nes
are
regi
ster
ed i
n a
co
mm
on
co
ord
inat
e sy
stem
. D
epen
din
g
on
th
e se
nso
r re
solu
tio
n,
an a
dd
itio
nal
im
age
pro
cess
ing
step
in
volv
ing
edge
det
ecti
on
an
d t
extu
re a
nal
ysis
may
th
en
be
per
form
ed t
o h
igh
ligh
t fe
atu
res
of
inte
rest
(i.
e. n
on
-dam
-
aged
an
d c
oll
apse
d b
uil
din
gs).
Ch
ange
s b
etw
een
th
e sc
enes
are
then
co
mp
ute
d u
sin
g a
sim
ple
ari
thm
etic
op
erat
or,
su
ch
as t
he
Di#
eren
ce,
Cor
rela
tion
or
Blo
ck C
orre
lati
on.
Dam
age
seve
rity
is
esta
bli
shed
th
rou
gh b
uil
din
g d
amag
e p
ro'
les,
wh
ich
dem
on
stra
te t
he
gen
eral
co
rrel
atio
n b
etw
een
tem
po
-
ral
chan
ges
in t
he
rem
ote
sen
sin
g im
ager
y an
d t
he
exte
nt
of
bu
ild
ing
coll
apse
, as
det
erm
ined
by
'el
d s
urv
ey (
Ad
ams,
2004
).
Fig
ure
4.2
.11:
Exa
mp
le o
f ea
rth
qu
ake
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
in
Bo
um
erd
es, A
lger
ia (
Ad
ams,
200
4)
51
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4
Fig
ure
4.2
.13:
Dam
age
map
s o
f G
olc
uk
cit
y ce
nte
r d
eriv
ed
fro
m S
PO
T s
atel
lite
im
ages
(so
urc
e: A
dam
s, 2
004)
As
des
crib
ed a
bo
ve,
all
the
met
ho
ds
incl
ud
e a
com
par
iso
n
bet
wee
n p
re-a
nd
po
st-e
ven
t im
ages
. $
eref
ore
, it
is
imp
or-
tan
t to
hav
e a
geo
grap
hic
in
form
atio
n s
yste
m t
hat
sto
res
in-
form
atio
n a
nd
sp
atia
l d
ata
(e.g
. to
po
grap
hic
dat
a, g
eolo
gic
and
hyd
roge
olo
gic
dat
a, l
and
use
/lan
d c
ove
r d
ata,
set
tle-
men
ts e
tc.)
as
refe
ren
ce d
ata
in o
rder
to
eva
luat
e su
bse
qu
ent
dam
age
(Ad
ams
et a
l., 2
004;
Tei
mo
uri
et
al.,
2008
).
All
th
is t
hem
atic
co
nte
nt
use
d t
o e
valu
ate
the
spat
ial
dis
tri-
bu
tio
n o
f st
ruct
ura
l d
amag
e is
par
t o
f th
e T
ech
nic
al P
ro'
le
for
an E
arth
qu
ake
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
. $
e sp
eci'
c
feat
ure
s o
f th
is p
rod
uct
are
sh
ow
n i
n T
able
4.2
.2.
Top
icSp
atia
l dis
trib
uti
on
of
stru
ctu
ral d
amag
e d
ue
to e
arth
qu
ake
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
To
po
grap
hic
bas
e m
ap
Dam
age
to b
uil
din
gs d
isag
greg
ated
by
3 cl
asse
s (s
ligh
t, h
eavy
, co
llap
sed
)
Dam
age
to c
riti
cal i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
s
Ro
ad a
cces
sib
ilit
y
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
le1:
500
- 1:
10,0
00
Acc
ura
cy0.
2 m
- 2
m
Are
al
cove
rage
Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
0.5
m -
5 m
Tim
elin
ess
few
ho
urs
a>
er a
n e
mer
gen
cy
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cyN
ot
app
lica
ble
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
Map
s an
d v
ecto
r d
atas
ets
(OG
C s
tan
dar
d)
Tab
le 4
.2.2
: Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
of
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
ap
52
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 App
rais
al re
sults
Co
nce
rnin
g o
per
atio
nal
ben
e"ts
(F
igu
re 4
.2.1
4),
end
-us-
ers
attr
ibu
ted
hig
h b
ene'
t (>
90 %
) to
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
pin
g fo
r h
um
anit
aria
n a
id a
nd
cri
tica
l in
fra
stru
ctu
re
prot
ecti
on,
sect
ors
wh
ich
are
mo
st i
mp
acte
d b
y an
ear
th-
qu
ake.
A h
igh
ben
e't
rati
ng
was
als
o g
iven
wit
h r
egar
d t
o
secu
rity
(>
60 %
) an
d h
ealt
h c
are
(>70
%).
Als
o n
on
-en
d-u
sers
eva
luat
ed t
he
ben
e+ts
for
hu
man
itar
-
ian
aid
an
d c
riti
cal
infr
ast
ruct
ure
as
hig
hes
t, b
ut
wit
h l
ow
er
sco
res
for
all
asp
ects
in
co
mp
aris
on
wit
h e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.2.
15).
En
d-u
sers
an
d n
on
-en
d-u
sers
ali
ke
gave
no
lo
w-
ben
e't
rati
ngs
to
th
e p
rod
uct
wit
h r
egar
d t
o h
um
anit
aria
n
aid
an
d c
riti
cal i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
.
Als
o t
he
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts a
re c
on
sid
ered
hig
hly
rel
evan
t
by
the
vast
maj
ori
ty o
f th
e en
d-u
sers
(F
igu
re 4
.2.1
6), a
pp
ar-
entl
y in
rec
ogn
itio
n o
f th
e fu
ll i
nfo
rmat
ion
po
ten
tial
of
an
emer
gen
cy p
rod
uct
wh
ich
can
ser
ve t
o m
inim
ize
loss
es i
n
the
actu
al e
mer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
n, a
s w
ell a
s to
su
pp
ort
pre
ven
-
tive
rec
on
stru
ctio
n a
nd
mit
igat
ion
pla
ns
in t
he
foll
ow
-on
.
Ind
eed
, ar
ou
nd
70
% o
f en
d-u
sers
ass
ign
ed a
hig
h b
ene'
t
to t
he
pro
du
ct w
ith
reg
ard
to
su
ppor
t of
pre
ven
tive
str
ateg
ies
and
red
uci
ng
loss
es i
n p
ubl
ic e
con
omy,
an
d m
ore
th
an 6
0 %
did
so
fo
r e"
cien
cy o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s. A
sli
ghtl
y le
sser
rati
ng
was
ass
ign
ed w
ith
res
pec
t to
su
ppor
t of
su
perr
egio
n-
al c
onsi
sten
cy a
nd
coo
pera
tion
an
d t
he
publ
ic a
ccep
tan
ce o
f
plan
s an
d p
olic
ies,
wh
ere
the
latt
er w
as e
valu
ated
of
med
ium
ben
e't
by
mo
re t
han
hal
f o
f th
e en
d-u
sers
.
In g
ener
al,
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs c
on
sid
ered
th
e st
rate
gic
ben
e'ts
of
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
s le
ss im
po
rtan
t th
an e
nd
-use
rs.
In p
arti
cula
r, t
he
ben
e'ts
fo
r re
du
cin
g lo
sses
in
pu
blic
eco
no-
my
and
su
ppor
t of
su
perr
egio
nal
con
sist
ency
an
d c
oope
rati
on
wer
e ev
alu
ated
as
less
sig
ni'
can
t, w
ith
an
in
crea
se i
n m
edi-
um
an
d lo
w b
ene'
t sc
ore
s (F
igu
re 4
.2.1
7). E
"ci
ency
of p
lan
s
and
pol
icie
s an
d s
upp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s o
bta
ined
th
e
hig
hes
t b
ene'
t ra
tin
g (a
lmo
st 5
0 %
of
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
s).
Ho
wev
er,
also
in
th
ese
case
s, t
her
e w
as a
n i
ncr
ease
in
th
e
med
ium
ben
e't
asse
ssm
ents
.
Co
nce
rnin
g th
e cr
itic
alit
y o
f sp
eci"
c p
rod
uct
fe
atu
res
(Fig
ure
4.2
.18)
, th
e re
spo
nse
s o
f m
ore
th
an 7
0 %
of
end
-
use
rs r
ated
spa
tial
res
olu
tion
an
d a
ccu
racy
as
the
feat
ure
s o
f
grea
test
im
po
rtan
ce,
foll
ow
ed b
y sc
ale,
are
al c
over
age
(bo
th
>60
% h
igh
cri
tica
lity
), a
cces
s (i
.e.
via
inte
rnet
), t
imel
ines
s
and
th
emat
ic c
onte
nt
(>50
%).
Dat
a f
orm
at w
as c
on
sid
ered
of
seco
nd
ary
imp
ort
ance
.
$e
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs g
ave
a su
bst
anti
ally
di&
eren
t re
spo
nse
to t
he
leve
l o
f cr
itic
alit
ies
com
par
ed w
ith
en
d-u
sers
(F
igu
re
4.2.
19).
$e
feat
ure
s co
nsi
der
ed o
f h
igh
est
imp
ort
ance
wer
e
them
atic
con
ten
t an
d t
imel
ines
s, w
ith
nea
rly
80 %
of
no
n-
end
-use
rs e
valu
atin
g th
em a
s h
igh
ly c
riti
cal.
Acc
ess
to t
he
pro
du
ct w
as t
he
thir
d m
ost
cri
tica
l fea
ture
(>
60 %
). A
low
er
per
cen
tage
of
hig
h c
riti
cali
ty s
core
s, w
ere
attr
ibu
ted
to
ac-
cura
cy (
nea
rly
60%
) an
d s
cale
(>
50 %
). H
igh
cri
tica
lity
of
spat
ial
reso
luti
on a
nd
are
al c
over
age
sco
red
eve
n l
ow
er w
ith
<50
%, a
lth
ou
gh i
n p
arti
cula
r sp
atia
l re
solu
tion
is
a re
leva
nt
asp
ect
for
the
cart
ogr
aph
ic o
utp
ut
and
o>
en m
ay i
n%
uen
ce
the
qu
alit
y o
f th
e m
ap p
rod
uct
s an
d t
he
typ
olo
gy
of t
hem
atic
con
ten
t. D
ata
for
mat
was
th
e fe
atu
re w
ith
th
e le
ast
imp
or-
tan
ce a
lso
to
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs.
53
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.2.1
5: O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e
Ass
essm
ent
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.2
.18:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f E
arth
qu
ake
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
(en
d-u
sers
ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.2
.14:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f E
arth
qu
ake
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
(en
d-u
sers
ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.2
.17:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f E
arth
qu
ake
Dam
age
As-
sess
men
t M
ap (
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.2
.16:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f E
arth
qu
ake
Dam
age
As-
sess
men
t M
ap (
end
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.2
.19:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f E
arth
qu
ake
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
ap
pra
isal
)
54
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 4.3
D
rou
gh
t h
azard
assessm
en
t
Iren
e A
nge
lucc
etti
an
d F
ran
cesc
a P
erez
Art
icle
1 o
f th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
Co
nve
nti
on
to
Co
mb
at
Des
erti
'ca
tio
n(U
NC
CD
)1 de'
nes
dro
ugh
t as
“th
e n
atu
rall
y
occ
urr
ing
ph
eno
men
on
th
at e
xist
s w
hen
pre
cip
itat
ion
has
bee
n s
ign
i'ca
ntl
y b
elo
w n
orm
al r
eco
rded
lev
els,
cau
sin
g
seri
ou
s h
ydro
logi
cal
imb
alan
ces
that
ad
vers
ely
a&ec
t la
nd
reso
urc
e p
rod
uct
ion
sys
tem
s”.
Bey
on
d t
his
gen
eral
de'
nit
ion
, th
ere
are
mo
re s
pec
i'c
way
s
of
un
der
stan
din
g d
rou
ght.
Fo
r ex
amp
le,
a cl
assi
'ca
tio
n o
f
dro
ugh
ts f
rom
a d
isci
pli
ne
per
spec
tive
als
o e
xist
s. $
us,
in
term
s o
f ty
po
logi
es,
dro
ugh
ts a
re c
om
mo
nly
cla
ssi'
ed a
s
met
eoro
logi
cal,
agri
cult
ura
l, h
ydro
logi
cal,
and
so
cio
-eco
-
no
mic
in
ter-
rela
ted
eve
nts
(se
e F
igu
re 4
.3.1
).
In g
ener
al,
the
po
ten
tial
dis
aste
r lo
sses
in
ter
ms
of
live
s,
hea
lth
sta
tus,
liv
elih
oo
ds,
ass
ets
and
ser
vice
s, w
hic
h c
ou
ld
occ
ur
to a
par
ticu
lar
com
mu
nit
y o
r a
soci
ety
ove
r so
me
spe-
ci'
ed f
utu
re t
ime
per
iod
, are
de'
ned
as
dis
ast
er r
isk
(UN
IS-
DR
, 200
9b).
$e
risk
ass
oci
ated
wit
h a
dis
aste
r fo
r an
y re
gio
n
or
gro
up
is
a p
rod
uct
of
the
expo
sure
to
th
e n
atu
ral
haz
ard
and
th
e vu
lner
abil
ity
of
the
soci
ety
to t
he
even
t. $
eref
ore
,
dro
ugh
t ri
sk i
s b
ased
on
a c
om
bin
atio
n o
f th
e fr
equ
ency
,
seve
rity
, an
d s
pat
ial
exte
nt
of
dro
ugh
t ev
ents
(th
e p
hys
ical
nat
ure
of
the
con
sid
ered
haz
ard
) an
d t
he
deg
ree
to w
hic
h a
po
pu
lati
on
or
acti
vity
is
vuln
erab
le t
o t
he
e&ec
ts o
f d
rou
ght
(UN
ISD
R,
2009
b).
$e
deg
ree
of
vuln
erab
ilit
y o
f a
regi
on
dep
end
s o
n t
he
envi
ron
men
tal
and
so
cial
ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f
the
regi
on
an
d i
s m
easu
red
by
the
inh
abit
ants
’ ab
ilit
y to
an
-
tici
pat
e, c
op
e w
ith
, res
ist,
an
d r
eco
ver
fro
m d
rou
ght.
1 h
ttp
://w
ww
.un
ccd
.in
t/en
/ab
ou
t-th
e-co
nve
nti
on
/Pa-
ges/
Tex
t-P
art-
I.as
px
In t
he
foll
ow
ing,
so
me
con
sid
erat
ion
s re
gard
ing
ind
icat
ors
and
in
dic
es d
evel
op
ed t
o i
den
tify
, as
sess
an
d m
ap d
rou
ght
haz
ard
s an
d v
uln
erab
ilit
y ar
e p
rese
nte
d.
$e
freq
uen
cy o
f d
rou
ght
even
ts a
t va
rio
us
leve
ls o
f in
ten
-
sity
an
d d
ura
tio
n d
e'n
es t
he
dro
ugh
t h
aza
rd f
or
the
nat
ion
s
and
reg
ion
s co
nsi
der
ed.
Bec
ause
of
the
com
ple
x d
e'n
itio
n
of
the
ob
serv
ed p
hen
om
ena,
sev
eral
ind
ices
hav
e b
een
dev
e-
lop
ed t
o c
har
acte
rize
th
e m
eteo
rolo
gica
l, so
il m
ois
ture
an
d
hyd
rolo
gica
l as
pec
ts o
f th
e h
azar
d i
n o
rder
to
an
alyz
e th
e
his
tori
cal
freq
uen
cy,
seve
rity
an
d e
xten
t o
f d
rou
ght
even
ts.
Star
tin
g fr
om
th
e in
vest
igat
ion
of
the
his
tori
cal
occ
urr
ence
of
dro
ugh
t in
a c
ou
ntr
y, t
he
mo
st d
rou
ght-
pro
ne
and
ch
ro-
nic
ally
dro
ugh
t-a&
ecte
d a
reas
can
th
en b
e cl
assi
'ed
.
Co
mm
on
ly u
sed
dro
ugh
t h
azar
d i
nd
icat
ors
/in
dic
es i
ncl
ud
e
(IP
CC
, 201
2):
tho
se b
ased
on
ly o
n p
reci
pit
atio
n d
ata,
e.g
. th
e St
and
ard
Pre
cip
itat
ion
In
dex
(SP
I) (
McK
ee e
t al
., 19
93;
Llo
yd-
Hu
ghes
an
d S
aun
der
s, 2
002)
an
d t
he
Co
nse
cuti
ve D
ry
Day
s (C
DD
) in
dex
(F
rich
et
al.,
2002
; A
lexa
nd
er e
t al
.,
2006
);
tho
se t
hat
re%
ect
bo
th p
reci
pit
atio
n a
nd
est
imat
es o
f
actu
al o
r p
ote
nti
al e
vap
otr
ansp
irat
ion
, e.
g. t
he
Pal
mer
Dro
ugh
t S
ever
ity
Ind
ex, P
DSI
, (P
alm
er, 1
965)
, th
e P
re-
cip
itat
ion
Po
ten
tial
Eva
po
rati
on
An
om
aly,
PP
EA
, (B
ur-
ke
and
Bro
wn
, 20
08)
and
th
e St
and
ard
ized
Pre
cip
itat
i-
on
Eva
po
tran
spir
atio
n I
nd
ex, S
PE
I (V
icen
te-S
erra
no
et
al.,
2010
);
soil
m
ois
ture
an
om
alie
s (D
ai,
2011
; O
rlo
wsk
y an
d
Sen
evir
atn
e, 2
011;
Zri
bi
et a
l., 2
012)
an
d v
eget
atio
n-
der
ived
mo
nit
ori
ng
ind
ices
, e.
g. t
he
No
rmal
ized
Di&
e-
ren
ce V
eget
atio
n I
nd
ex,
ND
VI,
(B
ai,
2008
; T
ow
nsh
end
and
Ju
stic
e, 1
986;
Ree
d e
t al
., 19
94;
Just
ice
et a
l., 1
996)
wh
ich
wer
e sp
eci'
call
y co
nce
ived
fo
r th
e as
sess
men
t o
f
agri
cult
ura
l dro
ugh
t.
It s
ho
uld
be
no
ted
th
at m
ost
of
thes
e in
dic
ato
rs/i
nd
ices
may
be
der
ived
fro
m s
atel
lite
-bas
ed d
ata,
fre
qu
entl
y av
aila
ble
glo
bal
ly a
nd
fre
e-o
f-ch
arge
, th
us
allo
win
g p
rop
er d
rou
ght
haz
ard
map
pin
g ac
tivi
ties
.
Peo
ple
’s v
uln
erab
ilit
y to
dro
ugh
t is
co
mp
lex.
$e
Un
ited
Na-
tio
ns
Sec
reta
riat
of
the
Inte
rnat
ion
al S
trat
egy
for
Dis
aste
r
Red
uct
ion
(U
NIS
DR
) d
e'n
es v
uln
erab
ilit
y as
“th
e ch
arac
-
teri
stic
s an
d c
ircu
mst
ance
s o
f a
com
mu
nit
y, s
yste
m o
r as
set
that
mak
e it
su
scep
tib
le to
the
dam
agin
g e&
ects
of a
haz
ard
”2 .
Dro
ugh
t e&
ects
are
su
bst
anti
al in
bo
th d
evel
op
ing
and
dev
e-
lop
ed c
ou
ntr
ies,
bu
t th
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f th
ese
e&ec
ts d
i&er
con
sid
erab
ly.
$e
abil
ity
to c
op
e w
ith
dro
ugh
t al
so v
arie
s
con
sid
erab
ly f
rom
co
un
try
to c
ou
ntr
y an
d f
rom
on
e re
gi-
on
, co
mm
un
ity,
or
gro
up
to
an
oth
er. $
e co
pin
g ca
pac
ity
is
de'
ned
as
“th
e ab
ilit
y o
f p
eop
le, o
rgan
izat
ion
s an
d s
yste
ms,
usi
ng
avai
lab
le s
kil
ls a
nd
res
ou
rces
, to
fac
e an
d m
anag
e ad
-
vers
e co
nd
itio
ns,
em
erge
nci
es o
r d
isas
ters
”3 . In
th
is f
ram
e-
wo
rk, v
uln
erab
ilit
y is
des
crib
ed b
y as
sess
men
t o
f co
nd
itio
ns
of p
eop
le d
eriv
ed f
rom
th
e h
isto
rica
l an
d p
reva
ilin
g cu
ltu
ral,
soci
al, e
nvi
ron
men
tal,
po
liti
cal a
nd
eco
no
mic
co
nte
xts.
Vu
l-
ner
able
gro
up
s ar
e n
ot
on
ly a
t ri
sk b
ecau
se t
hey
are
exp
ose
d
to a
haz
ard
bu
t ar
e al
so s
ub
ject
to
th
e m
argi
nal
ity
of
eve-
ryd
ay p
atte
rns
of
soci
al i
nte
ract
ion
an
d o
rgan
izat
ion
, an
d
acce
ss t
o r
eso
urc
es (
Car
do
na
et a
l., 2
012)
.
Acc
ord
ing
to t
he
rep
ort
in t
he
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s D
evel
op
men
t
Pro
gram
me
(UN
DP,
200
4) V
isio
ns
of
Ris
k: A
Rev
iew
of
In-
tern
atio
nal
In
dic
ato
rs o
f D
isas
ter
Ris
k a
nd
its
Man
agem
ent,
pre
par
ed b
y th
e W
ork
ing
Gro
up
on
Ris
k,
Vu
lner
abil
ity
and
Dis
aste
r Im
pac
t A
sses
smen
t o
f th
e In
ter-
Age
ncy
Tas
k F
orc
e
of
the
Inte
rnat
ion
al S
trat
egy
for
Dis
aste
r R
edu
ctio
n (
ISD
R),
at p
rese
nt
the
asse
ssm
ent
and
map
pin
g o
f h
um
an v
uln
erab
i-
lity
are
less
dev
elo
ped
th
an t
he
asse
ssm
ent
of
haz
ard
s.
2 h
ttp
://w
ww
.un
isd
r.o
rg/e
ng
/ter
min
olo
gy
/UN
ISD
R-
Ter
min
olo
gy-
En
glis
h.p
df
3 h
ttp
://w
ww
.un
isd
r.o
rg/w
e/in
form
/ter
min
olo
gy
55
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4V
uln
erab
ilit
y as
sess
men
ts v
ary
in t
he
bal
ance
bet
wee
n c
on
-
sid
erat
ion
s o
f so
cial
, ec
on
om
ic a
nd
po
liti
cal
char
acte
rist
ics
and
th
e ex
ten
t to
wh
ich
en
viro
nm
enta
l an
d e
colo
gica
l as
-
sets
are
in
clu
ded
. F
or
this
rea
son
, an
d b
ecau
se o
f th
e d
yna-
mic
nat
ure
of
hu
man
vu
lner
abil
ity,
th
e im
ple
men
tati
on
of
a
com
pre
hen
sive
vu
lner
abil
ity
asse
ssm
ent
has
pro
ven
di#
cult
(UN
DP,
200
4).
A g
ener
al a
pp
roac
h p
rop
ose
d b
y th
e U
NIS
DR
to
ass
ess
vul-
ner
abil
ity,
is
bas
ed o
n d
rou
ght
imp
act
asse
ssm
ent
acti
viti
es.
Eac
h d
rou
ght
pro
du
ces
a u
niq
ue
set
of
imp
acts
, d
epen
din
g
no
t o
nly
on
th
e d
rou
ght
seve
rity
, d
ura
tio
n a
nd
sp
atia
l ex
-
ten
t, b
ut
also
on
th
e ev
er c
han
gin
g so
cial
co
nd
itio
ns.
Fo
r
pra
ctic
al p
urp
ose
s, d
rou
ght
imp
acts
can
be
clas
si'
ed a
s
eco
no
mic
, en
viro
nm
enta
l, o
r so
cial
, ev
en t
ho
ugh
sev
eral
of
the
imp
acts
may
act
ual
ly s
pan
mo
re t
han
on
e se
cto
r an
d
are
lin
ked
clo
sely
to
eac
h o
ther
(se
e T
able
s 4.
3.1,
4.3
.2 a
nd
4.3.
3).
$es
e im
pac
ts a
re s
ymp
tom
s o
f u
nd
erly
ing
vuln
era-
bil
itie
s. I
den
ti'
cati
on
an
d p
rio
riti
zati
on
of
dro
ugh
t im
pac
ts
wil
l ra
ise
an i
mp
ort
ant
qu
esti
on
: wh
y h
ave
thes
e si
gni'
can
t
imp
acts
occ
urr
ed o
r w
hy
mig
ht
they
occ
ur?
Map
pin
g th
e
cau
se/e
&ec
t re
lati
on
ship
s o
f su
ch i
mp
acts
hel
ps
to u
nd
er-
stan
d w
her
e th
e tr
igge
rin
g fa
cto
rs a
re, h
ow
th
ese
un
der
lyin
g
fact
ors
in
tera
ct w
ith
eac
h o
ther
at
bo
th m
icro
an
d m
acro
leve
ls,
and
ho
w t
hes
e d
ynam
ics
crea
te v
uln
erab
ilit
y w
ith
in
a so
ciet
y. $
eref
ore
, im
pac
t as
sess
men
ts a
re a
go
od
sta
rtin
g
po
int
in h
elp
ing
to h
igh
ligh
t se
cto
rs, p
op
ula
tio
ns,
or
acti
vi-
ties
th
at a
re v
uln
erab
le t
o d
rou
ght
(UN
ISD
R, 2
009b
).
In g
ener
al, a
n im
pac
t as
sess
men
t is
car
ried
ou
t b
y re
view
ing
the
pas
t o
r cu
rren
t d
rou
ght
reco
rds
and
it
is i
ncl
ud
ed i
n a
mo
re g
ener
al r
isk
ass
essm
ent
pro
ced
ure
, co
mp
risi
ng:
the
anal
ysis
of
the
his
tori
cal f
req
uen
cy, s
ever
ity
and
ex-
ten
t o
f d
rou
ght,
the
iden
ti'
cati
on
an
d r
ank
ing
of
dro
ugh
t-re
late
d i
m-
pac
ts, a
nd
a vu
lner
abil
ity
anal
ysis
to
in
vest
igat
e w
hy
the
imp
acts
occ
ur.
Fig
ure
4.3
.1:
Rel
atio
nsh
ip b
etw
een
met
eoro
logi
cal,
agri
cult
ura
l, h
ydro
logi
cal
and
so
cio
-eco
no
mic
dro
ugh
t (N
atio
nal
Dro
ugh
t M
itig
atio
n C
ente
r, U
niv
ersi
ty o
f N
ebra
ska-
Lin
coln
, USA
)
56
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4D
irec
t Im
pa
cts
Ind
irec
t Im
pa
cts
Co
sts
an
d l
oss
es
to a
gric
ult
ura
l
pro
du
cers
An
nu
al a
nd
per
enn
ial c
rop
loss
es
Dam
age
to c
rop
qu
alit
y
Red
uce
d p
rod
uct
ivit
y o
f cr
op
lan
d,
e.g.
, win
d
ero
sio
n
Inse
ct i
nfe
stat
ion
s
Pla
nt
dis
ease
s
Wil
dli
fe d
amag
e to
cro
ps
Inco
me
loss
to
far
mer
s b
ecau
se o
f re
du
ced
cro
p y
ield
s
Incr
ease
d i
rrig
atio
n c
ost
s
Co
st o
f n
ew o
r su
pp
lem
enta
l wat
er r
eso
urc
e
dev
elo
pm
ent,
e.g
., w
ells
, dam
s an
d p
ipel
ines
Lo
ng-
term
loss
of
org
anic
mat
ter
Lo
ss t
o i
nd
ust
ries
dir
ectl
y d
epen
den
t o
n a
gri-
cult
ura
l pro
du
ctio
n, e
.g.,
foo
d p
roce
sso
rs
Incr
ease
d c
om
mo
dit
y p
rice
s
Co
sts
an
d l
oss
es
to l
ives
tock
pro
du
cers
Red
uce
d p
rod
uct
ivit
y o
f ra
nge
lan
d, a
nim
al
carr
yin
g ca
pac
ity
Incr
ease
d t
rave
l tim
e fo
r gr
azin
g
Dec
reas
ed s
tock
wei
ghts
an
d r
edu
ced
mil
k
pro
du
ctio
n
Incr
ease
d li
vest
ock
dis
ease
s
Clo
sure
/lim
itat
ion
of
pu
bli
c la
nd
s to
gra
zin
g
Ran
ge '
res
Fo
rced
red
uct
ion
of
fou
nd
atio
n s
tock
(se
eds)
Hig
h c
ost
/un
avai
lab
ilit
y o
f fe
ed o
r w
ater
fo
r
live
sto
ck
Red
uct
ion
s in
live
sto
ck m
ark
et p
rice
s
Incr
ease
d f
eed
tra
nsp
ort
atio
n c
ost
s
Dis
rup
tio
n o
f re
pro
du
ctio
n c
ycle
s (d
elay
ed
bre
edin
g, m
ore
mis
carr
iage
s)
Incr
ease
d p
red
atio
n a
nd
po
uch
ing
Co
sts
an
d l
oss
es
to i
nd
ust
ry a
nd
urb
an
act
ivit
ies
Hig
her
co
st o
f w
ater
an
d s
anit
atio
n
Dec
reas
e in
pu
bli
c w
ater
su
pp
lies
Imp
acts
on
tra
nsp
ort
atio
n
Hig
her
co
st/l
ow
er a
vail
abil
ity
of
hyd
ro-
elec
tric
po
wer
Hig
her
co
st o
r u
nav
aila
bil
ity
of
wat
er f
or
ho
rtic
ult
ure
, agr
o-f
oo
d p
roce
ssin
g an
d v
alu
e
add
ed m
anu
fact
uri
ng
Imp
aire
d p
rod
uct
ivit
y o
f fo
rest
lan
d a
nd
red
uce
d t
imb
er p
rod
uct
ion
Incr
ease
d p
oll
uti
on
, e.g
., d
ust
Incr
ease
d d
isea
ses
Red
uct
ion
in
to
uri
sm r
even
ue,
e.g
., w
ild
life
Stra
in o
n '
nan
cial
in
stit
uti
on
s, e
.g.,
grea
ter
cred
it r
isk
s
Tab
le 4
.3.1
: Eco
no
mic
im
pac
ts o
f d
rou
ght
(UN
DP,
201
1)
57
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4D
irec
t Im
pa
cts
Ind
irec
t Im
pa
cts
Hyd
rolo
gica
lL
ow
er w
ater
leve
ls i
n r
eser
voir
s, la
kes
and
po
nd
s
Red
uce
d s
trea
m %
ow
Lo
ss o
f w
etla
nd
s
Incr
ease
d g
rou
nd
wat
er d
eple
tio
n a
nd
lan
d s
ub
sid
ence
Incr
ease
d t
ime
and
co
st f
or
wat
er c
oll
ecti
on
an
d
tran
sfer
Lo
wer
wat
er q
ual
ity,
e.g
., sa
lin
izat
ion
an
d t
emp
era-
ture
in
crea
se
Wat
erb
orn
e d
isea
ses
Win
d a
nd
wat
er e
rosi
on
on
so
ils
Bio
logi
cal
Lo
ss o
f tr
ees
and
veg
etat
ion
Lo
ss o
f an
imal
sp
ecie
s d
iver
sity
Fra
gmen
tati
on
an
d d
estr
uct
ion
of
wil
dli
fe h
abit
ats
Mig
rati
on
, co
nce
ntr
atio
n a
nd
in
crea
sed
pre
dat
ion
Lo
ss o
f b
iod
iver
sity
Tab
le 4
.3.2
: En
viro
nm
enta
l im
pac
ts o
f d
rou
ght
(U
ND
P, 2
011)
Dir
ect
Imp
act
sIn
dir
ect
Imp
act
s
Red
uce
d q
ua
-
lity
of
life
Incr
ease
d w
ork
load
fo
r w
om
en i
n c
oll
-
ecti
ng
fuel
-wo
od
an
d w
ater
Red
uce
d le
vels
an
d v
arie
ty o
f fo
od
sou
rces
Incr
ease
d g
ove
rnm
ent
exp
end
itu
re o
n
reli
ef
Incr
ease
d p
ove
rty
Mig
rati
on
s (r
ura
l to
urb
an a
reas
, cro
ss b
ord
er)
Red
uct
ion
or
mo
di'
cati
on
of
recr
eati
on
al a
ctiv
itie
s
Dis
rup
tio
n o
f cu
ltu
ral p
ract
ices
an
d b
elie
f/va
lue
syst
em
Lo
ss o
f cu
ltu
ral s
ites
an
d a
esth
etic
val
ues
Incr
ease
d
con
#ic
ts
Wat
er u
ser
con
%ic
ts
Po
liti
cal c
on
%ic
ts
Man
agem
ent
con
%ic
ts
Oth
er s
oci
al c
on
%ic
ts, e
.g.,
scie
nti
'c
and
med
ia-
bas
ed
Hea
lth
Ph
ysic
al a
nd
em
oti
on
al s
tres
s, e
.g.,
anxi
-
ety,
dep
ress
ion
an
d lo
ss o
f se
curi
ty
Hea
lth
-rel
ated
low
-%o
w p
rob
lem
s, e
.g.,
cro
ss-c
on
-
nec
tio
n c
on
tam
inat
ion
, dim
inis
hed
sew
age
%o
ws,
incr
ease
d p
oll
uta
nt
con
cen
trat
ion
s an
d r
edu
ced
're
'gh
tin
g ca
pab
ilit
y
Red
uct
ion
s in
nu
trit
ion
Lo
ss o
f h
um
an li
fe
Pu
bli
c sa
fety
fro
m f
ore
st a
nd
ran
ge '
res
Incr
ease
d r
esp
irat
ory
ail
men
ts
Incr
ease
d d
isea
se c
ause
d b
y w
ild
life
co
nce
ntr
atio
ns
Tab
le 4
.3.3
: So
cial
im
pac
ts o
f d
rou
ght
(UN
DP,
201
1)
58
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Star
tin
g fr
om
in
vest
igat
ing
dro
ugh
t im
pac
ts,
som
e in
dic
a-
tors
hav
e b
een
dev
elo
ped
to
ch
arac
teri
ze d
rou
ght
vuln
erab
i-
lity
, co
nsi
der
ing
the
eco
no
mic
, en
viro
nm
enta
l, o
r so
cial
na-
ture
of
thes
e im
pac
ts, a
nd
are
sp
eci'
call
y u
sed
fo
r m
app
ing
vuln
erab
ilit
y o
n a
glo
bal
sca
le.
Gen
eral
ly,
thes
e in
dic
ato
rs
are
bas
ed o
n g
lob
al s
oci
o-e
con
om
ic d
atab
ases
ava
ilab
le o
n a
nat
ion
al a
ggre
gati
on
lev
el (
or
even
a s
ub
-nat
ion
al l
evel
, bu
t
in t
his
cas
e, t
hey
are
un
lik
ely
to b
e o
f gl
ob
al c
ove
rage
) o
r
geo
spat
ial
dat
aset
s w
ith
a v
ery
coar
se r
eso
luti
on
, so
me
of
wh
ich
are
der
ived
fro
m s
atel
lite
acq
uis
itio
ns.
It
sho
uld
be
no
ted
th
at t
his
iss
ue
con
stit
ute
s a
maj
or
lim
itat
ion
of
the
atta
inab
le s
pat
ial r
eso
luti
on
of
the
'n
al v
uln
erab
ilit
y m
aps.
Co
mm
on
exa
mp
les
of
bas
e d
atas
ets
use
d f
or
the
de'
nit
i-
on
of
dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
ind
icat
ors
, co
nsi
der
ing
soci
o-
eco
no
mic
as
wel
l as
nat
ura
l co
mp
on
ents
of
cop
ing
cap
acit
y
and
rel
ated
ref
eren
ces,
are
su
mm
ariz
ed i
n T
able
4.3
.4.
In
this
tab
le, p
arti
cula
r at
ten
tio
n h
as b
een
pai
d t
o t
he
dat
aset
s
use
d f
or
the
pro
du
ctio
n o
f gl
ob
al r
isk
in
dic
es.
In p
arti
cu-
lar,
th
e D
isas
ter
Ris
k I
nd
ex (
DR
I) d
evel
op
ed b
y th
e U
nit
ed
Nat
ion
s D
evel
op
men
t P
rogr
amm
e (U
ND
P)
(Ped
uzz
i et
al.,
2009
; BC
PR
-UN
DP,
200
4) a
nd
th
e W
orl
d R
isk
In
dex
(W
RI)
(Bir
km
ann
an
d M
uck
e, 2
011)
hav
e b
een
tak
en i
nto
co
nsi
-
der
atio
n.
Fig
ure
s 4.
3.2
and
4.3
.3 g
ive
two
exa
mp
les
of
map
s sh
ow
ing
rep
ort
ed c
om
po
nen
ts o
f d
rou
ght
vuln
erab
ilit
y.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, it s
ho
uld
be
no
ted
th
at m
any
com
ple
x d
rou
ght
vuln
erab
ilit
y in
dic
ato
rs c
an b
e fo
un
d i
n l
iter
atu
re, b
ased
on
mo
re s
pec
i'c
dat
aset
s, b
ut
seld
om
hav
e th
ese
met
ho
do
lo-
gies
pro
ven
to
be
app
lica
ble
glo
bal
ly, m
ain
ly b
ecau
se o
f th
eir
lack
of
geo
spat
ial r
efer
ence
dat
a. $
eref
ore
, th
ese
ind
icat
ors
hav
e n
ot
bee
n c
on
sid
ered
in
ord
er t
o d
e'n
e th
e T
ech
nic
al
Pro
'le
as
sho
wn
in
Tab
le 4
.3.5
.
Com
pon
ents
Da
tase
tR
efer
ence
So
cio
-eco
nom
ic
cap
aci
ty
GD
P p
er c
apit
aB
irk
man
n a
nd
Mu
cke,
201
1; E
riyg
ama
et a
l., 2
009
Agr
icu
ltu
re, v
alu
e ad
ded
(%
of
GD
P)
Eri
ygam
a et
al.,
200
9
Em
plo
ymen
t in
agr
icu
ltu
re (
% o
f to
tal
emp
loym
ent)
, un
emp
loym
ent
rate
Eri
ygam
a et
al.,
200
9; B
irk
man
n a
nd
Mu
cke,
201
1
Po
pu
lati
on
an
d r
ura
l po
pu
lati
on
'gu
res
Bir
km
ann
an
d M
uck
e, 2
011;
Ped
uzz
i et
al.,
200
9; E
riyg
a-
ma
et a
l., 2
009
Na
tura
l ca
pit
al
Ara
ble
/irr
igat
ed la
nd
are
aP
edu
zzi
et a
l., 2
009
Cro
pla
nd
are
a an
d la
nd
co
ver
Ped
uzz
i et
al.,
200
9
An
nu
al P
reci
pit
atio
n a
nd
Riv
er D
i-
sch
arge
Bir
km
ann
an
d M
uck
e, 2
011;
Eri
ygam
a et
al.,
200
9
Dep
th o
f so
il a
nd
hu
man
in
du
ced
so
il
deg
rad
atio
n (
GL
ASO
D)
Eri
ygam
a et
al.,
200
9; P
edu
zzi
et a
l., 2
003
Tab
le 4
.3.4
: Co
mm
on
bas
e d
atas
ets
use
d f
or
vuln
erab
ilit
y in
dic
ato
rs d
evel
op
men
t
Top
icR
egio
nal
vu
lner
abil
ity
to e
con
om
ic, e
nvi
ron
men
tal,
or
soci
al i
mp
acts
of
dro
ugh
t
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
8 d
rou
ght
vuln
erab
ilit
y cl
asse
s b
ased
on
soci
o-e
con
om
ic d
ata
(su
ch a
s gr
oss
do
mes
tic
pro
du
ct p
er c
apit
a, d
epen
den
ce o
n a
gric
ult
ure
for
inco
me
and
em
plo
ymen
t, t
ota
l an
d r
ura
l po
pu
lati
on
) an
d
bio
ph
ysic
al d
ata
(su
ch a
s la
nd
co
ver,
an
nu
al p
reci
pit
atio
n a
nd
riv
er d
isch
arge
, so
il d
epth
, so
il
deg
rad
atio
n)
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
leN
ot
app
lica
ble
Acc
ura
cyN
ot
app
lica
ble
Are
al
cove
rage
Glo
bal
/Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
0.5°
x 0
.5°
(ave
rage
) fo
r gl
ob
al r
aste
r d
atas
ets
use
d f
or
dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
ind
icat
ors
nat
ion
al a
ggre
gati
on
leve
l fo
r so
cio
eco
no
mic
dat
a
Tim
elin
ess
2 -
10 y
ears
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cyD
epth
of
soil
an
d h
um
an i
nd
uce
d s
oil
deg
rad
atio
n (
GL
ASO
D)
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
Map
s an
d v
ecto
r d
atas
ets
(OG
C s
tan
dar
d)
Tab
le 4
.3.5
: Tec
hn
ical
pro
'le
fo
r D
rou
ght
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
59
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4
Fig
ure
4.3
.2: B
iop
hys
ical
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Ind
ex b
ased
on
mea
n a
nn
ual
su
rfac
e ru
no
&, m
ean
an
nu
al g
rou
nd
wat
er r
ech
ar-
ge, s
oil
dep
th a
nd
so
il d
egra
dat
ion
sev
erit
y w
ith
in 0
.50
grid
cel
l. (E
riyg
ama
et a
l., 2
009)
Fig
ure
4.3
.3: S
oci
oec
on
om
ic D
rou
ght
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Ind
ex b
ased
on
th
e cr
op
div
ersi
ty o
f in
div
idu
al c
ou
ntr
ies
and
th
eir
dep
end
ence
on
agr
icu
ltu
re f
or
inco
me
and
em
plo
ymen
t ge
ner
atio
n (
Eri
ygam
a et
al.,
200
9)
60
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Co
nsi
der
ing
the
op
erat
ion
al b
ene"
ts o
f a
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
e-
rab
ilit
y M
ap (
Fig
ure
4.3
.4),
hu
man
itar
ian
aid
sco
red
hig
hes
t
in t
he
app
rais
al b
y en
d-u
sers
wit
h a
>65
% h
igh
ben
e't
ra-
tin
g, f
oll
ow
ed b
y h
ealt
h c
are
wit
h >
50 %
. In
dee
d a
Dro
ugh
t
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
co
uld
pro
vid
e u
sefu
l in
form
atio
n o
n a
re-
as a
nd
peo
ple
mo
st a
&ec
ted
by
such
a c
risi
s an
d c
ou
ld b
e
hel
pfu
l in
th
e p
rovi
sio
n o
f su
pp
ort
to
th
ose
su
bje
cted
to
a f
a-
min
e, w
hic
h i
s o
ne
of
the
ind
irec
t co
nse
qu
ence
s o
f d
rou
ght.
$e
app
rais
al r
esu
lts
fro
m n
on
-en
d-u
sers
fo
llo
wed
a s
imil
ar
pat
tern
, b
ut
wit
h a
lo
wer
sco
re f
or
all
op
erat
ion
al a
spec
ts,
esp
ecia
lly
so f
or
crit
ical
in
fra
stru
ctu
re a
nd
sec
uri
ty (
Fig
ure
4.3.
5).
Fo
r th
e st
rate
gic
ben
e"ts
, a
hig
h b
ene'
t w
as a
ttri
bu
ted
to
supp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s an
d t
o e
"ci
ency
of
plan
s an
d
poli
cies
by
mo
re t
han
60
% o
f th
e en
d-u
sers
(F
igu
re 4
.3.6
),
wh
ich
is p
lau
sib
le w
ith
reg
ard
to
a d
isti
nct
ly p
reve
nti
on
-ori
-
ente
d p
rod
uct
su
ch a
s a
vuln
erab
ilit
y m
ap.
A s
ligh
tly
low
er
rati
ng
was
giv
en t
o t
he
ben
e't
for
red
uci
ng
econ
omic
los
ses,
wh
ich
co
uld
be
du
e to
th
e fa
ct t
hat
th
is k
ind
of
map
was
un
-
der
sto
od
as
rep
rese
nti
ng
a st
atu
s q
uo
an
te a
nd
no
t an
act
ual
emer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
n.
Lik
ewis
e, t
he
ben
e't
to e
"ci
ency
of
plan
s an
d p
olic
ies
was
als
o r
ated
as
hig
h b
y m
ore
th
an 6
0 %
of
the
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.3
.7).
In
co
ntr
ast
to t
he
end
-
use
rs g
rou
p,
ho
wev
er,
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs g
ave
sim
ilar
hig
h r
a-
tin
gs t
o t
he
ben
e'ts
fo
r su
ppor
t of
su
perr
egio
nal
con
sist
ency
and
coo
pera
tion
an
d p
ubl
ic a
ccep
tan
ce o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s.
$is
res
ult
ap
par
entl
y re
%ec
ts t
he
nat
ure
of
dro
ugh
ts w
hic
h
o>
en a
&ec
t la
rge
area
s re
qu
irin
g a
coo
rdin
ated
su
pra
nat
i-
on
al a
pp
roac
h a
nd
pu
bli
c aw
aren
ess
of
vuln
erab
ilit
ies
and
risk
s.
Fro
m t
he
end
-use
rs’ p
oin
t o
f vi
ew, t
hem
atic
con
ten
t an
d a
re-
al c
over
age
wer
e th
e m
ost
cri
tica
l p
rod
uct
fea
ture
s, f
oll
o-
wed
by
spat
ial
reso
luti
on (
Fig
ure
4.3
.8).
Spa
tial
res
olu
tion
is
also
a m
atte
r o
f co
nce
rn f
or
this
car
togr
aph
ic p
rod
uct
sin
ce
it s
tro
ngl
y in
%u
ence
s th
e th
emat
ic c
on
ten
t th
at c
an b
e in
clu
-
ded
in
th
e m
ap.
No
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
lso
iden
ti'
ed t
he
them
atic
con
ten
t m
ost
cri
-
tica
l (F
igu
re 4
.3.9
), b
ut
asse
ssed
th
e m
ajo
rity
of
the
spec
i'c
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res
as l
ess
crit
ical
. H
ow
ever
, n
on
-en
d-u
sers
con
sid
ered
acc
ess
as f
ar m
ore
im
po
rtan
t, w
hic
h i
s o
bvi
ou
sly
a cr
itic
al i
ssu
e in
man
y le
ss d
evel
op
ed c
ou
ntr
ies
a&ec
ted
by
dro
ugh
t.
61
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.3.4
: O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
erab
ilit
y
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.3
.5:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f D
rou
ght
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.
3.6:
St
rate
gic
Ben
e'ts
o
f D
rou
ght
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.
3.7:
St
rate
gic
Ben
e'ts
o
f D
rou
ght
Vu
lner
abil
ity
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.3
.8:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f D
rou
ght
Vu
l-
ner
abil
ity
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.3
.9:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f D
rou
ght
Vu
l-
ner
abil
ity
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
62
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 tecti
on
an
d m
on
ito
rin
g
Wal
ther
Cam
aro,
Sar
a S
te#
enin
o an
d R
osse
lla
Vig
na
Fir
es h
ave
far
reac
hin
g im
pac
ts a
nd
can
dam
age
hig
hw
ays,
uti
liti
es,
bri
dge
s, r
eser
voir
s an
d w
ater
shed
s, a
gri-
bu
sin
ess,
ran
chin
g, t
imb
er o
per
atio
ns,
an
d c
om
mu
nit
y b
uil
din
gs. $
e
eco
no
mic
an
d s
oci
al i
mp
acts
of
dam
age
fro
m '
res
incl
ud
e
job
lo
sses
, d
estr
oye
d
nat
ura
l re
sou
rces
, b
urd
enso
me
re-
bu
ild
ing
cost
s, a
nd
lim
ited
tra
nsp
ort
atio
n o
pti
on
s. F
urt
her
-
mo
re '
res
can
res
ult
in
lo
ss o
f li
fe (
Ara
gon
eses
an
d R
ábad
e,
2008
). F
or
exam
ple
, in
Sp
ain
in
199
4, 4
1 vi
ctim
s lo
st t
hei
r
live
s d
ue
to fo
rest
're
s, 2
0 o
f w
ho
m d
ied
in a
sin
gle
're
(M
il-
lare
s, 2
5,93
0 h
ecta
res)
an
d 1
5 in
th
ree
're
s (M
on
tem
ayo
r,
St.
Mat
eu d
e B
ages
an
d A
lica
nte
, 45
.000
hec
tare
s),
wh
ile
in
2003
're
s ca
use
d t
he
dea
th o
f se
ven
peo
ple
. A
vail
able
lit
-
erat
ure
on
ep
idem
iolo
gy,
eco
no
mic
s an
d w
ild
're
s p
rovi
de
esse
nti
al i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
eva
luat
ing
hea
lth
co
sts
asso
ciat
ed
wit
h '
re e
ven
ts.
$e
key
hea
lth
ou
tco
mes
rel
ated
to
wil
d-
're
s ar
e m
ort
alit
y, r
estr
icte
d a
ctiv
ity
day
s (i
ncl
ud
ing
wo
rk
day
s lo
st),
ho
spit
al a
dm
issi
on
s, r
esp
irat
ory
sym
pto
ms,
an
d
ad h
oc
self
-tre
atm
ent
by
ind
ivid
ual
s. I
nco
nsi
sten
t re
sult
s ar
e
sho
wn
als
o b
etw
een
co
nve
nti
on
al a
nd
wil
d'
re-r
elat
ed P
M
epid
emio
log
y st
ud
ies
(Ko
chi
et a
l., 2
009)
.
Clim
ate
change im
pact
Fir
e h
as b
een
id
enti
'ed
by
the
inte
rnat
ion
al c
om
mu
nit
y
as a
n i
mp
ort
ant
vari
able
fo
r th
e G
lob
al C
lim
ate
Ob
serv
ing
Syst
em a
nd
an
ess
enti
al c
lim
ate
vari
able
fo
r th
e F
ram
ewo
rk
Co
nve
nti
on
on
Cli
mat
e C
han
ge.
Fir
e is
an
im
po
rtan
t p
ro-
cess
wit
hin
mo
st t
erre
stri
al b
iom
es, a
nd
th
e re
leas
e o
f ga
ses
and
par
ticu
late
mat
ter
du
rin
g b
iom
ass
bu
rnin
g is
an
imp
or-
tan
t co
ntr
ibu
tor
to t
he
chem
ical
rea
ctio
ns
and
ph
ysic
al p
ro-
cess
es t
akin
g p
lace
in
th
e at
mo
sph
ere.
Fir
e is
a s
ign
i'ca
nt
and
co
nti
nu
ou
s fa
cto
r in
th
e ec
olo
gy
of s
avan
nas
, bo
real
for-
ests
an
d t
un
dra
, an
d p
lays
a c
entr
al r
ole
in
def
ore
stat
ion
in
tro
pic
al a
nd
su
b-t
rop
ical
reg
ion
s. I
n a
dd
itio
n, o
n a
per
iod
ic
bas
is,
exte
nsi
ve '
res
occ
ur
in m
any
tem
per
ate
bio
mes
su
ch
as f
ore
sts,
gra
ssla
nd
s, a
nd
ch
apar
ral.
Mo
nit
ori
ng
the
loca
-
tio
n a
nd
are
al e
xten
t o
f b
iom
ass
bu
rnin
g an
d i
ts a
sso
ciat
ed
e&ec
ts a
re i
mp
ort
ant
in t
he
con
text
of
the
goal
s an
d o
bje
c-
tive
s o
f d
i&er
ent
rese
arch
pro
gram
s:
Fir
e ch
ange
s th
e p
hys
ical
sta
te o
f ve
geta
tio
n, r
elea
sin
g a
vari
ety
of
gree
nh
ou
se g
ases
in
to t
he
atm
osp
her
e. $
ere
is p
rese
ntl
y gr
eat
un
cert
ain
ty a
s to
th
e m
agn
itu
de
of
the
sou
rces
an
d s
ink
s o
f th
ese
gree
nh
ou
se g
ases
. F
or
ex-
amp
le,
the
net
an
nu
al r
elea
se o
f ca
rbo
n i
nto
th
e at
mo
-
sph
ere
du
e to
cle
arin
g an
d c
on
vers
ion
of
tro
pic
al f
or-
ests
fo
r ag
ricu
ltu
ral
pu
rpo
ses
(wh
ere
bio
mas
s b
urn
ing
is a
key
to
ol
use
d i
n t
he
con
vers
ion
pro
cess
) is
th
ou
ght
to c
on
trib
ute
ap
pro
xim
atel
y 30
% t
o t
he
net
an
nu
al
incr
ease
in
th
e co
nce
ntr
atio
n o
f at
mo
sph
eric
CO
2. In
add
itio
n, t
her
e is
an
in
tere
st i
n c
han
ges
in r
egio
nal
're
regi
mes
un
der
di&
eren
t cl
imat
e ch
ange
sce
nar
ios.
Fo
r
exam
ple
, arg
um
ents
hav
e b
een
mad
e th
at a
n in
crea
se in
aver
age
air
tem
per
atu
re i
n n
ort
her
n l
atit
ud
es w
ill
lead
to a
dec
reas
e in
th
e n
atu
ral
're
ret
urn
in
terv
al a
nd
an
incr
ease
in
're
sev
erit
y in
bo
real
fo
rest
an
d t
un
dra
eco
-
syst
ems.
$e
rele
ase
of
chem
ical
ly-r
eact
ive
gase
s d
uri
ng
bio
-
mas
s b
urn
ing
stro
ngl
y in
%u
ence
s ch
emic
al p
roce
sses
wit
hin
th
e tr
op
osp
her
e. I
n t
rop
ical
reg
ion
s, b
iom
ass
bu
rnin
g h
as b
een
sh
ow
n t
o s
tro
ngl
y in
%u
ence
reg
ion
al
and
glo
bal
dis
trib
uti
on
s o
f tr
op
osp
her
ic o
zon
e an
d h
as
bee
n r
elat
ed t
o a
cid
dep
osi
tio
n.
Stu
die
s h
ave
sho
wn
that
in
ten
sive
bio
mas
s b
urn
ing
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
nat
u-
rall
y o
ccu
rrin
g fo
rest
're
s, d
efo
rest
atio
n p
ract
ices
an
d
sava
nn
a m
anag
emen
t, a
re m
ajo
r so
urc
es o
f tr
ace
gase
s
such
as
NO
, C
O2,
CO
, O
3, N
Ox,
N2O
, N
H3,
SOx,
CH
4,
oth
er n
on
-met
han
e h
ydro
carb
on
s, a
s w
ell
as a
n a
bu
n-
dan
t so
urc
e o
f ae
roso
ls (
Stit
h e
t al
., 19
81; C
rutz
en e
t al
.,
1985
; Fis
hm
an e
t al
., 19
86; A
nd
reae
et
al.,
1988
; Bro
wel
l
et a
l., 1
988;
Kau
fman
et
al.,
1992
). P
reli
min
ary
glo
bal
esti
mat
es i
nd
icat
e th
at a
nn
ual
bio
mas
s b
urn
ing
may
be
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
38
% o
f th
e o
zon
e in
th
e tr
op
osp
her
e;
32 %
of
glo
bal
car
bo
n m
on
oxi
de;
mo
re t
han
20
% o
f
the
wo
rld
‘s
hyd
roge
n,
no
n-m
eth
ane
hyd
roca
rbo
ns,
met
hyl
ch
lori
de
and
oxi
des
of
nit
roge
n,
and
ap
pro
xi-
mat
ely
39 %
of
the
par
ticu
late
org
anic
car
bo
n (
Lev
ine,
1991
; An
dre
ae, 1
991)
. Alt
ho
ugh
th
ese
esti
mat
es in
clu
de
a w
ide
ran
ge o
f u
nce
rtai
nty
, it
is b
eco
min
g ev
iden
t th
at
thes
e em
issi
on
s m
ay b
e as
im
po
rtan
t to
glo
bal
atm
o-
sph
eric
ch
emis
try
as i
nd
ust
rial
act
ivit
ies
in t
he
dev
el-
op
ed w
orl
d (
Cru
tzen
et
al.,
1985
; Cru
tzen
an
d A
nd
reae
,
1990
).
$e
resu
lts
of
nat
ura
l '
res
or
pro
cess
es a
sso
ciat
ed w
ith
're
s a&
ect
the
exch
ange
of
ener
gy
and
wat
er b
etw
een
lan
d s
urf
aces
an
d t
he
atm
osp
her
e. F
ires
can
res
ult
in
a d
ecre
ase
in t
he
surf
ace
alb
edo
an
d i
ncr
ease
in
th
e
amo
un
t o
f so
lar
rad
iati
on
rea
chin
g th
e so
il la
yer
at lo
cal
and
reg
ion
al s
cale
s. R
emo
val
of
the
pla
nt
can
op
y d
ur-
ing
're
red
uce
s th
e am
ou
nt
of
evap
otr
ansp
irat
ion
an
d
typ
ical
ly r
esu
lts
in h
igh
er w
ater
ru
no
&.
In t
rop
ical
fo
r-
ests
, lan
d c
lear
ing
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
bio
mas
s b
urn
ing
has
resu
lted
in
a s
ign
i'ca
nt
red
uct
ion
of
tota
l p
reci
pit
atio
n
in t
he
regi
on
, an
d a
n i
ncr
ease
in
th
e su
rfac
e ru
no
&, s
oil
ero
sio
n a
nd
riv
er s
edim
enta
tio
n.
Fir
es h
ave
seve
ral
dir
ect
and
in
dir
ect
e&ec
ts o
n t
er-
rest
rial
eco
syst
ems.
Fir
st,
the
pat
tern
of
're
(w
hic
h i
n-
clu
des
its
sp
atia
l d
istr
ibu
tio
n,
're
ret
urn
in
terv
al,
and
seve
rity
of
bu
rnin
g) d
irec
tly
con
tro
ls p
lan
t co
mm
un
ity
dev
elo
pm
ent
wit
hin
th
ose
lan
dsc
apes
wh
ere
bio
mas
s
bu
rnin
g o
ccu
rs. F
ire
favo
urs
th
ose
pla
nts
an
d t
ree
spe-
cies
wh
ich
hav
e d
evel
op
ed a
dap
tati
on
s to
're
(e.
g., v
eg-
etat
ive
rep
rod
uct
ion
an
d '
re-r
esis
tan
t se
eds
and
co
nes
)
and
eli
min
ates
th
ose
sp
ecie
s w
hic
h a
re l
ess
resi
stan
t to
're
. Sec
on
d, '
re i
nd
irec
tly
a&ec
ts p
lan
t co
mm
un
ity
de-
velo
pm
ent
in a
var
iety
of
way
s, i
ncl
ud
ing
(a)
add
itio
n
of
key
pla
nt
nu
trie
nts
th
rou
gh a
sh f
erti
liza
tio
n o
r in
-
crea
sed
so
il d
eco
mp
osi
tio
n;
(b)
dep
leti
on
of
key
pla
nt
63
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4n
utr
ien
ts th
rou
gh s
urf
ace
run
o&
or
incr
ease
d s
oil
leac
h-
ing;
an
d (
c) a
lter
ing
soil
tem
per
atu
re a
nd
mo
istu
re. F
i-
nal
ly, c
hem
ical
rea
ctio
ns
of
gase
s re
leas
ed b
y '
re le
ad t
o
an in
crea
se in
atm
osp
her
ic o
zon
e an
d t
he
dep
osi
tio
n o
f
acid
ic c
om
po
un
ds
do
wn
win
d f
rom
're
s, w
hic
h i
n t
urn
can
a&
ect
the
ph
ysio
log
y o
f p
lan
ts a
nd
eco
syst
ems
in
thes
e ar
eas.
$er
efo
re, f
or
seve
ral r
easo
ns,
're
det
ecti
on
and
mo
nit
ori
ng
are
con
sid
ered
nec
essa
ry e
lem
ents
, an
d
're
man
agem
ent
is c
on
sid
ered
a c
on
seq
uen
tial
cru
cial
issu
e (V
an L
iero
p, 2
009)
.
Fire M
anagem
ent
Sin
ce f
ore
sts
are
eco
syst
ems,
th
e m
ain
ten
ance
of
fore
sts
is
vita
l n
ot
on
ly f
or
the
tree
s th
emse
lves
, b
ut
also
fo
r th
e su
s-
tain
abil
ity
of
the
oth
er f
orm
s o
f li
fe t
hat
dep
end
on
fo
rest
s.
Fo
rest
s ar
e p
rovi
der
s o
f en
viro
nm
enta
l ser
vice
s: t
hey
pro
tect
the
soil
fro
m d
eser
ti'
cati
on
an
d a
vala
nch
es, f
urn
ish
a n
atu
-
ral b
arri
er a
gain
st w
ind
, att
ract
in
crea
sin
g to
uri
sm a
nd
pla
y
an i
mp
ort
ant
role
in
th
e li
veli
ho
od
s o
f p
oo
r p
eop
le.
$er
e-
fore
th
e re
aso
ns
for
pro
tect
ing
fore
sts
fro
m '
re,
po
llu
tio
n
and
oth
er p
oss
ible
dam
ages
are
ob
vio
us;
fo
rest
s an
d t
hei
r
stru
ctu
ral
and
bio
logi
cal
div
ersi
ty a
re a
n i
mp
ort
ant
par
t o
f
the
nat
ura
l en
viro
nm
ent.
Leg
isla
tio
n p
asse
d i
n s
om
e co
un
trie
s p
rovi
des
evi
den
ce t
hat
fore
sts
con
stit
ute
a m
ost
im
po
rtan
t se
mi-
ren
ewab
le r
eso
urc
e
and
en
cou
rage
res
earc
her
s to
fost
er a
ctiv
itie
s o
n fo
rest
eco
sys-
tem
s, a
s w
ell a
s ed
uca
tio
n a
nd
tra
inin
g o
n fo
rest
ry. $
e st
ron
g
imp
ort
ance
of
fore
sts
and
fo
rest
ry p
oli
cy h
as b
een
acc
epte
d
by a
ll t
he
Eu
rop
ean
mem
ber
sta
tes.
An
acc
ura
te a
nal
ysis
of
the
rela
tio
nsh
ip b
etw
een
hu
man
s an
d f
ore
sts
is e
ssen
tial
fo
r
asse
ssin
g '
re i
nci
den
ce, i
gnit
ion
an
d m
anag
emen
t. S
ince
hu
-
man
s ar
e co
nsi
der
ed p
rim
aril
y re
spo
nsi
ble
fo
r fo
rest
're
oc-
curr
ence
s, t
hey
mu
st b
e co
nsi
der
ed a
s im
po
rtan
t co
mp
on
ents
of
any
're
man
agem
ent
pla
nn
ing.
A b
alan
ced
're
man
age-
men
t sy
stem
is
mad
e u
p o
f fo
ur
elem
ents
: p
reve
nti
on
, p
re-
par
edn
ess,
su
pp
ress
ion
an
d r
ecov
ery
(WW
F, 2
003)
. Eac
h e
le-
men
t is
eq
ual
ly im
po
rtan
t an
d d
irec
tly
rela
ted
to
th
e o
ther
s.
$e
pre
ven
tio
n a
nd
pre
par
edn
ess
sch
eme
eval
uat
es t
he
vul-
ner
abil
ity
of
the
terr
ito
ry t
o '
re.
Cri
tica
l p
erio
ds
and
are
as
on
wh
ere
fore
st '
res
cou
ld b
e m
ore
lik
ely
to o
ccu
r ar
e ev
alu
-
ated
no
t o
nly
fro
m e
xper
ien
ce b
ut
also
usi
ng
too
ls s
uch
as
GIS
map
pin
g. A
reas
at
hig
h '
re r
isk
sh
ou
ld b
e su
bje
cted
to
spec
i'c
pre
ven
tive
mea
sure
s o
f la
nd
-use
pla
nn
ing:
e.g
. fu
el
load
s ca
n b
e m
od
i'ed
fo
r h
azar
d r
edu
ctio
n. A
're
man
age-
men
t sy
stem
sh
ou
ld b
e co
nsi
der
ed a
s an
in
tegr
al p
art
of
the
lan
dsc
ape
pla
nn
ing
in a
ll a
reas
at
hig
h r
isk
of
fore
st '
res.
Mo
reo
ver,
a '
re m
anag
emen
t p
oli
cy w
ill
be
mo
re e
&ec
tive
on
ly i
f m
ost
of
the
reso
urc
es a
nd
e&
ort
s ar
e em
plo
yed
at
the
earl
y st
age
of
the
're
'gh
tin
g ch
ain
(W
WF,
200
3).
Fir
e
risk
ass
essm
ent
is a
cri
tica
l par
t o
f '
re p
reve
nti
on
, th
eref
ore
pre
-'re
pla
nn
ing
acti
viti
es r
equ
ire
ob
ject
ive
too
ls t
o m
on
i-
tor
wh
en a
nd
wh
ere
a '
re i
s li
kel
y to
occ
ur,
or
wo
uld
hav
e
mo
re n
egat
ive
imp
acts
. $e
ob
ject
ive
of a
ded
icat
ed F
ire
De-
tect
ion
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
, o
n t
he
oth
er h
and
, is
ear
ly
war
nin
g, m
on
ito
rin
g, a
nd
ass
essm
ent
of
actu
al '
res,
usi
ng
curr
ent
eart
h-o
bse
rvin
g te
chn
olo
gies
.
An
ad
van
ced
sch
eme
for
're
ris
k a
sses
smen
t w
as d
evel
op
ed
by
Ch
uvi
eco
et
al. (
2010
), w
hic
h i
ncl
ud
es t
he
two
asp
ects
of
tota
l ri
sk:
're
dan
ger
and
vu
lner
abil
ity.
$e
mo
del
is
bas
ed
on
in
pu
t va
riab
les
of
're
dan
ger,
co
nsi
der
ing
the
two
mai
n
sou
rces
of
ign
itio
n,
hu
man
an
d n
atu
ral,
and
vu
lner
abil
ity
wh
ich
is t
he
asse
ssm
ent
of
po
ten
tial
dam
age
cau
sed
by
a '
re
(see
Tab
le 4
.4.1
). $
ree
di&
eren
t vu
lner
abil
ity
inp
ut
vari
-
able
s ar
e ta
ken
into
acc
ou
nt
in t
he
wo
rk p
rese
nte
d in
Ch
uvi
-
eco
et
al.,
(201
0): t
he
soci
o-ec
onom
ic v
alu
es, t
he
deg
rad
atio
n
pote
nti
al a
nd
th
e la
nd
scap
e va
lue.
$e
'n
al o
bje
ctiv
e ca
n b
e
de'
ned
in
a G
IS s
yste
m d
isp
layi
ng
're
ris
k m
aps
at r
egio
nal
scal
es,
wh
ich
in
tegr
ates
tw
o g
rou
ps
of
're
ris
k c
on
dit
ion
s
thu
s cr
eati
ng
a gr
ou
p o
f fo
ur
risk
cla
sses
, u
sin
g lo
cal
info
r-
mat
ion
an
d g
eoin
form
atio
n.
$e
fire
ris
k a
sses
smen
t m
eth
od
pre
sen
ted
in
th
e C
hu
viec
o
pap
er is
gen
eral
ly b
ased
on
co
nsi
der
ing
fire
occ
urr
ence
pro
b-
abil
ity
and
po
ten
tial
dam
age.
$e
'rs
t el
emen
t, fi
re d
ange
r,
con
sid
ers
the
po
ten
tial
th
at a
fire
wil
l ig
nit
e an
d p
rop
agat
e.
$e
two
mai
n s
ou
rces
of
ign
itio
n, h
um
an a
nd
nat
ura
l, m
ust
bo
th b
e ta
ken
in
to a
cco
un
t in
cal
cula
tin
g th
e '
re d
ange
r.
Ho
wev
er w
hil
e h
um
an s
ou
rces
of
ign
itio
n a
re u
nd
ou
bte
dly
the
mo
st c
om
mo
n a
nd
di&
use
wo
rld
wid
e (F
AO
, 200
7), fi
res
cau
sed
by
ligh
tnin
g ar
e al
so v
ery
rele
van
t in
so
me
regi
on
s.
In a
dd
itio
n t
o i
gnit
ion
so
urc
es, t
he
mo
istu
re s
tatu
s o
f p
lan
ts
has
bee
n j
ud
ged
nec
essa
ry,
sin
ce p
lan
ts a
re t
he
mai
n i
gni-
tio
n m
ater
ial i
n a
fo
rest
fire
. $e
pro
pag
atio
n c
om
po
nen
t o
f
fire
dan
ger
is a
sso
ciat
ed w
ith
th
e p
ote
nti
al f
or
fire
sp
read
,
wh
ich
is
a re
sult
of
the
qu
anti
ty a
nd
sp
read
of
fuel
, in
ad
di-
tio
n t
o f
avo
ura
ble
ter
rain
an
d w
eath
er c
on
dit
ion
s (m
ain
ly
win
d s
pee
d).
$e
seco
nd
gro
up
of
fire
ris
k c
on
dit
ion
s ca
n b
e as
soci
ated
wit
h t
he
vuln
erab
ilit
y co
mp
on
ent,
wh
ich
is
the
asse
ssm
ent
of
po
ten
tial
dam
age
cau
sed
by
the
fire
an
d i
mp
acts
on
th
e
exp
ose
d v
alu
es. F
or
Ch
uvi
eco
et
al. (
2010
), v
uln
erab
ilit
y ca
n
be
div
ided
in
th
ree
asp
ects
, as
sta
ted
ab
ove
: so
cio-
econ
omic
valu
es
(pro
per
ties
, w
oo
d
reso
urc
es,
recr
eati
on
al
imp
or-
tan
ce,
carb
on
sto
cks,
etc
.),
deg
rad
atio
n p
oten
tial
(so
il a
nd
vege
tati
on
co
nd
itio
ns)
, an
d l
and
scap
e va
lue
(un
iqu
enes
s,
con
serv
atio
n s
tatu
s, e
tc.)
.
Fir
e d
ange
r is
de'
ned
as:
“th
e re
sult
ant,
o>
en e
xpre
ssed
as
an i
nd
ex, o
f b
oth
co
nst
ant
and
var
iab
le f
acto
rs a
&ec
tin
g th
e
ince
pti
on
, sp
read
, an
d d
i#cu
lty
of
con
tro
l o
f '
res
and
th
e
dam
age
they
cau
se”;
Fir
e h
aza
rd i
s “a
mea
sure
of
that
par
t o
f th
e '
re d
ange
r co
n-
trib
ute
d b
y fu
els
avai
lab
le f
or
bu
rnin
g”;
Fir
e ri
sk i
s “(
1) t
he
chan
ce o
f '
re s
tart
ing
as d
eter
min
ed b
y
the
pre
sen
ce a
nd
act
ivit
y o
f ca
usa
tive
age
nts
, (2)
a c
ausa
tive
agen
t, (
3) a
nu
mb
er r
elat
ed t
o t
he
po
ten
tial
of
're
bra
nd
s to
wh
ich
a g
iven
are
a w
ill
be
exp
ose
d d
uri
ng
the
rate
d d
ay”
(FA
O, 1
986)
.
64
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4o
f so
me
vari
able
s ch
ange
alm
ost
co
nti
nu
ou
sly
du
rin
g th
e
day
wh
ile
oth
er v
aria
ble
s va
ry n
oti
ceab
le o
nly
ove
r a
lon
g
per
iod
: wee
k, m
on
th o
r ev
en y
ears
. $er
efo
re, v
aria
ble
s h
ave
bee
n c
lass
i'ed
acc
ord
ingl
y as
sh
ort
-ter
m a
nd
lo
ng-
term
vari
able
s. E
vap
otr
ansp
irat
ion
, re
lati
ve h
um
idit
y, w
ind
an
d
air
tem
per
atu
re o
&er
exa
mp
les
of
vari
able
s cl
earl
y ch
ange
-
able
du
rin
g th
e d
ay. F
uel
typ
e, '
re h
isto
ry, t
ota
l p
op
ula
tio
n,
top
ogr
aph
y, s
oil
typ
e an
d p
roxi
mit
y to
ro
ads
are
vari
able
s
wit
h r
ou
ghly
sta
ble
beh
avio
ur
ove
r sh
ort
per
iod
s (F
igu
re
4.4.
1).
Alt
ern
ativ
ely,
an
oth
er p
oss
ible
way
to
co
llec
t co
ntr
ibu
tin
g
vari
able
s is
to
co
nsi
der
th
eir
nat
ure
. Var
iab
les
cou
ld d
epen
d
on
met
eoro
logi
cal
con
dit
ion
s, v
eget
atio
n c
on
dit
ion
s o
r h
u-
man
beh
avio
ur.
$e
term
s d
ange
r, h
aza
rd a
nd
ris
k h
ave
o>
en b
een
use
d
in a
n i
nco
nsi
sten
t an
d c
on
fusi
ng
man
ner
in
lit
erat
ure
on
wil
d'
res.
$ey
are
use
d w
ith
ou
t a
clea
r ag
reem
ent
amo
ng
spec
iali
sts,
co
un
trie
s o
r la
ngu
age
trad
itio
ns
(Ch
uvi
eco
et
al,
2003
). $
is la
ck o
f cl
ear
de'
nit
ion
s o
f th
e te
rms
cou
ld e
asil
y
bec
om
e an
ob
stac
le t
o '
re r
isk
res
earc
h a
nd
man
agem
ent.
A
rigo
rou
s an
alys
is o
f '
re r
isk
ass
essm
ent
mu
st b
e su
pp
ort
ed
by
clea
r te
rmin
olo
gy
in o
rder
to
en
able
res
ult
s to
be
un
der
-
stan
dab
le a
nd
sh
area
ble
th
rou
gho
ut
the
com
mu
nit
y o
f w
ild
-
're
res
earc
her
s an
d s
pec
iali
sts.
In t
his
co
nte
xt,
Bac
hm
ann
an
d A
llgö
wer
(20
01)
sugg
este
d
the
term
+re
dan
ger
as u
sele
ss f
or
're
res
earc
h b
ecau
se i
t
refe
rs t
o a
n a
bst
ract
co
nce
pt
bas
ed o
n p
erso
nal
op
inio
ns.
$ey
des
crib
ed t
he
term
as
bei
ng
de'
ned
by
sub
ject
ive
hu
-
man
an
d s
oci
etal
per
cep
tio
ns
and
ass
essm
ents
of
even
ts a
nd
ou
tco
mes
th
at a
re c
on
sid
ered
har
mfu
l. B
esid
es, t
hey
de'
ned
the
term
+re
ha
zard
as
a sy
no
nym
fo
r th
e p
roce
ss o
f w
ild
-
're
s. $
us,
th
ey c
on
clu
ded
wit
h t
he
sugg
esti
on
of
an o
vera
ll
term
fo
r w
ild
're
s o
f +
re r
isk,
sin
ce i
t ta
kes
acc
ou
nt
of
the
pro
bab
ilit
y o
f a
wil
d'
re o
ccu
rrin
g at
a s
pec
i'ed
loca
tio
n a
nd
un
der
sp
eci'
c ci
rcu
mst
ance
s, t
oge
ther
wit
h i
ts e
xpec
ted
ef-
fect
s. A
pre
cise
de'
nit
ion
of
the
term
+re
ris
k fo
r fo
rest
're
rela
ted
res
earc
h w
as a
lso
de'
ned
by
FAO
(FA
O, 1
986)
.
Fir
e ri
sk r
equ
ires
id
enti
fyin
g an
d a
sses
sin
g p
ote
nti
ally
co
n-
trib
uti
ng
vari
able
s, r
efer
red
to
as
cau
sati
ve a
gen
ts. H
ow
ever
,
the
de'
nit
ion
an
d a
sses
smen
t o
f '
re r
isk
pre
sen
ts d
i&er
ent
mea
nin
gs in
di&
eren
t co
un
trie
s. T
rad
itio
nal
ly, f
ore
st '
re r
isk
has
bee
n c
om
pu
ted
at
a n
atio
nal
leve
l or
at lo
cal s
cale
s u
sin
g
di&
eren
t va
riab
les
and
ap
pro
ach
es.
$u
s, t
he
di&
eren
t d
ata
sou
rces
an
d m
eth
od
olo
gies
in
volv
ed le
ad t
o i
nd
ices
no
t im
-
med
iate
ly c
om
par
able
(Sa
n-M
igu
el-A
yan
z et
al.,
200
3).
$er
e ar
e se
vera
l va
riab
les
po
ten
tial
ly c
on
trib
uti
ng
to f
ore
st
're
ris
k a
sses
smen
t as
wel
l as
met
ho
ds
of
gro
up
ing
them
. A
po
ssib
le w
ay o
f co
llec
tio
n is
bas
ed o
n t
ime
vari
abil
ity.
Val
ues
Fa
ctor
Inp
ut
da
taM
eth
od
Hu
man
(V
ilar
et
al.,
2008
)
His
tori
cal o
ccu
r-
ren
ce
Lo
gist
ic
regr
essi
on
Lig
htn
ing
(Nie
to
et a
l., i
n p
ress
)
Dem
ogr
aph
ic d
ata
Veg
etat
ion
-DT
M
Dea
d f
uel
s
mo
istu
re c
on
ten
t
(Agu
ado
et
al.,
2007
)
Met
eoro
logi
cal d
ata
Lin
ear
regr
es-
sio
n a
nal
ysis
Liv
e fu
els
mo
is-
ture
co
nte
nt
(Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.,
2004
b; G
arci
a et
al.,
2008
)
Sate
llit
e im
ages
Stat
isti
cal
'tt
ing
Inve
rsio
n o
f
RT
M
Pro
pag
atio
n
dan
ger
(Mar
tín
Fer
nán
dez
et
al.,
2002
)
Fu
el t
ype
map
s
Met
eoro
logi
cal d
ata
Beh
ave
Sim
u-
lati
on
So
cio
-eco
no
mic
valu
es (
Ro
drí
guez
y Si
lva
et a
l.,
2007
)
Fo
rest
map
s
Rec
reat
ion
al a
reas
Qu
esti
on
nai
res
Em
pir
ical
mo
del
s
Deg
rad
atat
ion
po
ten
tial
So
il m
aps
Dig
ital
ter
rain
mo
del
Cli
mat
ic d
ata
Veg
etat
ion
map
s
Fie
ld s
tud
ies
Eco
logi
cal
mo
del
s
Qu
alit
ativ
e
cro
ss-t
abu
la-
tio
n
Lan
dsc
ape
valu
e
(Mar
tín
ez-V
ega
et. a
l., 2
007)
Pro
tect
ed a
reas
Lan
d c
ove
r
Lan
dsc
ape
pat
tern
Tab
le 4
.4.1
: In
pu
t fa
cto
rs f
or
the
fire
ris
k a
sses
smen
t sy
stem
(Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.,
2010
)
Fig
ure
4.4
.1: P
ote
nti
ally
co
ntr
ibu
tin
g va
riab
les
for
fore
st '
re
risk
ass
essm
ent
65
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
ire
occ
urr
ence
s an
d p
rop
agat
ion
are
str
on
gly
rela
ted
to
par
ticu
lar
met
eoro
logi
cal
con
dit
ion
s. S
ola
r ra
dia
tio
n,
air
tem
per
atu
re,
rela
tive
hu
mid
ity,
pre
cip
itat
ion
, w
ind
(av
er-
age
spee
d,
turb
ule
nce
in
ten
sity
an
d d
irec
tio
n)
and
ver
tica
l
stru
ctu
re o
f th
e at
mo
sph
ere
are
the
mai
n c
on
trib
uti
ng
me-
teo
rolo
gica
l var
iab
les
(Vie
gas,
199
8). E
ach
of
thes
e va
riab
les
pla
ys a
rel
evan
t ro
le,
even
th
ou
gh t
hei
r co
nse
qu
enti
al h
igh
vari
abil
ity
mak
es t
hei
r m
anag
emen
t d
i#cu
lt.
Un
der
stan
din
g w
ater
ret
enti
on
in
pla
nts
an
d s
oil
is
bas
ic t
o
pre
dic
tin
g m
ois
ture
co
nte
nt
of
vege
tati
on
, an
d t
his
pla
ys a
n
imp
ort
ant
role
in
're
ign
itio
n a
nd
pro
pag
atio
n.
If m
eteo
-
rolo
gica
l co
nd
itio
ns
are
ign
ore
d,
the
mo
st s
ign
i'ca
nt
fac-
tors
a&
ecti
ng
the
amo
un
t o
f w
ater
hel
d a
nd
tra
nsp
ort
ed i
n
vege
tati
on
are
th
eir
chem
ical
co
mp
osi
tio
n,
inte
rnal
str
uc-
ture
an
d p
hys
ical
pro
pri
etie
s. $
is c
on
nec
tio
n i
s b
ette
r u
n-
der
sto
od
by
exam
inin
g th
e le
af s
tru
ctu
re a
t a
'n
e le
vel
of
det
ail.
$e
amo
un
t o
f m
ois
ture
hel
d i
n t
he
cell
wal
ls o
f fu
el
par
ticl
es i
s re
late
d t
o t
he
com
po
siti
on
an
d c
ryst
alli
ne
stru
c-
ture
of
the
wal
ls,
wh
erea
s li
qu
id w
ater
hel
d i
n t
he
cell
cav
i-
ties
is d
eter
min
ed b
y th
e la
rger
sca
le c
apil
lary
str
uct
ure
. $e
loss
of
mo
istu
re f
rom
th
e in
teri
or
of
the
leaf
is
pre
ven
ted
by
a tr
ansl
uce
nt
wax
y la
yer,
th
e cu
ticl
e. $
e p
igm
ent
chie
%y
resp
on
sib
le f
or
the
gree
n c
olo
ur
char
acte
rizi
ng
livi
ng
veg-
etat
ion
is
the
chlo
rop
hyl
l. L
igh
t p
assi
ng
thro
ugh
th
e u
pp
er
tiss
ues
of
the
leaf
is r
ecei
ved
by
chlo
rop
hyl
l mo
lecu
les
in t
he
pal
isad
e la
yer,
sp
ecia
lize
d f
or
ph
oto
syn
thes
is, t
he
pro
cess
by
wh
ich
pla
nt
cell
s p
rod
uce
usa
ble
ch
emic
al e
ner
gy
fro
m s
ola
r
ener
gy.
$e
ph
oto
syn
thes
is a
ctiv
ity
toge
ther
wit
h t
he
mo
is-
ture
co
nte
nt
has
bee
n u
sed
as
po
ssib
le i
nd
icat
ors
of
vege
ta-
tio
n s
tatu
s fo
r '
re s
usc
epti
bil
ity.
Wea
ther
co
nd
itio
ns
and
veg
etat
ion
sta
tus
are
bro
adly
in
-
volv
ed i
n '
re i
gnit
ion
an
d p
rop
agat
ion
. N
ever
thel
ess,
esp
e-
cial
ly i
n E
uro
pe,
th
e ca
use
s o
f m
ost
're
s ar
e d
irec
tly
lin
ked
to h
um
an b
ehav
iou
r. $
e p
rese
nce
of
sett
lem
ents
, ag
ricu
l-
tura
l b
urn
ing,
pyr
om
ania
cs,
bar
bec
ues
an
d c
igar
ette
s co
n-
trib
ute
to
th
e in
crea
sed
ris
k o
f ac
cid
enta
l '
res.
Val
ues
of
thes
e va
riab
les
are
pre
sen
t lo
ng-
term
an
d c
ou
ld b
e tr
eate
d
as s
tati
c. $
us,
th
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
anci
ent
dat
a is
ess
enti
al f
or
pro
vid
ing
reli
able
in
form
atio
n a
bo
ut
hu
man
-in
du
ced
in
ci-
den
ce o
n '
res.
Her
ea>
er v
aria
ble
s ch
ose
n i
n t
he
pro
ject
by
Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.
(201
0) a
re p
rese
nte
d a
nd
exp
lain
ed.
In m
ost
co
un
trie
s h
um
an a
ctiv
itie
s ar
e m
ain
ly r
esp
on
sib
le
for
're
ign
itio
n.
In M
edit
erra
nea
n a
reas
, h
um
an f
acto
rs
cau
se m
ore
th
an 9
0 %
of
're
s (L
eon
e et
al.,
200
3). I
n S
pai
n,
96.1
% o
f al
l '
res
are
hu
man
-in
du
ced
(D
irec
ció
n G
ener
al
de
Bio
div
ersi
dad
, 200
6). M
od
elli
ng
hu
man
beh
avio
ur,
bo
th
in s
pac
e an
d t
ime,
is
par
ticu
larl
y co
mp
lex.
$er
efo
re m
ore
freq
uen
t st
ud
ies
are
focu
sed
on
var
iab
les
rela
ted
to
lan
d u
se
or
lan
d u
se-c
han
ge (
rura
l ab
and
on
men
t, a
gric
ult
ura
l–fo
r-
est
inte
rfac
e o
r u
rban
–fo
rest
in
terf
ace)
, p
op
ula
tio
n t
ren
ds,
rura
l act
ivit
ies,
an
d p
ote
nti
al c
on
%ic
ts t
hat
may
lead
to
ven
-
gean
ces
or
arso
n (
Veg
a-G
arcí
a et
al.,
199
5; C
ard
ille
et
al.,
2001
; Leo
ne
et a
l., 2
003;
Mar
tín
ez e
t al
., 20
09).
$e
app
roac
h u
sed
to
co
nsi
der
hu
man
fac
tors
in
're
ris
k
asse
ssm
ent
has
bee
n c
om
mo
nly
bas
ed o
n s
tati
stic
al m
od
els,
wh
ich
hav
e at
tem
pte
d t
o e
xpla
in h
isto
rica
l h
um
an-c
ause
d
're
occ
urr
ence
fro
m a
set
of
ind
epen
den
t va
riab
les
(Mar
-
tell
et
al.,
1989
; C
ho
u e
t al
., 19
93;
Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.,
2003
;
Mar
tín
ez e
t al
., 20
04).
Fir
es a
sso
ciat
ed w
ith
neg
lige
nce
or
arso
n c
an b
e ap
pro
ach
ed b
y co
nsi
der
ing
dis
tan
ces
to r
oad
s
and
rai
lro
ads,
ele
ctri
city
po
wer
lin
es a
nd
mil
itar
y es
tab
lish
-
men
ts,
wh
ile
fact
ors
ass
oci
ated
wit
h r
ecre
atio
nal
lan
d u
se
can
be
app
roac
hed
usi
ng
the
pre
sen
ce o
f u
rban
–fo
rest
inte
r-
face
s, h
ote
ls, c
abin
s, a
nd
cam
pin
g si
tes.
Var
iab
les
exp
ress
ing
each
fac
tor
can
be
map
ped
at
a d
e'n
ed s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
in t
he
're
ris
k a
sses
smen
t sy
stem
usi
ng
a w
ide
vari
ety
of
GIS
an
alys
is t
oo
ls.
$e
hu
man
co
mp
on
ent
is e
xpec
ted
to
be
stab
le f
or
a w
ho
le '
re s
easo
n. L
ogi
stic
reg
ress
ion
tec
hn
iqu
es
can
be
use
d t
o e
stim
ate
the
pro
bab
ilit
y o
f '
re o
ccu
rren
ce
fro
m s
oci
o-e
con
om
ic v
aria
ble
s. F
or
exam
ple
in
Ch
uvi
eco
et a
l (2
010)
th
e d
epen
den
t va
riab
le w
as t
he
nu
mb
er o
f '
res
cau
sed
by
hu
man
act
ivit
ies
in t
he
per
iod
199
0–20
04,
de-
rive
d f
rom
o#
cial
're
sta
tist
ics.
Ignitio
n p
ote
ntial fr
om
lig
htn
ing
In s
pit
e o
f th
e le
sser
im
po
rtan
ce o
f li
ghtn
ing
ove
r h
um
an
fact
ors
fo
r '
re i
gnit
ion
, li
ghtn
ing
stri
kes
are
als
o i
mp
ort
ant
fact
ors
to
co
nsi
der
in '
re d
ange
r es
tim
atio
n, s
ince
th
ey t
end
to b
urn
lar
ger
area
s, b
ecau
se t
hey
occ
ur
in m
ore
iso
late
d
and
ste
eper
are
as, a
nd
fre
qu
entl
y h
ave
nu
mer
ou
s si
mu
ltan
e-
ou
s ig
nit
ed s
po
ts, a
nd
th
eref
ore
are
mo
re d
i#cu
lt t
o c
on
tro
l
(Wo
tto
n a
nd
Mar
tell
, 20
05).
Sev
eral
stu
die
s h
ave
focu
sed
on
an
alyz
ing
the
geo
grap
hic
var
iab
les
that
are
mo
re p
ron
e
to c
ausi
ng
're
s d
ue
to l
igh
tnin
g, s
uch
as
top
ogr
aph
y (D
íaz-
Ava
los
et a
l., 2
001)
, st
rik
e p
ola
rity
(L
ath
am a
nd
Sch
liet
er,
1989
) an
d fu
el m
ois
ture
co
nte
nt (
Wo
tto
n a
nd
Mar
tell
, 200
5).
Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.
(201
0) a
nal
yzed
th
e st
ruct
ura
l fa
cto
rs a
s-
soci
ated
wit
h h
isto
rica
l re
cord
s o
f '
res
cau
sed
by
ligh
tnin
g
by
com
par
ing
spat
ial
pat
tern
s o
f a&
ecte
d a
nd
no
n-a
&ec
ted
area
s. $
e d
epen
den
t va
riab
le i
n t
his
cas
e w
as t
he
nu
mb
er
of
're
s ca
use
d b
y li
ghtn
ing
du
rin
g th
e lo
nge
st p
oss
ible
tim
e
per
iod
(w
hen
bo
th l
igh
tnin
g so
urc
es a
nd
're
sta
tist
ics
wer
e
avai
lab
le),
wh
ile
the
ind
epen
den
t va
riab
les
wer
e th
e to
tal
nu
mb
er o
f li
ghtn
ing
stri
kes
, ve
geta
tio
n a
nd
ter
rain
ch
arac
-
teri
stic
s, m
ois
ture
co
des
der
ived
fro
m t
he
U.S
. Nat
ion
al F
ire
Dan
ger
Rat
ing
Syst
em (
FD
RS,
Bra
dsh
aw e
t al
., 19
83),
an
d
the
Can
adia
n F
ore
st F
ire
Wea
ther
In
dex
(F
WI,
Van
Wag
ner
,
66
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 1987
). $
e an
alys
is w
as r
estr
icte
d t
o d
aily
met
eoro
logi
cal
dat
abas
e w
ith
at
3 k
m ×
3 k
m r
eso
luti
on
an
d f
or
the
pe-
rio
d o
f 20
02–
2004
. In
a s
imil
ar m
ann
er t
o t
he
stu
dy
of
hu
-
man
fac
tors
, a l
ogi
stic
reg
ress
ion
mo
del
was
use
d t
o p
red
ict
and
exp
lain
his
tori
cal
're
occ
urr
ence
cau
sed
by
ligh
tnin
g.
In t
his
cas
e, a
pu
re b
inar
y va
riab
le w
as t
aken
in
to a
cco
un
t
('re
/no
t '
re).
$e
ou
tpu
ts o
f th
e m
od
els
sho
wed
go
od
cla
s-
si'
cati
on
res
ult
s, w
ith
70
% o
f th
e ce
lls
corr
ectl
y cl
assi
'ed
.
$e
mai
n i
nd
icat
ive
vari
able
was
th
e n
um
ber
of
dry
sto
rms
(wit
h le
ss t
han
2 m
m r
ain
fall
).
Ignitio
n p
ote
ntial associa
ted w
ith s
tatu
s o
f fu
el
mois
ture
conte
nt
Fu
el m
ois
ture
co
nte
nt
(FM
C)
is a
cri
tica
l var
iab
le fo
r es
tim
at-
ing
ign
itio
n a
nd
're
pro
pag
atio
n d
ange
r, s
ince
th
e am
ou
nt
of
wat
er i
n t
he
vege
tati
on
is
inve
rsel
y re
late
d t
o i
gnit
ion
po
ten
-
tial
an
d r
ate
of
spre
ad (
Nel
son
, 20
01).
Fo
llow
ing
a co
mm
on
app
roac
h i
n f
ore
st '
re l
iter
atu
re,
the
esti
mat
ion
of
FM
C c
an
be
div
ided
, as
in C
hu
viec
o e
t al
. (20
10),
in
ter
ms
of
dea
d a
nd
live
co
mp
on
ents
. $e
form
er i
s es
tim
ated
fro
m m
eteo
rolo
gi-
cal v
aria
ble
s w
hil
e th
e la
ter
fro
m s
atel
lite
imag
es.
$e
esti
mat
ion
of
FM
C o
f d
ead
mat
eria
ls ly
ing
on
th
e fo
rest
%o
or
(lea
ves,
bra
nch
es,
and
deb
ris)
is
incl
ud
ed i
n m
ost
op
-
erat
ion
al '
re d
ange
r ra
tin
g sy
stem
s (C
amia
et
al.,
2003
). I
t
is m
ost
co
mm
on
ly e
stim
ated
fro
m m
eteo
rolo
gica
l var
iab
les,
sin
ce d
ead
fu
els
chan
ge t
hei
r w
ater
co
nte
nt
in p
aral
lel
wit
h
atm
osp
her
ic c
on
dit
ion
s. W
eath
er c
han
ges
a&ec
t th
e d
egre
e
of
wat
er e
vap
ora
tio
n a
nd
ab
sorp
tio
n,
esp
ecia
lly
tem
per
a-
ture
, ra
infa
ll a
nd
win
d s
pee
d (
Vin
ey,
1991
). $
e in
dep
en-
den
t va
riab
les
in t
his
cas
e w
ere
two
mo
istu
re c
od
es r
ou
tin
ely
use
d i
n '
re d
ange
r es
tim
atio
n: t
he
Fin
e F
uel
Mo
istu
re C
od
e
(FF
MC
) an
d t
he
10-h
co
de,
bei
ng
par
t o
f th
e C
anad
ian
an
d
US
're
dan
ger
syst
ems,
res
pec
tive
ly.
Sim
ilar
res
ult
s w
ere
ob
tain
ed f
rom
th
e tw
o m
ois
ture
co
des
, b
ut
'n
ally
th
e 10
-h
cod
e w
as s
elec
ted
, sin
ce it
do
es n
ot
req
uir
e w
ind
sp
eed
as
an
inp
ut
and
th
eref
ore
it is
eas
ier
to c
om
pu
te. O
nce
th
e em
pir
i-
cal
rela
tio
ns
wer
e es
tab
lish
ed,
they
wer
e ex
ten
ded
to
a g
rid
of
1 k
m ×
1 k
m r
eso
luti
on
, in
terp
ola
ted
fro
m t
he
dat
a o
f th
e
Eu
rop
ean
Cen
tre
for
Med
ium
Ran
ge W
eath
er F
ore
cast
ing
(EC
MW
F)
usi
ng
loca
l alg
ori
thm
s.
Fo
r th
e es
tim
atio
n o
f F
MC
of
live
sp
ecie
s ve
geta
tio
n,
sate
l-
lite
rem
ote
sen
sin
g ca
n b
e u
sed
as
inp
ut.
$e
use
of
sate
llit
e
dat
a in
liv
e F
MC
est
imat
ion
has
bee
n d
iscu
ssed
by
di&
eren
t
auth
ors
in
rec
ent
year
s (C
hu
viec
o e
t al
., 20
04;
Dan
son
an
d
Bo
wye
r, 2
004;
Mak
i et
al.,
2004
; Den
nis
on
et
al.,
2005
; Ria
ňo
et a
l. 20
05;
Sto
w e
t al
. 20
05).
In
sp
ite
of
the
di#
cult
y o
f d
e-
term
inin
g th
e in
%u
ence
of
wat
er a
bso
rpti
on
ove
r o
ther
fac
-
tors
th
at a
&ec
t p
lan
t re
%ec
tan
ce,
seve
ral
stu
die
s h
ave
fou
nd
goo
d r
elat
ion
ship
s, e
spec
iall
y in
gra
ssla
nd
s an
d s
om
e sh
rub
spec
ies.
An
ap
pro
ach
to
est
imat
ing
FM
C o
f li
ve s
pec
ies
is b
ased
on
the
inve
rsio
n o
f si
mu
lati
on
mo
del
s o
f th
e ra
dia
tive
tra
nsf
er
fun
ctio
n (
RT
M)
(Pin
ty e
t al
., 20
04).
$e
inp
uts
are
an
8-d
ay
com
po
site
of
the
'rs
t se
ven
re%
ecta
nce
ban
ds
of
MO
DIS
(MO
D09
pro
du
ct:
Ver
mo
te a
nd
Ver
meu
len
, 19
99),
as
wel
l
as v
eget
atio
n i
nd
ices
an
d t
he
leaf
are
a in
dex
(L
AI)
pro
du
ct
der
ived
fro
m M
OD
15 o
n t
he
sam
e se
nso
r (K
nya
zik
hin
et
al.,
1999
). C
on
sid
erin
g th
e gr
eate
r ac
cess
ibil
ity
of
AV
HR
R
imag
es a
nd
th
e go
od
per
form
ance
of
the
cali
bra
ted
mo
del
s,
the
emp
iric
al m
od
el b
ased
on
th
ese
imag
es c
an a
lso
be
con
-
sid
ered
as
a sa
tisf
acto
ry m
eth
od
fo
r es
tim
atin
g li
ve F
MC
. To
avo
id c
lou
d c
ove
rage
an
d o
&-n
adir
ob
serv
atio
ns,
an
8-d
ay
com
po
siti
ng
tech
niq
ue
bas
ed o
n m
axim
um
dai
ly t
emp
era-
ture
s ca
n b
e u
sed
(C
hu
viec
o e
t al
. 200
5). $
eref
ore
, th
e es
ti-
mat
ion
of
live
FM
C c
an b
e u
pd
ated
eve
ry 8
day
s.
Pro
pagation p
ote
ntial
Mo
st '
re s
pre
ad s
imu
lati
on
mo
del
s h
ave
bee
n d
esig
ned
fo
r
loca
l co
nd
itio
ns
and
fo
r ac
tive
're
s th
at h
ave
occ
urr
ed o
r
thei
r o
ccu
rren
ces
hav
e b
een
sim
ula
ted
. $
e av
erag
e p
rop
a-
gati
on
po
ten
tial
of e
ach
cel
l is
pro
du
ced
, ass
um
ing
a '
re m
ay
occ
ur
anyt
ime
in a
ny
cell
of
the
stu
dy
area
s. A
no
ther
ch
al-
len
ge w
as t
hat
're
pro
pag
atio
n v
alu
es s
ho
uld
be
calc
ula
ted
for
coar
se g
rid
cel
ls, s
ince
mo
del
s ar
e ad
dre
ssed
to
reg
ion
al
scal
es,
wh
ich
is
un
com
mo
n i
n '
re b
ehav
iou
r m
od
els.
De-
spit
e th
ese
two
lim
itat
ion
s, a
vera
ge p
rop
agat
ion
co
nd
itio
ns
can
be
sim
ula
ted
, as
in C
hu
viec
o e
t al
. (20
10),
usi
ng
the
Be-
hav
e p
rogr
am (
An
dre
ws
and
Ch
ase,
199
0). I
np
ut
con
dit
ion
s
hav
e to
be
sele
cted
bas
ed o
n t
he
wo
rst
case
sce
nar
io, t
hat
is,
the
're
is
po
ten
tial
ly p
rop
agat
ed a
lon
g th
e m
axim
um
slo
pe
and
th
e w
ind
sp
eed
is
the
aver
age
of
max
imu
m s
pee
ds
for
sum
mer
tim
e. $
e si
mu
late
d v
alu
es o
f %
ame
len
gth
an
d r
ate
of
spre
ad h
ave
to b
e av
erag
ed f
or
each
fu
el t
ype
and
slo
pe
inte
rval
, so
as
to g
ener
ate
a p
ote
nti
al p
rop
agat
ion
map
of
the
stu
dy
site
.
To
pic
s as
soci
ated
wit
h v
alu
es a
t st
ake
(vu
lner
abil
ity)
can
be
div
ided
in
tw
o g
rou
ps:
th
ose
ass
oci
ated
wit
h e
con
om
ic a
nd
soci
al f
acto
rs,
and
th
ose
rel
ated
to
eco
logi
cal
com
po
nen
ts.
Di&
eren
t ap
pro
ach
es c
an b
e u
sed
fo
r d
eriv
ing
each
fac
tor.
$e
tan
gibl
e re
sou
rces
are
eva
luat
ed u
sin
g d
irec
t m
eth
od
s,
such
as
the
mar
ket
pri
ce, t
he
age
of
the
fore
st s
tan
d a
nd
th
e
len
gth
of
cro
p r
ota
tio
n p
erio
ds.
$e
Co
st A
void
ance
Ap
-
pro
ach
was
use
d in
Ch
apte
r 2
to d
eter
min
e th
e va
lue
of
geo
-
info
rmat
ion
fo
r d
isas
ter
risk
man
agem
ent.
Ho
wev
er,
sin
ce
tim
ber
has
a c
lear
mar
ket
val
ue
it c
an b
e u
sed
as
a m
ean
s o
f
valu
atio
n.
Wh
ile
mar
ket
val
ue
has
bee
n w
idel
y ac
cep
ted
in
real
est
ate
and
als
o b
y go
vern
men
ts,
ther
e ar
e so
me
pro
b-
lem
s in
est
imat
ing
wil
lin
gnes
s to
pay
as
exp
ress
ed i
n C
hap
-
ter
2 an
d t
her
efo
re m
ark
et v
alu
e sh
ou
ld b
e u
sed
wit
h s
om
e
cau
tio
n.
$e
wo
od
res
ou
rces
can
be
asse
ssed
fo
llo
win
g a
mix
ed p
ro-
ced
ure
th
at c
on
sid
ers
the
Am
eric
an a
pp
roac
h (
on
ly n
atu
-
ral
rege
ner
atio
n i
s co
nsi
der
ed)
and
th
e E
uro
pea
n a
pp
roac
h
(hu
man
-in
du
ced
re
gen
erat
ion
).
$e
inta
ngi
ble
reso
urc
es
wer
e ev
alu
ated
usi
ng
ind
irec
t m
eth
od
s, s
uch
as
the
trav
el
cost
an
d c
on
tin
gen
t va
luat
ion
met
ho
ds.
$e
form
er c
an b
e
use
d t
o a
sses
s th
e re
crea
tio
nal
val
ue
of
the
lan
dsc
ape,
wh
ile
the
latt
er i
s th
e b
asis
to
eva
luat
e th
e co
st o
f n
on
-use
an
d
67
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4w
ild
life
co
nse
rvat
ion
of
end
ange
red
sp
ecie
s. $
e va
lues
as-
soci
ated
wit
h h
un
tin
g an
d C
O2
sin
ks
hav
e b
een
pri
ced
ac-
cord
ing
to t
he
fore
st i
nve
nto
ry (
Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.,
2010
).
Degra
dation p
ote
ntial
$e
asse
ssm
ent
of
the
vuln
erab
ilit
y as
soci
ated
wit
h e
colo
gi-
cal f
acto
rs h
as t
o b
e fo
cuse
d o
n t
he
resp
on
se o
f ve
geta
tio
n t
o
're
e&
ects
. $
is r
esp
on
se h
as t
o b
e se
t u
p f
or
two
di&
eren
t
tim
e p
erio
ds:
sh
ort
ter
m (
less
th
an 1
yea
r), f
ocu
sed
on
iden
-
tify
ing
the
mo
st e
rod
ible
are
as, a
nd
med
ium
ter
m (
25 y
ears
)
to i
den
tify
ch
ange
s in
veg
etat
ion
str
uct
ure
an
d c
om
po
si-
tio
n c
ause
d b
y '
re.
Sin
ce v
uln
erab
ilit
y ev
alu
atio
n n
eed
s to
be
do
ne
bef
ore
a '
re o
ccu
rs,
no
pre
vio
us
kn
ow
led
ge o
f '
re
char
acte
rist
ics
and
po
st-'
re c
lim
ato
log
y h
as t
o b
e ta
ken
into
acco
un
t. C
on
seq
uen
tly,
ris
k s
cen
ario
s n
eed
to
be
crea
ted
.
Am
on
g th
e d
i&er
ent
par
amet
ers
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
deg
rad
a-
tio
n,
po
ten
tial
so
il e
rosi
on
has
to
be
calc
ula
ted
in
ord
er t
o
un
der
stan
d p
ote
nti
al r
esu
lt o
f p
ost
-'re
veg
etat
ion
lo
ss.
In
spit
e o
f th
e n
um
ero
us
mo
di'
cati
on
s an
d c
riti
cism
of
the
stru
ctu
re o
f th
e U
niv
ersa
l So
il L
oss
Eq
uat
ion
(U
SLE
), it
sti
ll
con
stit
ute
s a
refe
ren
ce t
o a
sses
s th
e m
agn
itu
de
of
soil
loss
in
bu
rned
are
as (
Gio
van
nin
i, 1
999)
. So
il e
rod
ibil
ity
anal
ysis
is
gen
eral
ly b
ased
on
org
anic
mat
ter
con
ten
t, s
urf
ace
stru
ctu
re
and
so
il c
rust
ing
risk
.
Fo
r th
e cl
imat
e fa
cto
r, t
he
Fo
urn
ier
Ind
ex c
an b
e u
sed
as
an
ind
icat
or
of
the
clim
ate
ero
sive
ab
ilit
y. $
e F
ou
rnie
r In
dex
is d
e'n
ed a
s th
e sq
uar
e o
f th
e m
ean
am
ou
nt
of
pre
cip
itat
ion
in t
he
wet
test
mo
nth
div
ided
by
the
ove
rall
an
nu
al m
ean
of
pre
cip
itat
ion
. Det
ails
are
ava
ilab
le a
t h
ttp
://w
ww
.eh
ow
.co
m/
ho
w_
1004
7009
_ca
lcu
late
-fo
urn
ier-
ind
ex.h
tml.
Dat
a li
mit
a-
tio
ns
can
o>
en l
ead
to
a q
ual
itat
ive
app
roac
h t
o c
lass
ifyi
ng
ero
dib
ilit
y in
cat
ego
ries
fro
m h
igh
to
lo
w s
ensi
tivi
ty t
o '
re
e&ec
ts.
Veg
etat
ion
po
st-'
re r
esp
on
se a
bil
ity
has
to
be
con
-
sid
ered
as
a p
red
icti
ve a
ttri
bu
te.
$e
mai
n v
eget
atio
n c
om
mu
nit
ies
can
be
gro
up
ed a
cco
rd-
ing
to t
hei
r ve
rtic
al s
tru
ctu
ral
com
po
siti
on
(tr
ees
and
/or
shru
bs)
an
d t
he
rep
rod
uct
ive
stra
teg
y fo
r ea
ch c
om
mu
nit
y.
A v
uln
erab
ilit
y va
lue
has
to
be
assi
gned
as
the
inve
rse
of
its
abil
ity
to r
esp
on
d to
sh
ort
-ter
m e
&ec
ts (
e.g.
see
der
sh
rub
lan
d
= v
ery
hig
h;
resp
rou
ter
shru
bla
nd
= l
ow
; d
e'ci
ent
seed
er
tree
co
vere
d +
see
der
sh
rub
lan
d =
ver
y h
igh
; res
pro
ute
r tr
ee
cove
red
+ m
ixed
sh
rub
lan
d =
med
ium
vu
lner
abil
ity)
. $
e
clim
atic
lim
its
to p
ost
-'re
reg
ener
atio
n h
ave
to b
e b
ased
on
his
tori
cal w
ater
de'
cit
ind
icat
ors
. $
e in
tegr
atio
n o
f th
e d
if-
fere
nt
com
po
nen
ts o
f p
ost
-'re
sh
ort
ter
m d
egra
dat
ion
po
-
ten
tial
has
to
be
det
erm
ined
by
soil
ero
dib
ilit
y, v
eget
atio
n
vuln
erab
ilit
y an
d w
ater
lim
itat
ion
s. S
cen
ario
s o
f '
re i
nte
n-
sity
hav
e to
be
esti
mat
ed f
or
the
Ro
ther
mel
’s s
tan
dar
d f
uel
mo
del
s (A
nd
erso
n,
1982
), c
on
tras
ted
on
exp
erim
enta
l '
res
(Bae
za e
t al
., 20
02)
and
're
sim
ula
tio
ns
carr
ied
ou
t w
ith
th
e
FAR
SIT
E '
re s
imu
lato
r (F
inn
ey, 1
998)
.
Lan
dsc
ape
valu
e is
th
e th
ird
co
mp
on
ent
to a
cco
un
t fo
r '
re
Vu
lner
abil
ity
(Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.,
2010
). F
ire
man
ager
s ta
ke
into
acc
ou
nt
the
intr
insi
c q
ual
ity
of
the
lan
dsc
ape
to r
ank
pre
-'re
pla
nn
ing,
ob
vio
usl
y al
on
g w
ith
oth
er v
aria
ble
s as
so-
ciat
ed w
ith
hu
man
set
tlem
ents
an
d p
ote
nti
al li
fe t
hre
ats.
$e
eval
uat
ion
of
lan
dsc
ape
char
acte
rist
ics
has
bee
n a
pp
roac
hed
by
man
y au
tho
rs i
n r
ecen
t ye
ars,
in
clu
din
g a
wid
e ra
nge
of
crit
eria
: eco
logi
cal (
Kat
o e
t al
., 19
97; N
akag
osh
i an
d K
on
do,
2002
), a
esth
etic
, p
op
ula
tio
n p
refe
ren
ces,
vis
ual
pro
per
ties
(Mar
tín
ez-V
ega
et a
l., 2
003;
Arr
iaza
et
al.,
2004
). I
n C
hu
vi-
eco
et
al.
(201
0) t
he
con
sid
erat
ion
of
lan
dsc
ape
pro
per
ties
in r
elat
ion
to
're
vu
lner
abil
ity
asse
ssm
ent
was
ap
pro
ach
ed
fro
m a
wei
ghte
d c
om
bin
atio
n o
f th
e in
trin
sic
valu
es o
f th
e
lan
dsc
ape
and
th
e le
gal
stat
us
of
pro
tect
ed a
reas
(M
artí
nez
-
Veg
a et
al.,
200
7).
Model in
tegra
tion
$e
calc
ula
ted
inp
ut
vari
able
s n
eed
to
be
con
vert
ed t
o a
co
m-
mo
n r
isk
sca
le, a
nd
th
ey s
ho
uld
be
pro
per
ly w
eigh
ted
co
nsi
d-
erin
g th
e im
po
rtan
ce o
f th
e d
i&er
ent
fact
ors
. Sev
eral
met
ho
ds
hav
e b
een
pro
po
sed
to
'n
d c
om
mo
n s
cale
s o
f '
re r
isk
, bei
ng
vari
able
no
rmal
izat
ion
, qu
alit
ativ
e ca
tego
riza
tio
n a
nd
pro
ba-
bil
isti
c ap
pro
ach
es (
Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.,
2003
). V
aria
ble
no
rmal
-
izat
ion
gen
erat
es a
co
mm
on
sca
le b
y co
nve
rtin
g ea
ch v
aria
ble
to a
zer
o t
o o
ne
ran
ge, u
sin
g ei
ther
th
e m
inim
um
an
d m
axi-
mu
m v
alu
e, o
r th
e m
ean
an
d s
tan
dar
d d
evia
tio
n o
f th
e in
pu
t
vari
able
. Qu
alit
ativ
e gr
ou
ps
imp
ly c
on
vers
ion
of
the
ori
gin
al
scal
e to
a c
ateg
ori
cal
or
ord
inal
on
e, u
sin
g ca
tego
ries
su
ch a
s
low
, med
ium
an
d h
igh
ris
k. F
inal
ly, t
he
pro
bab
ilis
tic
app
roac
h
req
uir
es t
he
mo
del
lin
g o
f va
riab
les
usi
ng
any
of
the
stan
dar
d
pro
bab
ilit
y fu
nct
ion
s (n
orm
al, P
ois
son
, Bin
ary,
etc
).
Inte
gra
tion o
f risk indic
es
On
ce t
he
risk
var
iab
les
hav
e a
com
mo
n s
cale
of
dan
ger,
th
ey
can
be
com
bin
ed i
n m
any
di&
eren
t w
ays
and
usi
ng
a w
ider
ran
ge
of
tech
niq
ues
: q
ual
itat
ive
cro
ss-t
abu
lati
on
, m
ult
i-
crit
eria
eva
luat
ion
, re
gres
sio
n t
ech
niq
ues
or
pro
bab
ilis
tic
mo
del
s (C
hu
viec
o e
t al
., 20
03).
Rep
ort
ing
the
met
ho
do
log
y
ado
pte
d in
Ch
uvi
eco
et a
l. (2
010)
th
e in
tegr
atio
n o
f th
e ca
us-
ativ
e ag
ents
(h
um
an a
nd
lig
htn
ing)
was
bas
ed o
n t
he
Ko
l-
mo
goro
v p
rob
abil
isti
c ru
le (
Tar
anto
la,
2005
), t
he
inte
gra-
tio
n o
f li
ve a
nd
dea
d F
MC
was
per
form
ed b
y av
erag
ing
bo
th
FM
C i
gnit
ion
po
ten
tial
val
ues
, w
eigh
ted
by
the
per
cen
tage
cove
r o
f bo
th d
ead
an
d li
ve f
uel
s. F
or
the
inte
grat
ion
of c
aus-
ativ
e ag
ents
an
d F
MC
a m
ult
i-cr
iter
ia e
valu
atio
n t
ech
niq
ue
(Go
mez
-Del
gad
o a
nd
Bar
red
o-C
ano,
200
6) w
as a
do
pte
d. I
t
was
als
o a
ssu
med
th
at h
igh
ris
k p
rob
abil
ity
sho
uld
be
as-
soci
ated
wit
h s
itu
atio
ns
wh
en b
oth
hig
h p
rob
abil
ity
of
hav
-
ing
cau
sati
ve a
gen
ts a
nd
FM
C i
gnit
ion
po
ten
tial
occ
ur.
As-
sum
ing
that
bo
th o
f th
ese
two
var
iab
les
are
exp
ress
ed o
n a
Car
tesi
an a
xis,
th
e d
ista
nce
to
th
e m
axim
a sh
ou
ld b
e a
goo
d
ind
icat
or
of
risk
co
nd
itio
ns,
sin
ce t
hat
po
int
exp
ress
es t
he
hig
hes
t p
rob
abil
ity
of
bo
th f
acto
rs.
68
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 In t
he
case
of
the
inte
grat
ion
bet
wee
n i
gnit
ion
an
d p
rop
a-
gati
on
dan
ger,
a s
imil
ar a
pp
roac
h w
as a
do
pte
d, a
lth
ou
gh i
n
this
cas
e it
was
ass
um
ed t
hat
th
e w
ors
t co
nd
itio
ns
wo
uld
oc-
cur
eith
er w
hen
th
e m
axim
um
ign
itio
n o
r p
rop
agat
ion
dan
-
ger
occ
urs
. $er
efo
re, i
n t
his
cas
e th
e m
axim
um
dan
ger
val-
ues
sh
ou
ld b
e th
ose
mo
re d
ista
nt
fro
m t
he
ori
gin
. In
bo
th,
the
inte
grat
ion
of
ign
itio
n d
ange
r co
mp
on
ents
, an
d b
etw
een
ign
itio
n a
nd
pro
pag
atio
n d
ange
r, t
he
dyn
amic
fac
tors
su
ch
as F
MC
wer
e w
eigh
ted
hig
her
(fo
ur
tim
es),
th
an t
he
stat
ic
fact
ors
(h
um
an, l
igh
tin
g an
d p
rop
agat
ion
), s
o a
s to
be
mo
re
sen
siti
ve t
o v
aria
ble
s th
an c
han
ge r
apid
ly.
Fo
r vu
lner
abil
ity
vari
able
s, t
he
crit
erio
n t
o c
on
vert
th
e o
rigi
nal
qu
anti
tati
ve
scal
e o
f th
e so
cio
-eco
no
mic
asp
ects
an
d la
nd
scap
e va
lues
to
a ri
sk s
cale
was
bas
ed o
n q
ual
itat
ive
wei
ghti
ng.
$e
'n
al i
nte
grat
ion
of
the
vuln
erab
ilit
y co
mp
on
ent
was
bas
ed
on
fo
ur
qu
alit
ativ
e ri
sk
cate
gori
es
(low
–m
od
erat
e–
hig
h–
extr
eme)
, so
as
to p
ut
tho
se f
acto
rs i
n r
elat
ion
to
th
e
soil
deg
rad
atio
n f
acto
r, w
hic
h w
as a
lrea
dy
exp
ress
ed i
n t
hes
e
fou
r ca
tego
ries
. A s
imil
ar w
eigh
t w
as a
pp
lied
to
th
e th
ree
fac-
tors
co
nsi
der
ed (
soci
o-e
con
om
ic,
deg
rad
atio
n p
ote
nti
al a
nd
lan
dsc
ape
valu
e), s
ince
th
ey w
ere
con
sid
ered
to h
ave
a si
mil
ar
imp
act
in t
he
esti
mat
ion
of
po
ten
tial
dam
age
cau
sed
by
're
s.
Ad
dit
ion
al s
cen
ario
s co
uld
be
con
sid
ered
in f
utu
re w
ork
s.
Fir
e D
an
ger
Cla
sses
FW
I ra
nge
s (u
pp
er b
oun
d
excl
ud
ed)
Ver
y lo
w<
5.2
Lo
w5.
2 -
11.2
Mo
der
ate
11.2
- 2
1.3
Hig
h21
.3 -
38.
0
Ver
y h
igh
38
.0 -
50.
0
Ext
rem
e>
= 5
0.0
Tab
le 4
.4.2
: Val
ues
of
FW
I u
sed
as
thre
sho
lds
of
the
're
dan
-
ger
clas
ses
in t
he
EF
FIS
fo
reca
st m
od
ule
(h
ttp
://f
ore
st.jr
c.
ec.e
uro
pa.
eu/e
#s/
)
Top
icSp
atia
l dis
trib
uti
on
of
area
s p
ron
e to
wil
d'
re r
isk
du
e to
nat
ura
l or
hu
man
fac
tors
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
4 ri
sk c
lass
es, b
ased
on
Ter
rain
Lan
d c
ove
r/d
ista
nce
rel
atio
nsh
ips
Acc
essi
bil
ity
(Ro
ad n
etw
ork
)
Veg
etat
ion
sta
tus
Dea
d f
uel
mo
istu
re
Hu
man
fac
tors
Lig
htn
ing
po
ten
tial
Pro
pag
atio
n p
ote
nti
al
So
cio
-eco
no
mic
val
ues
Deg
rad
atio
n p
ote
nti
al
Lan
dsc
ape
valu
e
Acc
ess
Web
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ed i
nfo
rmat
ion
sys
tem
, un
rest
rict
ed a
cces
s
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le1:
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ard
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n
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tion
250
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ess
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t re
leva
nt
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risk
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essm
ent
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te f
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uen
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eek
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r m
ois
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a
Da
ta f
orm
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pli
cab
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st
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nfo
rmation S
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m (
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're
dan
ger
fore
cast
mo
du
le o
f E
FF
IS (
htt
p:/
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rest
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pa.
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) ge
ner
ates
dai
ly m
aps
for
1 to
6 d
ays
pro
-
ject
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re d
ange
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vel
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sin
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eath
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tive
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ch t
o 3
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cto
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d i
s
fed
to
geth
er w
ith
met
eoro
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cal f
ore
cast
dat
a re
ceiv
ed d
aily
fro
m F
ren
ch a
nd
Ger
man
met
eoro
logi
cal
serv
ices
(M
eteo
-
Fra
nce
an
d D
euts
cher
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terd
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st D
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).
A>
er a
tes
t p
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e o
f 5
year
s, d
uri
ng
wh
ich
di&
eren
t '
re d
an-
ger
met
ho
ds
hav
e b
een
im
ple
men
ted
in
par
alle
l, in
200
7 th
e
EF
FIS
net
wo
rk h
as a
do
pte
d t
he
Can
adia
n F
ore
st F
ire
Wea
th-
er I
nd
ex (
FW
I) S
yste
m a
s th
e m
eth
od
to a
sses
s th
e '
re d
ange
r
leve
l in
a h
arm
on
ized
way
th
rou
gho
ut
Eu
rop
e. C
alib
rati
on
of
the
're
dan
ger
ind
ex i
s st
ill
on
goin
g, t
hu
s th
e '
re d
ange
r
fore
cast
mo
du
le o
f E
FF
IS is
to
be
con
sid
ered
as
in t
est
or
pre
-
op
erat
ion
al m
od
e. F
ire
dan
ger
is m
app
ed i
n 6
cla
sses
(ve
ry
low
, low
, med
ium
, hig
h, v
ery
hig
h a
nd
ext
rem
e) w
ith
a s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
of a
bo
ut
10 k
m (
MF
dat
a) a
nd
36
km
(D
WD
dat
a).
$e
're
dan
ger
clas
ses
are
the
sam
e fo
r al
l co
un
trie
s an
d m
aps
show
a h
arm
on
ized
pic
ture
of
the
spat
ial
dis
trib
uti
on
of
're
dan
ger
leve
l th
rou
gho
ut
EU
. V
alu
es o
f F
WI
use
d a
s th
resh
-
old
s o
f th
e '
re d
ange
r cl
asse
s in
th
e E
FF
IS f
ore
cast
mo
du
le
map
s ar
e p
rese
nte
d in
Tab
le 4
.4.2
.
Tab
le 4
.4.3
: Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
fo
r F
ire
Ris
k A
sses
smen
t
69
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4T
akin
g in
to a
cco
un
t th
e st
ate
of
dev
elo
pm
ent
in F
ire
Ris
k
Map
pin
g as
des
crib
ed a
bo
ve, a
Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
was
gen
er-
ated
as
sho
wn
in
Tab
le 4
.4.3
.
App
rais
al R
esults
$e
avai
lab
ilit
y o
f F
ire
Ris
k M
aps
was
co
nsi
der
ed v
ery
im-
po
rtan
t b
y en
d-u
sers
fo
r b
oth
str
ateg
ic a
nd
op
erat
ion
al
ben
e"ts
.
Co
nce
rnin
g o
per
atio
nal
ben
e"ts
(F
igu
re 4
.2.2
), a
hig
h
ben
e't
rati
ng
was
ass
ign
ed b
y m
ore
th
an 7
5 %
of
end
-use
rs
for
crit
ical
in
fra
stru
ctu
re p
rote
ctio
n,
foll
ow
ed b
y se
curi
ty
(>55
%).
As
to b
e ex
pec
ted
wit
h a
ris
k m
ap m
ain
ly d
esig
ned
for
sup
po
rt o
f p
re-d
isas
ter
acti
viti
es i
n t
he
way
of
risk
re-
du
ctio
n a
nd
pre
par
edn
ess,
hea
lth
car
e an
d h
um
anit
aria
n a
id
wer
e co
nsi
der
ed a
s is
sues
ben
e'tt
ing
less
fro
m t
his
pro
du
ct.
No
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.4
.3)
lik
ewis
e h
igh
ligh
ted
th
e b
en-
e't
for
crit
ical
in
fra
stru
ctu
re a
nd
co
n'
rmed
th
e en
d-u
sers
’
low
er a
pp
rais
al f
or
hea
lth
car
e an
d h
um
anit
aria
n a
id,
bu
t
gave
a d
isti
nct
ly lo
wer
hig
h-b
ene'
t sc
ore
fo
r se
curi
ty.
In t
he
con
text
str
ateg
ic b
ene"
ts,
the
Fir
e R
isk
Map
was
con
sid
ered
as
hig
hly
ben
e'ci
al f
or
the
supp
ort
of p
reve
n-
tive
str
ateg
ies
(>70
% o
f en
d-u
sers
) an
d f
or
red
uci
ng
loss
es
in p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(>60
%),
in
acc
ord
ance
wit
h t
he
maj
or
ob
ject
ives
of
risk
map
pin
g (F
igu
re 4
.4.4
). B
ene'
ts f
or
sup
-
po
rt o
f su
perr
egio
nal
con
sist
ency
an
d c
oope
rati
on a
nd
th
e
e"ci
ency
an
d p
ubl
ic a
ccep
tan
ce o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s w
ere
con
sid
ered
less
im
po
rtan
t.
Ap
pra
isal
res
ult
s fr
om
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs d
i&er
sli
ghtl
y fr
om
tho
se o
f en
d-u
sers
; w
hil
e th
ey a
gree
on
th
e h
igh
ben
e't
of
a F
ire
Ris
k M
ap f
or
supp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s (a
lso
>70
%),
th
ey g
ive
the
low
est
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
fo
r re
du
cin
g
loss
es i
n p
ubl
ic e
con
omy
(<50
%,
bu
t 0
% f
or
low
ben
e't)
(Fig
ure
4.4
.5).
Fig
ure
4.4
.2: O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Fir
e R
isk
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.4
.3: O
per
atio
nal
Ben
e'ts
of
Fir
e R
isk
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.4
.4: S
trat
egic
Ben
e'ts
of
Fir
e R
isk
Map
(en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.4
.5: S
trat
egic
Ben
e'ts
of
Fir
e R
isk
Map
(n
on
-en
d-u
ser
app
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.4
.6:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f F
ire
Ris
k M
ap (
end
-use
r ap
-
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.4
.7:
Cri
tica
lity
of
spec
i'c
feat
ure
s o
f F
ire
Ris
k M
ap (
no
n-e
nd
-use
r
app
rais
al)
70
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Co
nce
rnin
g th
e cr
itic
alit
y o
f sp
eci"
c p
rod
uct
fe
atu
res
(Fig
ure
4.4
.6),
them
atic
con
ten
t w
as e
valu
ated
as
hig
hly
cri
ti-
cal
by
mo
re t
han
70
% o
f en
d-u
sers
, w
hic
h i
s p
lau
sib
le i
n
view
of
the
com
ple
x d
ata
bas
e u
nd
erly
ing
the
're
ris
k a
s-
sess
men
t m
od
el.
Acc
ess
to t
he
pro
du
ct r
eso
urc
e,
accu
racy
(i.
e. r
elia
bil
ity
of
haz
ard
in
dic
atio
n),
u
pdat
e fr
equ
ency
an
d
area
l co
vera
ge
wer
e al
so c
on
sid
ered
hig
hly
cri
tica
l b
y m
ore
th
an 5
0 %
of
end
-use
rs.
&em
atic
con
ten
t is
th
e m
ost
im
po
rtan
t fe
atu
re a
lso
fo
r
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.4
.7),
wit
h m
ore
th
an 8
0 %
rat
ing
it a
s h
igh
ly c
riti
cal.
Co
mp
ared
wit
h t
he
end
-use
rs’ a
pp
rais
al,
scal
e an
d s
pati
al r
esol
uti
on w
ere
con
sid
ered
eve
n le
ss c
riti
cal.
$e
crea
tio
n o
f su
ch a
sys
tem
rel
ies
on
th
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
nea
r-re
al-t
ime
low
-co
st s
atel
lite
im
ages
, w
ith
glo
bal
co
v-
erag
e an
d m
ediu
m s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
, in
ord
er t
o p
rod
uce
rast
er m
aps
of
acti
ve '
res
and
bu
rned
are
as w
ith
hig
h t
em-
po
ral
reso
luti
on
. A
su
mm
ary
of
the
stat
e-o
f-th
e-ar
t an
d o
f
syst
ems
that
alr
ead
y ex
ist
is p
rese
nte
d i
n t
he
foll
ow
ing.
Rem
ote
sensin
g f
or
Fire D
ete
ction a
nd M
oni-
toring
Fir
e in
form
atio
n d
eriv
ed f
rom
rem
ote
sen
sin
g d
ata
is t
he
pro
du
ct
of
inte
rdis
cip
lin
ary
wo
rk
des
ign
ed
to
mee
t th
e
nee
ds
of
the
Glo
bal
Ch
ange
res
earc
h a
nd
th
e '
re a
pp
lica
-
tio
ns
com
mu
nit
y. $
is i
nfo
rmat
ion
has
bee
n d
evel
op
ed i
n
resp
on
se t
o a
gro
win
g d
eman
d f
or
spat
iall
y ex
pli
cit
're
dat
a
to p
aram
eter
ize
and
val
idat
e va
rio
us
regi
on
al a
nd
glo
bal
mo
del
s. F
ire
is r
eco
gniz
ed a
s an
im
po
rtan
t co
mp
on
ent
of
trac
e ga
s an
d p
arti
cula
te e
mis
sio
n m
od
elli
ng,
cli
mat
e m
od
-
elli
ng,
atm
osp
her
ic t
ran
spo
rt a
nd
ch
emis
try
mo
del
s, e
co-
syst
em d
ynam
ics
mo
del
s an
d m
od
els
of
lan
d u
se c
han
ge.
Fir
e is
als
o a
lan
d m
anag
emen
t is
sue
and
a n
atu
ral h
azar
d.
A v
ast
volu
me
of
lite
ratu
re i
s av
aila
ble
on
rem
ote
sen
sin
g
for
app
lica
tio
ns
on
're
s, a
nd
sev
eral
pap
ers
(e.g
. C
hu
viec
o
1999
, A
her
n e
t al
., 20
01,
Xia
o e
t al
., 20
09)
sho
w t
hat
th
ree
mai
n li
nes
of
rese
arch
are
bei
ng
foll
ow
ed:
eval
uat
ion
of
new
sen
sors
;
dev
elo
pm
ent
or
adap
tati
on
of
met
ho
ds
for
bu
rned
lan
d
dis
crim
inat
ion
, b
ased
on
SA
R i
nte
rfer
om
etry
, sp
ectr
al
un
mix
ing,
lo
gist
ic
regr
essi
on
an
d
chan
ge
det
ecti
on
anal
ysis
,
spec
tral
an
alys
is o
f b
urn
ed a
reas
fo
r th
e p
urp
ose
of
de-
'n
ing
mo
re a
ccu
rate
in
dic
es f
or
bu
rned
lan
d d
iscr
imi-
nat
ion
.
Info
rmat
ion
fro
m h
igh
an
d m
ediu
m r
eso
luti
on
sen
sors
can
be
use
d t
o c
alcu
late
, in
a s
emi-
auto
mat
ic m
ann
er,
the
ex-
ten
t o
f b
urn
ed a
reas
, b
ased
on
th
e ca
lcu
lati
on
of
di&
eren
t
vege
tati
on
ind
ices
, usi
ng
red
an
d n
ear-
infr
ared
sp
ectr
al d
ata
(Ch
uvi
eco
et
al.,
2002
), o
r u
sin
g su
per
vise
d c
lass
i'ca
tio
n
met
ho
do
logi
es s
uch
as
max
imu
m l
ikel
iho
od
(B
osc
het
ti e
t
al.,
2007
).
$er
e ar
e m
any
sate
llit
e se
nso
rs t
hat
are
wid
ely
use
d i
n '
re
det
ecti
on
an
d m
on
ito
rin
g, e
spec
iall
y:
Ad
van
ced
Sp
aceb
orn
e $
erm
al E
mis
sio
n a
nd
Re%
ec-
tio
n R
adio
met
er (
AST
ER
)
Ad
van
ced
Lan
d I
mag
er (
AL
I) o
n E
O-1
sat
elli
te
Ad
van
ced
Ver
y H
igh
Res
olu
tio
n R
adio
met
er (
AV
HR
R)
Mo
der
ate
Res
olu
tio
n
Imag
ing
Spec
tro
rad
iom
eter
(MO
DIS
)
Lan
dsa
t 5
TM
($
emat
ic M
app
er, n
o lo
nge
r o
per
atio
n-
al b
ut
his
tori
cal d
ata
avai
lab
le)
Lan
dsa
t 7
ET
M+
(E
nh
ance
d $
emat
ic M
app
er P
lus)
Lan
dsa
t 8
Op
erat
ion
al L
and
Im
ager
(O
LI)
Spo
t 4
and
5
Qu
ick
bir
d-2
IKO
NO
S-2
Wo
rld
view
2
Dei
mo
s
$e
char
acte
rist
ics
of
mo
st o
f th
em a
re li
sted
in
Tab
le 4
.4.4
Eac
h s
enso
r h
as i
ts o
wn
ad
van
tage
s an
d d
isad
van
tage
s in
term
s o
f sp
atia
l an
d t
emp
ora
l res
olu
tio
ns,
co
st, a
nd
acq
uis
i-
tio
n t
ime.
$e
hig
h s
pat
ial r
eso
luti
on
sen
sors
hav
e lo
w t
em-
po
ral
reso
luti
on
(o
r th
ere
is n
o p
ast
dat
a b
ecau
se d
ata
wer
e
on
ly a
cqu
ired
on
dem
and
); a
dd
itio
nal
ly,
the
cost
of
dat
a
fro
m t
hes
e se
nso
rs r
ange
s fr
om
$ 8
0 to
th
ou
san
ds
of
do
l-
lars
, dep
end
ing
on
th
e se
nso
r. C
on
seq
uen
tly
it i
s u
nfe
asib
le
to u
se t
his
kin
d o
f p
rod
uct
fo
r m
on
ito
rin
g ac
tive
're
s an
d
bu
rned
are
as a
nd
to
est
abli
sh a
n e
arly
-war
nin
g sy
stem
.
An
im
po
rtan
t in
itia
tive
aim
ed a
t re
'n
ing
and
art
icu
lati
ng
the
inte
rnat
ion
al r
equ
irem
ents
fo
r '
re r
elat
ed o
bse
rvat
ion
s
is t
he
GO
FC
-GO
LD
-Fir
e M
app
ing
and
Mo
nit
ori
ng
$em
e
(htt
p:/
/ww
w.f
ao.o
rg/g
tos/
gofc
-go
ld/f
_'
re.h
tml)
th
at a
ims
to
mak
e th
e b
est
po
ssib
le u
se o
f ex
isti
ng
and
fu
ture
sat
elli
te o
b-
serv
ing
syst
ems,
fo
r '
re m
anag
emen
t, p
oli
cy d
ecis
ion
-mak
-
ing
and
glo
bal
ch
ange
res
earc
h. O
ne
of
the
pri
mar
y go
als
of
GO
FC
-GO
LD
Fir
e is
to
est
abli
sh a
net
wo
rk o
f '
re v
alid
a-
tio
n s
ites
an
d p
roto
cols
, p
rovi
din
g ac
cura
cy a
sses
smen
t fo
r
op
erat
ion
al p
rod
uct
s an
d a
tes
t b
ed f
or
new
or
enh
ance
d
pro
du
cts,
lea
din
g to
sta
nd
ard
pro
du
cts
of
kn
ow
n a
ccu
racy
.
To
pic
s o
f th
e '
re p
rogr
am i
ncl
ud
e:
Ava
ilab
ilit
y o
f o
bse
rvat
ion
s
Har
mo
niz
atio
n a
nd
sta
nd
ard
izat
ion
Val
idat
ion
Ad
equ
acy
and
ad
voca
cy o
f p
rod
uct
s
Reg
ion
al n
etw
ork
s an
d c
apac
ity
bu
ild
ing
Shar
ed d
ata,
in
form
atio
n a
nd
kn
ow
led
ge
71
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4(a
) $
ere
is a
n a
dd
itio
nal
sen
sor
(Veg
etat
ion
sen
sor)
on
Spo
t 4
and
5 s
atel
lite
s, w
hic
h h
as a
res
olu
tio
n o
f 1
km
fo
r
the
wh
ole
'el
d o
f vi
ew o
f 24
00 k
m, o
&er
ing
alm
ost
dai
ly
cove
rage
of
the
wh
ole
of
the
eart
h‘s
surf
ace.
Of
its
4 sp
ec-
tral
ban
ds,
3 b
and
s ch
arac
teri
ze v
eget
atio
n (
0.61
-0.6
8 μ
m
red
ban
d,
0.78
-0.8
9 μ
m n
ear
infr
ared
, an
d 1
.58-
1.75
μm
sho
rt w
ave
infr
ared
) an
d t
he
fou
rth
ban
d (
0.43
-0.4
7 μ
m,
blu
e) i
s fo
r at
mo
sph
eric
co
rrec
tio
n.
(b)
$is
is t
he
po
ten
tial
tem
po
ral r
eso
luti
on
fo
r a
spec
i'c
loca
tio
n, b
ecau
se t
he
his
tori
cal d
ata
may
no
t b
e av
aila
ble
if n
o o
ne
req
ues
ted
th
e sa
tell
ite
to c
oll
ect
dat
a o
n t
he
ac-
tual
dat
e fo
r th
at lo
cati
on
.
(c)
$e
pri
ce o
f h
igh
er-l
evel
pro
du
cts
(su
ch a
s te
mp
era-
ture
an
d r
e%ec
tan
ce)
der
ived
fro
m t
he
raw
rad
ian
ce d
ata
are
$80
per
sce
ne.
On
ly A
STE
R a
nd
MO
DIS
pro
vid
e
hig
her
-lev
el p
rod
uct
s.
Tab
le 4
.4.4
: L
aun
ch d
ate,
sta
tus,
an
d s
pat
ial
and
tem
po
ral
reso
luti
on
s o
f m
ajo
r sa
tell
ite
sen
sors
use
d f
or
're
det
ecti
on
pu
r-
po
ses
72
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 $e
GO
FC
-GO
LD
Fir
e Im
ple
men
tati
on
Tea
m i
s al
so a
n i
n-
tern
atio
nal
fo
rum
fo
r en
suri
ng
the
pro
visi
on
of
lon
g-te
rm,
syst
emat
ic s
atel
lite
ob
serv
atio
ns
nec
essa
ry f
or
the
pro
du
c-
tio
n o
f th
e fu
ll s
uit
e o
f '
re p
rod
uct
s. $
e te
am w
ork
s w
ith
the
GO
FC
-GO
LD
Reg
ion
al N
etw
ork
s to
bri
ng
toge
ther
're
dat
a p
rovi
der
s an
d '
re d
ata
use
rs t
o e
xch
ange
in
form
atio
n
on
cap
abil
itie
s an
d n
eed
s. $
e n
etw
ork
s al
low
fo
r la
tera
l ex-
chan
ge o
f in
form
atio
n a
nd
pro
vid
e a
mea
ns
for
stre
ngt
hen
-
ing
regi
on
al a
nd
in
par
ticu
lar
nat
ion
al r
elat
ed '
re a
ctiv
itie
s.
Co
ntr
ibu
tory
pro
ject
s to
GO
FC
-GO
LD
are
lis
ted
at
htt
p:/
/
gofc
-'re
.um
d.e
du
/pro
ject
s/co
ntr
ibu
tory
.ph
p.
Am
on
gst
the
di&
eren
t p
roje
cts
con
sid
ered
by
GO
FC
-GO
LD
, th
e M
OD
IS
're
pro
du
cts
and
th
e re
late
d F
IRM
S p
rod
uct
s (h
ttp
://e
arth
-
dat
a.n
asa.
gov/
dat
a/n
ear-
real
-tim
e-d
ata/
'rm
s)
are
con
sid
-
ered
am
on
g th
e m
ost
use
d r
elia
ble
lo
w c
ost
pro
du
cts
to
mo
nit
or
and
det
ect
ho
tsp
ots
an
d b
urn
ed a
reas
wo
rld
wid
e.
$e
MO
DIS
pro
du
ct h
as a
1-2
day
tem
po
ral a
nd
a 2
50-1
000
m s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
; th
e d
ata
are
free
an
d c
ove
r m
ore
sp
ec-
tral
ban
ds
than
oth
er s
atel
lite
s (u
p t
o 3
6 b
and
s).
MO
DIS
pro
du
cts
are
bu
ilt
and
im
pro
ved
bas
ed o
n e
xper
ien
ce w
ith
're
ass
essm
ents
pri
mar
ily
usi
ng
the
NO
AA
-AV
HR
R a
nd
GO
ES
syst
ems
(NO
AA
, 20
02),
an
d i
t h
as t
o b
e co
nsi
der
ed
that
no
oth
er s
yste
m p
rovi
des
th
e in
stru
men
t ch
arac
teri
s-
tics
nee
ded
fo
r an
e&
ecti
ve g
lob
al '
re m
on
ito
rin
g p
rogr
am.
$e
MO
DIS
sen
sor
was
des
ign
ed t
o i
ncl
ud
e ch
arac
teri
stic
s
spec
i'ca
lly
for
're
det
ecti
on
an
d p
rovi
des
a u
niq
ue
cap
a-
bil
ity
in t
erm
s o
f '
re m
on
ito
rin
g. $
e '
re p
rod
uct
s p
rovi
de
an id
enti
'ca
tio
n o
f th
e o
ccu
rren
ce o
f th
erm
al a
no
mal
ies,
an
esti
mat
e o
f th
e to
tal
emit
ted
po
wer
fro
m t
he
're
, an
d t
he
bu
rned
are
a. $
e p
rod
uct
s ar
e in
di&
erin
g st
ages
of
mat
uri
ty
and
eac
h p
rod
uct
has
an
exp
lici
t va
lid
atio
n p
rogr
am.
$e
Ger
man
Aer
osp
ace
Cen
ter
(DL
R)
lau
nch
ed a
n e
xper
i-
men
tal '
re d
etec
tio
n s
atel
lite
ref
erre
d to
as
BIR
D (
Bis
pec
tral
Infr
aRed
Det
ecti
on
) w
ith
a s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
of
370
m,
in
No
vem
ber
200
1, o
per
atin
g u
nti
l 20
03 (
Oer
tel
et a
l., 2
010,
Ru
eck
er e
t al
., 20
11).
$e
mai
n o
bje
ctiv
es o
f th
e ex
per
imen
-
tal
sate
llit
e w
ere
to d
emo
nst
rate
new
sm
all
sate
llit
e te
chn
ol-
og
y, a
nd
to
in
vest
igat
e n
ew i
nfr
ared
arr
ay s
enso
rs f
or
the
det
ecti
on
of
hig
h t
emp
erat
ure
eve
nts
su
ch a
s fo
rest
're
s.
$e
sate
llit
e in
clu
ded
a t
wo
ch
ann
el H
ot
Spo
t R
eco
gnit
ion
Syst
em (
HSR
S) w
hic
h w
as a
ble
to
det
ect
smal
ler
're
s th
an
the
MO
DIS
sen
sors
, an
d a
lso
was
cap
able
of
bet
ter
char
ac-
teri
zati
on
of
're
fro
nts
. H
ow
ever
, d
ue
to i
ts h
igh
er s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
, it
s te
mp
ora
l re
solu
tio
n w
as l
ow
er t
han
th
at o
f
MO
DIS
. A s
ign
i'ca
nt
ou
tco
me
of
this
mis
sio
n w
as t
he
abil
-
ity
to c
har
acte
rize
're
rad
iati
ve p
ow
er (
FR
P).
Exp
erim
ents
hav
e b
een
un
der
tak
en t
o c
om
par
e th
e m
easu
red
FR
P b
y th
e
MO
DIS
an
d B
IRD
sat
elli
tes.
At
pre
sen
t tw
o n
ew '
re s
atel
-
lite
s ar
e p
rop
ose
d f
or
lau
nch
in
th
e n
ear
futu
re f
orm
ing
the
Fir
eBIR
D m
issi
on
. $
ese
incl
ud
e th
e T
ET
-1 (
Tec
hn
olo
gie-
Erp
rob
un
gstr
äger
-1 o
r T
ech
no
log
y T
esti
ng
Dev
ice-
1) a
nd
BIR
OS
(Ber
lin
In
fraR
ed O
pti
cal
Syst
em).
On
bo
ard
pro
-
cess
ing
wil
l b
e ex
trem
ely
rap
id a
llo
win
g fo
r th
e fa
cili
tati
on
of
new
ser
vice
s fo
r '
re m
anag
ers
at '
re f
ron
ts.
$e
MO
DIS
alg
ori
thm
fo
r '
re h
ots
po
t d
etec
tio
n i
s p
er-
form
ed u
sin
g a
con
text
ual
alg
ori
thm
(G
igli
o e
t al
., 20
03)
that
exp
loit
s th
e st
ron
g em
issi
on
of
mid
-in
frar
ed r
adia
tio
n
fro
m '
res
(Do
zier
, 198
1; M
atso
n a
nd
Do
zier
, 198
1). $
e al
-
gori
thm
exa
min
es e
ach
pix
el o
f th
e M
OD
IS s
wat
h,
and
ul-
tim
atel
y as
sign
s ea
ch o
ne
into
on
e o
f th
e fo
llo
win
g cl
asse
s:
mis
sin
g d
ata,
clo
ud
, w
ater
, n
on
-'re
, '
re,
or
un
kn
ow
n.
$e
algo
rith
m u
ses
bri
ghtn
ess
tem
per
atu
res
der
ived
fro
m t
he
MO
DIS
4 µ
m a
nd
11
µm
ch
ann
els,
den
ote
d a
s T
4 a
nd
T
11, r
esp
ecti
vely
. Clo
ud
an
d w
ater
pix
els
are
iden
ti'
ed u
sin
g
inte
rnal
clo
ud
an
d w
ater
mas
ks
wit
hin
th
e M
OD
IS L
evel
1A
geo
loca
tio
n p
rod
uct
s (M
OD
13 a
nd
MY
D03
), r
esp
ecti
vely
,
and
pix
els
are
assi
gned
acc
ord
ingl
y. P
roce
ssin
g th
en c
on
tin
-
ues
on
th
e re
mai
nin
g p
ixel
s o
ver
lan
d.
A p
reli
min
ary
clas
si'
cati
on
is u
sed
to
eli
min
ate
obv
iou
s n
on
-
're
pix
els.
Fo
r th
ose
po
ten
tial
're
pix
els
that
rem
ain
, an
at-
tem
pt
is m
ade
to u
se t
he
nei
ghb
ou
rin
g p
ixel
s to
est
imat
e th
e
rad
iom
etri
c si
gnal
of
po
ten
tial
're
pix
els
in t
he
abse
nce
of
're
. V
alid
nei
ghb
ou
rin
g p
ixel
s in
a w
ind
ow c
entr
ed o
n t
he
po
ten
tial
're
pix
el a
re id
enti
'ed
an
d u
sed
to
est
imat
e a
bac
k-
gro
un
d v
alu
e. $
e w
ind
ow s
tart
s as
a 3
×3
pix
el s
qu
are
rin
g
aro
un
d t
he
po
ten
tial
're
pix
el.
Du
e to
th
e tr
ian
gula
r al
on
g-
scan
res
po
nse
of
the
MO
DIS
in
stru
men
t (K
aufm
an e
t al
.,
1998
), t
he
two
alo
ng-
scan
pix
els
adja
cen
t to
th
e p
ote
nti
al '
re
pix
el a
re d
eem
ed u
nre
liab
le a
nd
are
exc
lud
ed f
rom
th
e b
ack
-
gro
un
d c
har
acte
riza
tio
n. $
e ri
ng
is in
crea
sed
to
a m
axim
um
of
21×
21 p
ixel
s as
nec
essa
ry,
un
til
at l
east
25
% o
f th
e p
ixel
s
wit
hin
th
e w
ind
ow h
ave
bee
n d
eem
ed v
alid
, an
d t
he
nu
mb
er
of
vali
d p
ixel
s is
at
leas
t ei
ght.
Du
rin
g th
is s
tep,
an
op
tim
ized
nea
rest
-nei
ghb
ou
r se
arch
is
use
d t
o c
orr
ect
for
the
‘bow
tie’
e&ec
t, o
r ov
erla
p b
etw
een
MO
DIS
sca
ns
(Nis
hih
ama
et a
l.,
1997
). I
f th
e b
ack
gro
un
d c
har
acte
riza
tio
n w
as s
ucc
essf
ul,
a
seri
es o
f co
nte
xtu
al t
hre
sho
ld t
ests
are
use
d t
o p
erfo
rm '
re
det
ecti
on
. Rel
ativ
e th
resh
old
s ar
e ad
just
ed b
ased
on
th
e n
atu
-
ral v
aria
bil
ity
of
the
bac
kgr
ou
nd
. Ad
dit
ion
al s
pec
iali
zed
tes
ts
are
use
d to
eli
min
ate
fals
e d
etec
tio
ns
cau
sed
by
sun
gli
nt,
des
-
ert
bo
un
dar
ies,
an
d e
rro
rs i
n t
he
wat
er m
ask
. C
and
idat
e '
re
pix
els
that
are
no
t rej
ecte
d in
the
cou
rse
of a
pp
lyin
g th
ese
test
s
are
assi
gned
a c
lass
of
're
. P
ixel
s fo
r w
hic
h t
he
bac
kgr
ou
nd
char
acte
riza
tio
n c
ou
ld n
ot
be
per
form
ed, i
.e. t
ho
se h
avin
g an
insu
#ci
ent
nu
mb
er o
f va
lid
pix
els,
are
ass
ign
ed a
cla
ss o
f u
n-
kn
own
. A
det
aile
d d
escr
ipti
on
of
the
det
ecti
on
alg
ori
thm
is
give
n in
(G
igli
o e
t al
., 20
03).
$e
Fir
e In
form
atio
n f
or
Res
ou
rce
Man
agem
ent
Syst
em
(FIR
MS)
is
a w
eb a
pp
lica
tio
n t
hat
del
iver
s gl
ob
al M
OD
IS
ho
tsp
ots
an
d '
re l
oca
tio
ns
in a
n e
asy
to u
se f
orm
at (
htt
p:/
/
eart
hd
ata.
nas
a.go
v/d
ata/
nea
r-re
al-t
ime-
dat
a/'
rms,
F
igu
re
4.4.
8).
FIR
MS
ho
st t
he
foll
ow
ing
dat
a: N
RT
MO
DIS
Act
ive
Fir
e D
ata,
Co
llec
tio
n 5
MO
DIS
Act
ive
Fir
e D
ata,
MO
DIS
Bu
rned
Are
a. $
ese
acti
ve '
re l
oca
tio
ns
are
pro
cess
ed b
y
LA
NC
E u
sin
g th
e st
and
ard
MO
DIS
MO
D14
/MY
D14
Fir
e
and
$er
mal
An
om
alie
s p
rod
uct
. E
ach
act
ive
're
lo
cati
on
rep
rese
nts
th
e ce
ntr
e o
f a
1 k
m p
ixel
th
at i
s %
agge
d b
y th
e
algo
rith
m a
s co
nta
inin
g o
ne
or
mo
re '
res
wit
hin
th
e p
ixel
.
FIR
MS
also
o&
ers
mo
nth
ly M
OD
IS B
urn
ed A
rea
(MC
D45
)
imag
es t
hro
ugh
Web
Fir
e M
app
er.
73
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4
Rem
ote
Sensin
g f
or
dete
ction a
nd m
onitoring
Bu
rned
are
as a
re c
har
acte
rize
d b
y d
epo
sits
of
char
coal
an
d
ash
, re
mo
val
of
vege
tati
on
, an
d a
lter
atio
n o
f th
e ve
geta
tio
n
stru
ctu
re (
Ro
y et
al.,
199
9). S
om
e au
tho
rs h
ave
sho
wn
hig
h-
er a
ccu
raci
es i
n t
he
Nea
r-In
frar
ed a
nd
Sh
ort
Wav
e In
frar
ed
(NIR
–SW
IR)
spec
tral
do
mai
n f
or
bu
rned
lan
d d
iscr
imin
a-
tio
n (
Tri
gg a
nd
Fla
sse,
200
0), a
s w
ell a
s in
dic
es b
ased
on
th
e
Red
an
d N
ear-
Infr
ared
reg
ion
(R
-NIR
). I
t h
as t
o b
e n
ote
d
that
th
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
SWIR
ban
ds
in s
atel
lite
sen
sors
is
qu
ite
rece
nt
(199
8 fo
r SP
OT
HR
V a
nd
SP
OT
Veg
etat
ion
;
1999
fo
r M
OD
IS,
2000
fo
r N
OA
A A
VH
RR
) an
d t
her
efo
re,
for
his
tori
cal m
app
ing
of
bu
rned
are
as, t
he
R-N
IR r
ange
re-
mai
ns
crit
ical
. In
ad
dit
ion
, th
e SW
IR d
etec
tors
of
the
AS-
TE
R s
atel
lite
are
no
lo
nge
r fu
nct
ion
ing
du
e to
an
om
alo
usl
y
hig
h S
WIR
det
ecto
r te
mp
erat
ure
s (s
ince
12
Jan
uar
y 20
09).
$e
mo
st c
om
mo
nly
use
d p
aram
eter
s fo
r es
tim
ates
of
bu
rn
seve
rity
an
d a
rea
are
the
No
rmal
ized
Bu
rn R
atio
(N
BR
), t
he
di&
eren
ced
No
rmal
ized
Bu
rn R
atio
(d
NB
R),
an
d t
he
No
r-
mal
ized
Di&
eren
ce V
eget
atio
n I
nd
ex (
ND
VI)
(K
asis
chk
e
and
Fre
nch
199
5).
Usu
ally
, re
sear
cher
s u
se t
hes
e in
dic
es
wit
h a
th
resh
old
val
ue
or
a re
gres
sio
n e
qu
atio
n t
o p
red
ict
the
bu
rn a
rea
and
bu
rn s
ever
ity.
In
ad
dit
ion
, so
me
rese
arch
-
ers
ob
serv
e te
mp
ora
l di&
eren
cin
g o
f sp
ectr
al t
ran
sfo
rmat
ion
(TC
T)
to d
etec
t th
e b
urn
ed a
rea
(Ro
gan
an
d Y
oo
l, 20
01).
$re
e ve
geta
tio
n i
nd
ices
bas
ed o
n t
he
Red
–N
ear-
Infr
ared
spec
tral
do
mai
n a
re a
lso
co
nsi
der
ed v
ery
use
ful
in b
urn
ed
area
det
ecti
on
(C
hu
viec
o E
., 20
02),
nam
ely
:
$e
Soil
A
dju
sted
V
eget
atio
n
Ind
ex
(SA
VI)
(H
uet
e,
1988
), w
hic
h h
as s
ho
wn
to
be
very
sen
siti
ve t
o d
iscr
im-
inat
e ve
geta
tio
n a
mo
un
t in
sp
arse
ly v
eget
ated
are
as;
$e
Glo
bal
En
viro
nm
enta
l M
onit
orin
g In
dex
(G
EM
I),
clai
med
to
be
less
a&
ecte
d b
y so
il a
nd
atm
osp
her
ic v
ari-
atio
ns
than
ND
VI
(Pin
ty a
nd
Ver
stra
ete,
199
2);
$e
Bu
rned
Are
a In
dex
(B
AI)
, de'
ned
by
Mar
tin
(19
98),
spec
i'ca
lly
to d
iscr
imin
ate
re-a
&ec
ted
are
as. $
is in
dex
is c
om
pu
ted
fro
m t
he
spec
tral
dis
tan
ce f
rom
eac
h p
ixel
to a
ref
eren
ce s
pec
tral
po
int,
wh
ere
rece
ntl
y b
urn
ed a
r-
eas
ten
d t
o c
on
verg
e.
As
des
crib
ed a
bo
ve,
app
lica
tio
ns
of
this
kin
d g
ive
bet
ter
resu
lts
wh
en a
pp
lied
on
hig
h r
eso
luti
on
sat
elli
te i
mag
es.
In
2010
a r
evie
w o
f th
e sa
tell
ite
rem
ote
sen
sin
g u
se i
n f
ore
st
hea
lth
stu
die
s, '
re f
uel
map
pin
g, '
re r
isk
est
imat
ion
, 're
de-
tect
ion
, po
st-'
re s
ever
ity
map
pin
g, a
nd
rel
ativ
e w
ater
str
ess
mo
nit
ori
ng
(Wan
g et
al.,
201
0) c
on
clu
ded
th
at M
OD
IS d
ata
are
mo
re a
pp
rop
riat
e fo
r m
ost
rem
ote
sen
sin
g ap
pli
cati
on
s
for
fore
st h
ealt
h t
han
oth
er c
urr
ent
sate
llit
e d
ata,
wh
en c
on
-
sid
erin
g te
mp
ora
l an
d s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
s, c
ost
, an
d a
vail
-
abil
ity
of
ban
ds.
MO
DIS
Alg
orith
m t
o d
ete
ct
and m
onitor
Pre
vio
usl
y, i
n t
he
abse
nce
of
accu
rate
bu
rned
are
a p
rod
uct
s,
bu
rned
are
a as
sess
men
ts h
ave
bee
n c
reat
ed o
n t
he
bas
is o
f
cali
bra
tin
g th
e av
aila
ble
act
ive
're
dat
a fr
om
reg
ion
al A
VH
RR
Fig
ure
4.4
.8:
FIR
MS
web
ap
pli
cati
on
(h
ttp
://e
arth
dat
a.n
asa.
gov/
dat
a/n
ear-
real
-tim
e-d
ata/
'rm
s)
74
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 and
glo
bal
MO
DIS
dat
a. H
owev
er s
ever
al r
emo
te s
ensi
ng,
en
-
viro
nm
enta
l, an
d '
re b
ehav
iou
r fa
cto
rs l
imit
th
e ac
cura
cy o
f
such
der
ived
're
a&
ecte
d a
rea
dat
a se
ts. $
e av
aila
bil
ity
of
ro-
bu
stly
cal
ibra
ted
, atm
osp
her
ical
ly c
orr
ecte
d, c
lou
d-s
cree
ned
,
geo
-lo
cate
d d
ata
pro
vid
ed b
y th
e la
test
gen
erat
ion
of
mo
d-
erat
e re
solu
tio
n r
emo
te s
ensi
ng
syst
ems
allo
ws
for
maj
or
ad-
van
ces
in s
atel
lite
map
pin
g o
f '
re a
&ec
ted
are
a.
A c
om
ple
men
tary
MO
DIS
alg
ori
thm
de'
ned
fo
r m
app
ing
're
a&
ecte
d a
reas
has
bee
n d
evel
op
ed,
and
th
e '
rst
glo
bal
b
urn
ed a
rea
pro
du
ct f
rom
200
0 o
nw
ard
s is
no
w b
ein
g ge
n-
erat
ed a
s p
art
of t
he
MO
DIS
Lan
d c
oll
ecti
on
5 p
rod
uct
su
ite.
$
e M
OD
IS a
lgo
rith
m u
sed
to
map
bu
rned
are
as t
akes
ad
-va
nta
ge o
f sp
ectr
al,
tem
po
ral,
and
str
uct
ura
l ch
ange
s (R
oy
et a
l., 2
005)
. It
det
ects
th
e ap
pro
xim
ate
dat
e o
f b
urn
ing
for
500
m a
reas
by
loca
tin
g th
e o
ccu
rren
ce o
f ra
pid
ch
ange
s in
dai
ly s
urf
ace
re%
ecta
nce
tim
e se
ries
dat
a. $
e al
gori
thm
m
aps
the
spat
ial
exte
nt
of
rece
nt
're
s an
d n
ot
of
're
s th
at
hav
e o
ccu
rred
in
pre
vio
us
seas
on
s o
r ye
ars.
$e
algo
rith
m
is a
pp
lied
in
dep
end
entl
y to
geo
-lo
cate
d p
ixel
s o
ver
a lo
ng
tim
e-se
ries
of
re%
ecta
nce
ob
serv
atio
ns.
A b
i-d
irec
tio
nal
re-
%ec
tan
ce m
od
el i
s in
vert
ed a
gain
st m
ult
i-te
mp
ora
l re
%ec
-ta
nce
ob
serv
atio
ns
to p
rovi
de
pre
dic
ted
re%
ecta
nce
s an
d
un
cert
ain
ties
for
sub
seq
uen
t o
bse
rvat
ion
s. A
sta
tist
ical
mea
-su
re o
f th
e d
i&er
ence
bet
wee
n t
he
ob
serv
ed B
i-D
irec
tion
al
Surf
ace
Re'
ecta
nce
(B
RF
) an
d t
he
pre
dic
ted
BR
F a
t th
e vi
ewin
g an
d i
llu
min
atin
g an
gles
of
the
ob
serv
atio
n i
s u
sed
to
qu
anti
fy c
han
ges
fro
m a
pre
vio
usl
y o
bse
rved
sta
te. L
arge
d
iscr
epan
cies
bet
wee
n p
red
icte
d a
nd
mea
sure
d v
alu
es a
re
attr
ibu
ted
to
ch
ange
. A t
emp
ora
l co
nst
rain
t is
use
d t
o d
i&er
-en
tiat
e b
etw
een
tem
po
rary
ch
ange
s, s
uch
as
shad
ow
s, t
hat
ar
e sp
ectr
ally
sim
ilar
to
mo
re p
ersi
sten
t '
re i
nd
uce
d c
han
g-es
. $e
iden
ti'
cati
on
of t
he
dat
e o
f bu
rnin
g is
co
nst
rain
ed b
y th
e fr
equ
ency
an
d o
ccu
rren
ce o
f m
issi
ng
ob
serv
atio
ns
and
to
re%
ect
this
, th
e al
gori
thm
is
run
to
rep
ort
th
e b
urn
dat
e w
ith
an
8 d
ay p
reci
sio
n.
$e
MO
DIS
bu
rned
are
a p
rod
uct
, an
d t
he
det
ails
of
the
algo
rith
m, a
re d
escr
ibed
in
Ro
y et
al.,
(2
002)
; Ro
y et
al.
(200
5); a
nd
Ro
y et
al.
(200
8). A
s w
ell,
ho
w
to u
se t
he
pro
du
ct i
s d
etai
led
in
th
e M
OD
IS C
oll
ecti
on
5
Bu
rned
Are
a P
rod
uct
- M
CD
45 u
ser’
s gu
ide.
$e
glo
bal
mo
nth
ly M
OD
IS m
osa
ics
of
bu
rned
are
as a
re
avai
lab
le
for
visu
aliz
atio
n
in
the
3-d
imen
sio
nal
W
orl
d
Win
dvi
rtu
al g
lob
e. W
orl
d W
ind
was
dev
elo
ped
by
NA
SA
Am
es R
esea
rch
Cen
tre,
an
d i
s d
istr
ibu
ted
as
op
en s
ou
rce
so>
war
e. A
t th
e sa
me
tim
e, t
he
MO
DIS
Bu
rned
Are
a P
rod
-
uct
is
avai
lab
le f
ree
of
char
ge f
rom
th
e L
and
Pro
cess
es D
is-
trib
ute
d A
ctiv
e A
rch
ive
Cen
ter
(LP
-DA
AC
) u
sin
g th
e E
OS
Dat
a G
atew
ay w
eb i
nte
rfac
e lo
cate
d a
t h
ttp
://r
ever
b.ec
ho.
nas
a.go
v. A
dd
itio
nal
ly,
an >
p s
erve
r is
mai
nta
ined
by
the
Un
iver
sity
of
Mar
ylan
d,
mo
stly
to
pro
vid
e su
pp
ort
to
th
e
scie
nce
use
rs w
ho
nee
d t
o d
ow
nlo
ad s
yste
mat
ical
ly l
arge
volu
mes
of
dat
a, a
nd
im
ple
men
t th
eir
ow
n a
pp
lica
tio
ns.
MO
DIS
Bu
rned
Are
a (M
CD
45)
imag
es a
re o
&er
ed t
hro
ugh
Web
Fir
e M
app
er, r
un
nin
g o
n t
he
FIR
MS
app
lica
tio
n.
Tab
le 4
.4.5
: Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
fo
r F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
Top
icD
etec
tio
n a
nd
gro
wth
mo
nit
ori
ng
of
acti
ve w
ild
're
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
Act
ive
're
are
as, d
i&er
enti
ated
by
rad
iati
ve p
ow
er
Acc
ess
Up
on
reg
istr
atio
n v
ia i
nte
rnet
Sca
le1
: 50,
000
Acc
ura
cy<
10
% f
alse
ala
rm
Are
al
cove
rage
Glo
bal
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
250
m
Tim
elin
ess
Max
imu
m 1
day
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cy1
day
Da
ta f
orm
at
Ras
ter
Map
s
Valid
ation o
f M
OD
IS F
IRE
Pro
ducts
$e
vali
dat
ion
of
the
MO
DIS
act
ive
're
s an
d b
urn
ed a
rea
pro
du
ct r
elie
s m
ain
ly o
n t
he
use
of
hig
h-r
eso
luti
on
Lan
dsa
t
scen
es.
Stag
e 1
vali
dat
ion
was
co
nd
uct
ed p
aral
lel
to t
he
de-
velo
pm
ent
of
the
pro
du
ct w
ith
a n
um
ber
of
vali
dat
ion
sit
es
in A
fric
a, A
ust
rali
a, B
razi
l, Si
ber
ia a
nd
th
e U
nit
ed S
tate
s.
Stag
e 2
vali
dat
ion
of
the
Lev
el 3
co
mb
ined
Aq
ua-
Ter
ra
bu
rned
are
a p
rod
uct
is c
urr
entl
y o
ngo
ing.
A c
om
pre
hen
sive
vali
dat
ion
ove
r A
fric
a h
as b
een
co
mp
lete
d,
and
val
idat
ion
in E
uro
pe,
In
dia
, Au
stra
lia
and
Sib
eria
is
curr
entl
y o
ngo
ing.
Tak
ing
into
acc
ou
nt
the
stat
e o
f d
evel
op
men
t in
Det
ecti
ng
and
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Fir
es w
orl
dw
ide
as d
escr
ibed
ab
ove
, a T
ech
-
nic
al P
ro'
le w
as g
ener
ated
as
sho
wn
in
Tab
le 4
.4.5
.
75
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.4.9
: M
OD
IS B
urn
ed A
rea
Pro
du
ct
Fig
ure
4.4
.10:
M
OD
IS B
urn
ed A
rea
Pro
du
ct, G
reec
e a&
ec-
ted
are
as a
>er
occ
urr
ence
s o
f 20
07 '
res
Bu
rned
Are
a (B
A)
pro
du
ct (
le>
bar
) an
d A
ctiv
e F
ire
(AF
) p
rod
uct
(ri
ght
bar
). $
e b
lack
lin
es s
ho
w t
he
glo
bal
per
cen
tage
of
un
map
ped
pix
els
in t
he
mo
nth
ly b
urn
ed a
rea
pro
du
ct; t
he
red
lin
es s
ho
w t
he
glo
bal
ave
rage
of
the
per
cen
tage
of
un
map
ped
day
s ac
cord
ing
to t
he
acti
ve p
rod
uct
.
Fig
ure
4.4
.11:
Mo
nth
ly h
isto
gram
s o
f '
re a
&ec
ted
are
as b
y co
nti
nen
t d
etec
ted
by
MO
DIS
dat
a
76
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 App
rais
al R
esults
In r
atin
g th
e o
per
atio
nal
ben
e"ts
of
a F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Syst
em,
mo
re t
han
75
% o
f en
d-u
sers
gav
e a
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
wit
h r
egar
d t
o c
riti
cal
infr
ast
ruct
ure
, fo
l-
low
ed b
y h
um
anit
aria
n a
id,
hea
lth
car
e an
d s
ecu
rity
(al
l
abo
ut
60 %
) (F
igu
re 4
.4.1
2).
$es
e re
sult
s ar
e si
mil
ar t
o
tho
se f
or
the
Fir
e R
isk
Map
(F
igu
re 4
.4.2
), b
ut
wit
h m
ore
or
less
hig
her
sco
res
for
ben
e't
for
hu
man
itar
ian
aid
an
d
hea
lth
car
e,
as c
an b
e ex
pec
ted
fo
r a
syst
em f
or
earl
y w
arn
-
ing,
ale
rt a
nd
mo
nit
ori
ng
of
actu
al d
isas
ter
even
ts,
in c
om
-
par
iso
n w
ith
a m
ap d
epic
tin
g m
ere
dis
aste
r ri
sks.
$is
tre
nd
in
th
e en
d-u
sers
’ ap
pra
isal
of
op
erat
ion
al b
en-
e'ts
was
co
n'
rmed
by
the
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs (
Fig
ure
4.4
.13)
,
bu
t w
ith
dis
tin
ctly
lo
wer
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
s es
pec
iall
y w
ith
rega
rd t
o s
ecu
rity
, hu
man
itar
ian
aid
an
d h
ealt
h c
are.
Reg
ard
ing
the
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts o
f a
Fir
e D
etec
tio
n a
nd
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Syst
em,
end
-use
rs c
on
sid
ered
it
as h
igh
ly b
en-
e'ci
al f
or
supp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve s
trat
egie
s (>
75 %
) (F
igu
re
4.4.
14),
an
d a
lso
fo
r e"
cien
cy o
f pl
ans
and
pol
icie
s an
d r
e-
du
cin
g lo
sses
in
pu
blic
eco
nom
y (b
oth
>60
%).
$e
rela
tive
ly
hig
h b
ene'
t sc
ore
fo
r th
e p
urp
ose
s o
f p
reve
nti
on
, as
crib
ed
to a
det
ecti
on
an
d m
on
ito
rin
g sy
stem
, o
f th
e sa
me
ord
er o
f
mag
nit
ud
e as
fo
r th
e co
rres
po
nd
ing
risk
map
(F
igu
re 4
.4.4
),
pro
bab
ly r
e%ec
ts t
he
info
rmat
ion
po
ten
tial
of
his
tori
cal d
ata
sets
pro
vid
ed b
y su
ch a
sys
tem
, bu
t co
uld
be
par
tial
ly a
ttri
b-
ute
d a
lso
to
th
e u
se o
f an
up
-to
-dat
e m
on
ito
rin
g in
form
a-
tio
n i
n t
he
con
text
of
stra
tegi
c p
lan
nin
g o
f '
re c
on
tain
men
t
op
erat
ion
s.
$e
asse
ssm
ents
of
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts
pro
vid
ed b
y n
on
-
end
-use
rs f
or
(Fig
ure
4.4
.15)
are
ver
y si
mil
ar t
o t
ho
se b
y
end
-use
rs, b
ut
wit
h a
gen
eral
tre
nd
to
lo
wer
sco
res
for
hig
h
ben
e't
rati
ng.
Reg
ard
ing
the
crit
ical
ity
of
spec
i"c
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res,
mo
re
than
60
% o
f en
d-u
sers
em
ph
asiz
e th
emat
ic c
onte
nt,
acc
u-
racy
, upd
ate
freq
uen
cy, a
real
cov
erag
e an
d t
imel
ines
s as
mo
re
Fig
ure
4.4
.12:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
s-
tem
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.4
.13:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
s-
tem
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.4
.14:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.4
.15:
Str
ateg
ic B
ene'
ts o
f F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
(no
n-e
nd
-use
rs)
Fig
ure
4.4
.16:
Cri
tica
lity
of
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res
of
Fir
e D
etec
tio
n a
nd
Mo
nit
o-
rin
g Sy
stem
(en
d-u
sers
)
Fig
ure
4.4
.17:
Cri
tica
lity
of
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res
of
Fir
e D
etec
tio
n a
nd
Mo
nit
o-
rin
g Sy
stem
(n
on
-en
d-u
sers
)
77
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4o
r le
ss e
qu
ally
im
po
rtan
t in
a F
ire
Det
ecti
on
an
d M
on
ito
r-
ing
Syst
em (
Fig
ure
4.4
.16)
. A
s to
be
exp
ecte
d f
or
a d
etec
-
tio
n a
nd
mo
nit
ori
ng
syst
em, u
pdat
e fr
equ
ency
, i.e
. rep
etit
ion
tim
e, w
as r
ated
hig
her
in
co
mp
aris
on
wit
h t
he
Fir
e R
isk
Map
(F
igu
re 4
.4.1
6).
Scal
e, s
pati
al r
esol
uti
on a
nd
dat
a f
or-
mat
wer
e co
nsi
der
ed le
ss i
mp
ort
ant,
as
was
th
e ca
se f
or
Fir
e
Ris
k M
aps.
No
n-e
nd
-use
rs
con
sid
ered
upd
ate
freq
uen
cy a
nd
tim
elin
ess
the
mo
st c
riti
cal
feat
ure
s (F
igu
re 4
.4.1
7).
In c
om
par
iso
n t
o
end
-use
rs,
they
rat
ed s
cale
an
d t
imel
ines
s as
mo
re c
riti
cal,
bu
t sp
atia
l re
solu
tion
, ac
cura
cy a
nd
esp
ecia
lly
dat
a f
orm
at
as le
ss c
riti
cal.
4.5
L
an
dsli
de H
azard
Assessm
en
t
Ira
sem
a A
lcán
tara
Aya
la
$e
inst
abil
ity
of
slo
pes
h
as
bee
n
de'
ned
b
y B
run
sden
(198
4) a
s th
e m
ass
mo
vem
ent
pro
cess
es i
nvo
lved
in
th
e
mo
vem
ent
of
hil
lslo
pe
mat
eria
ls
un
der
th
e in
%u
ence
o
f
grav
ity
and
wit
ho
ut
a tr
ansp
ort
age
nt
such
as
wat
er,
air
or
ice.
$e
Wo
rkin
g P
arty
on
Wo
rld
Lan
dsl
ide
Inve
nto
ry i
den
-
ti'
es a
lan
dsl
ide
as “
the
mo
vem
ent
of
a m
ass
of
rock
, deb
ris
or
eart
h d
ow
n a
slo
pe”
(C
rud
en, 1
991)
.
$e
deg
ree
of
lan
dsl
ide
haz
ard
an
d it
s im
pac
t o
n s
oci
ety
are
very
mu
ch r
elat
ed t
o t
he
velo
city
of
mo
vem
ent.
Ext
rem
ely
rap
id l
and
slid
es w
ith
vel
oci
ties
of
5 m
/sec
occ
urr
ing
on
vuln
erab
le c
om
mu
nit
ies
can
pro
du
ce c
on
sid
erab
le d
amag
e,
wh
erea
s sl
ow
mo
vem
ents
may
a&
ect
stru
ctu
res,
alt
ho
ugh
they
can
be
mai
nta
ined
(T
able
4.5
.1).
Cla
ssD
escr
ipti
onT
ypic
al
velo
city
Ex
pec
ted
da
ma
ges
an
d p
opu
lati
on r
eact
ion
1E
xtre
mel
y ra
pid
5 m
/sec
2V
ery
rap
id3
m/m
inD
isas
ter
of
maj
or
vio
len
ce; b
uil
din
gs d
estr
oye
d b
y im
pac
t o
f d
isp
lace
d
mat
eria
l; m
any
dea
ths;
esc
ape
un
lik
ely
3R
apid
1.8
m/h
So
me
live
s lo
st; v
elo
city
to
o g
reat
to
per
mit
all
per
son
s to
esc
ape
4M
od
erat
e13
m/m
on
thE
scap
e ev
acu
atio
n p
oss
ible
; str
uct
ure
s d
estr
oye
d
5Sl
ow
1.6
m/y
ear
Rem
edia
l co
nst
ruct
ion
s ca
n b
e u
nd
erta
ken
du
rin
g m
ove
men
t; i
nse
nsi
-
tive
str
uct
ure
s ca
n b
e m
ain
tain
ed w
ith
fre
qu
ent
mai
nte
nan
ce w
ork
if
tota
l mo
vem
ent
is n
ot
larg
e d
uri
ng
a p
arti
cula
r ac
cele
rati
on
ph
ase
6V
ery
slo
w>
15 m
m/y
ear
So
me
per
man
ent
stru
ctu
res
un
dam
aged
by
mo
vem
ent
7E
xtre
mel
y sl
ow
<15
mm
/yea
rIm
per
cep
tib
le w
ith
ou
t in
stru
men
ts; c
on
stru
ctio
n p
oss
ible
wit
h p
re-
cau
tio
ns
Fo
r a
few
dec
ades
, lan
dsl
ides
hav
e b
een
cla
ssi'
ed a
cco
rdin
g
to d
i&er
ent
asp
ects
, su
ch a
s m
orp
ho
logi
cal
attr
ibu
tes;
typ
e
and
vel
oci
ty o
f m
ove
men
t; a
ge o
f th
e m
ove
men
t; d
egre
e o
f
acti
vity
; an
d c
lim
ate.
Lan
dsl
ides
can
be
typ
olo
gica
lly
char
acte
rize
d a
s o
utl
ined
in
Tab
le 4
.5.2
(V
arn
es, 1
978;
EP
OC
H, 2
003)
:
Fal
ls i
nvo
lve
the
det
ach
men
t o
f m
ater
ials
fro
m s
teep
slo
pes
; m
ove
men
t ta
kes
pla
ce b
y fa
llin
g, b
ou
nci
ng
or
roll
ing.
Top
ples
res
ult
fro
m t
he
ove
rth
row
or
forw
ard
ro
tati
on
al
mo
vem
ent,
ou
t o
f th
e sl
op
e, o
f a
mas
s o
f so
il a
nd
/or
rock
in
rel
atio
n t
o a
n a
xis.
Slid
es c
an b
e re
gard
ed a
s th
e d
ow
nsl
op
e m
ove
men
t o
f
soil
an
d/o
r ro
ck m
asse
s o
n a
su
rfac
e o
f ru
ptu
re.
Flo
ws
are
spat
iall
y co
nti
nu
ou
s m
ove
men
ts i
n w
hic
h
Tab
le 4
.5.1
: Mas
s m
ove
men
t cl
assi
'ca
tio
n b
ased
on
vel
oci
ty o
f d
isp
lace
men
t (A
ust
rali
an G
eom
ech
anic
s S
oci
ety,
200
2 a>
er
Cru
den
an
d V
arn
es, 1
996)
78
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 shea
r su
rfac
es a
re s
mal
l, cl
ose
ly s
pac
ed a
nd
usu
ally
no
t
pre
serv
ed a
>er
th
e ev
ent.
$e
dis
trib
uti
on
of
velo
ci-
ties
in
th
e d
isp
laci
ng
mas
s is
sim
ilar
to
a v
isco
us
%u
id
(Cru
den
an
d V
arn
es, 1
996)
.
Lat
eral
spr
ead
s im
ply
a l
ater
al e
xten
sio
n o
f a
coh
esiv
e
soil
or
rock
mas
s co
mb
ined
wit
h a
gen
eral
su
bsi
den
ce
of
the
frac
ture
d m
ass
of
coh
esiv
e m
ater
ial
into
so
>er
un
der
lyin
g m
ater
ial.
$e
rup
ture
su
rfac
e is
no
t a
sur-
face
of
inte
nse
sh
ear.
Sp
read
s m
ay r
esu
lt f
rom
liq
uef
ac-
tio
n o
r %
ow
of
the
so>
er m
ater
ial (
Var
nes
, 197
8).
$er
e ar
e d
i&er
ent
fact
ors
th
at c
on
trib
ute
dyn
amic
ally
to t
he
chan
ge o
f sl
op
e st
abil
ity.
Fre
qu
entl
y, it
is t
he
com
bin
atio
n o
f
nat
ura
l p
roce
sses
an
d h
um
an a
ctiv
itie
s th
at d
eter
min
es t
he
“pre
par
atio
n” o
f th
e sl
op
es t
o b
eco
me
un
stab
le.
Am
on
g th
e
nat
ura
l fa
cto
rs a
re h
ills
lop
e m
ater
ial
pro
per
ties
, in
clu
din
g
geo
logi
cal
stru
ctu
res
(i.e
. jo
ints
, fa
ult
s, f
ract
ure
s, b
edd
ing
and
fo
liat
ion
pla
nes
, in
clin
atio
n,
etc.
), a
nd
tec
ton
ic u
pli
>.
Wea
ther
ing
and
ero
sio
n,
gro
un
dw
ater
lev
el,
hyd
rolo
gica
l
con
dit
ion
s, v
ibra
tio
ns
pro
du
ced
by
eart
hq
uak
es,
and
pre
s-
ence
of
old
mo
vem
ents
are
als
o v
ery
imp
ort
ant.
In
ter
ms
of
anth
rop
oge
nic
co
nd
itio
nin
g, d
efo
rest
atio
n, l
and
use
ch
ange
,
rem
ova
l o
f la
tera
l su
pp
ort
by
con
stru
ctio
n o
f te
rrac
es s
uch
as c
uts
an
d m
inin
g, p
lay
a si
gni'
can
t ro
le a
s d
eter
min
ing
fact
ors
fo
r h
ill s
lop
e in
stab
ilit
y.
Lan
dsl
ide
trig
geri
ng
mec
han
ism
s ex
ceed
th
resh
old
s o
f sl
op
e
resi
stan
ce; t
hey
als
o in
volv
e b
oth
nat
ura
l an
d h
um
an in
du
ced
pro
cess
es. P
reci
pit
atio
n, s
eism
icit
y an
d v
olc
anic
act
ivit
y ar
e
com
pri
sed
wit
hin
th
e m
ain
nat
ura
l tr
igge
rin
g m
ech
anis
ms,
wh
erea
s al
l k
ind
s o
f ac
tivi
ties
a&
ecti
ng
or
tran
sfo
rmin
g th
e
mo
rph
olo
gy
of
a sl
op
e an
d c
ausi
ng
an i
nst
anta
neo
us
fail
ure
can
be
con
sid
ered
as
hu
man
in
du
ced
.
Sym
pto
ms
of
inst
abil
ity
of
slo
pes
can
be
easi
ly r
eco
gniz
ed
even
by
no
n-t
ech
nic
al p
erso
nn
el.
Gen
erat
ion
of
crac
ks
and
step
s, t
he
incl
inat
ion
of
vege
tati
on
an
d o
ther
ob
ject
s, u
n-
usu
al h
um
ps
in t
he
gro
un
d,
stre
et p
avem
ents
or
sid
ewal
ks,
or
o&
set
fen
ce li
nes
, are
co
mm
on
sig
ns
of
inst
abil
ity
that
can
be
easi
ly i
den
ti'
ed.
Giv
en i
ts g
eom
orp
ho
logi
cal
nat
ure
, th
e fo
otp
rin
ts o
f la
nd
-
slid
es o
n t
he
lan
dsc
ape
are
valu
able
fea
ture
s fo
r th
eir
iden
-
ti'
cati
on
, cl
assi
'ca
tio
n,
and
map
pin
g. A
ctiv
e la
nd
slid
es a
re
mo
re e
asil
y re
cogn
ized
th
an t
ho
se d
orm
ant,
ab
and
on
ed o
r
in a
rel
ict
stat
e. M
ore
ove
r, s
emi-
arid
co
nd
itio
ns
also
pro
vid
e
bet
ter
scen
ario
s fo
r la
nd
slid
es i
den
ti'
cati
on
, as
veg
etat
ion
do
es n
ot
cove
r th
eir
mo
rph
olo
gica
l at
trib
ute
s as
in
th
e ca
se
of
tro
pic
al e
nvi
ron
men
ts.
Geo
mo
rph
olo
gica
l m
app
ing
has
bee
n d
emo
nst
rate
d t
o b
e
on
e o
f th
e b
est
way
s to
ill
ust
rate
an
d s
ynth
esiz
e re
leva
nt
lan
dfo
rms
and
pro
cess
es (
Fig
ure
4.5
.1).
$ey
rep
rese
nt
ac-
tual
'el
d c
on
dit
ion
s an
d o
bse
rvat
ion
s an
d c
an b
e in
tegr
ated
for
mo
del
lin
g b
y d
igit
al a
nal
ysis
, bas
ed o
n e
.g. D
igit
al E
leva
-
tio
n M
od
els
(DE
M)
wit
hin
GIS
pla
tfo
rms.
Tab
le 4
.5.2
: Mas
s m
ove
men
t cl
assi
'ca
tio
n b
ased
on
pro
cess
typ
e an
d m
ater
ial (
Cru
den
an
d V
arn
es 1
996;
EP
OC
H, 2
003)
Mov
emen
t T
ype
Typ
e of
ma
teri
al
Ro
ckD
ebri
sS
oil
Fa
llR
ock
Fal
lD
ebri
s F
all
So
il F
all
Top
ple
Ro
ck T
op
ple
Deb
ris
To
pp
leS
oil
To
pp
le
Sli
de
(Rot
ati
ona
l)si
ngl
e (s
lum
p)
mu
ltip
le
succ
essi
ve
sin
gle
mu
ltip
le
succ
essi
ve
sin
gle
mu
ltip
le
succ
essi
ve
Sli
de
(Tra
nsi
tion
al)
Non
-rot
ati
ona
l
Blo
ck S
lid
eB
lock
Sli
de
Slab
Sli
de
Pla
na
rR
ock
Sli
de
Deb
ris
Slid
eM
ud
Sli
de
La
tera
l sp
rea
din
gR
ock
Sp
read
ing
Deb
ris
Spre
adS
oil
(D
ebri
s) S
pre
adin
g
Flo
wR
ock
Flo
w (
Sack
un
g)D
ebri
s F
low
So
il F
low
Com
ple
x (
wit
h r
un
-ou
t or
ch
an
ge o
f
beh
avi
our
dow
nsl
ope)
e.g.
Ro
ck A
vala
nch
ee.
g. F
low
Sli
de
e.g.
Slu
mp
- e
arth
%o
w
Fig
ure
4.5
.1:
Geo
mo
rph
olo
gica
l m
ap o
f m
ass
mo
vem
ent
pro
cess
es a
lon
g th
e D
ank
hu
ta K
ho
la R
iver
, E
aste
rn N
epal
(Bru
nsd
en, 2
001)
79
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4m
ap
s
$er
e is
a v
ast
bo
dy
of
lite
ratu
re c
on
cern
ing
the
gen
erat
ion
of
lan
dsl
ide
susc
epti
bil
ity
map
s. $
ey a
re u
sual
ly b
ased
on
lan
dsl
ide
inve
nto
ries
an
d c
an b
e d
evel
op
ed b
y u
sin
g re
mo
te
sen
sin
g te
chn
iqu
es a
nd
GIS
, o
r th
e ap
pli
cati
on
of
stat
isti
-
cal
met
ho
ds.
Sp
atia
l d
istr
ibu
tio
n o
f fa
cto
rs i
n%
uen
cin
g th
e
stab
ilit
y o
f a
slo
pe
can
be
incl
ud
ed (
freq
uen
tly
nat
ura
l el
-
emen
ts),
an
d p
arti
cula
r an
alys
is o
r m
od
elli
ng
can
be
per
-
form
ed,
dep
end
ing
on
th
e tr
igge
rin
g m
ech
anis
m (
e.g.
pre
-
cip
itat
ion
, ea
rth
qu
ake,
or
volc
anic
act
ivit
y).
$e
qu
alit
y o
f
the
lan
dsl
ide
susc
epti
bil
ity
map
s p
rod
uce
d a
nd
th
e re
pre
-
sen
tati
on
of
the
real
ter
rain
co
nd
itio
ns
are
dep
end
ent
on
the
accu
racy
of
info
rmat
ion
use
d a
s an
in
pu
t. O
f p
arti
cula
r
imp
ort
ance
is
the
info
rmat
ion
on
to
po
grap
hy
and
th
e ad
e-
qu
ate
char
acte
riza
tio
n o
f h
ills
lop
e m
ater
ials
. $e
use
fuln
ess
of
map
s is
no
t so
lely
rel
ated
to
th
e sc
ale
bu
t al
so t
o t
he
accu
-
racy
of
the
inp
ut
dat
a. A
n e
xam
ple
of
a la
nd
slid
e su
scep
tib
il-
ity
map
is
sho
wn
in
Fig
ure
4.5
.2.
$e
mai
n d
i&er
ence
bet
wee
n l
and
slid
e su
scep
tib
ilit
y an
d
lan
dsl
ide
haz
ard
map
s is
th
at t
he
latt
er i
ncl
ud
e an
in
ten
sity
-
freq
uen
cy r
elat
ion
ship
, an
d s
pec
i'c
asso
ciat
ion
s ar
e m
ade
wit
h
trig
geri
ng
mec
han
ism
s (F
igu
re
4.5.
3).
GIS
is
m
ost
exte
nsi
vely
use
d f
or
anal
yzin
g la
nd
slid
e h
azar
d a
nd
ris
k.
No
net
hel
ess,
as
po
inte
d o
ut
by
Car
rara
et
al.
(199
9),
ther
e
are
seve
ral p
rob
lem
atic
al a
spec
ts t
hat
nee
d t
o b
e ad
dre
ssed
:
“Co
mp
ute
r-ge
ner
ated
res
ult
s …
. co
nsi
der
ed t
o b
e m
ore
ob
ject
ive
and
acc
ura
te t
han
pro
du
cts
der
ived
by
exp
erts
in t
he
con
ven
tio
nal
way
th
rou
gh e
xten
sive
'el
d m
ap-
pin
g;
$e
use
of
GIS
an
d t
he
pro
du
ctio
n o
f le
ss a
ccu
rate
haz
-
ard
map
s b
y u
sers
th
at a
re n
ot
exp
erts
in e
arth
sci
ence
s;
$e
incr
ease
d f
ocu
s o
n t
he
use
of
new
co
mp
uta
tio
nal
tech
niq
ues
fo
r la
nd
slid
e h
azar
d a
sses
smen
t, a
nd
less
in-
tere
st o
n t
he
coll
ecti
on
of
reli
able
dat
a”.
Fig
ure
4.5
.2:
Lan
dsl
ide
susc
epti
bil
ity
map
of
the
Kak
ud
a-
Yah
iko
Mo
un
tain
s (A
yale
w a
nd
Yam
agis
hi,
200
5)
Fig
ure
4.5
.3:
Lan
dsl
ides
haz
ard
in
du
ced
by
rain
fall
(u
pp
er
'gu
re)
and
ear
thq
uak
es (
low
er '
gure
), b
y u
sin
g th
e N
GI
met
ho
d (
Nad
im e
t al
., 20
13)
80
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Lan
dsl
ide
asse
ssm
ents
hav
e b
een
un
der
tak
en o
n l
oca
l, re
-
gio
nal
, an
d g
lob
al s
cale
s. H
ow
ever
, th
eir
cert
ain
ty i
s d
eter
-
min
ed b
y th
e in
form
atio
n u
sed
to
car
ry o
ut
such
ass
ess-
men
ts. F
req
uen
tly,
a s
erie
s o
f as
sum
pti
on
s ar
e m
ade
in o
rder
to p
rod
uce
lan
dsl
ide
haz
ard
or
risk
ass
essm
ents
. Ap
pro
ach
-
es f
or
lan
dsl
ide
haz
ard
an
d r
isk
eva
luat
ion
s (F
igu
re 4
.5.4
)
com
pri
se i
nfo
rmat
ion
th
at d
eter
min
es t
he
susc
epti
bil
ity
of
a gi
ven
ter
rain
to
lan
d s
lid
ing,
tri
gger
ing
mec
han
ism
s, v
ul-
ner
abil
ity
and
exp
ose
d p
op
ula
tio
n (
Nad
im e
t al
., 20
06).
Am
on
g th
e o
per
atio
nal
ben
e"ts
, m
ore
th
an 8
5 %
of
end
-
use
rs g
ave
the
pro
du
ct a
hig
h b
ene'
t ra
tin
g w
ith
reg
ard
to
the
mai
nte
nan
ce o
f cr
itic
al i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
, fo
llo
wed
by
secu
-
rity
an
d h
um
anit
aria
n a
id (
bo
th n
earl
y 60
%)
(Fig
ure
4.5
.5).
$is
see
ms
pla
usi
ble
in v
iew
of
the
stru
ctu
ral d
amag
e w
hic
h
can
be
cau
sed
by
lan
dsl
ides
, an
d t
he
info
rmat
ion
po
ten
tial
of
a L
and
slid
e H
azar
d M
ap f
or
loca
l ri
sk a
sses
smen
t an
d
pre
par
edn
ess.
$e
end
-use
rs’
app
rais
al w
as m
ore
or
less
con
'rm
ed b
y th
e n
on
-en
d-u
sers
wh
o g
ave
even
so
me
mo
re
emp
has
is t
o t
he
hig
h b
ene'
t fo
r cr
itic
al i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
, wit
h-
ou
t an
y lo
w b
ene'
t ap
pra
isal
(F
igu
re 4
.5.6
).
Reg
ard
ing
the
stra
teg
ic b
ene"
ts, e
nd
-use
rs e
mp
has
ized
th
e
pro
du
ct’s
hig
h b
ene'
t m
ost
ly f
or
the
supp
ort
of p
reve
nti
ve
stra
tegi
es (
>70
%)
and
th
e e"
cien
cy o
f pla
ns
and
pol
icie
s (>
65
%),
fo
llo
wed
by
a >
60 %
sco
re f
or
hig
h b
ene'
t fo
r re
du
cin
g
loss
es in
pu
blic
eco
nom
y (F
igu
re 4
.5.7
). $
is a
pp
rais
al c
lear
ly
re%
ects
th
e im
po
rtan
ce o
f h
azar
d i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r p
reve
n-
tive
pla
nn
ing.
In
co
mp
aris
on
, b
ene'
ts t
o p
ubl
ic a
ccep
tan
ce
of p
lan
s an
d p
olic
ies
and
su
ppor
t of
su
perr
egio
nal
con
sist
ency
and
coo
pera
tion
wer
e se
en a
s le
ss c
riti
cal
(bo
th w
ith
hig
h
ben
e't
sco
res
<45
%),
pro
bab
ly w
ith
res
pec
t to
th
e sp
eci'
c
loca
l ch
arac
teri
stic
s o
f la
nd
slid
e h
azar
d.
$is
tre
nd
in
th
e
end
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al i
s m
ost
ly c
on
'rm
ed b
y th
e n
on
-en
d-
use
rs, w
ith
a g
ener
al t
end
ency
to
war
ds
low
er b
ene'
t ra
tin
gs
(Fig
ure
4.5
.8).
En
d-u
sers
rat
ed th
e cr
itic
alit
y o
f p
rod
uct
fea
ture
s as
gen
er-
ally
hig
h, w
ith
>60
% b
ut
for
upd
ate
freq
uen
cy a
nd
tim
elin
ess
(bo
th >
50 %
) (F
igu
re 4
.5.9
). $
e sl
igh
tly
low
er c
riti
cali
ty a
s-
sign
ed t
o t
he
tim
e-re
late
d f
eatu
res
mig
ht
re%
ect
the
imp
or-
tan
ce o
f th
e p
rod
uct
fo
r st
ruct
ura
l p
lan
nin
g, i
.e.
for
rath
er
lon
g-te
rm p
roce
sses
. In
co
mp
aris
on
, th
e cr
itic
alit
y as
sess
-
men
ts b
y n
on
-en
d-u
sers
are
mo
re d
i&er
enti
ated
, wit
h le
sser
emp
has
is o
n s
pati
al r
esol
uti
on a
nd
sca
le (
Fig
ure
4.5
.10)
. T
able
4.5
.3 T
ech
nic
al P
ro'
le f
or
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
Ass
ess-
men
t
Top
icA
reas
pro
ne
to r
ain
-tri
gger
ed
lan
dsl
ides
, co
mb
ined
wit
h a
n a
lert
fun
ctio
n
"em
ati
c co
nte
nt
To
po
grap
hic
bas
e m
ap
Lit
ho
log
y
Ped
olo
gy
Lan
du
se/l
and
cove
r
Rai
nfa
ll d
ata
Acc
ess
Web
-bas
ed i
nfo
rmav
tio
n s
yste
m,
un
rest
rict
ed a
cces
s
Sca
le1
: 50,
000
Acc
ura
cy80
% c
orr
ect
haz
ard
in
dic
atio
n
Are
al
cove
rage
Reg
ion
al
Spa
tia
l re
solu
tion
10 m
Tim
elin
ess
24 h
Up
da
te f
req
uen
cy24
h f
or
rain
fall
dat
a
Dat
a fo
rmat
No
t ap
pli
cab
le
Fig
ure
4.5
.4: A
pp
roac
h f
or
lan
dsl
ide
haz
ard
an
d r
isk
eva
lua-
tio
n (
Nad
im e
t al
., 20
06)
Tak
ing
into
acc
ou
nt
the
met
ho
do
logi
cal
stat
e o
f th
e ar
t in
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
Map
pin
g as
des
crib
ed a
bo
ve,
a T
ech
nic
al
Pro
'le
was
gen
erat
ed a
s sh
ow
n i
n T
able
4.5
.3.
81
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4F
igu
re 4
.5.7
: Str
ateg
ic v
Ben
e'ts
of
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
Ass
ess-
men
t (e
nd
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.5
.8:
Stra
tegi
c B
ene'
ts o
f L
and
slid
e H
azar
d A
sses
s-
men
t (n
on
-en
d-u
sers
ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.5
.9: C
riti
cali
ty o
f pro
du
ct fe
atu
res
of
Lan
dsl
ide
Ha-
zard
Ass
essm
ent
(en
d-u
sers
ap
pra
isal
)
Fig
ure
4.5
.10:
Cri
tica
lity
of
pro
du
ct f
eatu
res
of
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
Ass
essm
ent
(no
n-e
nd
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.5
.5:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f L
and
slid
e H
azar
d A
s-
sess
men
t (e
nd
-use
rs a
pp
rais
al)
Fig
ure
4.5
.6:
Op
erat
ion
al B
ene'
ts o
f L
and
slid
e H
azar
d A
s-
sess
men
t (n
on
-en
d-u
sers
ap
pra
isal
)
82
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 Nie
ls v
an M
anen
an
d J
ohn
Tri
nd
er
A m
ere
ben
e't a
sses
smen
t of g
eoin
form
atio
n a
s p
rese
nte
d in
Ch
apte
rs 4
.1 t
o 4
.5 w
ou
ld b
e in
su#
cien
t w
ith
ou
t ad
dre
ssin
g
also
th
e as
pec
ts o
f d
ata
pro
visi
on
an
d r
elat
ed c
ost
s. A
vail
-
able
geo
info
rmat
ion
th
at w
ou
ld s
atis
fy t
he
tech
nic
al p
ro'
les
wh
ich
ser
ved
as
a re
fere
nce
fo
r th
e b
ene'
t as
sess
men
ts, d
if-
fers
gre
atly
in
ter
ms
of
dat
a so
urc
es a
s w
ell a
s co
sts,
kee
pin
g
in m
ind
th
at t
he
tech
nic
al p
ro'
les
wer
e d
esig
ned
to
ill
us-
trat
e th
e st
ate-
of-
the-
art,
i.e
. res
earc
h a
nd
dev
elo
pm
ent,
no
t
nec
essa
rily
th
e st
ate
of
op
erat
ion
al i
mp
lem
enta
tio
n.
$er
efo
re, p
rovi
sio
n o
f b
asic
geo
dat
a fo
r th
e re
fere
nce
pro
d-
uct
s as
des
crib
ed i
n t
he
tech
nic
al p
ro'
les
is d
iscu
ssed
in
the
foll
ow
ing,
as
wel
l as
th
e re
lati
ve c
ost
s, w
ith
em
ph
asis
on
rem
ote
ly s
ense
d d
ata.
So
me
con
sid
erat
ion
is
also
giv
en t
o
po
ten
tial
co
st r
edu
ctio
ns
by
mo
dif
yin
g th
e sp
eci'
cati
on
s in
the
tech
nic
al p
ro'
les.
Co
sts
of
the
pro
visi
on
of
geo
info
rma-
tio
n a
re n
ot
dir
ectl
y re
late
d t
o t
he
valu
e o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n
for
dis
aste
r ri
sk m
anag
emen
t. A
s ex
pre
ssed
in C
hap
ter
2, t
he
valu
e o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n c
an b
e as
sess
ed b
y co
sts
avo
ided
by
the
avai
lab
ilit
y o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n. I
n p
rin
cip
le t
his
is n
ot
re-
late
d t
o t
he
cost
s o
f ac
qu
irin
g th
e ge
oin
form
atio
n,
tho
ugh
it s
ho
uld
gu
ide
the
cho
ice
of
met
ho
ds
of
dat
a co
llec
tio
n i
n
ord
er t
o a
void
un
sust
ain
able
acq
uis
itio
n c
ost
s.
Dep
end
ing
on
th
e ge
ner
al a
pp
lica
tio
n o
bje
ctiv
e, t
he
refe
r-
ence
set
of
tech
nic
al p
ro'
les
can
be
cate
gori
zed
in
to t
hre
e
maj
or
typ
es o
f ge
osp
atia
l in
form
atio
n:
haz
ard
an
d r
isk
as-
sess
men
t m
app
ing,
haz
ard
an
d r
isk
mo
nit
ori
ng,
an
d d
am-
age
asse
ssm
ent
map
pin
g.
Hazard
and r
isk a
ssessm
ent
mapp
ing
Ris
k a
sses
smen
t fo
r th
e h
azar
ds
add
ress
ed in
Ch
apte
rs 4
.1 t
o
4.5,
exc
ept
for
dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
wh
ich
req
uir
es r
egio
nal
to g
lob
al c
ove
rage
, te
nd
s to
req
uir
e d
etai
led
map
s m
ost
ly
wit
h h
igh
sp
atia
l res
olu
tio
ns:
Flo
od
Ris
k M
aps
wit
h 1
:2,0
00 t
o 1
:10,
000
map
sca
les
and
a s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
of
1 m
to
5 m
, w
ith
an
up
dat
e
freq
uen
cy o
f 5
year
s;
Urb
an
Cla
ssi'
cati
on
fo
r E
arth
qu
ake
Ris
k
Map
pin
g
An
alys
is w
ith
1:2
,000
to
1:1
0,00
0 m
ap s
cale
, wit
h a
n a
c-
cura
cy o
f 1
m a
nd
an
up
dat
e fr
equ
ency
of
5 ye
ars;
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
erab
ilit
y M
app
ing
bas
ed o
n l
ow
sp
atia
l
reso
luti
on
dat
a w
ith
tim
ing
a fu
nct
ion
of
dro
ugh
t co
n-
dit
ion
s;
Fir
e R
isk
A
sses
smen
t w
ith
1:
200,
000
to
1:1,
000,
000
map
sca
le a
nd
sp
atia
l res
olu
tio
n o
f 25
0 m
to
1 k
m, w
ith
an a
ccu
racy
of
haz
ard
in
dic
atio
n o
f 80
%;
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
Ass
essm
ent
Map
pin
g w
ith
1:5
0,00
0
map
sca
le a
nd
sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
n o
f 10
m,
wit
h a
n u
p-
dat
e fr
equ
ency
of
24 h
fo
r ra
infa
ll d
ata.
Det
aile
d
geo
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
re
qu
ired
fo
r %
oo
d
and
eart
hq
uak
e ri
sks
map
pin
g at
sca
les
of
1:2,
000
to 1
:10,
000,
wo
uld
be
exp
ensi
ve a
nd
tim
e co
nsu
min
g to
acq
uir
e. $
e
tech
nic
al p
ro'
les
ind
icat
e th
at t
he
map
pro
du
cts
can
be
in r
aste
r o
r ve
cto
r fo
rm.
$e
mo
st e
con
om
ic p
rod
uct
s d
e-
rive
d f
rom
eit
her
dig
ital
aer
ial i
mag
es o
r sa
tell
ite
imag
es a
re
ort
ho
ph
oto
map
s w
hic
h a
re r
aste
r p
rod
uct
s. V
ecto
r m
ap
pro
du
cts
are
mo
re t
ime
con
sum
ing
to p
rod
uce
bec
ause
th
ey
invo
lve
man
ual
in
terp
reta
tio
n o
f im
age
con
ten
t. H
ow
ever
,
the
use
r o
f th
e o
rth
op
ho
to m
aps
mu
st b
e fa
mil
iar
wit
h t
hei
r
inte
rpre
tati
on
.
Acq
uis
itio
n o
f ort
ho
ph
oto
map
s an
d D
igit
al E
leva
tio
n M
od
-
els
(DE
M)
may
be
do
ne
by
aeri
al im
agin
g, in
clu
din
g th
e ap
-
pli
cati
on
of
Un
man
ned
Air
bo
rne
Veh
icle
s (U
AV
), a
irb
orn
e
lid
ar (
Lig
ht
Det
ecti
on
an
d R
angi
ng)
, or
hig
h s
pat
ial
reso
lu-
tio
n s
atel
lite
sen
sors
wit
h s
pat
ial r
eso
luti
on
s o
f 0.
5 m
or
less
.
DE
Ms
may
als
o b
e ac
qu
ired
fro
m e
xist
ing
dat
abas
es.
Oth
er
info
rmat
ion
may
be
coll
ecte
d b
y in
sit
u s
urv
eys.
Fo
rwar
d
pla
nn
ing
and
ded
icat
ion
of
app
rop
riat
e '
nan
cial
res
ou
rces
are
req
uir
ed t
o c
ove
r, n
ot
on
ly t
he
%ig
ht
cam
pai
gns
for
the
acq
uis
itio
n o
f im
ages
or
lid
ar d
ata,
bu
t al
so t
he
pro
cess
ing
of
the
dat
a to
dig
ital
ort
ho
ph
oto
map
pro
du
cts.
Aer
ial
syst
ems
bas
ed
on
m
ediu
m
to
larg
e fo
rmat
ae
rial
cam
eras
or
smal
ler
form
at l
igh
t w
eigh
t ca
mer
as o
n U
AV
s
pro
vid
e o
verl
app
ing
aeri
al im
ages
th
at w
ill a
llo
w t
he
der
iva-
tio
n o
f m
ap d
ata
by
stan
dar
d d
igit
al a
eria
l ph
oto
gram
met
ry
met
ho
ds.
$e
accu
racy
of
thes
e p
rod
uct
s is
pri
mar
ily
de-
pen
den
t o
n t
he
Gro
un
d S
amp
lin
g D
ista
nce
(G
SD),
wh
ich
is a
fu
nct
ion
of
the
cam
era
pix
el s
ize,
th
e fo
cal
len
gth
of
the
cam
era
and
th
e %
yin
g h
eigh
t. W
hil
e au
tom
ated
pro
ced
ure
s
allo
w f
or
rap
id d
eriv
atio
n o
f el
evat
ion
s an
d o
rth
op
ho
to
map
s fr
om
imag
es, t
her
e is
sti
ll a
sig
ni'
can
t re
qu
irem
ent
for
inp
uts
fro
m h
igh
ly t
rain
ed t
ech
nic
al a
nd
pro
fess
ion
al p
er-
son
nel
.
Air
born
e li
dar
dat
a w
ill a
lso
be
acq
uir
ed f
rom
aer
ial s
yste
ms
wit
h a
ccu
raci
es o
f th
e o
rder
of
0.15
m t
o 0
.2 m
. $
e d
ata
pro
vid
er m
ay s
up
ply
var
iou
s le
vels
of
dat
a p
roce
ssin
g. A
raw
dat
a p
rod
uct
wil
l in
clu
de
elev
atio
ns
of
the
terr
ain
su
rfac
e as
wel
l as
of l
and
co
ver
stru
ctu
res
such
as
vege
tati
on
, bu
ild
ings
,
and
oth
er o
bje
cts.
$ro
ugh
fu
rth
er p
roce
ssin
g, a
t ad
dit
ion
al
cost
, th
e o
vera
ll t
erra
in s
urf
ace
can
be
extr
acte
d,
wh
ich
is
crit
ical
esp
ecia
lly
for
%o
od
ris
k m
app
ing.
Hig
h r
esol
uti
on s
atel
lite
dat
a m
ust
be
pu
rch
ased
fro
m t
he
sate
llit
e p
rovi
der
s at
mar
ket
pri
ces.
Pro
cess
ing
of
this
dat
a
by
exp
ert
per
son
nel
wil
l b
e b
ased
on
exi
stin
g p
ho
togr
am-
met
ric
so>
war
e fo
r ge
ner
atin
g o
rth
op
ho
tos
and
ele
vati
on
s.
Exi
stin
g D
EM
dat
a s
ho
uld
be
use
d w
ith
cau
tio
n i
f th
e co
n-
sist
ency
of t
he
dat
a h
as n
ot
bee
n p
rove
n. $
ere
are
a n
um
ber
of
rece
nt
exam
ple
s w
her
e n
ew e
leva
tio
n d
ata
of
som
e la
rge
83
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4ar
eas
of
Eu
rop
e h
ave
bee
n a
cqu
ired
by
airb
orn
e li
dar
to
en
-
sure
im
pro
ved
%o
od
ris
k m
app
ing.
Sin
ce t
he
acq
uis
itio
n o
f la
rge
scal
e d
ata
as d
escr
ibed
ab
ove
is
exp
ensi
ve a
nd
th
e co
sts
may
be
bey
on
d r
egio
nal
cap
acit
y, a
l-
tern
ativ
ely
smal
ler
scal
e an
d l
ow
er a
ccu
racy
map
s/G
IS d
ata
may
be
an o
pti
on
. A
co
mp
aris
on
of
cost
s o
f m
ediu
m r
eso
-
luti
on
dat
a (1
0 m
or
larg
er)
and
hig
h r
eso
luti
on
dat
a (l
ess
than
2 m
) ar
e gi
ven
bel
ow
(se
ctio
n 4
.6.2
). M
ediu
m a
nd
lo
w
reso
luti
on
dat
a ca
nn
ot
pro
vid
e in
form
atio
n w
ith
th
e sa
me
accu
racy
or
reso
luti
on
as
wo
uld
be
avai
lab
le f
rom
lar
ger
scal
es,
bu
t it
may
be
a m
ore
a&
ord
able
op
tio
n a
nd
sti
ll b
e
of
ben
e't
for
%o
od
ris
k m
app
ing
and
urb
an c
lass
i'ca
tio
n
for
eart
hq
uak
e ri
sk a
nal
ysis
. Im
ages
wo
uld
be
avai
lab
le f
rom
med
ium
res
olu
tio
n r
emo
te s
ensi
ng
sate
llit
es i
ncl
ud
ing
op
ti-
cal
and
syn
thet
ic a
per
ture
rad
ar (
SAR
) sy
stem
s, a
nd
co
uld
also
be
pro
du
ced
mo
re r
apid
ly, s
ince
th
e d
ata
wo
uld
be
less
exp
ensi
ve t
o p
urc
has
e an
d w
ou
ld r
equ
ire
less
pro
cess
ing.
$e
ou
tpu
t co
uld
sti
ll i
ncl
ud
e p
hys
ical
ear
thq
uak
e vu
lner
-
abil
ity
of
urb
an a
reas
bas
ed o
n d
ensi
ty, q
ual
ity
and
po
ssib
ly
age
of
bu
ild
ings
.
$e
spat
ial
reso
luti
on
s o
f th
e d
ata
req
uir
ed f
or
're
ris
k a
s-
sess
men
t ar
e re
lati
vely
lo
w a
nd
hen
ce l
ow
sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
n
sate
llit
e im
ages
can
be
emp
loye
d.
Fo
r ex
amp
le,
the
mu
lti-
chan
nel
lo
w r
eso
luti
on
sen
sor
MO
DIS
has
sig
ni'
can
t ad
-
van
tage
s si
nce
th
e d
ata
is f
ree
and
it p
rovi
des
a u
niq
ue
cap
a-
bil
ity
in t
erm
s o
f '
re m
on
ito
rin
g. N
ever
thel
ess,
pro
cess
ing
of
the
dat
a m
ust
be
un
der
tak
en b
y h
igh
ly q
ual
i'ed
per
son
-
nel
.
Bec
ause
o
f th
e n
atu
re
of
dro
ugh
t as
a
slo
w-o
nse
t h
az-
ard
wit
h h
igh
sp
atia
l ex
ten
sio
n,
the
Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
fo
r
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
erab
ilit
y M
ap is
bas
ed o
n lo
w r
eso
luti
on
map
s
wit
h t
imin
g a
fun
ctio
n o
f th
e d
rou
ght
con
dit
ion
s. $
is d
ata
sho
uld
be
avai
lab
le f
rom
lo
w c
ost
or
free
med
ium
to
lo
w
spat
ial
reso
luti
on
sat
elli
te i
mag
es w
hic
h a
re u
nli
kel
y to
be
a&ec
ted
by
clo
ud
s. $
e p
roce
ssin
g o
f th
e d
ata
wo
uld
nee
d t
o
be
un
der
tak
en b
y tr
ain
ed p
erso
nn
el.
$e
asse
ssm
ent
of
dro
ugh
t im
pac
ts c
an b
e b
ased
on
a n
um
-
ber
of
ind
icat
ors
, su
ch a
s th
ose
dev
elo
ped
wit
hin
th
e U
ND
P
Dis
aste
r R
isk
In
dex
(D
RI)
fra
mew
ork
pro
vid
ing
stat
isti
cal
evid
ence
of
lin
ks
at t
he
glo
bal
sca
le b
etw
een
vu
lner
abil
ity
to n
atu
ral
haz
ard
s an
d l
evel
s o
f d
evel
op
men
t. $
e ab
sen
ce
of
geo
spat
ial
refe
ren
ce d
ata
at l
oca
l sc
ales
has
rep
ort
edly
lim
ited
th
e ad
op
tio
n o
f o
ther
in
dic
ato
rs.
$er
e ar
e cl
earl
y
op
po
rtu
nit
ies
for
geo
info
rmat
ion
te
chn
olo
gies
to
p
lay
a
mo
re s
ign
i'ca
nt
role
in
dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
map
pin
g an
d
asse
ssm
ent
in t
he
futu
re b
y li
nk
ing
geo
info
rmat
ion
wit
h
soci
o-e
con
om
ic d
ata
des
crib
ing
dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
and
dro
ugh
t im
pac
ts.
$e
gen
erat
ion
of
Lan
dsl
ide
Haz
ard
Map
s is
des
crib
ed i
n
det
ail
in c
hap
ter
4.5,
wit
h c
om
pre
hen
sive
tab
les
incl
ud
ing
a
ran
ge o
f d
ata
sou
rces
, su
ch a
s ai
rbo
rne,
sat
elli
te, '
eld
, lab
o-
rato
ry a
nd
rea
l-ti
me
dat
a fo
r m
od
elli
ng
lan
dsl
ide
init
iati
on
and
ru
n-o
ut.
Sat
elli
te-b
ased
dat
a so
urc
es w
ou
ld i
ncl
ud
e im
-
ager
y fr
om
med
ium
res
olu
tio
n s
atel
lite
s su
ch a
s L
and
sat
8,
SPO
T4
or
SPO
T5,
DM
SII
con
stel
lati
on
, or
Rap
idE
ye a
s w
ell
as S
AR
. Rel
ativ
e co
st '
gure
s fo
r th
ese
syst
ems
are
give
n b
e-
low
in
sec
tio
n 4
.6.2
.
Hazard
and r
isk m
onitoring
Tw
o t
ypes
of
mo
nit
ori
ng
syst
ems
are
dis
cuss
ed:
the
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
wit
h m
ap s
cale
s o
f
1:25
,000
to
1:3
,000
,000
, ge
om
etri
c ac
cura
cy o
f 5
m t
o
500
m a
nd
sp
atia
l res
olu
tio
n 1
0 m
to
100
0 m
acc
ord
ing
to t
he
them
atic
cla
ss;
the
Fir
e D
etec
tio
n a
nd
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Syst
em,
pro
vid
ing
map
pin
g p
rod
uct
s w
ith
1:5
0,00
0 sc
ale
and
250
m s
pa-
tial
res
olu
tio
n, w
ith
dai
ly u
pd
ate
freq
uen
cy a
nd
tim
eli-
nes
s o
f 1
day
du
rin
g a
're
eve
nt.
$e
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
req
uir
es le
ss d
etai
led
in-
form
atio
n t
han
th
e F
ire
Ris
k M
ap a
nd
co
uld
be
der
ived
fo
r
exte
nsi
ve %
oo
d h
azar
d a
reas
usi
ng
the
%o
od
ris
k m
aps
as a
bas
e w
ith
up
dat
es p
rovi
ded
by
sate
llit
e im
ages
. H
ow
ever
, if
the
haz
ard
are
a is
sm
all,
the
up
dat
ed i
nfo
rmat
ion
sh
ou
ld b
e
pro
vid
ed b
y m
ann
ed o
r U
AV
ph
oto
grap
hy.
Maj
or
adva
nce
s
are
bei
ng
mad
e in
a w
ide
vari
ety
of
app
lica
tio
ns
of
UA
Vs
for
loca
lise
d a
eria
l p
ho
togr
aph
y an
d t
hei
r ap
pli
cati
on
s w
ill
incr
ease
in
th
e fu
ture
.
Sate
llit
e re
mo
te s
ensi
ng
is c
lear
ly i
mp
ort
ant
for
're
det
ec-
tio
n a
nd
mo
nit
ori
ng,
bas
ed o
n a
ran
ge o
f o
pti
cal
and
SA
R
sen
sors
. $
e M
OD
IS s
atel
lite
is a
n im
po
rtan
t so
urc
e o
f d
ata
for
're
det
ecti
on
an
d m
on
ito
rin
g as
des
crib
ed i
n C
hap
ter
4.4,
bu
t th
e re
pea
t cy
cle
of
1 to
2 d
ays
lim
its
its
abil
ity
to
mo
nit
or
rap
idly
mo
vin
g '
res,
ind
icat
ing
the
nee
d fo
r a
ded
i-
cate
d s
mal
l sat
elli
te c
on
stel
lati
on
fo
r '
re m
on
ito
rin
g.
Dam
age a
ssessm
ent
mapp
ing
$re
e ty
pes
of
map
pin
g p
rod
uct
s ar
e d
iscu
ssed
, tw
o r
efer
-
rin
g to
%o
od
s an
d t
he
thir
d r
efer
rin
g to
ear
thq
uak
e d
amag
e.
Flo
od
In
un
dat
ion
Map
s w
ith
a s
cale
ran
ge o
f 1:
1,00
0
to 1
:1,0
00,0
00 a
nd
sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
n f
rom
0.5
m t
o 2
50
m, g
iven
a t
imel
ines
s o
f fe
w h
ou
rs a
>er
an
em
erge
ncy
;
Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
s w
ith
a s
cale
ran
ge
of
1:1,
000
to 1
:60,
000
and
30
m s
pat
ial
reso
luti
on
, re
-
qu
ired
1 t
o 2
day
s a>
er t
he
emer
gen
cy;
Ear
thq
uak
e D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t M
aps
scal
ed 1
:500
to
1:10
,000
wit
h 0
.2 m
- 2
m g
eom
etri
c ac
cura
cy, p
rovi
ded
a fe
w h
ou
rs a
>er
th
e d
isas
ter.
$e
Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
s o
f F
loo
d I
nu
nd
atio
n M
aps
and
Flo
od
Dam
age
Map
s va
ry s
ign
i'ca
ntl
y in
sca
le,
wh
ile
the
dat
a
req
uir
ed
for
eart
hq
uak
e d
amag
e as
sess
men
t an
d
resc
ue
are
very
lar
ge s
cale
. H
ow
ever
, th
e b
ase
dat
a fo
r th
ese
map
s
sho
uld
alr
ead
y b
e av
aila
ble
fro
m e
xist
ing
%o
od
ris
k m
aps
and
ear
thq
uak
e ri
sk m
aps
wit
h, i
n m
ost
cas
es, s
imil
ar s
cale
s.
Det
ails
o
f in
un
dat
ion
an
d
%o
od
d
amag
e,
or
eart
hq
uak
e
84
TE
CH
NIC
AL A
SP
EC
TS,
BE
NE
FIT
AP
PR
AIS
AL A
ND C
OS
TS
4 dam
age
mu
st b
e ad
ded
to
th
e b
ase
dat
a a>
er t
he
even
t.
If
mu
ch s
mal
ler
scal
es w
ere
to b
e u
sed
, n
ew i
mag
es w
ou
ld
hav
e to
be
acq
uir
ed f
rom
sat
elli
tes
or
UA
Vs.
Sin
ce d
etai
ls
are
req
uir
ed w
ith
in a
few
ho
urs
, air
cra>
or
UA
V b
orn
e p
ho
-
togr
aph
y co
uld
be
pro
vid
ed,
un
der
th
e cl
ou
ds
if n
eces
sary
,
give
n t
hat
th
e n
eces
sary
aer
ial
ph
oto
grap
hy
equ
ipm
ent
is
avai
lab
le n
ear
the
loca
tio
n o
f th
e d
isas
ter,
an
d w
ind
fo
rces
are
wit
hin
rea
son
able
lim
its.
Fo
r th
e lo
w r
eso
luti
on
in
un
dat
ion
map
s, h
igh
alt
itu
de
air-
cra>
%ig
hts
or
op
tica
l sat
elli
te d
ata
such
as
the
free
of
char
ge
Lan
dsa
t 8
dat
a m
ay b
e al
so a
pp
rop
riat
e if
clo
ud
fre
e, b
ut
the
16 d
ay r
epea
t cy
cle
of
Lan
dsa
t 8
may
lim
it i
ts s
uit
abil
ity
for
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent.
Oth
er o
pti
cal
or
SAR
co
nst
ella
tio
ns
re-
ferr
ed t
o a
bo
ve m
ayb
e m
ore
ap
pro
pri
ate
and
acq
uir
ed u
n-
der
th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Ch
arte
r Sp
ace
and
Maj
or
Dis
aste
rs.
Vo
lun
tary
in
pu
t b
y N
GO
s an
d a
id f
orc
es c
ou
ld s
ign
i'ca
ntl
y
red
uce
co
sts
of
the
acq
uis
itio
n a
nd
pro
cess
ing
of
the
map
pro
du
cts.
O>
en %
oo
ds
and
esp
ecia
lly
eart
hq
uak
es o
ccu
r in
rem
ote
area
s an
d h
ence
arr
angi
ng
for
aeri
al p
ho
togr
aph
y m
ay t
ake
tim
e. $
eref
ore
, sa
tell
ite
bas
ed o
pti
cal
imag
es (
give
n c
lou
d
free
co
nd
itio
ns)
or
SAR
im
ager
y co
uld
be
acq
uir
ed f
ree
of
char
ge u
nd
er t
he
Inte
rnat
ion
al C
har
ter
Spac
e an
d M
ajo
r D
i-
sast
ers
as a
rap
id a
lter
nat
ive
to a
eria
l d
ata
acq
uis
itio
n. T
im-
ing
of
dat
a ac
qu
isit
ion
s o
ver
the
dis
aste
r si
te w
ou
ld d
epen
d
on
wh
en t
he
sate
llit
e p
asse
s o
ver
the
site
, bu
t d
aily
co
vera
ge
is u
sual
ly p
oss
ible
. $
e 24
ho
ur
op
erat
ion
of
SAR
sat
elli
tes
may
en
able
qu
ick
er a
cqu
isit
ion
of
imag
es o
ver
the
a&ec
ted
area
at
nig
ht.
$er
e is
lik
ely
to b
e a
tim
e la
g in
su
pp
lyin
g th
e
pro
du
ct t
o u
sers
ass
essi
ng
inu
nd
atio
n o
r ea
rth
qu
ake
dam
-
age,
an
d p
roce
du
res
such
as
do
wn
load
ing
map
dat
a o
ver
the
inte
rnet
dir
ectl
y to
th
e si
te o
f th
e d
amag
e n
eed
to
be
furt
her
dev
elo
ped
an
d i
mp
lem
ente
d.
$e
pro
cess
ing
of
the
imag
es t
o e
xtra
ct o
rth
op
ho
to d
amag
e m
aps
wo
uld
be
larg
ely
auto
mat
ic, b
ut
the
extr
acti
on
of
actu
al d
amag
e to
bu
ild
ings
wo
uld
req
uir
e fu
rth
er i
nte
rpre
tati
on
by
use
rs.
$er
e ar
e th
ree
maj
or
chal
len
ges
to f
ace
if m
ore
sp
eci'
c co
st
esti
mat
ion
s ar
e ex
pec
ted
for
the
10 r
efer
ence
pro
du
cts
as d
e-
scri
bed
by
the
Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
s, n
amel
y:
the
di&
eren
t co
st c
ateg
ori
es t
hat
are
rel
evan
t fo
r p
rod
-
uct
s o
r sy
stem
s, e
.g.
rega
rdin
g th
e am
ou
nt
of
‘in
pu
t’
that
is r
ead
ily
avai
lab
le a
t m
inim
al c
ost
in t
erm
s o
f su
it-
able
dat
a an
d m
atu
re s
o>
- an
d h
ard
war
e,
vari
atio
ns
in c
ost
s ch
arge
d b
y d
i&er
ent
pro
vid
ers,
an
d
vari
atio
n i
n c
ost
s d
ue
to w
her
e an
d w
hen
an
d u
nd
er
wh
ich
pro
gram
mat
ic c
on
dit
ion
s a
give
n s
yste
m i
s d
e-
velo
ped
, im
ple
men
ted
an
d o
per
ated
.
Tw
o e
xtre
mel
y d
i&er
ent
exam
ple
s m
ay s
erve
to
ill
ust
rate
this
pro
ble
m:
An
In
un
dat
ion
Map
is
a st
and
ard
pro
du
ct,
wh
ich
can
be
der
ived
fro
m a
vail
able
mu
lti-
pu
rpo
se s
atel
lite
im
ag-
ery
and
pro
vid
ed a
t re
lati
vely
low
co
st o
r co
st f
ree
e.g.
in
the
fram
ewo
rk o
f th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Ch
arte
r Sp
ace
and
Maj
or
Dis
aste
rs.
In c
on
tras
t, a
Fir
e D
etec
tio
n a
nd
Mo
nit
ori
ng
Syst
em
ful'
llin
g th
e st
and
ard
s o
f th
e re
spec
tive
tec
hn
ical
pro
-
'le
wo
uld
par
tial
ly r
equ
ire
the
dat
a q
ual
ity
that
was
dem
on
stra
ted
by
the
Ger
man
BIR
D m
issi
on
, i.
e. t
he
imp
lem
enta
tio
n o
f a
full
y %
edge
d o
per
atio
nal
fo
llo
w-
on
sat
elli
te m
issi
on
.
So
me
exem
pla
ry r
elat
ive
cost
'gu
res
for
imag
ery
fro
m s
at-
elli
tes
wit
h d
i&er
ent
spat
ial
reso
luti
on
are
lis
ted
in
Tab
le
4.6.
1, d
eriv
ed f
rom
th
e re
spec
tive
sat
elli
te p
rovi
der
s’ w
eb
site
s, t
o p
rovi
de
a q
uic
k o
verv
iew
on
th
e co
st r
ange
. Co
sts
of
sate
llit
e-b
ased
Dig
ital
Ele
vati
on
Mo
del
s ar
e in
th
e ra
nge
of
$US
9 (S
PO
T)
to 3
0 (T
erra
SAR
-X)
per
km
2 . T
akin
g T
urk
ey
as a
n e
xam
ple
, th
e es
tim
ated
co
sts
of
pro
vid
ing
map
s fr
om
hig
h r
eso
luti
on
sat
elli
te i
mag
es w
ith
1 m
sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
n
in 2
013
wo
uld
be
of
the
ord
er o
f $U
S 20
0 p
er k
m2 ;
the
cost
of
der
ivin
g m
aps
fro
m h
igh
res
olu
tio
n a
eria
l p
ho
togr
aph
y
wo
uld
be
a fa
cto
r o
f 50
to
100
mo
re e
xpen
sive
. $
e ty
pic
al
cost
s o
f m
app
ing
fro
m U
AV
ph
oto
grap
hy
are
no
t ye
t re
adil
y
avai
lab
le.
In a
dd
itio
n, i
t sh
ou
ld b
e p
oin
ted
ou
t th
at m
any
dat
a se
ts a
re
avai
lab
le f
ree
of
char
ge a
nd
can
be
do
wn
load
ed f
rom
th
e
web
. Oth
ers
are
avai
lab
le a
s fr
ee w
eb-s
ervi
ces.
A r
epo
sito
ry
of
free
geo
spat
ial
dat
a an
d p
rod
uct
s h
as b
een
co
mp
iled
by
UN
-SP
IDE
R o
n h
ttp
://w
ww
.un
-sp
ider
.org
/pag
e/66
65/f
ree-
dat
a-so
urc
es.
Fu
rth
erm
ore
, th
e 10
ref
eren
ce p
rod
uct
s re
late
to
ver
y d
i&er
-
ent
dis
aste
r ty
pes
an
d d
i&er
ent
ph
ases
of
dis
aste
r m
anag
e-
men
t. $
e co
st-b
ene'
ts-r
elat
ion
of
pro
du
cts
rela
ted
mo
re
spec
i'ca
lly
to t
he
emer
gen
cy p
rep
ared
nes
s an
d r
esp
on
se
ph
ases
can
be
mo
re e
asil
y m
od
elle
d (
e.g.
by
the
Co
st A
void
-
ance
Ap
pro
ach
dem
on
stra
ted
in C
hap
ter
2), b
ecau
se t
her
e is
ple
nty
of
emp
iric
al d
ata
on
th
e ac
tual
lo
sses
cau
sed
by
vari
-
ou
s d
isas
ter
typ
es i
n d
i&er
ent
par
ts o
f th
e w
orl
d.
Syst
emR
esol
uti
onC
ost
s ($
US
/km
2)
Lan
dsa
t 8
30 m
free
DM
CII
22 m
0.36
(f
or
3 d
ata
tak
es
to
avo
id c
lou
d c
ove
r)
SPO
T 4
an
d 5
10 m
0.65
2.6
(30‘
x 3
0‘ (
54 k
m x
54
km
) co
lou
red
ort
ho
imag
e)
Rap
idE
ye6.
5 m
1.28
Ter
raSA
R-X
up
to
18
m2.
3
2 m
8.8
Tab
le
4.6.
1:
Exe
mp
lary
co
st
'gu
res
for
rem
ote
se
nsi
ng
imag
ery
(201
3 p
rice
s b
ased
, ap
pro
xim
ated
), d
eriv
ed f
rom
the
resp
ecti
ve s
atel
lite
pro
vid
ers’
web
sit
es
85
RE
SU
LT
S S
UM
MA
RY A
ND D
ISC
US
SIO
N
5O
ther
pro
du
cts
such
as
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
map
s co
ntr
ib-
ute
to
rec
ove
ry a
nd
rec
on
stru
ctio
n b
ecau
se t
hey
hel
p t
o e
s-
tim
ate
the
dam
ages
an
d n
eed
s o
r to
mo
nit
or
the
'n
anci
al
per
form
ance
of
reco
very
act
ivit
ies,
in
bo
th w
ays
op
tim
isin
g
the
e#ci
ency
of
reco
very
sp
end
ing.
Geo
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
on
ris
k a
nd
vu
lner
abil
ity,
on
th
e
oth
er
han
d,
wil
l su
pp
ort
e&
ecti
ve
po
lici
es
of
mit
igat
ion
and
ris
k r
edu
ctio
n.
Wh
erea
s th
ese
pre
ven
tive
ap
pro
ach
es
as s
uch
are
gen
eral
ly a
ckn
ow
led
ged
as
the
op
tio
n o
f ch
oic
e
to o
bta
in h
igh
er e
#ci
ency
in
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t (s
ee
Ch
apte
r 2)
, th
e sp
eci'
c im
pac
t o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n i
s m
ore
di#
cult
to
qu
anti
fy.
At
pre
sen
t, a
ny
rese
arch
on
th
is p
oin
t
has
to
in
volv
e th
e ex
pli
cit
and
tac
it k
no
wle
dge
of
stak
eho
ld-
ers,
pra
ctit
ion
ers
and
exp
erts
. T
o o
verc
om
e th
e li
mit
atio
ns
of
qu
esti
on
nai
re a
nd
ap
pra
isal
bas
ed a
pp
roac
hes
reg
ard
ing
this
iss
ue,
it
seem
s w
ort
hw
hil
e to
exp
lore
th
e p
ote
nti
al o
f
mo
re e
lab
ora
te m
eth
od
s fo
r ca
ptu
rin
g th
e in
dis
pen
sab
le
kn
ow
led
ge o
f st
akeh
old
ers
and
en
d-u
sers
, fo
r ex
amp
le b
y
dev
elo
pin
g an
d p
erfo
rmin
g ex
erci
ses
bas
ed o
n d
edic
ated
di-
sast
er m
anag
emen
t ga
mes
so
>w
are
(‘se
rio
us
gam
ing’
).
5. R
esu
lts s
um
mary
an
d d
iscu
ssio
n
Rob
ert
Bac
khau
s an
d J
ohn
Tri
nd
er
Ad
dre
ssin
g th
e is
sue
of
eval
uat
ing
con
trib
uti
on
s ge
oin
for-
mat
ion
can
mak
e in
su
pp
ort
of
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
age-
men
t (D
RM
) re
qu
ires
exp
lori
ng
a w
ide
inte
rdis
cip
lin
ary
'el
d, m
ain
ly u
nd
er t
wo
hea
din
gs:
the
econ
omic
asp
ects
, wh
ich
cal
l fo
r as
sess
ing
the
mo
ne-
tary
val
ue
of
ben
e'ts
lik
ely
to b
e ga
ined
fro
m a
pp
lyin
g
geo
info
rmat
ion
to
DR
M, a
nd
the
pra
ctic
al i
mp
acts
of
such
an
ap
pli
cati
on
, i.
e. a
sses
-
sin
g th
e qu
alit
ativ
e be
ne+
ts c
on
sid
erin
g sp
eci'
c o
per
a-
tio
nal
an
d s
trat
egic
asp
ects
of
DR
M.
Wit
h r
egar
d t
o t
he
them
atic
an
d s
tru
ctu
ral
exte
nt
of
this
'el
d o
f st
ud
y, b
oth
asp
ects
had
to
be
anal
ysed
by
pra
gma-
tic
app
roac
hes
, all
ow
ing
for
su#
cien
t co
mp
lexi
ty r
edu
ctio
n
and
fo
cuss
ing.
Giv
en t
he
lack
of
vali
dat
ed c
om
pu
ter-
bas
ed
mo
del
s, s
tak
eho
lder
an
d e
xper
t su
rvey
s w
ere
the
met
ho
d o
f
cho
ice.
$e
econ
omic
asp
ects
wer
e st
ud
ied
by
a co
mp
reh
ensi
ve
anal
ysis
of
app
lica
ble
met
ho
dic
al a
pp
roac
hes
, fo
llo
wed
by
a ca
se s
tud
y to
ill
ust
rate
th
e p
ote
nti
al o
f th
e C
ost
Avo
idan
ce A
pp
roac
h (
Ch
apte
r 2)
.
$e
asse
ssm
ent
of
spec
i+c
oper
atio
nal
an
d s
trat
egic
be-
ne+
ts w
as b
ased
on
tec
hn
ical
des
crip
tio
ns
of
10 s
ho
rt-
list
ed g
eoin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s an
d s
yste
ms
(Tec
hn
ical
Pro
'le
s),
and
in
clu
ded
th
e as
sess
men
t o
f cr
itic
al t
ech
-
nic
al f
eatu
res
(Ch
apte
rs 3
, 4)
. $
e re
sult
s o
f a
glo
bal
stak
eho
lder
su
rvey
wer
e co
mp
lem
ente
d b
y o
utl
inin
g
the
scie
nti
'c
and
tec
hn
ical
bac
kgr
ou
nd
of
the
geo
in-
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s an
d s
yste
ms
(Ch
apte
rs 4
.1 t
o 4
.5,
resp
ecti
vely
), a
nd
by
dis
cuss
ing
cost
s as
pec
ts o
f ge
od
ata
pro
visi
on
(C
hap
ter
4.6)
.
Maj
or
resu
lts
of
the
stu
dy
are
sum
mar
ized
an
d d
iscu
ssed
in
the
foll
ow
ing.
Det
erm
inin
g th
e ec
onom
ic v
alu
e o
f ge
osp
atia
l in
form
atio
n
in D
RM
rem
ain
s an
un
der
stu
die
d t
op
ic w
ith
in t
he
thri
vin
g
'el
d o
f st
ud
y d
edic
ated
to
th
e ec
on
om
ics
of
nat
ura
l h
azar
ds
and
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t. C
hap
ter
2 p
rovi
des
a r
evie
w o
f
met
ho
dic
al a
pp
roac
hes
. $
e N
amib
ia %
oo
din
g d
isas
ter
of
2009
was
sel
ecte
d t
o i
llu
stra
te t
he
app
lica
tio
n o
f th
e C
ost
Avo
idan
ce A
pp
roac
h f
or
a ca
se s
tud
y. $
e %
oo
ds
had
a m
a-
jor
imp
act
on
Nam
ibia
’s e
con
om
y, r
edu
cin
g th
e G
DP
fro
m
an e
xpec
ted
1.1
% to
0.5
%. $
e to
tal d
amag
es a
nd
loss
es, w
i-
tho
ut
con
sid
erin
g th
e im
pac
ts o
f lo
ss o
f li
fe, w
ere
esti
mat
ed
to b
e $U
S 21
4.6
mil
lio
n (
in 2
009
valu
e o
f $U
S).
A q
ues
tio
nn
aire
was
des
ign
ed t
o c
har
t th
e ec
on
om
ic v
alu
e
of
sin
gle
geo
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts,
an
d a
su
rvey
was
carr
ied
ou
t w
ith
Nam
ibia
n s
tak
eho
lder
s to
est
imat
e th
e co
st
savi
ngs
th
at c
ou
ld h
ave
bee
n r
eali
zed
giv
en t
he
avai
lab
ilit
y
of
a F
loo
d E
arly
War
nin
g Sy
stem
. $
e re
spo
nse
to
th
e su
r-
vey
was
lo
w a
nd
did
no
t al
low
fo
r st
atis
tica
l an
alys
is.
Ho
w-
ever
, th
e re
sult
s sh
ow
ed t
hat
th
e re
spo
nd
ents
est
imat
ed t
hat
savi
ngs
co
uld
hav
e b
een
of
the
ord
er o
f 45
% o
f th
e to
tal
dam
ages
an
d l
oss
es,
wit
h s
ign
i'ca
nt
vari
atio
n i
n t
he
area
s
Infr
ast
ruct
ure
, P
rod
uct
ivit
y, S
ocia
l an
d C
ross
Sec
tora
l. $
is
'gu
re i
s in
agr
eem
ent
wit
h d
ata
pu
bli
shed
in
th
e li
tera
ture
on
dam
age
red
uct
ion
fro
m e
arly
%o
od
war
nin
g, r
angi
ng
bet
wee
n 3
5 an
d 4
7 %
. $
eref
ore
a p
ote
nti
al r
edu
ctio
n o
f
dam
age
and
lo
sses
in
th
e N
amib
ia %
oo
ds
of
abo
ut
40 %
, if
a F
loo
d E
arly
War
nin
g Sy
stem
had
bee
n a
vail
able
, ca
n b
e
assu
med
to
be
real
isti
c, d
esp
ite
the
low
res
po
nse
rat
e to
th
e
surv
ey.
$e
qu
esti
on
nai
re i
s p
ub
lish
ed i
n t
he
An
nex
an
d m
ay s
erve
as a
tem
pla
te f
or
mo
di'
cati
on
an
d a
pp
lica
tio
n t
o o
ther
cas
es
and
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts.
86
RE
SU
LT
S S
UM
MA
RY A
ND D
ISC
US
SIO
N
5 A g
lob
al s
urv
ey w
as c
arri
ed o
ut
by
way
of
two
co
nse
cuti
ve
web
-bas
ed p
oll
s.
$e
'rs
t p
oll
res
ult
ed i
n a
sh
ort
list
of
10 g
eoin
form
atio
n
pro
du
cts
or
syst
ems
con
sid
ered
m
ost
im
po
rtan
t b
y th
e
glo
bal
sta
keh
old
er c
om
mu
nit
y, r
epre
sen
ted
by
222
resp
on
d-
ers.
$er
e w
ere
no
sig
ni'
can
t d
i&er
ence
s b
etw
een
res
po
nse
s
fro
m u
sers
, val
ue-
add
ers
or
pro
vid
ers
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
fo
r
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
agem
ent.
$e
stak
eho
lder
co
mm
u-
nit
y as
crib
ed h
igh
est
imp
ort
ance
to
geo
info
rmat
ion
ab
ou
t
Flo
od, E
arth
quak
e, D
rou
ght,
Fir
e, a
nd
Lan
dsl
ide
haz
ard
s.
$e
sho
rtli
st it
ems
wer
e d
etai
led
by
way
of
com
pac
t T
ech
ni-
cal
Pro
'le
s an
d a
pp
rais
ed f
or
spec
i'c
ben
e'ts
in
th
e co
urs
e
of
the
seco
nd
po
ll, w
hic
h w
as a
dd
ress
ed m
ain
ly b
ut
no
t ex
-
clu
sive
ly t
o e
nd
-use
rs.
Eac
h o
f th
e h
azar
ds
add
ress
ed h
as i
ts o
wn
ch
arac
teri
stic
s
and
so
hav
e th
e re
spec
tive
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts
and
syst
ems.
Acc
ord
ingl
y, C
hap
ters
4.1
to
4.5
pro
vid
e in
sigh
t
into
th
e sc
ien
ti'
c an
d t
ech
nic
al b
ack
gro
un
d o
f ea
ch s
ho
rt-
list
ed g
eoin
form
atio
n it
em, w
hic
h is
su
mm
ariz
ed a
s fo
llo
ws.
Flo
od a
nd
Flo
od R
isk:
Map
pin
g, M
onit
orin
g an
d D
amag
e
Ass
essm
ent
Flo
od
dis
aste
rs h
ave
incr
ease
d r
ecen
tly
and
th
eir
freq
uen
cy
is l
ikel
y to
in
crea
se f
urt
her
in
th
e fu
ture
, du
e to
th
e im
pac
ts
of
clim
ate
chan
ge a
nd
in
crea
ses
in s
ettl
emen
ts a
lon
g ri
vers
and
co
astl
ines
. F
ou
r %
oo
d-r
elat
ed p
rod
uct
s w
ere
pre
sen
ted
in t
he
sho
rtli
st:
Flo
od
Ris
k M
aps
del
inea
te a
reas
pro
ne
to %
oo
din
g, a
nd
in-
fras
tru
ctu
re a
t ri
sk, t
o su
ppor
t %
oo
d m
itig
atio
n a
nd
pre
pa-
red
nes
s.
Flo
od
Ris
k M
on
ito
rin
g Sy
stem
s sh
ou
ld d
etec
t an
d m
o-
nit
or
crit
ical
ch
ange
s in
ris
k f
acto
rs o
ver
tim
e.
Inu
nd
atio
n
Map
s ar
e p
rep
ared
im
med
iate
ly
a>er
a
%o
od
eve
nt
has
tak
en p
lace
an
d d
elin
eate
th
e ac
tual
%o
od
ed a
reas
in
clu
din
g th
e w
ater
dep
ths.
Flo
od
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
Map
s ai
m t
o p
rese
nt
det
ails
of
soci
o-e
con
om
ic d
amag
e.
A n
um
ber
of
exis
tin
g w
ell-
dev
elo
ped
%o
od
map
pin
g an
d
earl
y w
arn
ing
syst
ems
was
des
crib
ed,
par
ticu
larl
y in
Eu
ro-
pe.
Fu
rth
er i
nve
stig
atio
ns
are
reco
mm
end
ed o
n t
he
mo
st
cost
-e#
cien
t w
ays
to p
rovi
de
the
di&
eren
t ty
pes
of
geo
in-
form
atio
n f
or
the
der
ivat
ion
of
the
abo
ve p
rod
uct
s. $
is
wo
uld
ben
e't
the
eco
no
mie
s o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n f
or
%o
od
risk
ass
essm
ent
and
man
agem
ent.
In
ad
dit
ion
, as
%o
od
ris
ks
incr
ease
, n
ew a
reas
th
at m
ay e
mer
ge d
ue
to t
he
imp
acts
of
clim
ate
chan
ge s
ho
uld
be
iden
ti'
ed a
nd
th
e ri
sk a
sses
sed
.
Ear
thqu
ake
Ris
k A
nal
ysis
an
d D
amag
e A
sses
smen
t
Sin
ce
eart
hq
uak
es
are
un
pre
dic
tab
le
and
u
sual
ly
occ
ur
infr
equ
entl
y, t
he
app
lica
tio
n o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n i
s p
rim
a-
rily
ap
pli
ed f
or
the
ph
ysic
al d
escr
ipti
on
of
vuln
erab
ilit
ies,
wh
ich
des
crib
e th
e su
scep
tib
ilit
ies
of
all
kin
ds
of
hu
man
-
mad
e st
ruct
ure
s su
ch a
s b
uil
din
gs,
road
s, i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
s.
$e
geo
info
rmat
ion
req
uir
ed i
ncl
ud
es G
IS d
atab
ases
bas
ed
on
th
e zo
nat
ion
of
regi
on
s p
ote
nti
ally
su
bje
ct t
o i
mp
acts
of
eart
hq
uak
es, s
uch
as
gro
un
d-s
hak
ing,
fau
lt r
up
ture
, an
d s
oil
liq
uef
acti
on
, an
d o
n p
aram
eter
izat
ion
of
the
terr
ain
fo
rm
fro
m d
igit
al e
leva
tio
n m
od
els.
Man
y re
gio
ns
can
be
un
ex-
pec
ted
ly h
it b
y an
ear
thq
uak
e, a
nd
are
un
pre
par
ed f
or
this
dis
aste
r. G
iven
th
e in
crea
sin
g av
aila
bil
ity
of
spac
e b
orn
e o
p-
tica
l an
d S
AR
sys
tem
s, E
arth
qu
ake
Ris
k A
nal
ysis
Map
s o
n
vuln
erab
le a
reas
can
be
dev
elo
ped
wo
rld
wid
e at
in
crea
sin
-
gly
less
co
st.
Met
ho
ds
sho
uld
als
o b
e d
evel
op
ed t
o r
edu
ce
the
tim
e la
g in
th
e p
rovi
sio
n o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n t
o t
he
dis
as-
ter
site
, e.g
. co
mm
un
icat
ion
s te
chn
olo
gies
fo
r d
ow
nlo
adin
g
map
dat
a o
ver
the
inte
rnet
.
Met
ho
ds
sho
uld
b
e fu
rth
er
inve
stig
ated
fo
r p
red
icti
ng
eart
hq
uak
es,
bas
ed o
n t
he
pre
cise
mea
sure
men
ts o
f G
NSS
refe
ren
ce
stat
ion
s (G
lob
al
Nav
igat
ion
Sa
tell
ite
Syst
ems)
aro
un
d t
he
glo
be,
an
d o
n S
AR
in
terf
ero
met
ry.
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
erab
ilit
y M
appi
ng
Dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
is a
cru
cial
ele
men
t o
f d
rou
ght
risk
,
wh
ich
is t
he
susc
epti
bil
ity
to t
he
dam
agin
g e&
ects
of d
rou
ght
haz
ard
.
Dro
ugh
t h
azar
d a
sses
smen
t is
bas
ed o
n s
ever
al i
nd
icat
ors
mo
st o
f w
hic
h m
ay b
e d
eriv
ed f
rom
lo
w r
eso
luti
on
sat
elli
te
dat
a, s
o t
he
app
lica
tio
n o
f ge
oin
form
atio
n f
or
dro
ugh
t h
a-
zard
ass
essm
ent
sho
uld
be
low
co
st.
Peo
ple
’s v
uln
erab
ilit
y
to d
rou
ght,
ho
wev
er, i
s co
mp
lex,
an
d h
as t
o b
e d
eriv
ed f
rom
his
tori
cal a
nd
pre
vail
ing
cult
ura
l, so
cial
, en
viro
nm
enta
l, p
o-
liti
cal
and
eco
no
mic
co
nte
xts.
Hen
ce, d
rou
ght
vuln
erab
ilit
y
ind
icat
ors
are
bas
ed o
n g
lob
al s
oci
o-e
con
om
ic d
atab
ases
avai
lab
le m
ost
ly o
n a
nat
ion
al a
ggre
gati
on
leve
l, o
r ge
osp
ati-
al d
atas
ets
wit
h a
ver
y co
arse
res
olu
tio
n, s
om
e o
f w
hic
h a
re
der
ived
fro
m s
atel
lite
acq
uis
itio
ns.
$is
is
a li
mit
ing
fact
or
for
the
spat
ial r
eso
luti
on
of
dro
ugh
t vu
lner
abil
ity
map
s.
Giv
en t
hes
e re
stri
ctio
ns,
Dro
ugh
t V
uln
erab
ilit
y M
aps
shou
ld
be
dev
elop
ed w
ell i
n a
dva
nce
of
the
onse
t of
a d
rou
ght.
Pre
pa-
red
nes
s an
d r
esp
onse
to
dro
ugh
t d
isas
ters
sh
ould
als
o b
e su
p-
por
ted
by
tim
ely
dro
ugh
t h
azar
d a
sses
smen
t an
d m
onit
orin
g.
Fir
e R
isk
Map
pin
g an
d F
ire
Det
ecti
on a
nd
Mon
itor
ing
Fir
e ri
sk c
on
sist
s o
f '
re d
ange
r an
d v
uln
erab
ilit
y.
Fir
e d
an-
ger
is d
eter
min
ed b
y t
he
sou
rces
of
ign
itio
n,
hu
man
an
d
nat
ura
l. F
ire
risk
tak
es i
nto
acc
ou
nt
the
imp
act
of
're
on
exp
ose
d s
oci
o-e
con
om
ic, r
ecre
atio
nal
, eco
logi
cal a
nd
cu
ltu
-
ral v
alu
es.
Med
ium
res
olu
tio
n g
eoin
form
atio
n c
an p
lay
an i
mp
ort
ant
role
by
pro
vid
ing
info
rmat
ion
on
're
dan
ger
as w
ell
as v
ul-
ner
abil
ity.
Sin
ce h
um
ans
pla
y an
im
po
rtan
t ro
le i
n '
re i
gni-
87
RE
SU
LT
S S
UM
MA
RY A
ND D
ISC
US
SIO
N
5ti
on
, it
is
nec
essa
ry t
o m
od
el h
um
an b
ehav
iou
r in
rel
atio
n
to '
re r
isk
. $is
invo
lves
var
iab
les
rela
ted
to
lan
d u
se o
r la
nd
use
-ch
ange
, ag
ricu
ltu
ral–
fore
st o
r u
rban
–fo
rest
in
terf
aces
,
po
pu
lati
on
tre
nd
s, r
ura
l act
ivit
ies,
an
d p
ote
nti
al c
on
%ic
ts.
Fir
e D
etec
tio
n a
nd
Mo
nit
ori
ng
may
co
ntr
ibu
te t
o r
isk
as-
sess
men
t, b
ut
is m
ain
ly n
eed
ed f
or
dis
aste
r re
spo
nse
su
p-
po
rt.
Wh
ile
the
MO
DIS
in
stru
men
t o
nb
oar
d o
f th
e T
erra
and
Aq
ua
sate
llit
es c
an b
e u
sed
fo
r m
on
ito
rin
g '
res
and
det
erm
inin
g d
amag
e, i
ts r
epea
t cy
cle
of
1 to
2 d
ays
lim
its
its
abil
ity
to m
on
ito
r ra
pid
ly c
han
gin
g '
res.
$er
e ar
e n
o s
a-
tell
ites
sp
eci'
call
y av
aila
ble
fo
r tr
ack
ing
're
s. A
're
mo
nit
o-
rin
g sy
stem
th
at c
an d
etec
t th
e m
ove
men
t o
f w
ild
're
s co
uld
be
real
ized
wit
h a
co
nst
ella
tio
n o
f d
edic
ated
lo
w r
eso
luti
on
're
sat
elli
tes
sim
ilar
to
th
e B
ird
an
d t
he
pro
po
sed
Fir
eBIR
D
sate
llli
tes,
wh
ich
co
uld
mo
nit
or
the
glo
be
con
tin
uo
usl
y an
d
ind
icat
e th
e o
ccu
rren
ce a
nd
beh
avio
ur
of
wil
d'
res.
$is
wo
uld
nee
d t
o b
e ac
hie
ved
by
inte
rnat
ion
al c
oo
per
atio
n o
f
nat
ion
s a&
ecte
d b
y w
ild
're
s in
bo
th t
he
no
rth
ern
an
d s
ou
-
ther
n h
emis
ph
eres
. W
hil
e lo
cal
're
mo
nit
ori
ng
is p
oss
ible
wit
h m
ann
ed a
ircr
a> o
r U
AV
, on
cri
tica
l 're
sto
rm d
ays,
th
e
loca
l w
eath
er c
on
dit
ion
s d
uri
ng
're
sto
rms
o>
en p
recl
ud
e
%yi
ng.
$e
cost
s o
f su
ch a
co
nst
ella
tio
n w
ou
ld b
e m
inim
al
com
par
ed w
ith
th
e p
ote
nti
al d
amag
es a
nd
loss
es d
ue
to '
res
on
a g
lob
al s
cale
.
Lan
dsl
ide
Ha
zard
Ass
essm
ent
$e
six
clas
ses
of
lan
dsl
ides
an
d t
he
con
dit
ion
s u
nd
er w
hic
h
they
can
occ
ur
wer
e d
escr
ibed
, as
wel
l as
th
e n
atu
ral
trig
-
geri
ng
mec
han
ism
s o
f p
reci
pit
atio
n, s
eism
icit
y an
d v
olc
anic
acti
vity
. Hu
man
ind
uce
d t
rigg
ers
can
incl
ud
e al
l kin
ds
of
ac-
tivi
ties
a&
ecti
ng
or
tran
sfo
rmin
g th
e m
orp
ho
log
y o
f a
slo
pe
and
cau
sin
g an
in
stan
tan
eou
s fa
ilu
re.
$e
deg
ree
of
haz
ard
and
imp
act
is r
elat
ed t
o t
he
velo
city
of
mo
vem
ent
wh
ich
can
vary
fro
m e
xtre
mel
y ra
pid
to
ext
rem
ely
slo
w m
oti
on
.
$e
pro
visi
on
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
fo
r L
and
slid
e H
azar
d A
s-
sess
men
t M
app
ing
in a
reas
su
bje
ct t
o t
he
risk
of
lan
dsl
ides
is a
n e
ssen
tial
tas
k f
or
the
safe
ty o
f li
ves
and
pro
per
ty.
$e
exam
ple
s p
rese
nte
d d
emo
nst
rate
th
e w
ork
th
at i
s u
nd
erta
-
ken
at
som
e lo
cati
on
s ar
ou
nd
th
e w
orl
d.
Such
e&
ort
s m
ust
be
exte
nd
ed t
o t
ho
se a
reas
no
t cu
rren
tly
cove
red
by
app
ro-
pri
ate
map
pin
g.
5.2
.2
Cost
asp
ects
A d
etai
led
sp
eci'
c co
mp
aris
on
bet
wee
n b
ene'
ts a
nd
co
sts
was
bey
on
d t
he
sco
pe
of
this
stu
dy,
du
e to
th
e w
ides
pre
ad
ran
ge o
f p
rice
s fo
r d
i&er
ent
typ
es a
nd
so
urc
es o
f ge
od
ata,
the
di&
eren
ces
in d
ata
avai
lab
ilit
y am
on
g d
i&er
ent c
ou
ntr
ies,
and
th
e d
i&er
ence
s b
etw
een
th
e sh
ort
list
ed g
eoin
form
atio
n
item
s w
hic
h r
ange
fro
m o
ne-
tim
e lo
cal m
app
ing
pro
du
cts
to
spat
iall
y ex
ten
ded
mo
nit
ori
ng
syst
ems.
In
stea
d, a
n o
verv
iew
on
rel
ativ
e co
sts
of
sate
llit
e d
ata
toge
ther
wit
h a
n o
utl
ine
of
the
spec
i'c
dat
a re
qu
irem
ents
fo
r th
e sh
ort
list
ed g
eoin
for-
mat
ion
pro
du
cts,
is
give
n i
n C
hap
ter
4.6.
Dep
end
ing
on
th
e sp
eci'
c ap
pli
cati
on
go
al a
nd
th
e ta
rget
regi
on
, th
ere
is a
mp
le r
oo
m f
or
cost
-e&
ecti
ve m
od
i'ca
tio
n
of
the
met
ho
ds
use
d f
or
der
ivin
g th
is g
eoin
form
atio
n,
es-
pec
iall
y w
ith
res
pec
t to
sp
atia
l re
solu
tio
n.
$e
app
lica
tio
n
of
UA
Vs
for
pro
visi
on
of
geo
info
rmat
ion
on
dam
age
du
e to
dis
aste
rs s
ho
uld
als
o b
e fu
rth
er i
nve
stig
ated
.
5.2
.3 A
pp
rais
al re
sults
Du
e to
th
e n
eces
sari
ly m
ore
ela
bo
rate
ap
pra
isal
sch
eme
in t
he
seco
nd
po
ll,
the
nu
mb
er o
f re
spo
nd
ers
was
lo
wer
,
amo
un
tin
g to
70
par
tici
pan
ts i
ncl
ud
ing
51 e
nd
-use
rs.
Wh
erea
s th
is n
um
ber
of
par
tici
pan
ts c
ann
ot
be
tak
en a
s
bei
ng
equ
ival
ent
to a
fu
lly
rep
rese
nta
tive
glo
bal
res
po
nse
,
it s
ure
ly r
epre
sen
ts a
glo
bal
gro
up
of
enga
ged
sta
keh
old
ers
wit
h a
sig
ni'
can
t in
tere
st i
n t
he
eval
uat
ion
of
geo
info
rma-
tio
n f
or
DR
M.
$e
po
ll r
esu
lts
are
pre
sen
ted
in
det
ail
in C
hap
ters
3 a
nd
4.
In s
um
mar
y, t
hey
giv
e ev
iden
ce o
f th
e fo
llo
win
g p
oin
ts:
Bes
ides
geo
info
rmat
ion
on
act
ual
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent,
the
stak
eho
lder
co
mm
un
ity
emp
has
izes
th
e im
po
rtan
ce
of
risk
an
d v
uln
erab
ilit
y m
app
ing/
mo
nit
ori
ng.
A v
ast
maj
ori
ty o
f en
d-u
sers
asc
rib
e a
hig
h t
o m
ediu
m
ben
e't
to a
ll s
ho
rtli
sted
geo
info
rmat
ion
ite
ms
for
all
the
op
erat
ion
al a
nd
str
ateg
ic i
ssu
es a
dd
ress
ed.
55 t
o 8
0 %
of
resp
on
din
g en
d-u
sers
asc
rib
e a
hig
h b
e-
ne'
t to
all
10
sho
rtli
sted
geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts
for
red
uci
ng
loss
es i
n p
ub
lic
eco
no
my
and
su
pp
ort
ing
pre
-
ven
tive
str
ateg
ies.
En
d-u
sers
asc
rib
e a
hig
h b
ene'
t o
f geo
info
rmat
ion
pro
-
vid
ed o
n a
ctu
al d
isas
ter
even
ts a
s w
ell a
s fo
r th
e su
pp
ort
of
pre
ven
tive
act
ivit
ies.
In c
om
par
iso
n,
no
n-e
nd
-use
rs g
ener
ally
ten
d t
o u
nd
e-
rest
imat
e th
e b
ene'
t p
ote
nti
al.
En
d-u
sers
an
d n
on
-en
d-u
sers
mo
stly
di&
er i
n t
hei
r as
-
sess
men
t o
f th
e cr
itic
alit
y o
f sp
eci'
c te
chn
ical
pro
du
ct
feat
ure
s.
Fro
m t
he
met
ho
dic
al p
oin
t o
f vi
ew,
the
stu
dy
clea
rly
sho
ws
the
ind
isp
ensa
ble
val
ue
of
use
r k
no
wle
dge
wh
en it
co
mes
to
eval
uat
ing
geo
info
rmat
ion
fo
r D
isas
ter
and
Ris
k M
anag
e-
men
t. T
o o
verc
om
e th
e li
mit
atio
ns
of
qu
esti
on
nai
re-b
ased
surv
eys,
th
e p
ote
nti
al
of
ded
icat
ed
man
agem
ent
gam
es
cou
ld b
e fu
rth
er e
xplo
red
.
88
89
RE
FE
RE
NC
ES
66.
Refe
ren
ces
AC
IL T
asm
an, 2
008.
$e
valu
e o
f sp
atia
l in
form
atio
n –
$e
imp
act
of
mo
der
n s
pat
ial
info
rmat
ion
tec
hn
olo
gies
on
th
e
Au
stra
lian
eco
no
my.
htt
p:/
/ww
w.c
rcsi
.co
m.a
u
Ad
ams,
B.J
., 20
04.
Imp
rove
d D
isas
ter
Man
gem
ent
thro
ugh
po
st E
arth
qu
ake
Bu
ild
ing
Dam
age
Ass
essm
ent
usi
ng
Mu
lti-
tem
po
ral
Sate
llit
e Im
ager
y, P
roce
edin
gs o
f th
e IS
PR
S X
Xth
Co
ngr
ess,
Vo
l 35.
htt
p:/
/ww
w.i
sprs
.org
/pro
ceed
ings
/XX
XV
/
con
gres
s/co
mm
7/p
aper
s/12
1.p
df
Ad
ams,
B.J
., et
al.,
200
4. A
pp
lica
tio
n o
f H
igh
-Res
olu
tio
n
Op
tica
l Sa
tell
ite
Imag
ery
for
Po
st-E
arth
qu
ake
Dam
age
As-
sess
men
t: $
e 20
03 B
ou
mer
des
(A
lger
ia)
and
Bam
(Ir
an)
Ear
thq
uak
es.
Res
earc
h
Pro
gres
s an
d
Acc
om
pli
shm
ents
:
2003
-200
4, M
ult
idis
cip
lin
ary
Cen
ter
for
Ear
thq
uak
e E
ngi
-
nee
rin
g R
esea
rch
(M
CE
ER
), 1
73-1
86. h
ttp
s://
mce
er.b
u&
alo.
edu
/pu
bli
cati
on
s/re
sacc
om
/04-
SP01
/12_
Egu
chi.
pd
f
Ah
ern
, F.J
., G
old
amm
er, J
G.,
and
Ju
stic
e, C
.O.,
2001
. Glo
bal
and
Reg
ion
al V
eget
atio
n F
ire
Mo
nit
ori
ng
fro
m S
pac
e: P
lan
-
nin
g a
Co
ord
inat
ed I
nte
rnat
ion
al E
&o
rt, $
e H
agu
e.
Ale
xan
der
, L.V
., X
. Zh
ang,
T.C
. Pet
erso
n, J
. Cae
sar,
B. G
lea-
son
, A.M
.G. K
lein
Tan
k, M
. Hay
lock
, D. C
oll
ins,
B. T
rew
in,
F. R
ahim
zad
eh,
A.
Tag
ipo
ur,
K.R
. K
um
ar,
J. R
evad
ekar
, G
.
Gri
#th
s, L
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ince
nt,
D.B
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eph
enso
n,
J. B
urn
, E
. A
guil
ar,
M.
Bru
net
, M
. T
aylo
r, M
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ew,
P. Z
hai
, M
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ust
icu
cci,
an
d
J.L
. Vaz
qu
ez-A
guir
re, 2
006.
Glo
bal
ob
serv
ed c
han
ges
in d
ai-
ly c
lim
ate
extr
emes
of
tem
per
atu
re a
nd
pre
cip
itat
ion
. Jo
ur-
nal
of
Geo
ph
ysic
al R
esea
rch
– A
tmo
sph
eres
, 111
, D05
109.
Al'
eri,
L.,
Sala
mo
n, P
., P
app
enb
erge
r, F
., W
ette
rhal
l, F.
, an
d
$ie
len
, J.
, 20
12.
Op
erat
ion
al e
arly
war
nin
g sy
stem
s fo
r
wat
er-r
elat
ed h
azar
ds
in E
uro
pe.
En
viro
nm
enta
l S
cien
ce &
Po
licy
, 21,
35–
49.
Alt
an,
O.,
Bac
kh
aus
R.,
Bo
ccar
do,
P.,
and
Z
lata
no
va S
.
(Ed
s.),
201
0. G
eoin
form
atio
n f
or
Dis
aste
r an
d R
isk
Man
-
agem
ent:
Exa
mp
les
and
Bes
t P
ract
ices
. P
ub
lish
ed b
y Jo
int
Bo
ard
of
Geo
spat
ial
Info
rmat
ion
So
ciet
ies
(JB
GIS
) an
d
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s O
#ce
fo
r O
ute
r Sp
ace
A&
airs
(O
OSA
), C
o-
pen
hag
en.
Alt
an, O
., K
emp
er, G
., 20
08.
Syst
em a
rch
itec
ture
fo
r ea
rth
-
qu
ake,
tsu
nam
i p
rep
ared
nes
s an
d w
arn
ing.
$e
Inte
rna-
tio
nal
Arc
hiv
es o
f th
e P
ho
togr
amm
etry
, R
emo
te S
ensi
ng
and
Sp
atia
l In
form
atio
n S
cien
ces,
Vo
l. X
XX
VII
, P
art
B4,
1061
-107
1, B
eiji
ng.
An
der
son
, M
.B.,
1990
. A
nal
yzin
g th
e C
ost
s an
d B
ene'
ts o
f
Nat
ura
l Dis
aste
r R
esp
on
ses
in t
he
Co
nte
xt o
f D
evel
op
men
t.
htt
p:/
/ww
w.c
rid
.or.
cr/d
igit
ali
zaci
on
/pd
f/en
g/d
oc2
60
/
do
c260
-a.p
df
An
der
son
, H
.E.,
1982
. A
ids
to d
eter
min
ing
fuel
mo
del
s fo
r
esti
mat
ing
're
b
ehav
ior.
U
SDA
, F
ore
st
Ser
vice
, G
ener
al
Tec
hn
ical
Rep
ort
IN
T-1
22, O
gden
, UT
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An
dre
ae, M
.O.,
1991
. Bio
mas
s b
urn
ing:
its
his
tory
, use
, an
d
dis
trib
uti
on
an
d i
ts i
mp
act
on
en
viro
nm
enta
l q
ual
ity
and
glo
bal
cli
mat
e. J
. S.
Lev
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kb
ird
Im
-
ages
Fo
llo
win
g th
e 20
03 B
am, I
ran
, Ear
thq
uak
e. E
arth
qu
ake
Spec
tra,
Vo
l 21
, 32
9-33
6. h
ttp
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res.
tu.c
hib
a-u
.jp/~
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ers/
pap
erIJ
/Sp
ectr
a/E
QS0
0S32
9_20
05Y
amaz
aki.
pd
f
Yam
azak
i, F
., M
atsu
ok
a, M
., 20
06. R
emo
te S
ensi
ng
Tec
hn
ol-
ogi
es f
or
Ear
thq
uak
e an
d T
sun
ami
Dis
aste
r M
anag
emen
t.
Asi
a C
on
fere
nce
on
Ear
thq
uak
e E
ngi
nee
rin
g. $
eme:
Sei
s-
mic
Haz
ard
s an
d D
amag
e M
itig
atio
n i
n t
he
Asi
an R
egio
n.
htt
p:/
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s.tu
.ch
iba-
u.jp
/~p
aper
s/p
aper
/AC
EE
/AC
EE
2006
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IA4_
Yam
azak
i.p
df
Zh
ang,
Y.,
N. K
erle
, 200
8. S
atel
lite
rem
ote
sen
sin
g fo
r n
ear-
real
tim
e d
ata
coll
ecti
on
. Z
lata
no
va a
nd
Li
(Ed
s.),
Geo
spa-
tial
in
form
atio
n t
ech
no
log
y fo
r em
erge
ncy
res
po
nse
, ISP
RS
Bo
ok
ser
ies
6, L
on
do
n, 7
5-10
2.
Zla
tan
ova
, S.
, A
.G.
Fab
bri
, 20
09.
Geo
-IC
T f
or
risk
an
d d
i-
sast
er m
anag
emen
t. S
cho
lten
, van
Vel
de,
van
Man
en (
Ed
s.),
Geo
spat
ial
tech
no
log
y an
d t
he
role
of
the
loca
tio
n i
n s
ci-
ence
, Do
rdre
cht,
Hei
del
ber
g, L
on
do
n, N
ew Y
ork
, 239
-266
.
Zri
bi M
., A
mri
R.,
Lil
i-C
hab
aan
e Z
., W
agn
er W
., H
asen
auer
S.,
Du
chem
in B
., B
oule
t G
., M
oen
ot B
., 20
12. A
nal
ysis
of
dro
ugh
t
even
ts in
a N
orth
Afr
ica
sem
i-ar
id r
egio
n, u
sin
g SP
OT
-VE
GE
-
TA
TIO
N a
nd
C b
and
sca
tter
omet
er s
atel
lite.
Dat
a G
eop
hys
ical
Res
earc
h A
bst
ract
s V
ol. 1
4, E
GU
201
2-10
951.
Zw
enzn
er,
H.,
Vo
igt,
S.
, 20
09.
Imp
rove
d
esti
mat
ion
o
f
flo
od
par
amet
ers
by
com
bin
ing
spac
e b
ased
SA
R d
ata
wit
h
very
hig
h r
eso
luti
on
dig
ital
ele
vati
on
dat
a. H
ydro
l. E
arth
Syst
. S
ci.,
13,
567–
576.
h
ttp
://w
ww
.hyd
rol-
eart
h-s
yst-
sci.
net
/13/
567/
2009
/hes
s-13
-567
-200
9.p
df
98
AN
NE
X 7 no
mic
valu
e o
f g
eo
info
rmati
on
in
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r an
d
Ris
k M
an
ag
em
en
t
Th
e Q
uesti
on
nair
e
99
AN
NE
X
7
100A
NN
EX 7
101
AN
NE
X
7
102A
NN
EX 7
Au
thor
s
Na
me
A%
lia
tion
E-m
ail
Ch
ap
ter(
s)
Iras
ema
Alc
ánta
ra A
yala
Un
iver
sid
ad N
acio
nal
Au
tón
om
a d
e M
éxic
o
(UN
AM
), M
emb
er I
RD
R S
C
iras
ema@
igg.
un
am.m
x4.
5
Ro
ber
t B
ack
hau
sG
erm
an R
emo
te S
ensi
ng
Dat
a C
ente
r (D
FD
)ro
ber
t.b
ack
hau
s@d
lr.d
e3,
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Ale
ssan
dro
Dem
arch
iD
IST
- P
oli
tecn
ico
di
To
rin
oal
essa
nd
ro.d
emar
chi@
po
lito
.it4.
2
Nie
ls v
an M
anen
VU
Un
iver
sity
Am
ster
dam
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an.m
anen
@vu
.nl
2, 4
.6
Fra
nce
sca
Per
ezD
IST
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oli
tecn
ico
di
To
rin
ofr
ance
sca.
per
ez@
po
lito
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3
Joh
n T
rin
der
UN
SW H
on
ora
ry F
ello
wj.t
rin
der
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nsw
.ed
u.a
u4.
6, 5
Ro
ssel
la V
ign
aD
IST
- P
oli
tecn
ico
di
To
rin
oro
ssel
la.v
ign
a@p
oli
to.it
4.4
Sisi
Zla
tan
ova
ISP
RS
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ch
air,
Mem
ber
IR
DR
SC
s.zl
atan
ova
@tu
del
>.n
l4.
1
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cian
a D
equ
alIT
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CA
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form
atio
n T
ech
no
log
y fo
r H
um
a-
nit
aria
n A
ssis
tan
ce, C
oo
per
atio
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nd
Act
ion
)
luci
ana.
deq
ual
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oli
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nn
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tern
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nal
Fed
erat
ion
of
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eyo
rs (
FIG
)d
oyt
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chn
ion
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il7
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nex
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man
n D
rew
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tern
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nal
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oci
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f G
eod
esy
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nn
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ssic
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nex
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ciet
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togr
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etry
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ote
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sin
g (I
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hei
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han
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ver.
de
7 (A
nn
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Ali
k I
smai
l-Z
adeh
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rnat
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nio
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eod
esy
and
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ph
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sics
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nex
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An
ne
Kn
auer
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ited
Nat
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r Sp
ace
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nex
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Fra
nço
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vre
Inte
rnat
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nio
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adio
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ence
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.R.S
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cois
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uvr
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rs-o
rlea
ns.
fr7
(An
nex
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Ro
lan
d O
ber
hän
sli
Inte
rnat
ion
al U
nio
n o
f G
eolo
gica
l Sci
ence
s
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nn
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e M
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grap
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nn
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tho
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ne
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te S
ensi
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ciet
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SS)
a.m
iln
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nsw
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nex
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Ab
bas
Raj
abif
ard
Glo
bal
Sp
atia
l Dat
a In
fras
tru
ctu
re A
sso
ciat
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abb
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nim
elb.
edu
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nn
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an V
oig
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ter
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llit
e B
ased
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sis
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rma-
tio
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KI)
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an.v
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lr.d
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nex
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Ed
itor
s
Na
me
A%
lia
tion
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ail
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an A
ltan
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ord
inat
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ito
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VP
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ISP
RS
and
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ber
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ICSU
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cuti
ve
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ard
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ack
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man
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ote
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rob
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aus@
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ro B
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rin
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ard
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lito
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io G
. To
no
loIT
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, ISP
RS
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r
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oto
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lito
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n T
rin
der
UN
SW H
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ora
ry
Fel
low
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au
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ls v
an M
anen
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atia
l
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rmat
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rato
ry, V
U U
niv
er-
sity
Am
ster
dam
n.v
an.m
anen
@vu
.nl
Sisi
Zla
tan
ova
ISP
RS
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ch
air,
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ber
IR
DR
SC
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atan
ova
@tu
del
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l
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NE
X
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LR
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ter
for
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llit
e B
ased
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sis
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rmat
ion
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LR
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scie
nce
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d R
emo
te S
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ciet
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Glo
bal
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fras
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sso
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or
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man
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ista
nce
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ctio
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oci
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ote
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nio
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ph
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tern
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atu
ral
and
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ron
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for
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man
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ian
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es
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ence
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orl
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ltin
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nfo
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vid
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gan
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s an
d p
ub
lic
auth
ori
ties
an
d a
re a
lso
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le o
n
the
ZK
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ebsi
te. A
cco
rdin
g to
th
e re
qu
irem
ents
of
the
use
r,
the
info
rmat
ion
pro
du
cts
are
del
iver
ed i
n t
he
form
of
map
s,
GIS
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dy
geo
dat
a o
r d
oss
iers
wh
ich
are
th
en u
sed
to
su
p-
po
rt d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
op
erat
ion
s.
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h p
has
e o
f th
e d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
cycl
e h
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i&er
ent
dem
and
s o
n t
he
sate
llit
e in
form
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n p
rod
uct
s an
d Z
KI
ma-
kes
im
po
rtan
t co
ntr
ibu
tio
ns
esp
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lly
du
rin
g th
e em
erge
n-
cy r
elie
f p
has
e, b
ut
also
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r re
hab
ilit
atio
n a
nd
rec
ove
ry a
c-
tio
ns
as w
ell
as e
arly
war
nin
g an
d d
isas
ter
pre
ven
tio
n. I
n i
ts
fun
ctio
n a
s a
cris
is m
app
ing
serv
ice,
ZK
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eate
s cr
isis
map
s
imm
edia
tely
a>
er a
n e
ven
t w
ith
sp
eci'
c in
form
atio
n a
bo
ut
the
dis
aste
r ex
ten
t (e
.g.
%o
od
ed a
rea)
an
d e
stim
ated
dam
a-
ges
(e. g
. a&
ecte
d h
ou
ses,
in
fras
tru
ctu
re, e
tc.)
in
ord
er t
o a
s-
sist
dec
isio
n m
akin
g in
sit
uat
ion
cen
tres
an
d d
uri
ng
reli
ef
acti
on
s in
th
e '
eld
. F
urt
her
an
alys
es a
nd
mo
nit
ori
ng
of
the
dis
aste
r si
tuat
ion
can
su
pp
ort
pla
nn
ing
and
rec
on
stru
ctio
n
acti
viti
es a
s w
ell
as t
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
vuln
erab
ilit
y st
ud
ies
for
spec
i'c
regi
on
s. Z
KI
also
su
pp
ort
s th
e d
evel
op
men
t o
f
earl
y w
arn
ing
syst
ems
in t
he
do
mai
n o
f n
atu
ral
haz
ard
pre
-
ven
tio
n.
In c
ase
of
hu
man
itar
ian
cri
ses
ZK
I as
sist
s re
lief
e&
ort
s in
coo
per
atio
n w
ith
in
tern
atio
nal
par
tner
org
anis
atio
ns,
an
d
pro
vid
es u
ser
spec
i'ed
info
rmat
ion
an
d m
ap p
rod
uct
s, s
uch
as f
or
refu
gee
cam
p a
nd
sit
uat
ion
map
s. $
ese
map
s ca
n b
e
a va
luab
le c
on
trib
uti
on
fo
r lo
gist
ic s
up
po
rt a
nd
op
erat
ion
pla
nn
ing
in t
he
resp
ecti
ve c
amp
s o
r ar
eas.
In
th
e fr
ame
of
thes
e ac
tivi
ties
, Z
KI
clo
sely
co
op
erat
es w
ith
in
tern
atio
nal
reli
ef o
rgan
isat
ion
s an
d s
ever
al U
N o
rgan
isat
ion
s.
$e
incr
easi
ng
imp
ort
ance
of t
he
top
ic “c
ivil
sec
uri
ty”
wit
hin
the
pro
ject
s o
f Z
KI
is l
ead
ing
to r
esea
rch
act
ivit
ies
wit
h a
n
incr
ease
d f
ocu
s o
n s
earc
h a
nd
res
cue
wo
rk,
mo
nit
ori
ng
of
Fig
ure
s 1
and
2: D
LR
/ZK
I cr
isis
ro
om
, wh
ere
the
24/7
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ms
are
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du
ctin
g th
e ra
pid
map
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g w
ork
.
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incr
easi
ng
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mb
er o
f n
atu
ral
dis
aste
rs,
hu
man
itar
ian
emer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
ns
and
th
reat
s to
th
e ci
vil
soci
ety
in-
crea
ses
the
dem
and
fo
r ti
mel
y an
d p
reci
se i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r
man
y d
i&er
ent
typ
es o
f sce
nar
ios
and
sit
uat
ion
s. Z
KI
use
s al
l
kin
ds
of
sate
llit
e im
ager
y fo
r th
e ex
trac
tio
n o
f re
leva
nt
cris
is
info
rmat
ion
su
ch a
s %
oo
d e
xten
t, d
amag
ed i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
,
end
ange
red
po
pu
lati
on
or
evac
uat
ion
are
as,
just
to
nam
e a
few
exa
mp
les.
Bes
ides
res
po
nse
an
d a
sses
smen
t ac
tivi
ties
,
ZK
I d
eriv
es g
eoin
form
atio
n p
rod
uct
s fo
r u
se i
n m
ediu
m
term
reh
abil
itat
ion
, re
con
stru
ctio
n a
nd
cri
sis
pre
ven
tio
n
acti
viti
es.
It o
per
ates
in
th
e n
atio
nal
an
d i
nte
rnat
ion
al c
on
-
text
, cl
ose
ly n
etw
ork
ing
wit
h G
erm
an p
ub
lic
auth
ori
ties
at
nat
ion
al a
nd
sta
te l
evel
, n
on
-go
vern
men
tal
org
anis
atio
ns,
sate
llit
e o
per
ato
rs a
nd
sp
ace
agen
cies
.
105
AN
NE
X
7cr
itic
al i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
, or
illi
cit
extr
acti
on
of
nat
ura
l re
sou
r-
ces.
Als
o t
he
mo
nit
ori
ng
of
inte
rnat
ion
al c
on
%ic
ts a
nd
cri
sis
regi
on
s is
an
ele
men
t o
f th
e d
evel
op
men
t o
f m
eth
od
s an
d
con
cep
ts f
or
cris
is p
reve
nti
on
in
ter
ms
of
civi
l sec
uri
ty.
In o
rder
to
co
nti
nu
ou
sly
imp
rove
ser
vice
an
d p
rod
uct
s, Z
KI
coo
per
ates
ver
y cl
ose
ly w
ith
rel
ief
org
anis
atio
ns
and
pro
vi-
des
tra
inin
g an
d c
on
sult
ing
for
'el
d p
ract
itio
ner
s, s
itu
atio
n
cen
tre
sta&
an
d d
ecis
ion
mak
ers
in t
he
fram
e o
f d
edic
ated
pro
ject
s. Z
KI
pro
vid
es t
rain
ing
for
geo
spat
ial
sup
po
rt i
n
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t. $
e ta
rget
au
die
nce
are
per
son
nel
of
nat
ion
al a
nd
in
tern
atio
nal
rel
ief
org
anis
atio
ns
as w
ell
as
gove
rnm
enta
l ag
enci
es i
nte
rest
ed i
n d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
and
em
erge
ncy
res
po
nse
to
nat
ura
l h
azar
ds
and
hu
man
ita-
rian
dis
aste
rs. $
e sh
ort
ter
m t
ech
nic
al t
rain
ing
cou
rses
are
tail
ore
d t
o t
he
clie
nt’s
nee
ds
and
var
y fr
om
acq
uai
nti
ng
the
par
tici
pan
ts w
ith
sat
elli
te i
mag
e in
terp
reta
tio
n m
eth
od
s to
rap
id m
app
ing
tech
niq
ues
in
em
erge
ncy
res
po
nse
fo
r p
ro-
fess
ion
als.
$e
mai
n g
oal
is
to e
nab
le a
nd
str
engt
hen
th
e
com
pet
ence
an
d e
xper
tise
of
dec
isio
n m
aker
s, c
oo
rdin
ato
rs
and
em
erge
ncy
rel
ief
wo
rker
s to
mak
e u
se o
f sp
atia
lly
der
i-
ved
in
form
atio
n f
or
the
coo
rdin
atio
n a
nd
im
ple
men
tati
on
of
emer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se.
Las
t b
ut
no
t le
ast,
ZK
I o
&er
s a
com
pre
hen
sive
in
tern
al t
rai-
nin
g p
rogr
am fo
r D
LR
per
son
nel
to c
on
tin
uo
usl
y st
ren
gth
en
cap
acit
ies
and
rea
lise
cer
ti'
ed q
ual
ity
of
rap
id m
app
ing
in
term
s o
f d
isas
ter
resp
on
se i
nsi
de
DL
R.
ww
w.z
ki.
dlr
.de
Fig
ure
3: S
itu
atio
n m
ap o
f th
e ca
mp
Al Z
aata
ri i
n J
ord
an, J
anu
ary
2013
106A
NN
EX 7
Th
e G
eo
scie
nce a
nd
An
thon
y M
iln
e
$e
Geo
scie
nce
an
d R
emo
te S
ensi
ng
So
ciet
y (G
RSS
) se
eks
to a
dva
nce
sci
ence
an
d t
ech
no
log
y in
geo
scie
nce
, re
mo
te
sen
sin
g an
d r
elat
ed '
eld
s u
sin
g co
nfe
ren
ces,
ed
uca
tio
n, a
nd
thro
ugh
mem
ber
par
tici
pat
ion
in
Tec
hn
ical
Co
mm
itte
es,
Wo
rksh
op
s, P
ub
lica
tio
ns
and
lo
cal
and
reg
ion
al b
ased
So
-
ciet
y C
hap
ters
.
$e
'el
ds
of
inte
rest
of
the
So
ciet
y ar
e th
e th
eory
, co
nce
pts
,
and
tec
hn
iqu
es o
f sc
ien
ce a
nd
en
gin
eeri
ng
as t
hey
ap
ply
to
the
rem
ote
sen
sin
g o
f th
e E
arth
, its
lan
d, o
cean
s an
d a
tmo
s-
ph
ere,
as
wel
l as
th
e p
roce
ssin
g, i
nte
rpre
tati
on
an
d d
isse
-
min
atio
n o
f th
is i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r th
e b
ene'
t o
f h
um
ank
ind
.
$es
e '
eld
s ar
e gr
ou
ped
in
to:
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g o
f S
oli
d E
arth
an
d G
eod
ynam
ic P
ro-
cess
es
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g an
d M
itig
atio
n o
f N
atu
ral D
isas
ters
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g o
f L
and
an
d S
urf
ace
Pro
cess
es
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g o
f A
tmo
sph
ere
and
Oce
an
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g o
f th
e C
ryo
sph
ere
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g A
nal
ysis
Tec
hn
iqu
es
Ele
ctro
mag
net
ics
and
Rad
iati
ve T
ran
sfer
Sen
sors
an
d P
latf
orm
s
Ed
uca
tio
n a
nd
Po
licy
$o
se w
ith
en
gin
eeri
ng
bac
kgr
ou
nd
s o
>en
su
pp
ort
geo
s-
cien
ti'
c in
vest
igat
ion
s w
ith
th
e d
esig
n a
nd
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
har
dw
are
and
dat
a p
roce
ssin
g te
chn
iqu
es,
req
uir
ing
them
to b
e fa
mil
iar
wit
h g
eosc
ien
ces
such
as
geo
ph
ysic
s, g
eolo
gy,
hyd
rolo
gy
and
met
eoro
log
y S
cien
tist
s b
rin
g an
alyt
ical
sk
ills
and
bac
kgr
ou
nd
exp
erti
se t
hat
hel
p d
eter
min
e th
e u
se o
f
rem
ote
sen
sin
g i
n s
olv
ing
par
ticu
lar
hu
man
an
d e
nvi
ron
-
men
tal p
rob
lem
s a
nd
in p
rovi
din
g in
form
atio
n f
or
reso
urc
e
man
agem
ent.
$is
fu
sio
n o
f sc
ien
ti'
c an
d e
ngi
nee
rin
g d
is-
cip
lin
es w
ith
in t
he
geo
ph
ysic
al a
nd
geo
spat
ial
wo
rld
s gi
ves
GR
SS a
un
iqu
e in
terd
isci
pli
nar
y ch
arac
ter
and
an
exc
itin
g
role
in
fu
rth
erin
g re
mo
te s
ensi
ng
scie
nce
an
d t
ech
no
log
y.
GR
SS W
AS
STA
RT
ED
IN
196
2 as
th
e G
eosc
ien
ce E
lect
ro-
nic
Gro
up
, w
hic
h w
as r
eorg
aniz
ed a
s th
e G
eosc
ien
ce a
nd
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g S
oci
ety
in 1
980
to c
reat
e an
in
tern
atio
nal
soci
ety
for
the
rap
idly
exp
and
ing
'el
d o
f re
mo
te s
ensi
ng.
It
has
alw
ays
bee
n a
so
ciet
y w
ith
ou
t b
ord
ers,
an
d
tod
ay, w
ith
ove
r 35
00 i
nd
ivid
ual
mem
ber
s, i
s co
nti
nu
ing
this
ori
gin
al
visi
on
an
d c
on
trib
uti
ng
to t
he
adva
nce
men
t o
f th
e u
se a
nd
app
lica
tio
n o
f re
mo
te s
ensi
ng
for
soci
etal
ben
e'ts
.
IGA
RSS
– t
he
Inte
rnat
ion
al G
eosc
ien
ce a
nd
Rem
ote
Sen
-
sin
g Sy
mp
osi
um
is
the
%ag
ship
co
nfe
ren
ce o
f th
e so
ciet
y
and
has
gro
wn
fro
m 4
30 p
arti
cip
ants
30
year
s ag
o t
o o
ver
2000
to
day
. $
is a
nn
ual
gat
her
ing
of
wo
rld
-cla
ss s
cien
tist
s,
engi
nee
rs,
and
ed
uca
tors
en
gage
d i
n t
he
'el
ds
of
geo
sci-
ence
s an
d r
emo
te s
ensi
ng
fro
m a
rou
nd
th
e w
orl
d f
eatu
res
pap
ers
and
po
ster
s o
n c
utt
ing
edge
res
earc
h i
n a
ll a
reas
of
rem
ote
sen
sin
g an
d e
nvi
ron
men
tal
app
lica
tio
ns
such
as
di-
sast
er m
on
ito
rin
g an
d m
anag
emen
t. G
RSS
als
o c
o-s
po
nso
rs
mo
re t
han
tw
enty
Sym
po
sia
wo
rld
wid
e o
n a
n a
nn
ual
or
bi-
ann
ual
bas
is.
GR
SS p
ub
lish
es f
ou
r jo
urn
als.
Tra
nsa
ctio
ns
on G
eosc
ien
ce a
nd
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g (T
GR
S),
ou
r %
agsh
ip jo
urn
al, p
ub
lish
es a
dva
nce
s in
th
e d
evel
op
men
t
of
sen
sin
g in
stru
men
ts a
nd
tec
hn
iqu
es u
sed
fo
r th
e ac
qu
isi-
tio
n o
f ge
osc
ien
ti'
c in
form
atio
n.
Geo
scie
nce
an
d R
emot
e S
ensi
ng
Let
ters
(G
RSL
) is
a q
uar
-
terl
y p
ub
lica
tio
n f
or
sho
rt p
aper
s ad
dre
ssin
g n
ew i
dea
s an
d
form
ativ
e co
nce
pts
in
rem
ote
sen
sin
g as
wel
l as
new
res
ult
s.
Sel
ecte
d T
opic
s in
Ap
pli
ed E
art
h O
bse
rva
tion
s a
nd
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g (J
STA
RS
) ad
dre
sses
cu
rren
t is
sues
an
d t
ech
niq
ues
in a
pp
lied
rem
ote
an
d i
n s
itu
sen
sin
g, t
hei
r in
tegr
atio
n, a
nd
app
lied
mo
del
ing
and
in
form
atio
n c
reat
ion
fo
r u
nd
erst
an-
din
g th
e ea
rth
en
viro
nm
ents
Fig
ure
1:
Cyc
lon
e Y
asi
(2
Feb
ruar
y 20
11)
was
on
e o
f th
e
mo
st p
ow
erfu
l cy
clo
nes
to
hav
e a&
ecte
d A
ust
rali
a’s
no
rth
sin
ce r
eco
rds
com
men
ced
(w
ww
.bo
m.g
ov.
au).
107
AN
NE
X
7IE
EE
Geo
scie
nce
an
d R
emot
e S
ensi
ng
Ma
gazi
ne
is p
ub
lis-
hed
fo
ur
tim
es p
er y
ear
and
pro
vid
es n
ews
of
gen
eral
in
te-
rest
to
GR
SS m
emb
ers
and
sp
ecia
l art
icle
s o
n c
urr
ent
mis
si-
on
s, p
roje
cts,
sh
ort
fea
ture
s an
d b
oo
k r
evie
ws.
$e
GR
SS T
ech
nic
al C
om
mit
tees
ser
ve t
he
com
mu
nit
y b
y
pro
vid
ing
ind
epen
den
t a
foru
m f
or
tech
nic
al a
sses
smen
ts,
rese
arch
co
llab
ora
tio
ns
and
gu
idan
ce t
o t
he
So
ciet
y o
n k
ey
issu
es i
n r
emo
te s
ensi
ng
po
licy
an
d p
ract
ice.
. $
e te
chn
ical
com
mit
tees
are
op
en t
o a
ll m
emb
ers.
Co
mm
itte
es i
ncl
ud
e;
Dat
a A
rch
ivin
g an
d D
istr
ibu
tio
n;
Inst
rum
enta
tio
n a
nd
Fu
-
ture
Tec
hn
olo
gies
; D
ata
Fu
sio
n a
nd
Sp
aceb
orn
e Im
agin
g
Spec
tro
sco
py
Wit
h o
ver
48 l
oca
l ch
apte
rs a
rou
nd
th
e gl
ob
e, m
emb
ers
can
get
invo
lved
wit
h o
ther
GR
SS m
emb
ers.
Ch
apte
rs o
&er
bo
th
tech
nic
al a
nd
so
cial
eve
nts
as
wel
l as
net
wo
rkin
g an
d c
aree
r
adva
nce
men
t o
pp
ort
un
itie
s.
Ind
ivid
ual
So
ciet
y m
emb
ers
hav
e b
een
at
the
fore
fro
nt
of
rese
arch
in
to t
he
app
lica
tio
ns
of
rem
ote
sen
sin
g fo
r d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
and
haz
ard
ris
k r
edu
ctio
n.
New
in
stru
men
ts
for
use
on
bo
th a
ircr
a> a
nd
sat
elli
te p
latf
orm
s h
ave
bee
n
dev
elo
ped
to
im
pro
ve t
he
det
ecti
on
, m
app
ing
and
mo
ni-
tori
ng
of
nat
ura
l an
d h
um
an i
nd
uce
d h
azar
ds.
Pro
cess
ing
tech
niq
ues
fo
r d
eriv
ing
nea
r re
al-t
ime
dat
a an
d in
form
atio
n
extr
acti
on
fo
r u
se i
n p
re-p
rep
ared
nes
s p
lan
nin
g an
d a
ctiv
e
even
t m
app
ing
hav
e b
een
dev
elo
ped
. A
reas
of
inte
rest
in
-
clu
de;
inte
grat
ed e
arth
ob
serv
atio
n s
yste
ms;
ear
thq
uak
e an
d
cru
stal
def
orm
atio
n d
etec
tio
n;
%o
od
map
pin
g; l
oca
l, re
gio
-
nal
an
d g
lob
al r
ain
fall
mea
sure
men
t an
d c
yclo
ne
pre
dic
tio
n;
dro
ugh
t an
d s
oil
mo
istu
re r
etri
eval
met
ho
ds,
an
d '
re d
etec
-
tio
n, m
app
ing
and
vu
lner
abil
ity
asse
ssm
ent.
At
a S
oci
ety
leve
l G
RSS
is
wo
rkin
g w
ith
in
tern
atio
nal
age
n-
cies
in
clu
din
g U
N-S
PID
ER
an
d G
EO
an
d w
ith
in
div
idu
al
cou
ntr
y o
rgan
izat
ion
s to
im
pro
ve a
cces
s to
rem
ote
ly s
ense
d
info
rmat
ion
, p
rovi
de
tech
nic
al s
up
po
rt f
or
rap
id r
esp
on
se
map
pin
g an
d p
roce
ssin
g so
luti
on
s fo
r u
sin
g h
igh
res
olu
tio
n
imag
e d
ata
to m
eet
the
info
rmat
ion
req
uir
emen
ts f
or
com
-
mu
nit
y d
isas
ter
pre
par
atio
n a
nd
pla
nn
ing.
ww
w.g
rss-
ieee
.org
Fin
d u
s o
n F
aceb
oo
k a
nd
Lin
ked
In.
Fig
ure
2:
Gro
un
d d
isp
lace
men
t m
ap a
nd
lo
cati
on
of
a>er
sho
cks
foll
ow
ing
a m
agn
itu
de
8.0
eart
hq
uak
e in
Sic
hu
an,
Ch
ina,
der
ived
fro
m D
i&er
enti
al I
nSA
R (
DIn
SAR
) te
chn
iqu
es u
sin
g JA
XA
AL
OS
PAL
SAR
dat
a, J
anu
ary
2008
(w
ww
.gm
at.u
nsw
.
edu
.au
/Lin
lin
Ge/
Ear
thq
uak
e/).
108A
NN
EX 7
serv
e as
a p
oin
t o
f co
nta
ct a
nd
e&
ecti
ve v
oic
e fo
r th
o-
se i
n t
he
glo
bal
co
mm
un
ity
invo
lved
in
dev
elo
pin
g,
imp
lem
enti
ng
and
ad
van
cin
g sp
atia
l dat
a in
fras
tru
c-
ture
co
nce
pts
fost
er s
pat
ial d
ata
infr
astr
uct
ure
s th
at s
up
po
rt s
ust
a-
inab
le s
oci
al, e
con
om
ic, a
nd
en
viro
nm
enta
l sy
stem
s
inte
grat
ed f
rom
loca
l to
glo
bal
sca
les
pro
mo
te t
he
info
rmed
an
d r
esp
on
sib
le u
se o
f ge
o-
grap
hic
in
form
atio
n a
nd
sp
atia
l te
chn
olo
gies
fo
r th
e
ben
e't
of
soci
ety.
Infr
astr
uctu
reA
sso
cia
tio
n
Abb
as
Raj
abif
ard
We
are
an i
ncl
usi
ve a
sso
ciat
ion
of
org
aniz
atio
ns,
age
nci
es,
'rm
s, a
nd
in
div
idu
als
fro
m a
rou
nd
th
e w
orl
d p
rom
oti
ng
inte
rnat
ion
al c
oo
per
atio
n a
nd
co
llab
ora
tio
n i
n s
up
po
rt o
f
loca
l, n
atio
nal
an
d i
nte
rnat
ion
al s
pat
ial
dat
a in
fras
tru
ctu
re
dev
elo
pm
ents
th
at w
ill
allo
w n
atio
ns
and
th
eir
citi
zen
s to
bet
ter
add
ress
so
cial
, ec
on
om
ic,
and
en
viro
nm
enta
l is
sues
of
pre
ssin
g im
po
rtan
ce s
uch
as
nat
ura
l dis
aste
rs.
A c
on
tin
uin
g th
eme
of
GSD
I ac
tivi
ties
is
real
izin
g sp
atia
lly
enab
led
so
ciet
ies.
$e
pre
ssin
g n
eed
s o
f so
ciet
ies
are
a p
ar-
ticu
lar
emp
has
is o
f G
SDI
con
fere
nce
s. M
ajo
r st
ud
ies
incl
u-
de
a fo
cus
on
dis
aste
r p
reve
nti
on
, w
arn
ing,
man
agem
ent,
resp
on
se,
and
rec
ove
ry.
In t
his
co
nte
xt,
GSD
I is
ver
y su
p-
po
rtiv
e o
f d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
init
iati
ves
and
co
ntr
ibu
tes
to g
lob
al d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent.
Fo
r ex
amp
le,
we
enco
ura
ge
the
bu
ild
ing
of
lon
g-te
rm S
pat
ial
Dat
a In
fras
tru
ctu
re (
SDI)
fro
m l
oca
l to
glo
bal
sca
les
wit
hin
an
d a
mo
ng
all
nat
ion
s o
f
the
wo
rld
to
hel
p a
nd
fac
ilit
ate
info
rmed
dec
isio
n m
akin
g.
If t
he
com
po
nen
ts o
f an
SD
I ar
e in
pla
ce a
nd
are
in
use
on
a d
aily
bas
is b
y lo
cal
use
rs f
or
acco
mp
lish
ing
map
pin
g, v
e-
hic
le r
ou
tin
g, a
sset
man
agem
ent,
ser
vice
del
iver
y an
d s
imi-
lar
task
s, t
hen
th
e in
form
atio
n i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
is
mu
ch m
ore
lik
ely
to b
e av
aila
ble
an
d u
sefu
l fo
r ac
com
pli
shin
g si
mil
ar
task
s d
uri
ng
a ca
lam
ity.
$e
GSD
I A
sso
ciat
ion
co
nsi
sts
of
a C
ou
nci
l co
mp
rise
d o
f
the
del
egat
es f
rom
th
e F
ull
Mem
ber
org
aniz
atio
ns
and
tw
o
rep
rese
nta
tive
s fr
om
th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Geo
spat
ial
So
ciet
y,
the
Bo
ard
of
Dir
ecto
rs w
hic
h i
s th
e m
ain
ad
min
istr
ativ
e
bo
dy
of
the
Co
un
cil a
nd
th
e St
and
ing
Co
mm
itte
es.
Co
nfe
ren
ces:
On
e o
f th
e p
rin
cip
al a
ctiv
itie
s o
f th
e as
soci
ati-
on
is t
o p
rovi
de
a G
SDI
Co
nfe
ren
ce fo
r SD
I-re
late
d p
rofe
ssi-
on
als,
sci
enti
sts,
an
d a
pp
lica
tio
ns,
on
a r
egu
lar
bas
is t
o s
har
e
and
exc
han
ge i
dea
s.
$e
GSD
I A
sso
ciat
ion
su
pp
ort
s an
an
nu
al
smal
l gr
ants
pro
gram
to
su
pp
ort
nat
ion
al o
r su
b-n
atio
nal
act
ivit
ies
that
fost
er p
artn
ersh
ips,
dev
elo
p i
n-c
ou
ntr
y te
chn
ical
cap
acit
y,
imp
rove
dat
a co
mp
atib
ilit
y an
d a
cces
s, a
nd
in
crea
se p
oli
ti-
cal
sup
po
rt f
or
spat
ial
dat
a in
fras
tru
ctu
re a
nd
ear
th o
bse
r-
vati
on
s ap
pli
cati
on
dev
elo
pm
ent.
GSD
I p
rovi
des
a g
lob
al v
enu
e fo
r n
etw
ork
ing,
co
mm
un
i-
cati
ng
and
lea
rnin
g am
on
g it
s m
emb
ers.
$ro
ugh
th
e G
eo-
grap
hic
In
form
atio
n K
no
wle
dge
Net
wo
rks
(GIK
Net
wo
rk)
GSD
I en
han
ces
com
mu
nic
atio
ns
and
sh
arin
g am
on
g ge
o-
spat
ial
spec
iali
sts
and
org
aniz
atio
ns
fro
m a
ll n
atio
ns
and
for
the
glo
bal
geo
grap
hic
in
form
atio
n c
om
mu
nit
y at
lar
ge
(ww
w.g
ikn
etw
ork
.org
).
-
als
$e
GSD
I A
sso
ciat
ion
an
d i
ts m
emb
ers
pro
mo
te o
pen
ac-
cess
to t
he
grea
test
ext
ent
po
ssib
le to
sp
atia
l dat
a as
wel
l as
to
edu
cati
on
al m
ater
ials
on
ho
w t
o u
se g
eosp
atia
l tec
hn
olo
gies
and
est
abli
sh S
DI
to f
acil
itat
e in
form
ed d
ecis
ion
mak
ing.
109
AN
NE
X
7p
eop
le i
nvo
lved
in
mak
ing
emer
gen
cy d
ecis
ion
s –
fro
m t
he
cen
tral
co
ord
inat
ing
agen
cies
wh
o a
re c
har
ged
wit
h d
irec
-
tin
g ac
tivi
ties
, to
on
-gro
un
d e
mer
gen
cy s
ervi
ces
per
son
nel
,
thro
ugh
to
th
e lo
cal
com
mu
nit
y m
emb
ers
tryi
ng
to d
ecid
e
wh
eth
er t
o e
vacu
ate
and
if
so h
ow
.
-
aliz
ation a
nd I
nte
raction
Op
tim
izat
ion
an
d D
ecis
ion
Su
pp
ort
Sim
ula
tio
n a
nd
Fo
reca
stin
g
Beh
avio
ura
l Mo
del
lin
g
Dat
a A
cqu
isit
ion
an
d F
usi
on
Sen
sin
g an
d M
on
ito
rin
g
Infr
astr
uct
ure
& G
eosp
atia
l Mo
del
lin
g
ww
w.a
dm
p.o
rg.a
u
In s
up
po
rt o
f a
tech
nic
al p
latf
orm
to
fac
ilit
ate
dis
aste
r m
a-
nag
emen
t, a
nd
in
lin
e w
ith
th
e th
eme
of
GSD
I ac
tivi
ties
in
spat
iall
y en
able
d s
oci
etie
s an
d g
ove
rnm
ent,
th
e G
SDI
Exe
-
cuti
ve m
emb
er a
nd
pas
t P
resi
den
t, P
rof
Ab
bas
Raj
abif
ard
,
fro
m M
elb
ou
rne
Un
iver
sity
, is
lea
din
g a
new
par
tner
ship
wit
h I
BM
, th
e U
niv
ersi
ty o
f M
elb
ou
rne
and
Nat
ion
al I
CT
Au
stra
lia
in t
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
the
nex
t ge
ner
atio
n o
f IT
-
bas
ed o
pen
so
urc
e p
latf
orm
fo
r m
ult
i-h
azar
d d
isas
ter
ma-
nag
emen
t.
$e
Au
stra
lia
Dis
aste
r M
anag
emen
t P
latf
orm
(A
DM
P)
is a
mu
lti-
haz
ard
pla
tfo
rm t
o s
up
po
rt p
rep
ared
nes
s, r
esp
on
se,
reco
very
an
d m
itig
atio
n. A
co
llab
ora
tio
n b
etw
een
Un
iver
si-
ty o
f M
elb
ou
rne,
IB
M a
nd
NIC
TA
(N
atio
nal
IC
T A
ust
rali
a),
the
pro
ject
aim
s to
dev
elo
p n
ew t
ech
no
logi
es t
hat
rep
rese
nt
a st
ep-c
han
ge in
th
e ab
ilit
y to
man
age
dis
aste
rs. I
t w
ill p
rovi
-
de
the
op
po
rtu
nit
y fo
r re
leva
nt
org
aniz
atio
ns,
co
mm
un
itie
s
and
res
earc
her
s to
par
tici
pat
e an
d c
on
trib
ute
to
its
dev
elo
p-
men
t.
$is
in
no
vati
ve,
inte
grat
ed,
op
en s
tan
dar
ds
bas
ed w
ho
le-
syst
ems
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t p
latf
orm
wil
l d
raw
on
vas
t
amo
un
ts o
f ge
osp
atia
l an
d in
fras
tru
ctu
re in
form
atio
n, b
rin
g
thes
e to
geth
er, f
acil
itat
e d
isco
very
, in
tegr
ate,
an
d a
nal
yze
the
dat
a to
cre
ate
real
-tim
e, p
ract
ical
in
form
atio
n s
trea
ms
on
dis
aste
r ev
ents
an
d t
o d
evel
op
sim
ula
tio
n a
nd
op
tim
izat
ion
mo
del
s. $
is p
ract
ical
in
form
atio
n w
ill
then
be
com
mu
ni-
cate
d a
t ap
pro
pri
ate
leve
ls o
f d
etai
l, to
th
e w
ide
spec
tru
m o
f
GSD
I is
a m
emb
er o
f, a
nd
co
ntr
ibu
tes
to g
lob
al d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
init
iati
ves
such
as
‘Eye
on
Dis
aste
r M
anag
e-
men
t’, w
hic
h i
s p
art
of
the
acti
viti
es o
f ‘E
ye o
n E
arth
’ un
-
der
su
pp
ort
of
UN
EP.
Eye
on
Dis
aste
r M
anag
emen
t is
a
Pu
bli
c-P
riva
te P
artn
ersh
ip (
PP
P)
to s
tren
gth
en e
xist
ing
net
wo
rks
and
su
pp
ort
GIS
tec
hn
olo
gy
and
SD
I ca
pac
ity
bu
ild
ing.
ww
w.g
sdi.
org
110A
NN
EX 7
Info
rmati
on
Tech
no
log
y
for
Hu
man
itari
an
Assis
Acti
on
Lu
cian
a D
equ
al
$e
no
n-p
ro'
t as
soci
atio
n I
TH
AC
A, b
ased
in
To
rin
o, I
taly
,
is a
cen
ter
of
app
lied
res
earc
h d
evo
ted
to
su
pp
ort
hu
man
i-
tari
an a
ctiv
itie
s in
res
po
nse
to
nat
ura
l dis
aste
rs b
y m
ean
s o
f
rem
ote
sen
sin
g te
chn
iqu
es.
ITH
AC
A h
as b
uil
t st
ron
g co
mp
eten
ces
in t
he
'el
d o
f ac
-
qu
isit
ion
, m
anag
emen
t an
d e
lab
ora
tio
n o
f ge
ogr
aph
ic a
nd
cart
ogr
aph
ic d
ata
for
emer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se p
urp
ose
s, d
eliv
e-
rin
g m
eth
od
olo
gies
, an
alyt
ical
ser
vice
s an
d t
ech
nic
al t
oo
ls
to i
mp
rove
th
e ca
pac
ity
of
the
inte
rnat
ion
al h
um
anit
aria
n
com
mu
nit
y in
ear
ly w
arn
ing,
ear
ly i
mp
act
asse
ssm
ent
and
oth
er r
isk
man
agem
ent
rela
ted
are
as.
$e
asso
ciat
ion
was
fo
un
ded
in
No
vem
ber
200
6 in
a j
oin
t
init
iati
ve o
f P
oli
tecn
ico
di
To
rin
o a
nd
SiT
I (H
igh
er I
nst
itu
te
on
In
no
vati
on
Ter
rito
rial
Sys
tem
s) a
nd
in
co
op
erat
ion
wit
h
oth
er p
artn
ers
such
as
pu
bli
c an
d p
riva
te r
esea
rch
cen
ters
,
com
pan
ies
op
erat
ing
in t
he
aero
spac
e an
d t
elec
om
mu
nic
a-
tio
ns
'el
ds
and
oth
er t
erri
tori
al d
ata
pro
vid
ers.
$er
efo
re,
ITH
AC
A’s
op
erat
ion
al te
am is
co
mp
ose
d o
f exp
erts
fro
m t
he
acad
emic
, in
du
stri
al a
nd
sci
enti
'c
envi
ron
men
ts w
ith
dee
p
exp
erie
nce
in
sev
eral
of
the
do
mai
ns
con
cern
ing
geo
mat
ics,
such
as
rem
ote
sen
sin
g, p
ho
togr
amm
etry
an
d G
eogr
aph
ic
Info
rmat
ion
Sys
tem
s (G
IS).
$e
rap
id p
rod
uct
ion
of
geo
-ref
eren
ced
in
form
atio
n o
n t
he
imp
act
of
dis
aste
rs, e
spec
iall
y d
ata
on
a&
ecte
d a
reas
an
d d
a-
mag
e gr
adin
g, is
pro
vin
g to
be
hig
hly
e&
ecti
ve i
n e
nh
anci
ng
the
op
erat
ion
al e
#ci
ency
of
emer
gen
cy r
esp
on
se a
ctiv
itie
s
and
po
st d
isas
ter
nee
ds
asse
ssm
ents
, es
pec
iall
y fo
r ev
ents
hit
tin
g d
evel
op
ing
cou
ntr
ies,
mo
re v
uln
erab
le t
o c
alam
itie
s
and
less
pre
par
ed t
o f
ace
them
.
ITH
AC
A i
s a
24/7
/365
ser
vice
pro
vid
er f
or
the
on
-dem
and
and
fas
t p
rod
uct
ion
of
geo
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
in
su
pp
ort
of
emer
gen
cy m
anag
emen
t ac
tivi
ties
imm
edia
tely
foll
ow
ing
an
emer
gen
cy e
ven
t. S
atel
lite
an
d a
eria
l im
age
sen
sor
dat
a an
d
oth
er g
eosp
atia
l ras
ter
and
vec
tor
dat
a so
urc
es a
re p
roce
ssed
and
an
alyz
ed i
n o
rder
to
pro
vid
e ca
rto
grap
hic
pro
du
cts
in
sup
po
rt o
f h
um
anit
aria
n o
per
atio
ns.
$e
emer
gen
cy m
ap-
pin
g ac
tivi
ties
co
ver
all
typ
es o
f en
viro
nm
enta
l d
isas
ters
,
fro
m f
ore
st '
res,
lan
dsl
ides
an
d %
oo
ds,
to
ear
thq
uak
es a
nd
volc
anic
eru
pti
on
s, a
lso
in
clu
din
g in
du
stri
al a
ccid
ents
an
d
hu
man
itar
ian
cri
ses.
ER
DS
is a
ser
vice
fo
r th
e m
on
ito
rin
g an
d f
ore
cast
ing
of
ex-
cep
tio
nal
rai
nfa
ll e
ven
ts,
wit
h a
nea
rly
glo
bal
geo
grap
hic
cove
rage
, bee
n c
on
ceiv
ed t
o b
e u
sed
by
hu
man
itar
ian
ass
is-
tan
ce o
rgan
izat
ion
s to
eva
luat
e th
e ev
ents
an
d to
un
der
stan
d
the
po
ten
tial
ly %
oo
dab
le a
reas
in
pla
ces
wh
ere
thei
r as
sis-
tan
ce i
s n
eed
ed.
$e
app
lica
tio
n f
oll
ow
s a
mu
lti-
scal
e ap
pro
ach
fo
r th
e m
o-
nit
ori
ng
and
fo
reca
stin
g o
f ex
trem
e ra
infa
ll e
ven
ts a
nd
po
-
ten
tial
%o
od
eve
nts
, w
ith
th
e ca
pab
ilit
y o
f in
tegr
atin
g a
lar-
ge n
um
ber
of
dat
a-se
ts f
or
the
asse
ssm
ent
of
the
soci
al a
nd
eco
no
mic
im
pac
ts o
f d
isas
ters
. $
is m
eth
od
olo
gy
stro
ngl
y
con
trib
ute
s to
th
e im
pro
vem
ent
of
pu
bli
c se
rvic
es a
nd
cit
i-
zen
s’ r
esil
ien
ce t
o n
atu
ral
haz
ard
s, t
hro
ugh
an
e&
ecti
ve d
is-
sem
inat
ion
of
war
nin
gs.
ER
DS
pro
vid
es s
cien
ti'
c co
mm
un
ity
wit
h r
elev
ant
dat
a re
-
late
d t
o h
eavy
rai
n m
on
ito
rin
g an
d f
ore
cast
ing,
on
a r
egu
lar
bas
is a
nd
rel
ativ
ely
inex
pen
sive
ly.
Am
on
g th
e va
rio
us
nat
ura
l d
isas
ters
hu
man
po
pu
lati
on
is
vuln
erab
le t
o, %
oo
ds
are
the
mo
st c
om
mo
n a
nd
am
on
gst
the
dea
dli
est;
fu
rth
erm
ore
, %o
od
eve
nt
recu
rren
ce s
eem
s to
sho
w a
n in
crea
sin
g tr
end
, po
ssib
ly r
elat
ed t
o c
lim
ate
chan
ge.
$e
iden
ti'
cati
on
of
%o
od
pro
ne
area
s an
d r
elat
ed v
uln
e-
rab
ilit
y an
alys
is a
re t
her
efo
re e
xtre
mel
y u
sefu
l fo
r sp
eci'
c
stak
eho
lder
s, h
elp
ing
them
in
pri
ori
tizi
ng
the
inve
stm
ents
and
in
bei
ng
guid
ed d
uri
ng
the
dec
isio
n m
akin
g p
roce
ss.
$e
auto
mat
ic e
xtra
ctio
n o
f in
form
atio
n o
n b
oth
th
e ac
tu-
al e
xten
t o
f w
ater
bo
die
s an
d t
he
his
tori
call
y %
oo
ded
are
as
rep
rese
nts
a p
ow
erfu
l to
ol f
or
%o
od
vu
lner
abil
ity
anal
ysis
as
wel
l as
fo
r as
sess
ing
the
evo
luti
on
of
an o
ngo
ing
%o
od
ing.
ITH
AC
A h
as d
evel
op
ed a
n a
uto
mat
ed p
roce
du
re t
o a
llo
w
the
extr
acti
on
of
wat
er b
od
ies
by
mea
ns
of
sate
llit
e d
ata
pro
-
cess
ing,
su
itab
le b
oth
for
actu
al %
oo
din
g m
on
ito
rin
g an
d fo
r
the
crea
tio
n o
f an
arc
hiv
e th
at w
ill
allo
w t
he
pro
du
ctio
n o
f
cust
om
ized
an
alys
es f
or
the
eval
uat
ion
of
%o
od
vu
lner
abi-
lity
.
ITH
AC
A h
as d
evel
op
ed a
glo
bal
dro
ugh
t ea
rly
war
nin
g sy
s-
tem
as
sup
po
rt t
o e
mer
gen
cy m
anag
emen
t ac
tivi
ties
. $
e
syst
em is
bas
ed o
n t
he
mo
nit
ori
ng
and
inte
grat
ion
of a
ser
ies
of
dro
ugh
t-re
late
d v
aria
ble
s an
d i
nd
ices
, su
ch a
s N
DV
I an
d
SPI,
ob
tain
ed m
ost
ly f
rom
sat
elli
te d
ata,
in
ord
er t
o d
e'n
e
thre
sho
lds
and
tri
gger
s su
itab
le f
or
earl
y w
arn
ings
.
Ith
aca
pro
vid
es s
pec
i'c
tech
nic
al t
rain
ing
to '
eld
pra
ctit
i-
on
ers
to i
mp
rove
th
eir
cap
acit
y in
GIS
an
d r
emo
te s
ensi
ng
dat
a p
roce
ssin
g; t
ho
se a
ctio
ns
are
par
ticu
larl
y im
po
rtan
t in
111
AN
NE
X
7o
rder
to
all
ow
loca
l an
d i
nte
rnat
ion
al r
elie
f o
rgan
izat
ion
s to
kn
ow
in
ad
van
ce t
he
char
acte
rist
ics
and
ben
e'ts
th
ey c
an
exp
ect
fro
m a
sp
eci'
c em
erge
ncy
map
pin
g p
rod
uct
in a
sp
e-
ci'
c d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
ph
ase.
Bei
ng
clo
sely
lin
ked
to
th
e P
oli
tecn
ico
di
To
rin
o, I
TH
AC
A
can
rel
y o
n t
he
soli
d e
xper
tise
of
on
e o
f th
e m
ost
pre
stig
iou
s
tech
nic
al u
niv
ersi
ties
in E
uro
pe
and
wo
rld
wid
e. I
ts m
anag
e-
men
t an
d o
per
atio
nal
sta
& c
on
sist
s o
f p
rofe
sso
rs, a
ssis
tan
ts,
sch
ola
rs a
nd
res
earc
her
s w
ith
a l
on
g ex
per
ien
ce i
n t
he
do
-
mai
n o
f ge
om
atic
s, w
ho
co
llab
ora
te w
ith
a g
row
ing
net
wo
rk
of
tech
nic
al a
nd
no
n t
ech
nic
al p
artn
ers
in o
rder
to
dev
elo
p
and
del
iver
th
e A
sso
ciat
ion’
s se
rvic
es.
ITH
AC
A h
as a
lrea
dy
pro
vid
ed t
rain
ing
to t
ech
nic
al p
er-
son
nel
of
hu
man
itar
ian
age
nci
es,
mu
ltil
ater
al d
evel
op
men
t
agen
cies
, as
wel
l as
scie
nti
'c
rese
arch
inst
itu
tio
ns
and
pri
va-
te c
om
pan
ies.
$e
focu
s o
f th
e tr
ain
ing
sess
ion
s is
on
th
e em
erge
ncy
res
-
po
nse
act
ivit
ies,
pro
vid
ing
lect
ure
s o
n r
emo
te s
ensi
ng
tech
-
no
logi
es i
n r
eal c
ase
stu
die
s an
d b
asic
pri
nci
ple
s o
f a
Spat
ial
Dat
a In
fras
tru
ctu
re (
SDI)
des
ign
, im
ple
men
tati
on
, man
age-
men
t an
d e
xplo
itat
ion
. $
e tr
ain
ing
no
rmal
ly i
ncl
ud
es s
es-
sio
ns
of
pra
ctic
al l
abo
rato
ries
, wh
ere
real
ear
ly i
mp
act
acti
-
vati
on
s ar
e si
mu
late
d a
nd
th
e at
ten
dee
s p
erfo
rm a
ll t
he
step
s
req
uir
ed t
o p
rod
uce
a m
ap (
by
mea
ns
of
a SD
I) s
ho
win
g th
e
a&ec
ted
are
as,
the
po
ssib
le a
&ec
ted
po
pu
lati
on
, ro
ad a
cces
-
sib
ilit
y an
d i
nfr
astr
uct
ure
s d
amag
es.
ww
w.i
thac
aweb
.org
Fig
ure
1: I
TH
AC
A f
acil
itie
s in
To
rin
o, I
taly
Fig
ure
2: M
app
ing
and
an
alyz
ing
emer
gen
cy s
itu
atio
ns
112A
NN
EX 7
A w
ho
le r
ange
of p
rese
nta
tio
n fo
rms
are
avai
lab
le n
ow
aday
s,
fro
m m
aps
on
mo
bil
e p
ho
nes
all
th
e w
ay t
o g
eoin
form
atio
n
pre
sen
ted
as
Au
gmen
ted
Rea
lity
pre
sen
tati
on
s. I
n t
his
sit
u-
atio
n i
t is
im
po
rtan
t th
at t
ho
se w
ho
are
in
tere
sted
in
map
s,
map
pin
g an
d c
arto
grap
hy
wo
rk t
oge
ther
at
an i
nte
rnat
ion
al
leve
l. $
is i
s th
e ro
le o
f th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Car
togr
aph
ic A
s-
soci
atio
n (
ICA
). I
CA
is
a w
orl
d a
uth
ori
tati
ve b
od
y fo
r ca
r-
togr
aph
y an
d G
I S
cien
ce. I
t co
nsi
sts
of
nat
ion
al a
nd
a#
liat
e
mem
ber
s. E
very
nat
ion
is
enco
ura
ged
to
jo
in I
CA
’s l
arge
fa-
mil
y o
f ca
rto
grap
hy
and
GI
scie
nce
, wh
ich
pro
vid
es a
str
on
-
ger
voic
e fo
r IC
A. C
om
pan
ies,
Un
iver
siti
es a
nd
oth
er b
od
ies
invo
lved
in
Car
togr
aph
y an
d G
ISci
ence
jo
in I
CA
as
a#li
ate
mem
ber
s, a
nd
th
eir
nu
mb
ers
are
gro
win
g.
$e
Ass
oci
atio
n h
as s
ever
al i
nst
rum
ents
. $
e m
ost
im
po
r-
tan
t o
nes
are
Co
nfe
ren
ces
and
Co
mm
issi
on
s, w
her
e p
arti
-
cula
r to
pic
s ar
e d
iscu
ssed
an
d w
ork
ed t
hro
ugh
. IC
A r
un
s
28 c
om
mis
sio
ns,
ran
gin
g fr
om
Gen
eral
isat
ion
Asp
ects
to
Map
Pro
ject
ion
s as
lis
ted
at
htt
p:/
/ica
ci.o
rg/c
om
mis
sio
ns/
.
Th
e r
ole
of
mo
dern
car
man
ag
em
en
t
Geo
rg G
artn
er a
nd
Mil
an K
onec
ny
To
day
map
s ca
n b
e cr
eate
d a
nd
use
d b
y an
y in
div
idu
al w
ith
on
ly m
od
est
com
pu
tin
g sk
ills
fo
r vi
rtu
ally
an
y lo
cati
on
on
Ear
th a
nd
fo
r al
mo
st a
ny
pu
rpo
se.
In t
his
new
map
mak
ing
par
adig
m u
sers
are
o>
en p
rese
nt
at t
he
loca
tio
n o
f in
tere
st
and
pro
du
ce m
aps
that
ad
dre
ss n
eed
s th
at a
rise
in
stan
tan
e-
ou
sly.
Car
togr
aph
ic d
ata
may
be
dig
ital
ly a
nd
wir
eles
sly
de-
live
red
in '
nal
fo
rm t
o t
he
dev
ice
in t
he
han
ds
of
the
use
r o
r
he/
she
may
do
wn
load
req
ues
ted
vis
ual
izat
ion
dat
a in
sit
u.
Rap
id a
dva
nce
s in
tec
hn
olo
gies
hav
e en
able
d t
his
rev
olu
tio
n
in m
ap m
akin
g to
be
ach
ieve
d b
y an
yon
e. O
ne
such
pro
mi-
nen
t ad
van
ce in
tech
no
log
y in
clu
des
th
e p
oss
ibil
ity
to d
eriv
e
map
s im
med
iate
ly a
>er
dat
a h
as b
een
acq
uir
ed b
y ac
cess
ing
and
dis
sem
inat
ing
map
s th
rou
gh t
he
inte
rnet
. Oth
er s
ign
i'-
can
t d
evel
op
men
ts i
ncl
ud
e lo
cati
on
-bas
ed s
ervi
ces,
mo
bil
e
cart
ogr
aph
y an
d a
ugm
ente
d r
eali
ty.
Wh
ile
the
abo
ve a
dva
nce
s h
ave
enab
led
sig
ni'
can
t p
rogr
ess
in t
he
des
ign
an
d i
mp
lem
enta
tio
n o
f n
ew w
ays
of
map
pro
-
du
ctio
n o
ver
the
pas
t d
ecad
e, m
any
cart
ogr
aph
ic p
rin
cip
les
rem
ain
un
chan
ged
, th
e m
ost
imp
ort
ant
on
e b
ein
g th
at m
aps
are
an a
bst
ract
ion
of
real
ity.
Vis
ual
izat
ion
of
sele
cted
in
for-
mat
ion
mea
ns
that
so
me
feat
ure
s p
rese
nt
in r
eali
ty a
re d
e-
pic
ted
mo
re p
rom
inen
tly
than
oth
ers,
wh
ile
man
y fe
atu
res
mig
ht
no
t ev
en b
e d
epic
ted
at
all.
Ab
stra
ctin
g re
alit
y m
akes
a m
ap p
ow
erfu
l, as
it
hel
ps
to e
#ci
entl
y u
nd
erst
and
an
d i
n-
terp
ret
very
co
mp
lex
situ
atio
ns
.
Ab
stra
ctio
n i
s es
sen
tial
in
all
sta
ges
of
the
dis
aste
r m
a-
nag
emen
t cy
cle.
In
th
e re
cove
ry p
has
e q
uic
k p
rod
uct
ion
of
imag
ery
of
the
a&ec
ted
are
a is
req
uir
ed u
sin
g d
epic
-
tio
ns
wh
ich
all
ow
th
e em
erge
ncy
tea
ms
to u
nd
erst
and
th
e
situ
atio
n o
n g
rou
nd
fro
m a
gla
nce
at
the
map
s. I
mp
ort
ant
on
-go
ing
dev
elo
pm
ents
su
pp
ort
ing
the
resc
ue
wo
rk i
n t
he
reco
very
p
has
e ar
e m
ap
der
ivat
ion
te
chn
olo
gies
, cr
ow
d
sou
rcin
g, n
eo-c
arto
grap
hy
tech
niq
ues
an
d l
oca
tio
n-b
ased
serv
ices
. $
e ro
le o
f ca
rto
grap
hy
in t
he
pro
tect
ion
ph
ase
of
the
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t cy
cle
has
alw
ays
bee
n c
ruci
al.
In
this
ph
ase
risk
map
s ar
e p
rod
uce
d w
hic
h e
nab
le g
ove
rno
rs,
dec
isio
n m
aker
s, e
xper
ts a
nd
th
e ge
ner
al p
ub
lic
alik
e to
un
-
der
stan
d t
he
kin
d a
nd
leve
ls o
f ri
sk p
rese
nt
in t
he
surr
ou
nd
-
ing
area
s. M
od
ern
car
togr
aph
y en
able
s th
e ge
ner
al p
ub
lic
on
a vo
lun
tary
bas
is t
o p
arti
cip
ate
in m
od
elli
ng
and
vis
ual
izin
g
the
risk
s in
th
eir
nei
ghb
ou
rho
od
. Mo
der
n c
arto
grap
hy
also
hel
ps
to q
uic
kly
dis
sem
inat
e cr
uci
al i
nfo
rmat
ion
.
In t
his
sen
se c
arto
grap
hy
is m
ost
rel
evan
t. W
ith
ou
t m
aps
we
wo
uld
be
“sp
atia
lly
bli
nd
”. K
no
wle
dge
ab
ou
t sp
atia
l rel
atio
ns
and
loca
tio
n o
f ob
ject
s is
mo
st im
po
rtan
t fo
r h
and
lin
g d
isas
-
ters
an
d c
risi
s si
tuat
ion
s o
r si
mp
ly t
o b
e ab
le t
o m
ake
goo
d
dec
isio
ns.
Car
togr
aph
y is
als
o m
ost
co
nte
mp
ora
ry,
as n
ew
and
in
no
vati
ve t
ech
no
logi
es h
ave
an i
mp
act
on
ho
w m
aps
are
pro
du
ced
. Map
s ca
n b
e d
eriv
ed a
uto
mat
ical
ly f
rom
geo
-
dat
a ac
qu
isit
ion
met
ho
ds
such
as
lase
r sc
ann
ing,
rem
ote
sen
sin
g o
r se
nso
r-n
etw
ork
s. S
mar
t m
od
els
of g
eod
ata
can
be
bu
ilt
allo
win
g in
-dep
th a
nal
ysis
of
stru
ctu
res
and
pat
tern
s.
Fig
ure
2:
Exa
mp
le o
f vi
sual
izat
ion
of
theo
reti
cal
dan
ger
zon
e ge
ner
ated
aro
un
d t
he
loca
tio
n o
f ac
cid
ent
Fig
ure
1: C
on
text
s in
ad
apta
bil
e ca
rto
grap
hy
113
AN
NE
X
7
Fig
ure
3: E
xam
ple
of
visu
aliz
atio
n o
f th
e co
nte
xt F
LO
OD
Wit
hin
th
e ca
rto
grap
hic
co
mm
un
itie
s d
edic
ated
res
earc
h,
pro
ject
s an
d a
pp
lica
tio
ns
in t
he
con
text
of
dis
aste
r m
a-
nag
emen
t ar
e u
nd
er d
evel
op
men
t. A
fo
cus
po
int
of
tho
se
acti
viti
es i
s th
e IC
A’s
Co
mm
issi
on
on
Car
togr
aph
y in
Ear
ly
War
nin
g an
d C
risi
s M
anag
emen
t (C
EW
&C
M).
$is
co
m-
mis
sio
n e
spec
iall
y d
eals
wit
h t
he
foll
ow
ing
rese
arch
tar
gets
:
lead
ersh
ip i
n t
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
con
cep
ts, o
nto
logi
sa-
tio
n a
nd
sta
nd
ard
izat
ion
fo
r ea
rly
war
nin
g (E
W),
ha-
zard
, ris
k a
nd
vu
lner
abil
ity
map
pin
g;
pro
mo
te t
he
cart
ogr
aph
ic u
se o
f re
mo
tely
sen
sed
an
d
oth
er g
eosp
atia
l d
ata
for
EW
an
d c
risi
s m
anag
emen
t
(CM
) th
rou
gh
scie
nti
'c
con
fere
nce
s,
sem
inar
s an
d
wo
rksh
op
s;
inve
stig
ate
the
psy
cho
logi
cal
con
dit
ion
of
end
use
rs
reve
aled
by
thei
r p
erso
nal
ch
arac
ter
and
sit
uat
ion
an
d
psy
cho
logi
cal
con
dit
ion
of
resc
ued
per
son
s (w
ith
su
p-
po
rt o
f u
biq
uit
ou
s, c
on
text
ad
apti
ve m
app
ing)
;
fost
er
qu
alit
y m
app
ing
and
ca
rto
grap
hic
m
od
elin
g,
incl
ud
ing
stat
e-o
f-th
e-ar
t vi
sual
izat
ion
te
chn
olo
gies
,
geo
spat
ial p
roce
ssin
g an
d p
ub
lish
ing
too
ls, f
or
EW
an
d
CM
th
rou
gh t
op
ic r
elat
ed p
ub
lica
tio
n a
ctiv
itie
s;
par
tici
pat
e an
d c
on
trib
ute
to
glo
bal
in
itia
tive
s in
EW
and
CM
;
pro
mo
te t
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
dyn
amic
an
d r
eal-
tim
e
cart
ogr
aph
ic v
isu
aliz
atio
n c
on
cep
ts a
nd
tec
hn
iqu
es f
or
enh
ance
d o
per
atio
nal
EW
act
ivit
ies
thro
ugh
act
ive
col-
lab
ora
tio
n w
ith
go
vern
men
tal a
uth
ori
ties
;
esta
bli
sh a
nd
cu
ltiv
ate
pro
fess
ion
al n
etw
ork
s fo
r ex
-
chan
ge o
f in
form
atio
n a
mo
ng
stak
eho
lder
s in
th
e d
o-
mai
ns
of
CM
an
d E
W;
dev
elo
p m
ech
anis
ms
of
com
man
d a
nd
co
ntr
ol
syst
ems
inte
grat
ion
as
wel
l as
im
pro
ve r
eal-
tim
e d
ata-
cen
tric
inte
llig
ence
bas
ed o
n '
eld
sen
sors
fo
r p
urp
ose
s o
f C
M;
dev
elo
p m
app
ing
met
ho
do
logi
es a
nd
tec
hn
olo
gies
fo
r
EW
&C
M
fro
m
chil
dre
n‘s
per
spec
tive
s.
Pro
mo
te
the
pro
cess
of
teac
hin
g, u
nd
erst
and
ing
and
usi
ng
map
s fo
r
EW
&C
M i
n c
hil
dre
n a
spec
ts.
In o
rder
to
ach
ieve
its
go
als
the
Co
mm
issi
on
is
acti
vely
or-
gan
izin
g w
ork
sho
ps
and
sem
inar
s, i
ncl
ud
ing
in B
ulg
aria
(Bo
rove
ts,
Nes
seb
ar,
Alb
ena)
, in
USA
(A
uto
Car
to),
in
Ru
s-
sia
(In
ter
Exp
o G
eosi
ber
ia)
and
Ch
ina
(Wu
han
, Bei
jin
g). A
s
the
top
ic o
f cr
isis
man
agem
ent
and
ear
ly w
arn
ing
is i
nte
r-
dis
cip
lin
ary,
th
e co
mm
issi
on
als
o p
arti
cip
ates
in jo
int
e&o
rts
wit
h s
iste
r o
rgan
izat
ion
s su
ch a
s IS
PR
S, F
IG o
r IS
DE
. A
s a
resu
lt o
f su
ch a
co
op
erat
ion
IC
A a
nd
ISP
RS
spec
iali
sts
pu
b-
lish
ed t
he
bo
ok
„G
eogr
aph
ic I
nfo
rmat
ion
an
d C
arto
grap
hy
for
Ris
k a
nd
Cri
sis
Man
agem
ent”
, ed
ited
by
Mil
an K
on
ecn
y,
Sisi
Zla
tan
ova
an
d T
emen
ou
jka
Ban
dro
va, S
pri
nge
r, 2
010.
$e
Co
mm
issi
on
is
also
rep
rese
nte
d a
t th
e h
igh
est
po
liti
cal
leve
ls a
nd
in
di&
eren
t p
arts
of
the
Wo
rld
, e.
g. i
n t
he
EU
-
Ch
ina
Dis
aste
r R
isk
Man
agem
ent
pro
ject
, al
low
ing
for
in-
form
ing
dec
isio
n a
nd
po
licy
mak
ers
to b
e in
form
ed a
bo
ut
con
tem
po
rary
car
togr
aph
y in
ear
ly w
arn
ing
and
cri
sis
ma-
nag
emen
t.
ww
w.i
caci
.org
114A
NN
EX 7
Th
e I
nte
rnati
on
al
Yer
ach
Doy
tsh
er
$e
Inte
rnat
ion
al F
eder
atio
n o
f Su
rvey
ors
is
an i
nte
rnat
i-
on
al,
no
n-g
ove
rnm
ent
org
aniz
atio
n w
ho
se p
urp
ose
is
to
sup
po
rt i
nte
rnat
ion
al c
oll
abo
rati
on
fo
r th
e p
rogr
ess
of
sur-
veyi
ng
in a
ll '
eld
s an
d a
pp
lica
tio
ns.
FIG
is
the
pre
mie
r in
tern
atio
nal
org
aniz
atio
n r
epre
sen
tin
g
the
inte
rest
s o
f su
rvey
ors
wo
rld
wid
e. I
t is
a f
eder
atio
n o
f th
e
nat
ion
al m
emb
er a
sso
ciat
ion
s an
d c
ove
rs t
he
wh
ole
ran
ge
of
pro
fess
ion
al '
eld
s w
ith
in t
he
glo
bal
su
rvey
ing
com
mu
ni-
ty.
FIG
pro
vid
es a
n i
nte
rnat
ion
al f
oru
m f
or
dis
cuss
ion
an
d
dev
elo
pm
ent
aim
ing
to p
rom
ote
pro
fess
ion
al p
ract
ices
an
d
stan
dar
ds.
As
a U
N-r
eco
gniz
ed n
on
-go
vern
men
t o
rgan
izat
ion
(N
GO
),
rep
rese
nti
ng
mo
re t
han
120
co
un
trie
s ar
ou
nd
th
e w
orl
d,
FIG
aim
s to
en
sure
th
at t
he
dis
cip
lin
es o
f su
rvey
ing
and
all
wh
o p
ract
ice
them
mee
t th
e n
eed
s o
f th
e m
ark
ets
and
th
e
com
mu
nit
ies
that
th
ey s
erve
.
A p
rofe
ssio
n, a
rmed
wit
h k
no
wle
dge
an
d b
est
pra
c tic
es, e
x-
ten
din
g th
e u
sefu
lnes
s o
f su
rvey
ing
for
the
ben
e't
of s
oci
ety,
envi
ron
men
t an
d e
con
om
y, in
cre a
sin
gly
po
siti
on
ed in
sig
ni-
'ca
nce
an
d r
elev
ance
to
man
kin
d.
FIG
dra
ws
its
mem
ber
ship
fro
m p
ract
itio
ner
s w
ork
ing
in
the
pu
bli
c an
d p
riva
te s
ecto
rs;
fro
m t
he
scie
n ti
'c,
res
earc
h
and
aca
dem
ic c
om
mu
nit
y;
and
, fr
om
th
e sp
atia
l te
chn
olo
-
gies
an
d s
ervi
ces
com
mu
nit
y. $
e fo
rmal
mem
ber
s o
f F
IG
incl
ud
e:
Mem
ber
ass
oci
atio
ns
– n
atio
nal
ass
oci
atio
ns
rep
rese
nti
ng
on
e o
r m
ore
of
the
dis
cip
lin
es o
f su
rvey
ing;
A"
liat
es –
gro
up
s o
f su
rvey
ors
or
surv
eyin
g o
rg an
izat
ion
s
un
der
tak
ing
pro
fess
ion
al a
ctiv
itie
s b
ut
no
t fu
l'll
ing
the
cri-
teri
a fo
r m
emb
er a
sso
ciat
ion
s;
Co
rpo
rate
mem
ber
s –
org
aniz
atio
ns,
in
stit
uti
on
s, o
r ag
en-
cies
wh
ich
pro
vid
e co
mm
erci
al s
ervi
ces
re la
ted
to
th
e su
r-
veyi
ng
pro
fess
ion
;
Aca
dem
ic m
emb
ers
– o
rgan
izat
ion
s, i
nst
itu
tio
ns,
or
agen
-
cies
wh
ich
pro
mo
te e
du
cati
on
or
rese
arch
in
on
e o
r m
ore
of
the
dis
cip
lin
es o
f su
rvey
ing.
Ten
co
mm
issi
on
s le
ad F
IG’s
tec
hn
ical
wo
rk.
$ei
r te
rms
of
refe
ren
ce a
re a
s fo
llo
ws:
Com
mis
sio
n 1
- P
rofe
ssio
nal P
ractice
Per
cep
tio
n o
f su
rvey
ing
pro
fess
ion
; p
rofe
ssio
nal
pra
ctic
e,
lega
l as
pec
ts a
nd
org
aniz
atio
nal
str
uct
ure
s; s
tan
dar
ds
and
cert
i'ca
tio
n;
cod
e o
f et
hic
s an
d a
pp
li ca
tio
ns;
un
der
-rep
re-
sen
ted
gro
up
s in
su
rvey
ing;
in
form
atio
n t
ech
no
log
y m
a-
nag
emen
t an
d p
rofe
s sio
nal
pra
ctic
e; p
roje
ct m
anag
emen
t,
qu
alit
y an
d b
est
pra
ctic
es.
Com
mis
sio
n 2
- P
rofe
ssio
nal E
ducation
Cu
rric
ulu
m d
evel
op
men
t; l
earn
ing
and
tea
chin
g m
et h
od
s
and
tec
hn
olo
gies
; ed
uca
tio
nal
man
agem
ent
and
mar
ket
ing;
con
tin
uo
us
pro
fess
ion
al d
evel
op
men
t; n
etw
ork
ing
in e
du
ca-
tio
n a
nd
tra
inin
g.
Com
mis
sio
n 3
- S
patial In
form
ation M
anage
-
ment
Man
agem
ent
of
spat
ial
info
rmat
ion
ab
ou
t la
nd
, p
ro p
erty
and
mar
ine
dat
a; s
pat
ial
dat
a in
fras
tru
ctu
re –
dat
a co
llec
-
tio
n, a
nal
ysis
, vis
ual
izat
ion
, sta
nd
ard
i zat
ion
, dis
sem
inat
ion
,
and
su
pp
ort
of
goo
d g
ove
r nan
ce;
kn
ow
led
ge m
anag
emen
t
for
SIM
; bu
sin
ess
mo
del
s, p
ub
lic-
pri
vate
-par
tner
ship
s, p
ro-
fess
ion
al p
ract
ice
and
ad
min
istr
atio
n.
Com
mis
sio
n 4
- H
ydro
gra
phy
Hyd
rogr
aph
ic s
urv
eyin
g; h
ydro
grap
hic
ed
uca
tio
n,
trai
nin
g
and
CP
D;
mar
ine
envi
ron
men
t an
d c
oas
tal
zon
e m
anag
e-
men
t; d
ata
pro
cess
ing
and
man
age m
ent;
nau
tica
l ch
arti
ng
and
bat
hym
etri
c m
aps
– a
na l
ogu
e an
d d
igit
al,
incl
ud
ing
elec
tro
nic
nav
igat
ion
al c
har
ts.
Com
mis
sio
n 5
- P
ositio
nin
g a
nd M
easure
ment
$e
scie
nce
o
f m
easu
rem
ent
incl
ud
ing
inst
rum
ent a
tio
n,
met
ho
do
log
y an
d g
uid
elin
es;
the
acq
uis
itio
n o
f ac
cura
te
and
rel
iab
le s
urv
ey d
ata
rela
ted
to
th
e p
osi
tio
n, s
ize
and
sh
a-
pe
of
nat
ura
l an
d a
rti'
cial
fea
tu re
s o
f th
e ea
rth
an
d i
ts e
nvi
-
ron
men
t an
d i
ncl
ud
ing
vari
atio
n w
ith
tim
e.
Acq
uis
itio
n,
pro
cess
ing
and
m
anag
emen
t o
f to
po
met
ric
dat
a; q
ual
ity
con
tro
l an
d v
alid
atio
n f
or
civi
l en
gin
eeri
ng
con
stru
ctio
n
and
m
anu
fact
uri
ng;
m
od
ern
co
nce
pts
fo
r
sett
ing-
ou
t an
d m
ach
ine
guid
ance
; d
efo
rmat
ion
mo
nit
o-
rin
g sy
stem
s; a
uto
mat
ic m
ea su
rin
g sy
stem
s, m
ult
i-se
nso
r
mea
suri
ng
syst
ems;
ter
rest
rial
lase
r sy
stem
s.
Com
mis
sio
n 7
- C
adastr
e a
nd L
and M
anage
-
ment
Cad
astr
e, l
and
ad
min
istr
atio
n a
nd
lan
d m
anag
e men
t; d
eve-
lop
men
t o
f p
ro p
oo
r la
nd
man
agem
ent
and
lan
d a
dm
inis
-
trat
ion
; d
evel
op
men
t o
f su
stai
nab
le l
and
ad
min
istr
atio
n a
s
115
AN
NE
X
7an
in
fras
tru
ctu
re f
or
sust
ain
able
dev
elo
pm
ent
to u
nd
erp
in
eco
no
mic
gro
wth
; ap
pli
cati
on
s o
f in
no
vati
ve a
nd
ad
van
ced
tech
no
log
y in
cad
astr
e an
d la
nd
ad
min
istr
atio
n.
-
op
ment
Reg
ion
al a
nd
loca
l str
uct
ure
pla
nn
ing;
urb
an a
nd
ru
ral l
and
use
pla
nn
ing
and
im
ple
men
tati
on
; p
lan
nin
g p
oli
cies
an
d
envi
ron
men
tal
man
agem
ent
for
sust
ain
able
dev
elo
pm
ent;
pu
bli
c-p
riva
te p
artn
er sh
ips;
in
form
al s
ettl
emen
t is
sues
in
spat
ial d
evel
op
men
t, p
lan
nin
g an
d g
ove
rnan
ce.
Com
mis
sio
n 9
- V
alu
ation a
nd t
he M
anage
-
ment
of
Real E
sta
te
Val
uat
ion
; in
vest
men
t in
rea
l es
tate
an
d i
nve
stm
ent
pla
n-
nin
g; r
eal e
stat
e, d
evel
op
men
t '
nan
ce a
nd
lan
d u
se f
easi
bil
i-
ty p
lan
nin
g; r
eal
esta
te e
con
om
ics
and
mar
ket
s an
d m
ark
et
anal
yses
; m
anag
emen
t o
f p
ro p
erty
an
d p
rop
erty
sys
tem
s;
man
agem
ent
of
pu
bli
c se
cto
r p
rop
erty
.
Com
mis
sio
n 1
0 -
Constr
uction E
conom
ics a
nd
Managem
ent
Co
nst
ruct
ion
ec
on
om
ics,
in
clu
din
g q
uan
tity
su
rvey
ing,
bu
ild
ing
surv
eyin
g, c
ost
en
gin
eeri
ng
and
man
a gem
ent;
est
i-
mat
ing
and
ten
der
ing;
co
mm
erci
al m
anag
emen
t in
clu
din
g
pro
cure
men
t, r
isk
man
agem
ent
and
co
ntr
acts
; p
roje
ct m
a-
nag
emen
t in
clu
din
g p
lan
nin
g an
d s
ched
uli
ng.
As
geo
-in
form
atio
n t
ech
no
log
y an
d p
rod
uct
s ar
e im
po
r-
tan
t co
mp
on
ents
fo
r ri
sk a
nd
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t, F
IG i
s
act i
vely
in
volv
ed i
n d
i&er
ent
asp
ects
on
th
e to
pic
th
rou
gh
seve
ral
of
its
com
mis
sio
ns.
In
th
is c
on
text
, su
b-t
op
ics
such
as r
isk
map
s, d
amag
e m
aps,
inte
grat
ion
of
dat
aset
s fr
om
dif
-
fere
nt
sou
rces
, an
d e
arly
war
nin
g, s
ho
uld
be
bas
ed o
n a
s-
sess
ing
and
pro
cess
ing
of
geo
spat
ial
dat
a. $
e m
a pp
ing
and
surv
eyin
g co
mm
un
ity
wit
hin
FIG
is
inte
g rat
ing
the
kn
ow
-
led
ge a
nd
exp
erie
nce
of
its
mem
ber
s –
pro
fess
ion
als
as w
ell
as r
esea
rch
ers
– i
n o
rder
to
po
siti
vely
im
pac
t o
n e
mer
gen
cy
resp
on
se,
dis
aste
r p
re p
ared
nes
s, a
nd
ris
k r
edu
ctio
n a
ctiv
i-
ties
, at
the
op
e rat
ion
al a
s w
ell a
s st
rate
gic
leve
ls.
Maj
or
FIG
act
ivit
ies
on
dis
aste
r an
d r
isk
man
age m
ent
are:
Co
mm
issi
on
3 (
Spat
ial
Info
rmat
ion
Man
agem
ent)
is
focu
-
sin
g o
n t
he
tech
nic
al a
spec
ts o
f 2D
, 3D
, an
d 4
D s
pat
ial
dat
a
reco
rdin
g an
d m
anag
emen
t to
su
pp
ort
leg
al,
accu
rate
, an
d
rele
van
t in
tegr
atio
n o
f ge
osp
a tia
l d
ata,
in
ter
alia
, fo
r d
eci-
sio
n m
akin
g, r
isk
-ass
ess m
ent,
an
d d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
in
gen
eral
an
d in
are
as w
ith
info
rmal
set
tlem
ents
in p
arti
cula
r.
Co
mm
issi
on
5 (
Po
siti
on
ing
and
Mea
sure
men
t) a
nd
Co
m-
mis
sio
n 6
(E
ngi
nee
rin
g Su
rvey
s) a
re w
ork
ing
join
tly
to r
es-
po
nd
to
glo
bal
war
min
g an
d d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
fro
m t
he
geo
det
ic a
nd
mea
sure
men
t vi
ewp
oin
t.
Co
mm
issi
on
7 (
Cad
astr
e an
d L
and
Man
agem
ent)
is
focu
-
sin
g o
n l
and
ad
min
istr
atio
n,
nat
ura
l d
isas
ters
an
d c
lim
ate
chan
ge.
In t
his
co
nte
xt,
the
com
mis
sio
n i
s ta
rget
ing
bet
ter
pre
par
edn
ess
and
res
po
nse
to
nat
ura
l d
isas
ter
and
cli
mat
e
chan
ge, a
nd
sp
eci'
call
y h
an d
lin
g to
pic
s su
ch a
s: l
and
iss
ues
in d
isas
ter
pre
pa r
edn
ess
and
mit
igat
ion
; lan
d p
oli
cies
in
di-
sast
er m
itig
atio
n; a
nd
th
e u
se o
f ri
sk m
aps
in l
and
use
pla
n-
nin
g an
d la
nd
dev
elo
pm
ent.
Co
mm
issi
on
8 (
Spat
ial
Pla
nn
ing
and
Dev
elo
pm
ent)
is
fo-
cusi
ng
on
lan
d u
se p
lan
nin
g w
hil
e ta
kin
g in
to c
on
sid
erat
ion
dis
aste
r ri
sk m
anag
emen
t e&
ect.
In
par
ticu
lar,
an
alyz
ing
the
role
an
d c
oll
ecti
ve r
es p
on
sib
ilit
y o
f su
rvey
ors
an
d o
ther
ex-
per
ts o
n t
he
bu
ilt
envi
ron
men
ts f
or
wel
l-fu
nct
ion
ing
urb
an
regi
on
s an
d m
ega
citi
es,
incl
ud
ing
inte
grat
ed d
isas
ter
risk
man
agem
ent
as a
dis
cip
lin
e.
ww
w."
g.n
et
Fig
ure
1: E
xam
ple
s o
f F
IG C
om
mis
sio
ns‘
Act
ivit
ies
Fig
ure
2: M
ore
Exa
mp
les
of
FIG
Co
mm
issi
on
s‘ A
ctiv
itie
s
116A
NN
EX 7
Inte
rnati
on
al
S. H
aru
yam
a a
nd
M. M
ead
ows
Geo
grap
hy
is t
he
dis
cip
lin
e th
at a
ttem
pts
to
exp
lore
ho
w e
nvi
ron
men
ts e
mer
ge b
y n
atu
-
ral
pro
cess
es,
ho
w s
oci
etie
s p
rod
uce
, o
rgan
ize,
use
an
d m
i-
suse
en
viro
nm
ents
, an
d h
ow
so
ciet
ies
them
selv
es a
re i
n%
u-
ence
d b
y th
e en
viro
nm
ents
in
wh
ich
th
ey a
re l
oca
ted
. $u
s,
geo
grap
hy
aim
s to
stu
dy
bo
th n
atu
ral
and
hu
man
rea
lms
and
th
eir
inte
ract
ion
s, f
ocu
sin
g o
n s
pac
e, p
lace
s, a
nd
reg
i-
on
s, a
dd
ress
ing
bo
th s
ho
rt-t
erm
an
d l
on
ger-
term
pro
cess
es
and
th
eir
resu
ltan
t p
atte
rns.
$e
pu
rpo
ses
of
the
Inte
rnat
io-
nal
Geo
grap
hic
al U
nio
n a
re p
rim
aril
y to
pro
mo
te t
he
dis
ci-
pli
ne
of
geo
grap
hy
thro
ugh
init
iati
ng
and
co
ord
inat
ing
geo
-
grap
hic
al r
esea
rch
th
at is
inte
rnat
ion
al in
sco
pe
and
e&
ecte
d
thro
ugh
th
e in
stru
men
ts o
f it
s va
rio
us
Co
mm
issi
on
s an
d
Tas
k F
orc
es. $
ere
are
curr
entl
y 41
Co
mm
issi
on
s w
ith
in t
he
IGU
, eac
h r
un
by
a st
eeri
ng
com
mit
tee
of
inte
rnat
ion
ally
re-
spec
ted
sci
enti
sts,
an
d s
ever
al o
f th
ese
com
mis
sio
ns
enga
ge
in p
roje
cts
that
hav
e st
ron
g re
leva
nce
to
th
e '
eld
of
dis
aste
r
mit
igat
ion
an
d m
anag
emen
t, m
ost
esp
ecia
lly
Co
mm
issi
on
C12
.18
‘Haz
ard
an
d R
isk’
.
$e
Co
mm
issi
on
on
Haz
ard
an
d R
isk
pla
ys a
n i
mp
ort
ant
role
in
pro
mo
tin
g th
e d
isas
ter
risk
sci
ence
an
d d
isas
ter
risk
red
uct
ion
. $
ere
are
a n
um
ber
of
app
roac
hes
, fo
r ex
amp
le,
fro
m t
he
per
spec
tive
of
hu
man
geo
grap
hy
that
may
focu
s o
n
com
par
ing
the
imp
act
of
his
tori
cal
dis
aste
rs w
ith
mo
re r
e-
cen
t o
nes
. H
um
an g
eogr
aph
ers
also
stu
dy
lan
d u
se a
nd
lan
d
cove
r ch
ange
(an
oth
er I
GU
Co
mm
issi
on
to
pic
) as
a m
ajo
r
fact
or
in d
isas
ters
an
d t
hei
r im
pac
ts, w
hil
e th
ere
are
also
key
init
iati
ves
dea
lin
g w
ith
co
mm
un
ity
stru
ctu
re a
nd
dis
aste
r
risk
, ri
sk c
om
mu
nic
atio
n a
nd
dis
aste
r re
sili
ence
. P
hys
ical
geo
grap
her
s ex
plo
re t
he
stru
ctu
re o
f th
e n
atu
ral
envi
ron
-
men
t an
d p
roce
sses
th
at p
rom
ote
dis
aste
rs i
n '
eld
s su
ch a
s
clim
ato
log
y,
geo
mo
rph
olo
gy,
b
ioge
ogr
aph
y an
d
hyd
rolo
-
gy
usi
ng,
fo
r ex
amp
le,
rem
ote
sen
sin
g te
chn
olo
gy
and
GIS
thro
ugh
ob
serv
atio
n, m
easu
rin
g, r
eco
rdin
g an
d a
nal
ysis
.
on H
azard
and R
isk?
$e
Co
mm
issi
on
id
enti
'es
its
mis
sio
n a
s fo
llo
ws:
To
co
nst
ruct
n
etw
ork
s w
ith
rela
ted
ag
enci
es
wo
rkin
g in
a
geo
grap
hic
al
app
roac
h
to
ha-
zard
an
d r
isk
wit
h t
he
aim
of
pro
mo
tin
g fu
rth
er
coll
ecti
ve
enga
gem
ent
in
rese
arch
p
ro-
ject
s w
ith
th
ese
org
aniz
atio
ns.
$e
ob
ject
ive
is t
o c
on
du
ct a
nd
pu
bli
sh r
esea
rch
fo
r h
azar
d a
nd
risk
m
itig
atio
n
emp
loyi
ng
GIS
tech
no
log
y w
ith
rem
ote
sen
sin
g
and
lan
dsc
ape
stu
die
s.
To
co
nti
nu
e to
d
evel
op
cl
ose
lin
ks
wit
h s
ever
al i
nte
rnat
ion
al
dis
aste
r p
reve
nti
on
ass
oci
atio
ns
and
th
e IR
DR
esp
ecia
lly
thro
ugh
enga
gin
g yo
un
ger
rese
arch
ers.
$e
ob
ject
ive
is
to
pro
mo
te
rou
nd
tab
les
for
dis
cuss
ion
s o
n
risk
man
agem
ent
and
to
co
ntr
i-
bu
te t
o s
oci
al i
nte
rch
ange
.
To
ext
end
its
wo
rk o
n t
he
role
of
geo
grap
hy
in c
op
ing
wit
h d
i-
sast
er
thro
ugh
ed
uca
tio
n.
$e
ob
ject
ive
is t
o a
sses
s th
e u
pta
ke
of
the
con
cep
t o
f su
stai
nab
le d
e-
velo
pm
ent
in c
urr
icu
lum
mat
eria
ls a
nd
pro
mo
te t
he-
se i
dea
s th
rou
gh t
he
mee
tin
gs o
f th
e C
om
mis
sio
n a
nd
thro
ugh
par
tici
pat
ion
in
IG
U R
egio
nal
Co
nfe
ren
ces
and
Co
ngr
esse
s.
To
co
nti
nu
e to
dev
elo
p s
tati
stic
al a
pp
roac
hes
to
eva
lu-
ate
regi
on
al r
isk
s fr
om
th
e k
no
wle
dge
of
atm
osp
her
e-
rela
ted
an
d li
tho
sph
ere-
rela
ted
haz
ard
s st
atis
tics
.
To
exp
lore
th
e is
sue
of
des
erti
'ca
tio
n a
nd
lan
d d
egra
-
dat
ion
an
d t
he
way
th
ese
pro
cess
es i
ncr
ease
dis
aste
r
risk
wit
h t
he
ob
ject
ive
of
dev
elo
pin
g su
stai
nab
le s
olu
-
tio
ns
to d
eser
ti'
cati
on
.
Fig
ure
1:
$e
larg
est
%o
od
on
rec
ord
in
th
e M
eko
ng
regi
on
of
Vie
tnam
occ
urr
ed i
n
the
year
200
0 an
d s
ever
al a
reas
%o
od
ed e
xper
ien
ced
in
un
dat
ion
fo
r m
ore
th
an s
ix
mo
nth
s. G
eom
orp
ho
logi
cal a
nal
ysis
of
the
del
ta s
ugg
ests
th
at t
hat
th
e b
ack
-sw
amp
s
are
mo
st l
ikel
y to
exp
erie
nce
ext
end
ed p
erio
ds
of
inu
nd
atio
n. M
itig
atio
n e
&o
rts
can
thu
s b
e ta
rget
ed e
spec
iall
y at
su
ch a
reas
.
117
AN
NE
X
7C
om
mis
sio
n o
n H
azard
and R
isk
$e
scie
nti
'c
and
tec
hn
ical
pro
gram
me
of
the
Co
mm
issi
-
on
is
led
by
the
chai
r, P
rofe
sso
r Sh
igek
o H
aru
yam
a, a
nd
ten
mem
ber
s o
f th
e St
eeri
ng
Co
mm
itte
e w
ho
are
res
po
n si
ble
for
par
ticu
lar
top
ics.
Fo
r ex
amp
le,
the
wo
rkin
g gr
ou
p o
n
dis
aste
r as
sess
men
t an
d m
itig
atio
n w
as f
orm
ed t
o i
nve
sti-
gate
, fr
om
a s
cien
ti'
c an
d t
ech
nic
al p
oin
t o
f vi
ew,
the
role
of
rem
ote
sen
sin
g in
man
agin
g th
e co
nse
qu
ence
s o
f ‘n
atu
ral’
and
‘m
an-m
ade’
di s
aste
rs a
nd
aim
s at
in
form
ing
and
act
i-
vati
ng
peo
ple
in
volv
ed i
n d
isas
ter
mo
nit
ori
ng,
mit
igat
ion
and
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
fro
m b
oth
pu
bli
c in
stit
uti
on
s an
d
pri
vate
co
mp
anie
s. $
e m
ain
go
als
incl
ud
e th
e d
evel
op
-
men
t o
f ap
pro
pri
ate
too
ls a
nd
met
ho
do
lo gi
es i
n r
elat
ion
to
the
hu
man
dim
ensi
on
of
dis
aste
r ri
sk a
sses
smen
t, a
nd
ma-
nag
emen
t o
f th
e ge
ner
atio
n o
f vu
lner
abil
ity
and
haz
ard
ris
k
map
s fo
r d
i&er
ent
typ
es o
f ge
oh
azar
ds,
su
ch a
s ty
ph
oo
ns
and
cy c
lon
es, %
oo
ds,
dro
ugh
ts, e
arth
qu
akes
, lan
dsl
ides
etc
..
Fu
rth
er o
bje
ctiv
es o
f th
e gr
ou
p i
ncl
ud
e th
e id
enti
'ca
tio
n
and
ass
essm
ent
of
geo
mo
rph
olo
gica
l ri
sk, i
nte
grat
ion
of
re-
mo
te s
ensi
ng,
an
d e
arly
war
nin
g, m
on
ito
rin
g, a
nd
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
in c
oll
abo
rati
on
wit
h e
ngi
nee
rs a
s w
ell a
s th
e d
e-
velo
pm
ent
of
risk
co
mm
un
icat
ion
.
Fo
r fu
rth
er i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
th
e IG
U C
om
mis
sio
n o
n H
a-
zard
an
d R
isk
co
nta
ct t
he
chai
rper
son
, P
rofe
sso
r Sh
igek
o
Har
uya
ma:
h
aru
yam
a@b
io.m
ie-u
.ac.
jp;
ww
w.b
io.m
ie-u
.
ac.jp
/~h
aru
yam
a/ig
u/
$e
Inte
rnat
ion
al C
ou
nci
l fo
r S
cien
ce (
ICSU
) h
as r
ecen
tly
fun
ded
an
im
po
rtan
t IG
U i
nit
iati
ve t
hat
aim
s to
dev
elo
p
net
wo
rkin
g ar
ou
nd
dis
aste
r st
ud
ies
in L
atin
Am
eric
a an
d
the
Car
ibb
ean
. L
and
slid
e d
isas
ters
hav
e m
ajo
r im
pac
ts i
n
dev
elo
pin
g co
un
trie
s d
ue
to t
he
soci
al v
uln
erab
ilit
y o
f co
m-
mu
nit
ies
and
th
e ab
sen
ce o
f in
tegr
ated
ris
k r
esea
rch
. $
is
pro
ject
re
cogn
izes
th
e im
po
rtan
ce
of
inte
grat
ed
lan
dsl
i-
de
rese
arch
fo
r d
isas
ter
risk
, an
d p
arti
cula
rly
the
nec
essi
ty
to p
rom
ote
cap
acit
y b
uil
din
g fo
r yo
un
g sc
ien
tist
s in
Lat
in
Am
eric
a b
y sh
i>in
g th
e d
isas
ter
par
adig
m t
o r
eco
gniz
e th
e
“un
nat
ura
lnes
s” o
f d
isas
ters
. In
rec
ent
dec
ades
lan
dsl
ide
dis
aste
rs i
n L
atin
Am
eric
a, t
rigg
ered
by
bo
th p
reci
pit
atio
n
and
ear
thq
uak
es,
hav
e in
crea
sed
co
nsi
der
ably
. $
eref
ore
,
scie
nti
'c
con
trib
uti
on
s to
war
ds
red
uci
ng
the
vuln
erab
ilit
y
of
exp
ose
d c
om
mu
nit
ies
to l
and
slid
es a
re u
rgen
tly
nee
ded
.
LA
ND
SCA
PE
-LA
C f
ocu
ses
on
th
e n
eed
to
dev
elo
p a
nd
im
-
ple
men
t in
tegr
ated
lan
dsl
ide
rese
arch
fo
r d
isas
ter
risk
fro
m
a m
ult
i- a
nd
tra
ns-
dis
cip
lin
ary
app
roac
h r
eco
gnis
ing
that
scie
nti
'c
ach
ieve
men
ts m
ust
be
visi
bly
use
ful
for
soci
etie
s.
Un
der
stan
din
g ri
sk a
nd
in
vest
igat
ing
the
nat
ura
l an
d s
oci
-
al d
imen
sio
ns
of
dis
aste
rs a
re c
riti
cal
pro
cess
es f
or
dis
aste
r
risk
re
du
ctio
n.
Co
nse
qu
entl
y,
inte
grat
ed
risk
re
sear
ch
is
rega
rded
as
a k
ey f
acto
r fo
r su
stai
nab
le d
evel
op
men
t, s
ince
dis
aste
rs h
ave
incr
easi
ngl
y b
eco
me
an o
bst
acle
to
dev
elo
p-
men
t, p
arti
cula
rly
in v
uln
erab
le c
ou
ntr
ies
exp
ose
d t
o s
uch
haz
ard
s. A
s su
ch,
stre
ngt
hen
ing
cap
acit
y b
uil
din
g an
d p
ro-
mo
tin
g d
isas
ter
risk
res
earc
h o
n l
and
slid
es w
ou
ld h
elp
to
incr
ease
res
ilie
nce
an
d a
war
enes
s in
th
e L
atin
-Am
eric
an
regi
on
.
Fo
r fu
rth
er in
form
atio
n c
on
tact
th
e p
roje
ct le
ader
, Pro
fess
or
Iras
ema
Alc
ánta
ra A
yala
: ira
sem
a@ig
g.u
nam
.mx
ww
w.i
gu
-on
lin
e.o
rg
Fig
ure
2:
Flo
od
ass
essm
ent
in t
he
Mek
on
g D
elta
un
der
scen
ario
s o
f se
a le
vel
rise
. F
loo
d i
nu
nd
atio
n w
as c
alcu
late
d
for
seve
ral
futu
re s
cen
ario
s o
f %
oo
din
g in
th
e d
elta
an
d t
he
resu
ltan
t %
oo
d a
sses
smen
t il
lust
rate
s th
e ex
pan
sio
n o
f in
un
-
dat
ion
are
as g
iven
pro
ject
ed s
ea le
vel r
ise.
Fig
ure
3:
Ris
k c
om
mu
nic
atio
n a
nd
reg
ion
al p
lan
nin
g fo
r
mit
igat
ion
in
th
e M
eko
ng
del
ta.
Ph
oto
sh
ow
s a
mee
tin
g
bet
wee
n o
#ce
rs o
f th
e lo
cal
gove
rnm
ent
and
geo
grap
her
s
dis
cuss
ing
po
ssib
le m
itig
atio
n i
nte
rven
tio
ns.
118A
NN
EX 7
for
Ph
oto
gra
mm
etr
y a
nd
Ch
rist
ian
Hei
pke
$e
Inte
rnat
ion
al S
oci
ety
for
Ph
oto
gram
met
ry a
nd
Rem
ote
Sen
sin
g (I
SPR
S) i
s a
no
n-g
ove
rnm
enta
l o
rgan
isat
ion
dev
o-
ted
to
th
e d
evel
op
men
t o
f in
tern
atio
nal
co
op
erat
ion
fo
r th
e
adva
nce
men
t o
f p
ho
togr
amm
etry
, re
mo
te s
ensi
ng
and
sp
a-
tial
in
form
atio
n s
cien
ces
and
th
eir
app
lica
tio
ns.
$
e S
oci
e-
ty o
per
ates
wit
ho
ut
any
dis
crim
inat
ion
on
gro
un
ds
of
race
,
reli
gio
n,
nat
ion
alit
y, o
r p
oli
tica
l p
hil
oso
ph
y. E
stab
lish
ed i
n
1910
by
Pro
fess
or
Do
leža
l fr
om
th
e T
ech
nic
al U
niv
ersi
ty o
f
Vie
nn
a, A
ust
ria,
ISP
RS
is t
he
old
est
inte
rnat
ion
al u
mb
rel-
la o
rgan
isat
ion
in
its
'el
ds,
wh
ich
may
be
sum
mar
ized
as
add
ress
ing
“in
form
atio
n f
rom
im
ager
y.”
$e
pri
nci
pal
act
ivit
ies
of
ISP
RS
are:
1.
Stim
ula
tin
g th
e fo
rmat
ion
of
nat
ion
al o
r re
gio
nal
So
-
ciet
ies
of
Ph
oto
gram
met
ry, R
emo
te S
ensi
ng
and
Sp
atia
l
Info
rmat
ion
Sci
ence
s.
2.
Init
iati
ng
and
co
ord
inat
ing
rese
arch
in p
ho
togr
amm
et-
ry a
nd
rem
ote
sen
sin
g an
d s
pat
ial i
nfo
rmat
ion
sci
ence
s.
3.
Ho
ldin
g in
tern
atio
nal
Sym
po
sia
and
Co
ngr
esse
s at
re-
gula
r in
terv
als.
4.
En
suri
ng
wo
rld
wid
e ci
rcu
lati
on
of
the
reco
rds
of
dis
-
cuss
ion
an
d t
he
resu
lts
of
rese
arch
by
pu
bli
cati
on
of
the
Inte
rnat
ion
al A
rch
ives
of
Ph
oto
gram
met
ry,
Rem
o-
te S
ensi
ng
and
Sp
atia
l In
form
atio
n S
cien
ces
and
th
e
new
ly e
stab
lish
ed p
eer-
revi
ewed
In
tern
atio
nal
An
nal
s
of
Ph
oto
gram
met
ry, R
emo
te S
ensi
ng
and
Sp
atia
l In
for-
mat
ion
Sci
ence
s.
5.
En
cou
ragi
ng
the
pu
bli
cati
on
an
d e
xch
ange
of
scie
nti
-
'c
pap
ers
and
jo
urn
als
dea
lin
g w
ith
ph
oto
gram
met
ry
and
rem
ote
sen
sin
g an
d s
pat
ial
scie
nce
s, i
n p
arti
cula
r
in t
he
ISP
RS
Jou
rnal
s o
n P
ho
togr
amm
etry
an
d R
emo
te
Sen
sin
g an
d t
he
ISP
RS
Inte
rnat
ion
al J
ou
rnal
of
Geo
-
Info
rmat
ion
.
$e
scie
nti
'c
and
tec
hn
ical
pro
gram
me
of
ISP
RS
is o
rga-
niz
ed b
y ei
ght
Tec
hn
ical
Co
mm
issi
on
s.
Eac
h C
om
mis
sio
n
is c
om
pri
sed
of
a n
um
ber
of
Wo
rkin
g G
rou
ps
wh
ich
are
res
-
po
nsi
ble
for
par
ticu
lar
top
ics
wit
hin
th
e C
om
mis
sio
ns’
are
as
of
resp
on
sib
ilit
y. $
e IS
PR
S co
nfe
ren
ce p
rogr
amm
e in
clu
-
des
a q
uad
ren
nia
l Co
ngr
ess,
Tec
hn
ical
Co
mm
issi
on
Sym
po
-
sia
hel
d i
n t
he
even
nu
mb
ered
yea
r b
etw
een
th
e C
on
gres
ses
and
wo
rksh
op
s o
rgan
ized
by
the
Wo
rkin
g G
rou
ps
at r
egu
lar
inte
rval
s.
Ph
oto
gram
met
ry i
s u
sed
fo
r th
e d
eriv
atio
n o
f 3D
in
form
a-
tio
n o
f p
oin
ts, l
ines
an
d a
reas
on
th
e te
rrai
n f
rom
aer
ial a
nd
sate
llit
e im
ages
fo
r th
e d
evel
op
men
t o
f ge
osp
atia
l d
atab
ases
and
sp
atia
l in
form
atio
n s
yste
ms
(SIS
). $
e d
ata
can
be
use
d
in d
igit
al,
grap
hic
al a
nd
ort
ho
ph
oto
fo
rms
as m
aps,
ch
arts
and
ove
rlay
s. P
ho
togr
amm
etry
is
also
use
d f
or
the
gen
eral
mea
sure
men
t an
d i
nte
rpre
tati
on
of
ob
ject
s fr
om
im
ages
,
imag
e se
qu
ence
s,
and
o
ther
n
on
-co
nta
ct
tech
niq
ues
, b
y
pro
vid
ing
pre
cise
3D
po
int
coo
rdin
ates
an
d o
ther
geo
met
ric
and
sem
anti
c o
bje
ct i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r p
op
ula
tin
g sp
atia
l d
a-
tab
ases
an
d f
or
crea
tin
g vi
rtu
al r
eali
ty 3
D s
cen
es w
ith
rea
l-
life
tex
ture
d m
od
els.
By
ob
serv
ing
the
Ear
th f
rom
air
- an
d s
pac
e-b
orn
e p
latf
orm
s
rem
ote
sen
sin
g p
rovi
des
th
e b
asis
fo
r m
app
ing
of
hu
man
Fig
ure
s 1
and
2: E
xam
ple
s o
f re
mo
te s
ensi
ng
and
sp
atia
l in
form
atio
n a
nal
ysis
119
AN
NE
X
7an
d n
atu
ral
acti
viti
es;
for
mo
nit
ori
ng
chan
ge;
for
asse
s-
sin
g an
d m
itig
atin
g d
isas
ters
; fo
r id
enti
fyin
g an
d a
sses
sin
g
no
n-r
enew
able
res
ou
rces
; fo
r m
on
ito
rin
g te
mp
ora
l ch
ange
s
in w
eath
er,
lan
d a
nd
sea
co
ver;
an
d f
or
man
y o
ther
ap
pli
-
cati
on
s. S
pat
ial
and
sem
anti
c d
escr
ipti
on
s o
f o
bje
cts
and
feat
ure
s ar
e d
eriv
ed f
rom
3D
mea
sure
men
ts o
f im
ager
y,
and
th
e in
terp
reta
tio
n o
f th
eir
spec
tral
an
d s
eman
tic
attr
i-
bu
tes
fro
m p
anch
rom
atic
, mu
ltis
pec
tral
an
d o
ther
rem
ote
ly
sen
sed
dat
a.
$e
des
crip
tio
n a
nd
lo
cati
on
of
ob
ject
s an
d f
eatu
res
ob
tai-
ned
fro
m i
mag
es, a
s w
ell
as t
emp
ora
l re
lati
on
ship
s b
etw
een
ph
ysic
al o
bje
cts
and
pro
cess
es, c
an b
e in
tegr
ated
wit
h o
ther
dat
a u
sin
g ap
pro
ach
es f
rom
Sp
atia
l In
form
atio
n S
cien
ce f
or
anal
ysis
, si
mu
lati
on
, p
red
icti
on
an
d v
isu
aliz
atio
n i
nd
epen
-
den
t o
f sc
ale.
Sp
atia
l In
form
atio
n S
cien
ce is
bei
ng
app
lied
in
urb
an a
nd
in
fras
tru
ctu
re p
lan
nin
g, l
and
an
d r
eso
urc
e m
a-
nag
emen
t, m
on
ito
rin
g th
e en
viro
nm
ent,
an
d u
nd
erst
and
ing
man
y o
ther
nat
ura
l an
d m
an-m
ade
pro
cess
es a
nd
ph
eno
-
men
a.
Wit
hin
ISP
RS
the
mai
n a
ctiv
itie
s in
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t
and
res
po
nse
are
po
ole
d i
n C
om
mis
sio
n V
III
and
mo
re
spec
i'ca
lly
in W
ork
ing
Gro
up
VII
I/1
enti
tled
„D
isas
ter
and
risk
red
uct
ion“
. $e
wo
rkin
g gr
ou
p is
ch
aire
d b
y T
. Sri
niv
asa
Ku
mar
fro
m t
he
Ind
ian
Nat
ion
al C
entr
e fo
r O
cean
In
for-
mat
ion
Ser
vice
s (I
NC
OIS
) in
Hyd
erab
ad,
Cee
s va
n W
este
n
fro
m I
TC
, Un
iver
sity
of
Tw
ente
, th
e N
eth
erla
nd
s, a
nd
Fab
io
Giu
lio
To
no
lo f
rom
th
e In
form
atio
n T
ech
no
log
y fo
r H
um
a-
nit
aria
n A
ssis
tan
ce,
Co
op
erat
ion
an
d A
ctio
n (
ITH
AC
A)
in
To
rin
o, I
taly
ser
ve a
s co
-ch
airs
.
$e
task
s o
f th
e w
ork
ing
gro
up
are
th
e ge
ner
atio
n o
f vu
l-
ner
abil
ity
and
haz
ard
zo
ne
map
s fo
r d
i&er
ent
typ
e o
f d
isas
-
ters
, su
ch a
s fo
rest
're
, cy
clo
ne,
%o
od
s, d
rou
ght,
vo
lcan
o
eru
pti
on
s, e
arth
qu
akes
, lan
dsl
ides
etc
. an
d t
he
iden
ti'
cati
on
and
ass
essm
ent
of
po
ten
tial
ris
k z
on
es, t
he
inte
grat
ion
of
re-
mo
tely
sen
sed
ob
serv
atio
ns
and
co
mm
un
icat
ion
str
ateg
ies
wit
h e
nh
ance
d p
red
icti
ve m
od
elli
ng
cap
abil
itie
s fo
r d
isas
ter
det
ecti
on
, ea
rly
war
nin
g, m
on
ito
rin
g,
dam
age
asse
ssm
ent
and
res
po
nse
, an
d t
he
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t
pla
ns
for
pre
, du
rin
g an
d p
ost
dis
aste
r si
tuat
ion
s to
en
han
ce
sup
po
rt f
or
earl
y w
arn
ing
syst
ems,
em
erge
ncy
eve
nts
mit
i-
gati
on
an
d d
ecis
ion
mak
ing.
In t
his
way
th
e w
ork
ing
gro
up
aim
s to
pro
mo
te t
he
dev
e-
lop
men
t o
f to
ols
an
d m
eth
od
olo
gies
th
at s
up
po
rt d
isas
ter
risk
red
uct
ion
by
usi
ng
rem
ote
sen
sin
g, G
IS a
nd
en
han
ced
pre
dic
tive
mo
del
lin
g ca
pab
ilit
ies
in s
up
po
rt o
f ri
sk a
sses
s-
men
t, d
etec
tio
n, e
arly
war
nin
g, m
on
ito
rin
g, d
amag
e as
sess
-
men
t an
d r
esp
on
se. T
ow
ard
s th
is g
oal
, th
e w
ork
ing
gro
up
is
enga
ged
in
org
anis
ing
wo
rksh
op
s an
d o
ther
sci
enti
'c
and
tech
nic
al m
eeti
ngs
to
exc
han
ge l
ates
t d
evel
op
men
ts a
s w
ell
as t
o p
rovi
de
lin
ks
to p
ub
licl
y av
aila
ble
res
ou
rces
to
su
pp
ort
dis
aste
r ri
sk r
edu
ctio
n.
Fu
rth
er,
the
wo
rkin
g gr
ou
p c
oll
a-
bo
rate
s w
ith
ISP
RS
Tec
hn
ical
Co
mm
issi
on
I a
nd
oth
er r
e-
leva
nt
wo
rkin
g gr
ou
ps
as w
ell
as i
nte
rnat
ion
al b
od
ies
such
as t
he
Gro
up
on
Ear
th O
bse
rvat
ion
(G
EO
), t
he
Co
mm
itte
e
on
Ear
th O
bse
rvat
ion
Sat
elli
tes
(CE
OS)
, th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Glo
bal
Ob
serv
ing
Stra
teg
y (I
GO
S) a
nd
th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Ch
arte
r o
n S
pac
e an
d M
ajo
r D
isas
ters
(IC
SMD
) to
en
han
ce
rem
ote
ob
serv
ing
cap
abil
itie
s.
Bes
ides
th
e ac
tivi
ties
at
the
wo
rkin
g gr
ou
p l
evel
, IS
PR
S is
the
mai
n c
on
trib
uto
r to
th
e G
eo-i
nfo
rmat
ion
fo
r D
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
(Gi4
DM
) co
nfe
ren
ce s
erie
s. G
i4D
M i
s an
an
-
nu
al c
on
fere
nce
dev
ote
d t
o t
he
use
an
d a
pp
lica
tio
n o
f ge
o-
info
rmat
ion
tec
hn
olo
gy
in d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent.
$e
fun
-
dam
enta
l go
al o
f th
e co
nfe
ren
ce is
to
pro
vid
e a
foru
m w
her
e
dis
aste
r m
anag
ers,
sta
keh
old
ers,
res
earc
her
s, d
ata
pro
vid
ers
and
sys
tem
dev
elo
per
s ca
n d
iscu
ss c
hal
len
ges,
sh
are
exp
eri-
ence
, dis
cuss
new
idea
s, d
emo
nst
rate
tec
hn
olo
gy
and
an
aly-
se f
utu
re r
esea
rch
to
war
d b
ette
r su
pp
ort
of
risk
an
d d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
acti
viti
es.
Eig
ht
edit
ion
s o
f th
ese
con
fere
nce
s h
ave
tak
en p
lace
in D
el>
,
$e
Net
her
lan
ds,
(M
arch
200
5),
Go
a, I
nd
ia,
(Sep
tem
ber
2006
), T
oro
nto
, C
anad
a, (
May
200
7),
Har
bin
, C
hin
a (A
u-
gust
, 20
08),
Pra
gue,
Cze
ch R
epu
bli
c (J
anu
ary
2009
), T
uri
n,
Ital
y (F
ebru
ary
2010
), A
nta
lya,
Tu
rkey
(M
ay, 2
011)
an
d E
n-
sch
ede,
th
e N
eth
erla
nd
s (D
ecem
ber
, 201
2). $
e 9t
h G
i4D
M
mee
tin
g w
ill
tak
e p
lace
in
Han
oi,
Vie
tnam
in
Dec
emb
er
2013
.
Gi4
DM
has
bee
n o
rgan
ised
in
co
op
erat
ion
wit
h d
i&er
ent
inte
rnat
ion
al b
od
ies
such
as
ISP
RS,
OO
SA,
ICA
, IS
CR
AM
FIG
, IA
G,
OG
C, W
FP
an
d s
up
po
rted
by
nat
ion
al o
rgan
isa-
tio
ns
such
as
GIN
(N
eth
erla
nd
s) a
nd
CIG
(C
anad
a).
Sin
ce
2008
, G
i4D
M i
s co
ord
inat
ed b
y th
e Jo
int
Bo
ard
of
Geo
spa-
tial
In
form
atio
n S
oci
etie
s (J
B G
IS)
ad-h
oc
Co
mm
itte
e o
n
Ris
k a
nd
Dis
aste
r M
anag
emen
t.
ww
w.i
sprs
.org
Fig
ure
3: C
row
d s
ou
rcin
g fo
r th
e H
aiti
ear
thq
uak
e re
spo
nse
120A
NN
EX 7
ww
w.i
asp
ei.o
rg),
an
d
volc
ano
log
y an
d c
hem
istr
y o
f th
e E
arth
’s i
nte
rio
r (I
AV
-
CE
I; w
ww
.iav
cei.
org
).
Eac
h I
nte
rnat
ion
al A
sso
ciat
ion
op
erat
es v
ia i
ts s
cien
ti'
c d
i-
visi
on
s, c
om
mis
sio
ns,
wo
rkin
g gr
ou
ps,
ser
vice
s, a
nd
co
m-
mit
tees
. Ow
ing
to t
he
inte
ract
ive
nat
ure
of
the
sub
ject
'el
ds
man
aged
by
the
Ass
oci
atio
ns,
've
Un
ion
Co
mm
issi
on
s h
ave
bee
n e
stab
lish
ed, w
hic
h s
erve
th
e U
nio
n a
nd
th
e in
tern
atio
-
nal
geo
ph
ysic
al c
om
mu
nit
y b
y p
rom
oti
ng
the
stu
dy
of
par
-
ticu
lar
inte
rdis
cip
lin
ary
pro
ble
ms:
Cli
mat
ic a
nd
En
viro
n-
men
tal
Ch
ange
; D
ata
and
In
form
atio
n;
Geo
ph
ysic
al R
isk
and
Su
stai
nab
ilit
y;
Mat
hem
atic
al G
eop
hys
ics;
an
d S
tud
y o
f
the
Ear
th‘s
Dee
p I
nte
rio
r. $
e U
nio
n i
ncl
ud
es 7
0 co
un
trie
s
of
Afr
ica,
Am
eric
a, A
sia,
Eu
rop
e, a
nd
Oce
ania
, gi
vin
g sc
i-
enti
sts
fro
m a
cro
ss t
he
wo
rld
th
e ad
van
tage
of
clo
se c
oo
pe-
rati
on
, th
e o
pp
ort
un
ity
to s
har
e d
ata
and
to
en
gage
in
op
en
scie
nti
'c
dis
cuss
ion
.
IUG
G i
s o
ne
of
the
maj
or
pla
yers
in
th
e in
tern
atio
nal
sci
-
enti
'c
com
mu
nit
y d
eali
ng
wit
h n
atu
ral
haz
ard
s an
d s
om
e
asp
ects
of
dis
aste
r ri
sk r
esea
rch
an
d m
anag
emen
t. S
ever
al
div
isio
ns
and
co
mm
issi
on
s o
f th
e U
nio
n A
sso
ciat
ion
s d
eal
wit
h s
pec
i'c
nat
ura
l h
azar
d a
nd
ris
k p
rob
lem
s an
d a
ssis
t in
dis
aste
r ri
sk m
anag
emen
t re
leva
nt
bo
die
s, f
or
exam
ple
,
IAC
S’s
Div
isio
n o
n S
no
w a
nd
Ava
lan
ches
,
IAG
’s G
lob
al G
eod
etic
Ob
serv
ing
Syst
em,
IAG
A’s
exp
erti
se i
n s
pac
e w
eath
er r
esea
rch
,
IAH
S’s
exp
erti
se i
n h
ydro
logi
cal
haz
ard
s an
d r
isk
ma-
nag
emen
t,
IAM
AS’
s ex
per
tise
in
met
eoro
logi
cal r
isk
s,
IAP
SO-I
ASP
EI-
IAV
CE
I C
om
mis
sio
n o
n T
sun
ami,
IASP
EI
Co
mm
issi
on
on
Ear
thq
uak
e H
azar
d,
Ris
k,
and
Stro
ng
Gro
un
d M
oti
on
, an
d
IAV
CE
I’s e
xper
tise
in
vo
lcan
ic r
isk
s.
To
co
ord
inat
e th
e ac
tivi
ties
of t
he
Inte
rnat
ion
al A
sso
ciat
ion
s
in t
he
'el
d o
f n
atu
ral h
azar
ds
and
dis
aste
r ri
sk r
esea
rch
, th
e
IUG
G U
nio
n C
om
mis
sio
n o
n G
eop
hys
ical
Ris
k a
nd
Su
sta-
inab
ilit
y (G
RC
; h
ttp
://w
ww
.iugg
-geo
risk
.org
) w
as e
stab
lis-
hed
in
200
0 to
pro
mo
te s
tud
ies
on
th
e in
tera
ctio
n b
etw
een
haz
ard
s, t
hei
r li
kel
iho
od
an
d t
hei
r w
ider
so
cial
co
nse
qu
en-
ces
as a
res
ult
of
the
vuln
erab
ilit
y o
f so
ciet
ies.
GR
C f
ocu
ses
on
th
e sc
ien
ti'
c st
ud
ies
aim
ed a
t th
e re
du
ctio
n o
f ri
sk f
rom
nat
ura
l h
azar
ds
in a
n i
ncr
easi
ngl
y u
rban
ized
wo
rld
an
d a
t
enh
anci
ng
resi
lien
ce o
f so
ciet
ies
and
su
stai
nab
le d
evel
op
-
men
t, r
edu
cin
g d
eath
an
d d
estr
uct
ion
fro
m n
atu
ral
haz
ard
s
by
pro
vid
ing
haz
ard
s d
ata
and
in
form
atio
n t
o e
mer
gen
cy
man
ager
s, p
oli
cy-m
aker
s, s
cien
tist
s an
d t
he
gen
eral
pu
bli
c
in t
he
mo
st t
imel
y an
d e
&ec
tive
man
ner
. O
ne
of
the
rece
nt
acti
viti
es o
f G
RC
was
th
e tr
ans-
dis
cip
lin
ary
EN
HA
NS
pro
-
ject
(h
ttp
://w
ww
.en
han
s.o
rg).
IUG
G c
oo
per
ates
clo
sely
wit
h t
he
Sci
enti
'c
Co
mm
itte
e “I
n-
tegr
ated
Res
earc
h o
n D
isas
ter
Ris
k” (
IRD
R)
co-s
po
nso
red
by
the
Inte
rnat
ion
al C
ou
nci
l fo
r S
cien
ce (
ICSU
), t
he
Inte
r-
nat
ion
al S
oci
al S
cien
ces
Co
un
cil
(ISS
C),
an
d t
he
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s In
tern
atio
nal
Str
ateg
y fo
r D
isas
ter
Ris
k R
edu
ctio
n
(UN
ISD
R).
IU
GG
via
its
Ass
oci
atio
ns
and
GR
C a
lso
co
op
e-
rate
s w
ith
th
e W
orl
d M
eteo
rolo
gica
l O
rgan
izat
ion
(W
HO
)
and
th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Civ
il A
viat
ion
Org
aniz
atio
n (
ICA
O)
in t
he
area
of
volc
anic
ash
ris
k a
nd
est
abli
shed
in
201
0 a
join
t IU
GG
-WM
O V
olc
anic
Ash
Sci
enti
'c
Ad
viso
ry G
rou
p;
wit
h U
NE
SCO
th
rou
gh t
he
Inte
rgo
vern
men
tal
Oce
ano
gra-
ph
ic C
om
mis
sio
n (
IOC
) o
n t
sun
ami
haz
ard
s an
d r
isk
s, t
he
Inte
rnat
ion
al H
ydro
logi
cal
Pro
gram
on
wat
er r
isk
man
age-
men
t, a
nd
an
d t
he
Dis
aste
r P
rep
ared
nes
s an
d M
itig
atio
n
Pro
gram
on
geo
haz
ard
s ri
sks.
$e
foll
ow
ing
sect
ion
pre
sen
ts s
pec
i'c
acti
viti
es o
f th
e In
-
tern
atio
nal
Ass
oci
atio
n o
f G
eod
esy,
in
nat
ura
l h
azar
ds
and
dis
aste
r ri
sk m
anag
emen
t.
ww
w.i
ug
g.o
rg
Inte
rnati
on
al
Un
ion
of
Geo
desy a
nd
Ali
k Is
mai
l-Z
adeh
$e
Inte
rnat
ion
al
Un
ion
o
f G
eod
esy
and
Geo
ph
ysic
s (I
UG
G)
is a
n i
nte
rna-
tio
nal
, no
n-g
ove
rnm
enta
l, n
on
-pro
't
org
aniz
atio
n e
stab
lis-
hed
in
Bru
ssel
s, B
elgi
um
, on
28
July
191
9. I
UG
G i
s d
edic
a-
ted
to
th
e sc
ien
ti'
c st
ud
y o
f th
e E
arth
an
d i
ts e
nvi
ron
men
t
in s
pac
e an
d t
he
app
lica
tio
n o
f k
no
wle
dge
gai
ned
by
such
stu
die
s to
ben
e't
soci
ety.
IU
GG
pro
mo
tes
and
co
ord
inat
es
ph
ysic
al,
chem
ical
, an
d m
ath
emat
ical
stu
die
s o
f th
e E
arth
incl
ud
ing
the
shap
e o
f th
e E
arth
; th
e n
atu
re o
f it
s gr
avit
a-
tio
nal
an
d m
agn
etic
'el
ds;
th
e d
ynam
ics
of
the
Ear
th a
s a
wh
ole
an
d o
f it
s co
mp
on
ent
par
ts; t
he
Ear
th‘s
inte
rnal
str
uc-
ture
, co
mp
osi
tio
n, a
nd
tec
ton
ics;
th
e ge
ner
atio
n o
f m
agm
as;
volc
anis
m a
nd
ro
ck f
orm
atio
n; t
he
hyd
rolo
gica
l cyc
le i
ncl
u-
din
g sn
ow
an
d i
ce; t
he
ph
ysic
s an
d c
hem
istr
y o
f th
e o
cean
s;
the
atm
osp
her
e, i
on
osp
her
e, m
agn
eto
sph
ere
and
so
lar-
ter-
rest
rial
rel
atio
ns;
an
d a
nal
ogo
us
pro
ble
ms
asso
ciat
ed w
ith
the
Mo
on
an
d o
ther
pla
net
s. T
od
ay,
IUG
G i
s co
mp
rise
d o
f
eigh
t se
mi-
auto
no
mo
us
Inte
rnat
ion
al
Ass
oci
atio
ns,
ea
ch
resp
on
sib
le f
or
a sp
eci'
c ra
nge
of
top
ics
wit
hin
th
e o
vera
ll
sco
pe
of
Un
ion
act
ivit
ies:
cryo
sph
eric
sci
ence
s (I
AC
S; w
ww
.cry
osp
her
icsc
ien
ces.
org
),
geo
des
y (I
AG
; ww
w.i
ag-a
ig.o
rg),
geo
mag
net
ism
an
d a
ero
no
my
(IA
GA
; w
ww
.iugg
.org
/
IAG
A),
hyd
rolo
gica
l sci
ence
s (I
AH
S; i
ahs.
info
),
met
eoro
log
y an
d a
tmo
sph
eric
sci
ence
s (I
AM
AS;
ww
w.
iam
as.o
rg),
ph
ysic
al s
cien
ces
of
the
oce
ans
(IA
PSO
; iap
so.iu
gg.o
rg),
seis
mo
log
y an
d p
hys
ics
of
the
Ear
th’s
in
teri
or
(IA
SPE
I;
121
AN
NE
X
7In
tern
ati
on
al A
sso
cia
tio
n
of
Geo
desy
Her
man
n D
rew
es
Geo
det
ic t
ech
niq
ues
en
able
us
to m
on
ito
r
con
tin
uo
usl
y an
d i
n n
earl
y re
al t
ime
the
pre
lim
inar
y,
coin
cid
enta
l an
d
sub
seq
uen
t
ph
eno
men
a an
d p
roce
sses
of
Ear
th d
isas
ters
. C
urr
entl
y th
e
mo
st i
mp
ort
ant
tech
niq
ues
are
pre
cise
po
int
po
siti
on
ing
at
the
soli
d E
arth
su
rfac
e, g
lob
al g
ravi
ty '
eld
det
erm
inat
ion
,
and
rem
ote
sen
sin
g o
ver
con
tin
ents
an
d o
cean
s.
$e
Inte
rnat
ion
al A
sso
ciat
ion
of
Geo
des
y (I
AG
) co
nce
ntr
a-
tes
on
th
ese
acti
viti
es b
y m
ean
s o
f it
s C
om
mis
sio
ns
and
Ser
-
vice
s an
d t
he
Glo
bal
Geo
det
ic O
bse
rvin
g Sy
stem
(G
GO
S).
$er
e ar
e fo
ur
Co
mm
issi
on
s o
n “
Ref
eren
ce F
ram
es”,
“Gra
-
vity
Fie
ld”,
“Ear
th R
ota
tio
n a
nd
Geo
dyn
amic
s”,
and
“P
osi
-
tio
nin
g an
d A
pp
lica
tio
ns”
stu
dyi
ng
ob
serv
atio
n t
ech
niq
ues
and
dat
a an
alys
is m
eth
od
s. F
i>ee
n I
nte
rnat
ion
al S
cien
ti'
c
Ser
vice
s d
eal
wit
h t
he
pra
ctic
al r
eali
zati
on
of
the
geo
met
ric
and
gra
vim
etri
c o
bse
rvat
ion
s, a
nd
th
e ge
ner
atio
n o
f p
ro-
du
cts
for
a m
yria
d o
f ap
pli
cati
on
s. $
e G
GO
S co
mb
ines
the
resu
lts
of
the
Co
mm
issi
on
s an
d o
utp
uts
of
the
Ser
vice
s.
So
me
exam
ple
s o
f su
ch p
rod
uct
s ar
e d
iscu
ssed
bel
ow
.
Po
int
po
siti
on
ing
is p
red
om
inat
ely
do
ne
by
sate
llit
e an
d
spac
e te
chn
iqu
es, m
ain
ly S
atel
lite
Las
er R
angi
ng
(SL
R),
Glo
-
bal
Nav
igat
ion
Sat
elli
te S
yste
ms
(GN
SS),
Do
pp
ler
Orb
ito
gra-
ph
y an
d R
adio
-po
siti
on
ing
Inte
grat
ed b
y Sa
tell
ite
(DO
RIS
),
and
ast
ron
om
ic V
ery
Lo
ng
Bas
elin
e In
terf
ero
met
ry (
VL
BI)
.
Glo
bal
an
d r
egio
nal
sta
tio
n n
etw
ork
s o
f th
ese
tech
niq
ues
are
mo
nit
ori
ng
con
tin
uo
usl
y th
eir
pre
cise
geo
met
ric
po
siti
on
s,
and
hen
ce a
re c
apab
le o
f d
etec
tin
g an
y d
efo
rmat
ion
of
the
Ear
th’s
su
rfac
e. F
igu
re 1
sh
ow
s th
e d
efo
rmat
ion
of t
he
cen
tral
zon
e o
f So
uth
Am
eric
a a>
er t
he
2010
Mau
le e
arth
qu
ake
in
Ch
ile,
wit
h d
isp
lace
men
ts u
p t
o 4
m (
San
chez
et
al.,
2013
).
We
clea
rly
see
an i
ncr
ease
of
the
grav
ity
acce
lera
tio
n b
y
mo
re t
han
76
· 10
-8 m
s-2
in t
he
con
tin
enta
l fa
ult
sid
e an
d
less
th
an -
67 ·
10-8
ms-
2 in
th
e o
cean
ic s
ide
(1 μ
Gal
= 1
0-8
ms-
2).
$e
grav
ity
chan
ges
may
be
tran
sfo
rmed
in
to m
ass
tran
spo
rt d
uri
ng
the
seis
mic
eve
nt.
On
e o
f th
e m
ost
co
mm
on
rem
ote
sen
sin
g te
chn
iqu
es o
ver
oce
ans
is s
atel
lite
rad
ar a
ltim
etry
. Sev
eral
mis
sio
ns
are
con
ti-
nu
ou
sly
mo
nit
ori
ng
the
glo
bal
oce
an s
urf
ace
wit
h c
m-p
reci
-
sio
n, t
he
mo
st p
reci
se b
ein
g T
OP
EX
/Po
seid
on
an
d J
aso
n-1
.
Fig
ure
3 s
ho
ws
the
com
par
iso
n o
f se
a su
rfac
e h
eigh
ts f
rom
trac
ks
10 d
ays
bef
ore
th
e In
dia
n O
cean
Tsu
nam
i 200
4 (b
lack
lin
es)
and
fro
m t
he
%yo
vers
du
rin
g th
e T
sun
ami
(blu
e an
d
red
lin
es).
We
see
the
Tsu
nam
i w
ave
wit
h h
eigh
ts g
reat
er
than
1 m
in
th
e o
pen
sea
. $
ese
sign
als
are
tod
ay t
ran
smit
-
ted
to
an
ear
ly w
arn
ing
syst
em in
th
e In
dia
n O
cean
in o
rder
to a
lert
vu
lner
able
cit
ies
and
isl
and
s in
th
e re
gio
n.
ww
w.i
ag-a
ig.o
rg
Fig
ure
1:
GP
S st
atio
n d
isp
lace
men
ts a
>er
th
e M
aule
ear
th-
qu
ake,
Ch
ile,
27
Feb
ruar
y 20
10
Mas
s d
isp
lace
men
ts p
rod
uce
ch
ange
s in
th
e E
arth
gra
vity
'el
d.
$es
e ch
ange
s ar
e m
on
ito
red
by
com
pu
tin
g gl
ob
al
epo
ch g
ravi
ty m
od
els
fro
m r
epea
ted
orb
its
of
sate
llit
e gr
avi-
ty m
issi
on
s, s
uch
as
the
Gra
vity
Rec
ove
ry a
nd
Cli
mat
e E
x-
per
imen
t (G
RA
CE
) an
d t
he
Gra
vity
'el
d a
nd
ste
ady-
stat
e
Oce
an C
ircu
lati
on
Exp
lore
r (G
OC
E),
bef
ore
an
d a
>er
an
even
t. F
igu
re 2
sh
ow
s th
e gr
avit
y si
gnal
pro
du
ced
by
the
mas
s d
isp
lace
men
ts o
f th
e 20
11 T
oh
oku
ear
thq
uak
e in
Jap
an
(Fu
chs
et a
l., 2
013)
.
Fig
ure
2:
Sign
al o
f m
ass
dis
pla
cem
ents
in
th
e E
arth
gra
vity
'el
d f
rom
th
e T
oh
oku
ear
thq
uak
e, J
apan
, 11
Mar
ch 2
011
Fig
ure
3: S
ea s
urf
ace
hei
ghts
fro
m T
OP
EX
/Po
seid
on
an
d J
a-
son
-1 t
rack
s b
efo
re a
nd
du
rin
g th
e In
dia
n O
cean
Tsu
nam
i,
26 D
ecem
ber
200
4 (B
osc
h, 2
013)
.
122A
NN
EX 7
Th
e I
nte
rnati
on
al
Un
ion
of
Geo
log
ical
Ian
Lam
bert
an
d R
olan
d O
berh
änsl
i
$e
IUG
S is
th
e w
orl
d l
arge
st g
eosc
ien
ti'
c u
nio
n r
epre
sen
-
tin
g o
ver
1 m
illi
on
geo
scie
nti
sts
thro
ugh
its
121
Ad
her
ing
Mem
ber
s an
d 5
3 A
#li
ated
Org
anis
atio
ns.
$e
Un
ion
is
an
inte
rnat
ion
al
no
n-g
ove
rnm
enta
l o
rgan
izat
ion
d
evo
ted
to
inte
rnat
ion
al c
oo
per
atio
n i
n t
he
'el
d o
f ge
olo
gy.
It
aim
s
to p
rom
ote
dev
elo
pm
ent
of
the
Ear
th s
cien
ces
thro
ugh
th
e
sup
po
rt o
f b
road
-bas
ed s
cien
ti'
c st
ud
ies
rele
van
t to
th
e
enti
re E
arth
sys
tem
; to
ap
ply
th
e re
sult
s o
f th
ese
and
oth
er
stu
die
s to
pre
serv
ing
the
Ear
th‘s
nat
ura
l en
viro
nm
ent,
usi
ng
all n
atu
ral r
eso
urc
es w
isel
y an
d i
mp
rovi
ng
the
pro
sper
ity
of
nat
ion
s an
d t
he
qu
alit
y o
f h
um
an li
fe; a
nd
to
str
engt
hen
pu
-
bli
c aw
aren
ess
of
geo
log
y an
d a
dva
nce
geo
logi
cal
edu
cati
on
in t
he
wid
est
sen
se.
IUG
S fo
ster
s d
ialo
gue
and
co
mm
un
icat
ion
am
on
g th
e va
ri-
ou
s sp
ecia
list
s in
Ear
th s
cien
ces
aro
un
d t
he
wo
rld
. It
ach
ie-
ves
this
by
org
aniz
ing
inte
rnat
ion
al p
roje
cts
and
mee
tin
gs,
spo
nso
rin
g sy
mp
osi
a an
d s
cien
ti'
c '
eld
tri
ps,
an
d p
rod
u-
cin
g p
ub
lica
tio
ns.
To
pic
s ad
dre
ssed
sp
an t
he
gam
ut
fro
m
fun
dam
enta
l re
sear
ch t
o i
ts e
con
om
ic a
nd
in
du
stri
al a
pp
li-
cati
on
s, a
nd
fro
m s
cien
ti'
c, e
nvi
ron
men
tal a
nd
so
cial
issu
es
to e
du
cati
on
al a
nd
dev
elo
pm
enta
l pro
ble
ms.
IUG
S w
ork
s th
rou
gh it
s C
om
mis
sio
ns,
Tas
k G
rou
ps
and
In
-
itia
tive
s, p
lus
join
t p
rogr
ams
wit
h o
ther
Geo
scie
nce
un
ion
s,
such
as
the
Inte
rnat
ion
al U
nio
n o
f G
eod
esy
and
Geo
ph
ysic
s
(IU
GG
). O
ne
of
the
maj
or
task
s o
f IU
GS
is p
rovi
din
g st
an-
dar
ds
- fo
r ex
amp
le f
or
geo
info
rmat
ion
sys
tem
s an
d s
trat
i-
grap
hy.
$e
un
ion
is
buil
din
g on
its
sec
ond
str
ateg
ic p
lan
(20
12).
Wh
ile
min
eral
res
ourc
es, w
ater
an
d e
ner
gy w
ill b
e ce
ntr
al t
o-
pic
s, a
sso
ciat
ed r
isks
an
d c
on%
icti
ng
inte
rest
s w
ill b
e in
clu
ded
.
Sci
enti
'c
inp
uts
to
dis
aste
r an
d r
isk
res
earc
h f
rom
IU
GS
mem
ber
s an
d s
cien
tist
s ar
e fo
cuse
d i
n t
he
Co
mm
issi
on
s o
n
Geo
scie
nce
for
En
viro
nm
ent
Man
agem
ent
(GE
M)
and
Geo
-
scie
nce
In
form
atio
n (
CG
I); a
nd
th
e IU
GS-
UN
ESC
O G
eolo
-
gica
l Ap
pli
cati
on
s o
f R
emo
te S
ensi
ng
(GA
RS)
pro
gram
. Ad
-
dit
ion
ally
, so
me
oth
er d
isas
ter
risk
red
uct
ion
act
ivit
ies
are
cove
red
by
the
Tas
k G
rou
p T
ecto
nic
s an
d S
tru
ctu
ral
Geo
-
log
y (T
EC
TA
SK)
and
th
e jo
int
IUG
S-IU
GG
In
tern
atio
nal
Lit
ho
sph
ere
Pro
gram
(IL
P).
Ou
tlin
es o
f so
me
imp
ort
ant
the
acti
viti
es f
oll
ow
.
GE
M
is
no
w
com
pri
sed
o
f se
ven
in
div
idu
al
wo
rkin
g
gro
up
s:
Du
st,
Go
ld
and
M
ercu
ry,
Lan
d
Sub
sid
ence
an
d
Gro
un
dw
ater
, C
lim
ate
Ch
ange
A
dap
tati
on
, M
an
Mad
e
Stra
ta a
nd
Geo
po
llu
tio
n,
Dri
nk
ing
Wat
er,
and
Geo
logi
cal
Haz
ard
s an
d T
erri
tori
al S
ust
ain
abil
ity.
Its
fo
rmer
Wo
rkin
g
Gro
up
on
Fo
ren
sic
Geo
log
y b
ecam
e a
sep
arat
e IU
GS
Init
i-
ativ
e in
201
0.
$is
is
co
nce
rned
w
ith
th
e im
pro
vem
ent
of
inve
stig
ati-
on
an
d u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
bo
th d
ust
an
d o
ther
par
ticu
late
s
(PM
10s
and
'n
er e
mis
sio
ns)
. D
ust
per
form
s an
im
po
rtan
t
fun
ctio
n i
n t
he
atm
osp
her
e, w
ith
in
div
idu
al p
arti
cles
act
ing
as n
ucl
eati
on
cen
ters
fo
r d
rop
lets
th
at b
eco
me
pre
cip
itat
ion
esse
nti
al to
life
an
d g
eom
orp
ho
logi
cal p
roce
sses
. Im
pac
ts o
n
peo
ple
, ag
ricu
ltu
re,
live
sto
ck a
nd
th
e n
atu
ral
envi
ron
men
t
are
maj
or
stu
dy
ob
ject
s o
f th
is g
rou
p.
Clim
ate
Change A
dap
tation
$e
mai
n f
ocu
s is
to
im
pro
ve u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
the
nee
d
for,
an
d n
atu
re o
f, a
dap
tati
on
to
cli
mat
e ch
ange
. $
e '
eld
of
adap
tati
on
see
ks
to r
edu
ce h
um
an v
uln
erab
ilit
ies
to t
he
imp
acts
of
a ch
angi
ng
clim
ate.
$e
inte
nti
on
is
to i
nfo
rm
abo
ut
bes
t p
ract
ice
exam
ple
s o
f p
lan
ned
or
imp
lem
ente
d
adap
tati
on
mea
sure
s an
d t
o m
ake
thes
e av
aila
ble
.
Man-m
ade S
trata
Man
-mad
e st
rata
are
wid
ely
dis
trib
ute
d i
n u
rban
ised
an
d
adja
cen
t ar
eas
as a
res
ult
of
anth
rop
oge
nic
act
ivit
ies
esp
e-
cial
ly d
uri
ng
inte
nsi
ve i
nd
ust
rial
dev
elo
pm
ent.
$es
e st
rata
com
pri
se c
ult
ura
l la
yers
, la
nd
'll
s, w
aste
man
agem
ent
site
s,
aban
do
ned
in
du
stri
al l
and
, m
ine
tail
ings
, n
on
-rem
edia
ted
po
llu
tio
n s
ites
an
d o
ther
fo
rmat
ion
s ac
cum
ula
ted
wit
ho
ut
pro
per
en
viro
nm
enta
l m
anag
emen
t, m
on
ito
rin
g an
d t
reat
-
men
t. I
UG
S se
eks
dev
elo
pin
g st
and
ard
s re
gard
ing
haz
ard
thre
ats
fro
m m
an m
ade
stra
ta.
Ext
ract
ion
o
f gr
ou
nd
wat
er
can
le
ad
to
sign
i'ca
nt
sub
-
sid
ence
, in
clu
din
g d
epre
ssio
n o
f th
e gr
ou
nd
su
rfac
e o
r '
s-
suri
ng
of
the
gro
un
d.
Dam
age
to p
rop
erty
an
d i
nfr
astr
uc-
ture
an
d i
ncr
ease
d %
oo
d p
ote
nti
al,
par
ticu
larl
y in
co
asta
l
pla
ins
and
del
tas,
res
ult
fro
m t
hes
e gr
ou
nd
mo
vem
ents
. $is
wo
rkin
g gr
ou
p a
ims
to e
xam
ine
the
nat
ure
, ex
ten
t an
d m
e-
chan
ism
s o
f su
bsi
den
ce a
sso
ciat
ed w
ith
gro
un
dw
ater
wit
h-
dra
wal
an
d m
eth
od
s fo
r re
char
gin
g aq
uif
ers
to r
edu
ce t
he
imp
acts
of
thes
e gr
ou
nd
mo
vem
ents
.
$e
aim
of
this
in
itia
tive
is
to d
evel
op
fo
ren
sic
geo
log
y in
-
tern
atio
nal
ly a
nd
pro
mo
te i
ts a
pp
lica
tio
ns
by
coll
atin
g an
d
dis
sem
inat
ing
dat
a an
d i
nfo
rmat
ion
on
fo
ren
sic
geo
log
y
app
lied
to
po
lici
ng
and
law
en
forc
emen
t, c
rim
inal
an
d c
ivil
inve
stig
atio
ns,
an
d d
isas
ters
.
123
AN
NE
X
7$
e m
issi
on
of C
GI
is to
en
able
the
glo
bal
exc
han
ge o
f kn
ow
-
led
ge a
bo
ut
geo
scie
nce
in
form
atio
n a
nd
sys
tem
s, w
hic
h i
s
vita
l as
app
lica
tio
ns
of
IT a
re t
he
key
to
th
e fu
ture
exp
loit
ati-
on
of
geo
logi
cal k
no
wle
dge
fo
r th
e b
ene'
t o
f so
ciet
y.
Spec
i'ca
lly
CG
I m
ajo
r ta
sk h
ow
ever
is
sup
po
rtin
g an
d d
e-
velo
pin
g st
and
ard
s. I
t ai
ms
to p
rovi
de
the
mea
ns
for
tran
s-
ferr
ing
kn
ow
led
ge o
n g
eosc
ien
ce i
nfo
rmat
ion
an
d s
yste
ms.
It s
tim
ula
tes
inte
rnat
ion
al d
isse
min
atio
n o
f b
est
pra
ctic
e in
geo
scie
nce
in
form
atio
n.
$e
GA
RS
Pro
gram
- a
par
tner
ship
bet
wee
n I
UG
S an
d
UN
ESC
O -
con
trib
ute
s to
ad
van
cem
ent
of
geo
logi
cal
re-
sear
ch a
nd
dev
elo
pin
g u
nd
erst
and
ing
of
the
Ear
th s
yste
m,
in o
rder
to
ad
dre
ss p
rob
lem
s o
f re
leva
nce
to
th
e w
elfa
re o
f
the
Ear
th’s
po
pu
lati
on
. Sin
ce 2
005,
th
ere
has
bee
n a
du
al f
o-
cus
on
geo
haz
ard
s an
d g
rou
nd
wat
er is
sues
. Bu
ild
ing
on
pre
-
vio
us
GA
RS
stu
die
s in
to la
nd
slid
e h
azar
ds
in L
atin
Am
eric
a
and
vo
lcan
ic h
azar
ds
in A
sia,
GA
RS
has
bee
n a
n i
mp
ort
ant
spo
nso
r fo
r d
evel
op
men
t an
d i
mp
lem
enta
tio
n o
f th
e In
te-
grat
ed G
lob
al O
bse
rvin
g St
rate
gy
(IG
OS)
fo
r G
eoh
azar
ds.
IUG
S h
as i
nit
iate
d e
valu
atio
n o
f in
form
atio
n g
aps
that
are
lim
itin
g p
red
icti
on
s o
f w
her
e m
ajo
r ts
un
ami a
re li
kel
y to
oc-
cur
in t
he
futu
re –
in
par
ticu
lar,
an
im
po
rtan
t ga
p a
pp
ears
to b
e sy
stem
atic
stu
die
s o
f th
e p
rese
nce
an
d a
ges
of
pal
eo-
tsu
nam
i d
epo
sits
in
th
e re
cen
t ge
olo
gica
l re
cord
in
co
asta
l
area
s ad
jace
nt
to s
ub
du
ctio
n z
on
es.
ww
w.i
ug
s.o
rg
Fig
ure
1: A
igu
ille
de
Tsa
, Den
t B
lan
che
nap
pe,
Sw
iss
Alp
s (R
. Ob
erh
änsl
i)
Fig
ure
2: C
on
volu
te b
edd
ing,
S o
f V
an, E
aste
rn A
nat
oli
a (R
. Ob
erh
änsl
i)
124A
NN
EX 7
Inte
rnati
on
al
Un
ion
Fra
nço
is L
efeu
vre
and
Tu
llio
Jose
ph T
anzi
Ele
ctro
mag
net
ic (
EM
) w
aves
car
ry e
ner
gy
thro
ugh
sp
ace.
In
emp
ty s
pac
e, t
hey
pro
pag
ate
at t
he
spee
d o
f li
ght.
$e
ba-
sic
pro
per
ties
, de'
ned
by
Max
wel
l’s e
qu
atio
ns,
are
id
enti
cal
thro
ugh
ou
t th
e el
ectr
om
agn
etic
sp
ectr
um
, i.
e. f
rom
mil
li-
Her
tz t
o 1
024 H
z, b
ut
rad
io s
cien
ce s
top
s sl
igh
tly
abo
ve 1
014
Hz
(op
tica
l co
mm
un
icat
ion
s).
Rad
io s
cien
ce c
ove
rs s
tud
ies
in m
any
'el
ds
incl
ud
ing
the
on
es r
elev
ant
to r
emo
te s
ensi
ng,
nav
igat
ion
, tel
eco
mm
un
icat
ion
an
d e
lect
ron
ic s
cien
ce.
Fig
ure
1: R
adio
sp
ectr
um
(ci
vili
an G
PS
freq
uen
cies
: ~1.
5 G
Hz)
$e
Inte
rnat
ion
al U
nio
n o
f R
adio
Sci
ence
(U
RSI
) w
as f
ou
n-
ded
in
191
9 an
d i
s a
no
n-g
ove
rnm
enta
l an
d n
ot
pro
't
org
a-n
izat
ion
un
der
th
e au
spic
es o
f th
e In
tern
atio
nal
Co
un
cil f
or
Sci
ence
.
UR
SI s
eek
s to
sti
mu
late
an
d t
o c
oo
rdin
ate,
on
an
inte
rnat
io-
nal
bas
is, s
tud
ies
in t
he
'el
ds
of
rad
io s
cien
ce t
hro
ugh
sci
en-
ti'
c an
d t
ech
nic
al s
ymp
osi
a an
d p
ub
lica
tio
ns
and
by
org
ani-
zin
g an
d p
arti
cip
atin
g in
inte
rnat
ion
al s
cien
ti'
c co
mm
itte
es
on
rad
io s
cien
ce.
On
e o
f it
s m
ain
act
ivit
ies
is t
o s
tren
gth
en
the
un
der
stan
din
g o
f – a
nd
to
dev
elo
p e
ngi
nee
rin
g so
luti
on
s
for
- m
easu
rin
g, m
on
ito
rin
g an
d c
on
tro
llin
g n
atu
rall
y o
c-cu
rrin
g an
d m
an-m
ade
elec
tro
mag
net
ic e
mis
sio
ns.
In r
esp
on
se to
an
incr
easi
ng
vuln
erab
ilit
y to
glo
bal
dis
aste
rs,
the
2008
UR
SI G
ener
al A
ssem
bly
cre
ated
a w
ork
ing
gro
up
(W
G)
on
Nat
ura
l an
d H
um
an I
nd
uce
d H
azar
ds
wit
h t
erm
s o
f re
fere
nce
th
at i
ncl
ud
es m
eth
od
s an
d s
trat
egie
s to
co
m-
bat
th
e im
pac
t o
f su
ch e
ven
ts u
sin
g te
chn
iqu
es w
hic
h d
eriv
e fr
om
rad
io s
cien
ce.
Wh
en a
dis
aste
r st
rik
es, c
om
mu
nic
atio
n f
acil
itie
s ca
n b
e to
-ta
lly
des
tro
yed
. A c
riti
cal e
arly
req
uir
emen
t is
, th
eref
ore
, th
e se
ttin
g u
p e
mer
gen
cy c
om
mu
nic
atio
n s
yste
ms
to s
up
po
rt
the
resc
ue
team
s, a
nd
for
dis
sem
inat
ing
info
rmat
ion
an
d in
-st
ruct
ion
s to
th
e su
rviv
ors
. O
ne
of
the
'rs
t ac
tio
ns
is t
o s
et
up
a d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
cell
fo
r co
ord
inat
ion
. F
or
maj
or
risk
s th
e ce
lls
incl
ud
e n
atio
nal
min
istr
ies,
civ
il d
efen
ce, r
egi-
on
al a
nd
lo
cal
adm
inis
trat
ion
s, n
on
-go
vern
men
tal
org
ani-
zati
on
s in
volv
ed i
n d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent,
etc
.
Acc
ess
to o
bse
rvat
ion
al d
ata
are
faci
lita
ted
by
the
inte
rnat
i-o
nal
ch
arte
r “S
pac
e an
d M
ajo
r D
isas
ters
” si
gned
by
vari
ou
s sp
ace
agen
cies
. Wh
en a
vail
able
, op
tica
l or/
and
rad
io i
mag
es
fro
m r
adio
sen
sin
g sa
tell
ites
are
th
e b
est
sou
rces
of
info
rma-
tio
n.
$ey
can
be
qu
ick
ly a
cqu
ired
an
d c
ove
r la
rge
geo
gra-
ph
ical
reg
ion
s. P
ho
to-i
nte
rpre
ters
use
th
em t
o p
rovi
de
map
s su
mm
ariz
ing
the
rele
van
t in
form
atio
n.
Dat
a h
and
lin
g se
r-vi
ces
can
typ
ical
ly p
rovi
de
reli
able
in
form
atio
n i
n 8
ho
urs
.
Fig
ure
2: D
isas
ter
Info
rmat
ion
Cel
l
Ris
k p
reve
nti
on
an
d c
risi
s m
anag
emen
t m
ay in
clu
de
the
fol-
low
ing
wh
ich
are
all
dep
end
ent
on
rad
io s
cien
ce:
a h
igh
cap
acit
y co
mm
un
icat
ion
su
b-s
yste
m,
a G
eogr
aph
ic I
nfo
rmat
ion
Sys
tem
(G
IS)
pro
vid
ing
spa-
tio
-tem
po
ral l
oca
tio
ns
bas
ed o
n G
PS
dat
a an
d im
ager
y,
a ra
dio
an
d o
pti
cal d
ata
acq
uis
itio
n s
ub
-sys
tem
,
a su
b-s
yste
m f
or
syn
thes
is o
f th
e in
form
atio
n.
Fig
ure
3: E
xam
ple
of i
mag
e p
roce
ssin
g u
sed
by
Ris
k M
anag
er
Rem
ote
sen
sin
g b
y ai
r-b
orn
e o
r sp
ace-
bo
rne
sen
sors
can
be
use
d t
o d
etec
t, i
den
tify
an
d m
on
ito
r th
e im
pac
t an
d e
&ec
ts
of
nat
ura
l d
isas
ters
. R
adio
im
ager
y p
rovi
ded
by
sate
llit
e-
bas
ed s
ynth
etic
ap
ertu
re r
adar
s (S
AR
) sh
ou
ld i
dea
lly
be
avai
lab
le 2
4/7,
an
d s
ho
uld
op
erat
e at
fre
qu
enci
es c
apab
le o
f
dea
lin
g w
ith
th
e p
reva
ilin
g an
d a
tmo
sph
eric
co
nd
itio
ns.
SAR
ob
serv
atio
ns
of
Ear
th h
ave
a w
ide
ran
ge o
f p
ract
ical
app
lica
tio
ns
(eg
det
ecti
on
of
%o
od
ed a
reas
, d
rou
ght
mo
-
nit
ori
ng,
dam
age
det
ecti
on
in
an
are
a a&
ecte
d b
y a
maj
or
dis
aste
r, s
oci
al a
nd
eco
no
mic
vu
lner
abil
ity
anal
ysis
, sea
rch
-
and
-res
cue
op
erat
ion
s).
Fu
sio
n o
f SA
R i
mag
es a
nd
op
tica
l
imag
es b
rin
g to
geth
er c
om
ple
men
tary
in
form
atio
n.
125
AN
NE
X
7F
igu
re 4
: SA
R I
mag
e (X
ban
d 8
-12
GH
z)
Inte
rfer
om
etri
c sy
nth
etic
ap
ertu
re r
adar
(In
SAR
) is
a r
adar
te
chn
iqu
e u
sed
in
geo
des
y an
d r
emo
te s
ensi
ng.
It
calc
ula
tes
the
inte
rfer
ence
pat
tern
cau
sed
by
the
di&
eren
ce i
n p
has
e b
etw
een
tw
o i
mag
es a
cqu
ired
by
a sp
aceb
orn
e sy
nth
etic
ap
ertu
re r
adar
at
two
dis
tin
ct t
imes
. $e
resu
ltin
g in
terf
ero
-gr
am is
a c
on
tou
r m
ap o
f th
e ch
ange
in d
ista
nce
bet
wee
n t
he
gro
un
d a
nd
th
e ra
dar
inst
rum
ent.
It
may
be
use
d t
o g
ener
ate
map
s o
f su
rfac
e d
efo
rmat
ion
.
$e
SAR
in
terf
ero
met
ry d
i&er
enti
al (
DIn
SAR
) te
chn
iqu
e re
lies
on
th
e p
roce
ssin
g o
f th
e sa
me
po
rtio
n o
f tw
o S
AR
im
ages
of
Ear
th’s
su
rfac
e. I
n t
he
rep
eat
pas
s in
terf
ero
met
ry
met
ho
d, t
he
det
ecti
on
an
d t
he
qu
anti
'ca
tio
n o
f th
e gr
ou
nd
dis
pla
cem
ent
that
occ
urr
ed b
etw
een
th
e tw
o i
s m
easu
red
.
Fig
ure
5: F
rin
ges
& T
erra
in m
od
el o
f th
e E
tna
Vo
lcan
o S
ici-
lia,
Ita
ly, o
bta
ined
by
SAR
In
terf
ero
met
ry
Gro
un
d-p
enet
rati
ng
rad
ar
(GP
R)
is
a ge
op
hys
ical
m
e-
tho
d t
hat
use
s ra
dar
pu
lses
to
im
age
the
sub
surf
ace.
$is
no
n d
estr
uct
ive
met
ho
d u
ses
elec
tro
mag
net
ic r
adia
tio
n i
n
the
mic
row
ave
ban
d (
UH
F/V
HF
fre
qu
enci
es)
of
the
rad
io
spec
tru
m, a
nd
det
ects
th
e re
%ec
ted
sig
nal
s fr
om
su
bsu
rfac
e
stru
ctu
res.
GP
R c
an b
e u
sed
in
a v
arie
ty o
f m
edia
, in
clu
din
g ro
ck, s
oil
,
ice,
fre
sh w
ater
, pav
emen
ts a
nd
str
uct
ure
s. I
t ca
n d
etec
t o
b-
ject
s, c
han
ges
in m
ater
ial,
and
vo
ids
and
cra
cks.
Stu
die
s ar
e
in p
rogr
ess
to a
sses
s th
e ab
ilit
y o
f G
PR
to
det
ect
dam
ages
insi
de
of
bu
ild
ings
, b
rid
ges,
co
ncr
ete
road
s….
and
Hu
ma-
nit
aria
n D
emin
ing.
Spac
e W
eath
er c
an b
e d
e'n
ed a
s co
nd
itio
ns
on
th
e Su
n a
nd
in s
ola
r w
ind
, mag
net
osp
her
e, io
no
sph
ere
and
th
erm
osp
her
e
that
can
in
%u
ence
th
e p
erfo
rman
ce a
nd
rel
iab
ilit
y o
f sp
ace-
bo
rne
and
gro
un
d-b
ased
tec
hn
olo
gica
l sy
stem
s. S
ola
r el
ec-
tro
mag
net
ic a
nd
par
ticl
e ra
dia
tio
n c
ause
:
com
mu
nic
atio
ns,
nav
igat
ion
an
d r
emo
te s
ensi
ng
sate
lli-
te a
no
mal
ies
and
agi
ng
of
sola
r ce
lls.
per
turb
atio
ns
to t
he
ion
osp
her
e w
hic
h i
n t
urn
cau
se a
vari
ety
of
e&ec
ts in
clu
din
g: lo
ss o
f lo
ck in
GN
SS n
avig
a-
tio
n s
yste
ms,
deg
rad
atio
n i
n s
pac
e-b
orn
e ge
o-l
oca
tio
n,
sate
llit
e co
mm
un
icat
ion
s s
yste
ms
op
erat
ing
bel
ow
2
GH
z an
d d
egra
dat
ion
s o
f H
F c
om
mu
nic
atio
ns.
no
ise
and
in
terf
eren
ce
on
sa
tell
ite
gro
un
d
stat
ion
s,
mai
nly
at
K b
and
(~
20 G
Hz)
an
d C
ban
d (
~4
GH
z ).
Dis
turb
ance
s o
f th
e io
no
sph
ere,
cau
sed
by
X-r
ay e
mis
sio
ns
fro
m t
he
Sun
, pro
du
ce H
F r
adio
bla
cko
uts
(h
ttp
://w
ww
.sp
c.
no
aa.g
ov/
NO
AA
scal
es).
Mo
der
ate
spac
e w
eath
er c
ause
s, H
F
rad
io b
lack
ou
ts o
n t
he
sun
lit
sid
e o
f th
e ea
rth
fo
r te
ns
of
mi-
nu
tes
on
~30
0 d
ays
per
so
lar
cycl
e. E
xtre
me
even
ts o
ccu
r le
ss
than
on
e d
ay p
er s
ola
r cy
cle,
bu
t p
rod
uce
HF
rad
io b
lack
ou
ts
on
th
e en
tire
su
nli
t si
de
of
the
Ear
th f
or
a n
um
ber
of
ho
urs
.
Ion
izat
ion
den
sity
irr
egu
lari
ties
in
th
e au
rora
l re
gio
ns
and
the
equ
ato
rial
reg
ion
s ca
use
fas
t ra
nd
om
%u
ctu
atio
ns
of
ph
ase
and
am
pli
tud
e o
n r
adio
sig
nal
s u
p t
o a
few
GH
z an
d
deg
rad
e an
d d
isru
pt
sate
llit
e-b
ased
nav
igat
ion
an
d c
om
mu
-
nic
atio
n s
yste
ms.
Wh
en c
ross
ing
a m
agn
eto
-pla
sma,
th
e p
ola
riza
tio
n o
f th
e
sign
al is
ro
tate
d (
Far
aday
ro
tati
on
). $
is c
an a
&ec
t sy
nth
etic
aper
ture
imag
es, a
t L
ban
d (
1.5
GH
z) a
nd
low
er f
req
uen
cies
.
In c
on
clu
sio
n,
on
tim
e p
erio
ds
run
nin
g fr
om
a f
ew m
inu
-
tes
to s
ever
al d
ays,
sp
ace
bas
ed n
avig
atio
n,
rem
ote
sen
sin
g
and
co
mm
un
icat
ion
s sy
stem
s ca
n a
ll b
e a&
ecte
d b
y sp
ace
wea
ther
. $is
may
ren
der
mo
re d
i#cu
lt r
escu
e an
d r
eco
very
e&o
rts
a>er
dis
aste
rs s
uch
as
eart
hq
uak
e an
d %
oo
d.
Fig
ure
6: R
adio
sys
tem
s a&
ecte
d b
y Sp
ace
wea
ther
eve
nts
Not
e: O
n t
he
1 Se
ptem
ber
1859
Ric
har
d C
arri
ngt
on o
bser
ved
a w
hit
e li
ght
sola
r '
are
that
wa
s fo
llow
ed b
y th
e la
rges
t su
per
sola
r-st
orm
rec
ord
ed t
o d
ate.
If
an e
ven
t of
th
is s
ize
occu
rred
tod
ay i
t w
ould
cer
tain
ly c
ause
exp
ensi
ve d
amag
e to
ou
r te
ch-
nol
ogic
al i
nfr
ast
ruct
ure
in
clu
din
g ou
r po
wer
net
wor
ks.
ww
w.u
rsi.
org
126A
NN
EX 7
Un
ited
Nati
on
s
An
ne
Kn
auer
$e
ove
rall
pu
rpo
se o
f th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
O#
ce f
or
Ou
ter
Spac
e A
&ai
rs (
OO
SA)
is t
he
pro
mo
tio
n o
f in
tern
atio
nal
co
-
op
erat
ion
in
th
e p
eace
ful
use
s o
f o
ute
r sp
ace
for
eco
no
mic
,
soci
al a
nd
sci
enti
'c
dev
elo
pm
ent,
in p
arti
cula
r fo
r th
e b
ene-
't
of
dev
elo
pin
g co
un
trie
s.
$e
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s O
#ce
fo
r O
ute
r Sp
ace
A&
airs
im
ple
-
men
ts t
he
dec
isio
ns
of
the
Gen
eral
Ass
emb
ly a
nd
of
the
Co
mm
itte
e o
n t
he
Pea
cefu
l U
ses
of
Ou
ter
Spac
e. $
e o
#ce
has
th
e d
ual
ob
ject
ive
of
sup
po
rtin
g th
e in
terg
ove
rnm
enta
l
dis
cuss
ion
s in
th
e C
om
mit
tee
and
its
Sci
enti
'c
and
Tec
hn
i-
cal S
ub
com
mit
tee
and
Leg
al S
ub
com
mit
tee,
an
d o
f as
sist
ing
dev
elo
pin
g co
un
trie
s in
usi
ng
spac
e te
chn
olo
gy
for
dev
elo
p-
men
t. I
n a
dd
itio
n,
it f
oll
ow
s le
gal,
scie
nti
'c
and
tec
hn
ical
dev
elo
pm
ents
rel
atin
g to
sp
ace
acti
viti
es,
tech
no
log
y an
d
app
lica
tio
ns
in o
rder
to
pro
vid
e te
chn
ical
in
form
atio
n a
nd
advi
ce t
o M
emb
er S
tate
s, i
nte
rnat
ion
al o
rgan
izat
ion
s an
d
oth
er U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
o#
ces.
$e
O#
ce h
as t
wo
sec
tio
ns:
th
e Sp
ace
Ap
pli
cati
on
s S
ecti
on
(SA
S),
wh
ich
org
aniz
es a
nd
car
ries
ou
t th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
Pro
gram
me
on
Sp
ace
Ap
pli
cati
on
s, a
nd
th
e C
om
mit
tee,
Po
licy
an
d L
egal
A&
airs
Sec
tio
n (
CP
LA
), w
hic
h p
rovi
des
sub
stan
tive
sec
reta
riat
ser
vice
s to
th
e C
om
mit
tee,
its
tw
o
sub
com
mit
tees
an
d i
ts w
ork
ing
gro
up
s. C
PL
A a
lso
pre
pa-
res
and
dis
trib
ute
s re
po
rts
and
pu
bli
cati
on
s o
n in
tern
atio
nal
spac
e ac
tivi
ties
an
d o
n i
nte
rnat
ion
al s
pac
e la
w.
$e
O#
ce h
as b
een
man
dat
ed t
o:
Ser
vice
th
e in
terg
ove
rnm
enta
l pro
cess
;
Dis
char
ge t
he
resp
on
sib
ilit
ies
of
the
Sec
reta
ry-G
ener
al
un
der
th
e U
nit
ed N
atio
ns
Tre
atie
s an
d P
rin
cip
les
on
Ou
ter
Spac
e;
Imp
lem
ent
the
Un
ited
Nat
ion
s P
rogr
amm
e o
n S
pac
e
Ap
pli
cati
on
s;
Co
ord
inat
e sp
ace-
rela
ted
act
ivit
ies
wit
hin
th
e U
nit
ed
Nat
ion
s sy
stem
; an
d
Imp
lem
ent
the
Un
ited
N
atio
ns
Pla
tfo
rm
for
Spac
e-
bas
ed
Info
rmat
ion
fo
r D
isas
ter
Man
agem
ent
and
Em
erge
ncy
Res
po
nse
(U
N-S
PID
ER
).
Fig
ure
2: C
om
mit
tee
on
th
e P
eace
ful U
ses
of
Ou
ter
Spac
e in
ses
sio
n
Fig
ure
1: O
rgan
izat
ion
al c
har
t o
f O
OSA
ww
w.o
osa
.un
vie
nn
a.o
rg
127
AN
NE
X
7U
N-S
PID
ER
was
est
abli
shed
th
rou
gh t
he
Gen
eral
Ass
emb
ly
in 2
006
and
aim
s at
en
suri
ng
that
all
co
un
trie
s an
d i
nte
rna-
tio
nal
an
d r
egio
nal
org
aniz
atio
ns
hav
e ac
cess
to
an
d d
evel
op
the
cap
acit
y to
use
all
typ
es o
f sp
ace-
bas
ed i
nfo
rmat
ion
to
sup
po
rt t
he
full
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t cy
cle.
UN
-SP
IDE
R’s
wo
rk f
ocu
ses
on
kn
ow
led
ge m
anag
emen
t, t
ech
nic
al a
dvi
so-
ry s
up
po
rt, c
apac
ity
bu
ild
ing
and
fo
ster
ing
coo
per
atio
n.
In o
rder
to
pro
vid
e a
com
mo
n p
latf
orm
to
all
its
sta
keh
ol-
der
s, t
he
Pro
gram
me
op
erat
es t
he
UN
-SP
IDE
R K
no
wle
dge
Po
rtal
(w
ww
.un
-sp
ider
.org
). $
is p
ort
al s
erve
s as
a g
atew
ay
to a
var
iety
of
scie
nti
'c
and
tec
hn
ical
art
icle
s, p
roce
edin
gs,
do
cum
ents
, n
ews,
eve
nts
, co
nta
ct d
ata
and
oth
er u
sefu
l in
-
form
atio
n c
on
cern
ing
the
use
of
spac
e-b
ased
in
form
atio
n
to s
up
po
rt i
n a
ll p
has
es o
f th
e d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent
cycl
e.
UN
-SP
IDE
R
carr
ies
ou
t T
ech
nic
al
Ad
viso
ry
Sup
po
rt
to
req
ues
tin
g M
emb
er S
tate
s. $
is h
as i
ncl
ud
ed,
sin
ce 2
011,
con
du
ctin
g m
ore
th
an
10
Tec
hn
ical
A
dvi
sory
M
issi
on
s
to M
emb
er S
tate
s in
Asi
a, L
atin
Am
eric
a an
d A
fric
a. $
e
goal
of
thes
e m
issi
on
is
to i
den
tify
les
son
s le
arn
ed a
nd
to
ou
tlin
e re
com
men
dat
ion
s th
at,
wh
en i
mp
lem
ente
d,
wil
l al
-
low
go
vern
men
t ag
enci
es,
acad
emia
an
d t
he
pri
vate
sec
tor
wit
hin
th
ese
Mem
ber
Sta
tes
to t
ake
adva
nta
ge o
f th
e o
pp
or-
tun
itie
s o
&er
ed b
y sp
ace-
bas
ed i
nfo
rmat
ion
in
ord
er t
o r
e-
spo
nd
mo
re e
&ec
tive
ly t
o d
isas
ters
, to
im
pro
ve d
isas
ter
risk
asse
ssm
ents
or
to r
edu
ce d
isas
ter
risk
s.
Cap
acity B
uild
ing
Co
mp
lem
enta
ry t
o i
ts t
ech
nic
al a
dvi
sory
ser
vice
s, t
he
Pro
-gr
amm
e ca
rrie
s o
ut
trai
nin
g ac
tivi
ties
to
in
crea
se t
he
skil
ls
and
th
e k
no
wle
dge
of
sta&
mem
ber
s in
go
vern
men
t ag
en-
cies
res
po
nsi
ble
fo
r d
isas
ter-
risk
ma-
nag
emen
t e&
ort
s. R
egio
nal
tra
inin
g co
urs
es h
ave
bee
n o
rgan
ized
am
on
g o
ther
s in
Bu
rkin
a F
aso,
Cam
ero
on
, D
om
inic
an R
epu
bli
c ,
Ind
ia,
Mex
i-co
, M
yan
mar
, Sr
i L
ank
a, a
nd
Su
dan
. In
ad
dit
ion
, U
N-S
PID
ER
su
pp
ort
s tr
ain
ing
e&o
rts
org
aniz
ed b
y p
art-
ner
org
aniz
atio
ns
eith
er t
hro
ugh
th
e p
rovi
sio
n o
f ex
per
ts o
r th
rou
gh t
he
mo
bil
izat
ion
of
par
tici
pan
ts t
o s
uch
tr
ain
ing
acti
viti
es.
Foste
ring C
oop
era
tion
UN
-SP
IDE
R’s
net
wo
rk i
ncl
ud
e N
a-
tio
nal
Fo
cal
Po
ints
(N
FP
s) n
om
ina-
ted
by
thei
r re
spec
tive
go
vern
men
t
to s
tren
gth
en n
atio
nal
dis
aste
r m
a-
nag
emen
t p
lan
nin
g an
d p
oli
cies
an
d t
he
imp
lem
enta
tio
n
of
spec
i'c
nat
ion
al a
ctiv
itie
s th
at i
nco
rpo
rate
sp
ace-
bas
ed
tech
no
log
y so
luti
on
s to
su
pp
ort
dis
aste
r m
anag
emen
t.
In a
dd
itio
n, U
N-S
PID
ER
bu
ild
s p
artn
ersh
ips
for
the
imp
le-
men
tati
on
of
its
wo
rk p
rogr
amm
e w
ith
a n
etw
ork
of
16 R
e-
gio
nal
Su
pp
ort
O#
ces
(RSO
) w
hic
h a
re e
xist
ing
nat
ion
al o
r
regi
on
al e
nti
ties
fro
m t
he
Ear
th o
bse
rvat
ion
sec
tor
or
wit
h
auth
ori
ty i
n d
isas
ter
man
agem
ent.
$ro
ugh
th
e o
rgan
isat
ion
of
inte
rnat
ion
al w
ork
sho
ps,
co
n-
fere
nce
s an
d
exp
ert
mee
tin
gs,
UN
-SP
IDE
R
furt
her
mo
re
pro
vid
es p
latf
orm
s fo
r d
isas
ter
and
dis
aste
r ri
sk m
anag
ers,
dec
isio
n-m
aker
s, s
pac
e ap
pli
cati
on
exp
ert,
aca
dem
ia a
nd
the
pri
vate
sec
tor
to e
xch
ange
exp
erie
nce
s, d
iscu
ss n
ove
l
met
ho
ds
and
fo
rm p
artn
ersh
ips.
ww
w.u
n-s
pid
er.o
rg
Fig
ure
3: U
N-S
PID
ER
Tec
hn
ical
Ad
viso
ry M
issi
on
to
Mya
nm
ar i
n M
arch
201
2
128A
NN
EX 7
129
AN
NE
X
7
