various grammar rules

8/13/2019 Various Grammar Rules

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Various grammar rules Despite, in spite of

Prepositions - despite, in spite of

We use despite in one halfof a sentence to make therest of the sentencesurprising.

despite somethingdespite + -ingdespite the fact that

Despite the heavy traffic,we got there on time.Despite being much olderthan the others, he won therace.

In spite of has the samemeaning as despite.

in spite of somethingin spite of + -ingin spite of the fact that

In spite of the heavytraffic, we got there on time.

In spite of the fact that heis much older than theothers, he won the race.

We prefer despite to in spite of in written English.

As long as

As long as

We use as long as to say that somethingwill happen only on condition thatsomething else happens.

I'll lend you the book, as long as you promise to give it back to me in a week.

In case, in case of

In case

We use in case to express that we aredoing something in preparation forsomething which might happen.

Take an umbrella in case it rains!

I'll buy two bottles of wine in case one isnot enough.

In case of

We use in case of to say what we shoulddo if or when something happens.

In case of burglary, don't touch anythingand call the police immediately.

Within


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a little + unounta le nouna little ! some ut not much a little time% a little food% a little money

Little is a negati$e idea.We can also use ver" little.

I can't help you. I speak little %nglish.I can't help you. I speak very little %nglish.& y English is ad - ( would like to knowEnglish etter.)

Little has irregular comparati$e andsuperlati$e forms.

little - less - the leasta little - more - the most

A little is a positi$e idea. I can help you& I speak a little %nglish.

#e ! a fe

A few is more than few.

fe + plural counta le nounfe ! nearly none few people, few books, few letters

A fe is a positi$e idea. ortunately, our finances are ok. We stillhave a few good customers.

#e is a negati$e idea.

We can also use ver" fe .

I'm very sad. I have few good friends.I'm very sad. I have very few good

friends.&( don't ha$e many good friends - ( wouldlike to ha$e more.)

#e has irregular comparati$e andsuperlati$e forms.

fe - fewer - the fewesta fe - more - the most

Al a"s, still

Al a"s, still


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We use al a"s to say that somethinghappens all the time &or $ery often).

I always go swimming on (ondayevenings.)he has always wanted to visit inland.

We use al a"s to say that somethinghappens all the time &in an annoyingway).

e is always forgetting things.

e's always complaining.

We use al a"s to say that somethingexists for e$er.

I'll always remember the first time I mether.

Al a"s is usually efore the main $er "after an auxiliary or modal $er "after the $er 'to e'.

I always have...I can always...

e is always...

$till means 'continuing later thanexpected.'(t expresses that someting started in thepast and is the same now.

)he is still living with her parents.Why are you still talking about it# They still haven't mended my car *Theyhaven't mended my car yet+.

$till usually comes efore the main $er .$till usually comes after the main $er ifthe main $er is ' e'.

I still like her.oes he still live in -ambridge# e is still here.

I can still run // metres in less than 2seconds.

Alread", "et

Alread", "et

We use alread" to say that somethinghappened sooner than expected. I am sorry, she has already gone home.

The film has already started.)he's only four years old and she isalready reading.

Alread" usually comes efore the main$er or etween an auxiliary or modal$er and the main $er .

We use "et in #uestions or negati$estatements to talk a out things that weexpected to happen efore now.

ave you finished the work yet# I haven't seen the film yet.

A: ave you met him# B: 0ot yet.%et usually comes at the end of the

sentence.

We usually use the present perfect with alread" and "et.

&ust

&ust


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&ust means a short time ago .I have just seen him in the corridor.I had just finished it when he came.&ust goes immediately efore the main

$er .

All, the holeAll

All 'of( we use to express total num eror amount of something

all &of) my friends% all &of) the time 1ll *of+ my friends visited me in thehospital.

All 'of( we usually use with uncounta lenouns

all &of) the money% all &of) the oil)he has spent all *of+ the money oncosmetics.

All of we usually use with personal

pronouns it, them, etc.

all of them% all of it

ave you invited all of them#

All is usually placed after the personalpronoun we, they, them, us

we all% they allWe all en$oyed the concert.

)he hole

We usually use )he hole &of) withsingular counta le nouns.The can e replaced y a possessi$epronoun our, my % etc.

the whole meeting% my whole life)he lived in the same house her whole life.

All or the hole

All or the hole can e used with timeexpressions

all day * the whole dayall morning * the whole morning

Each, ever"

Each, ever"

Each is used if we mean an indi$idualmem er of a group.Ever" can also e used.

We have send the invitation to each every business partner.

Each of is used if we mean e$erymem er of a group and we include apossessi$e pronoun our, their % etc.Ever" cannot e used in this case.

We have sent the invitation to each of ourbusiness partner s .


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Ever" is used with a plural noun when itis followed y num er.Each cannot e used in this case.

I visit my mother every two months every other day every second week.

$o*e, an"

$o*e

$o*e :is used with the plural form of nouns%and with uncounta le nouns

a pen, some penssome water *uncountable+

is used in positi$e sentences There is some milk in the fridge.I did some e3ercises.

is used in offers Would you like some tea#

is used in re#uests -ould you give me some tea, please#

An"

An"+is used with the plural form of nouns%and with uncounta le nouns

a pen, any pensany water *uncountable+

is used in #uestions Is there any milk in the fridge#

is used in negati$e sentences There isn't any milk in the fridge.

nless

nless

We use unless to say that something willhappen if something else doesn't stop ithappening.

4ou won't get the $ob unless you preparefor the interview.

! ou will only get the ,o if you preparewell for the inter$iew.

on't do it unles he tells you to.! nly do it if he tells you to do it.

$a", tell


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$a" ! tell

We use: tell + some ody.I told David about it.

id you tell him # e told me that he was ill.

We use: sa" + something. e said hello.e said he was ill.

We use: sa" + something + to some ody. I said hello to him

We use tell when we are gi$ing facts or information:

tell some ody &that)...tell some ody somethingtell some ody a out somethingtell some ody who*when*where.

)he told me *that+ she was ill.)he told me the news.Tell me about your new $ob.

e told me where it was.

$pea , tal

$pea ! tal

$pea and tal ha$e similar meanings./hey suggest that someone is using his$oice% or that two or more people areha$ing a discussion.

We can say:spea to so*e od"tal to so*e od" spea to so*e od" a out so*ethingtal to so*e od" a out so*ething

ow old were you when you learned to speak?

What are you talking about#

Who were you speaking to on the phone#

Who were you talking to on the phone#

I was speaking to (ark about cricket.


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0ut we say:spea a language 1 / talk a languagetal nonsense 1 / speak nonsense.

$pea to and tal to are used moreoften than spea ith and tal ith .

e speaks four languages.)top talking nonsense!I was talking to Tom yesterday.

/e used to, get used to, used to

/e used to

/e used to 0 noun phrase or ver -ing &in this pattern used is an ad,ecti$e andto is a preposition).

I am used to getting up early in themorning. I don't mind it.

e didn't complain about the noisene3tdoor 5 he was used to it.(f you are used to something% you ha$eoften done or experienced it% so it's notstrange% new or difficult for you.

/he opposite of e used to is e notused to. I am not used to the new system yet.

1et used to

1et used to 0 noun phrase or ver -ing &in this pattern used is an ad,ecti$eand to is a preposition).

I got used to getting up early in themorning.

1fter a while he didn't mind the noise inthe office 5 he got used to it.

(f you get used to something% youecome accustomed to it.

(t is the process of ecoming used tosomething.

sed to


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sed to 0 ver refers to a state or ha itin the past.(t is used only in the past simple. We used to live there when I was a child.

I used to walk to work everyday when Iwas younger.(f you used to do something% you did it

for a period of time in the past% ut youdon't do it any more.

/he form of the #uestion is did'n2t(0su ject0use to e./he form of the negati$e isdidn2t use to e.

Did n!t" he use to work in your office# We didn!t use to #e vegetarians.

$tructure of phrasal ver s

$tructure of phrasal ver s

phrasal $er can emade up of:

a $er + ad$er throw away

a $er + preposition look into

a $er + ad$er +preposition put up with

3elative clauses

3elative clauses

Defining relati$e clauses are used tospecify which person or thing we mean.We don't put commas etween the noun

and a defining relati$e clause.Who or that are used for people.Which or that are used for things.

I have a friend who speaks five languages.I have a friend that speaks five languages.

)he showed me the coat which she hadbought.)he showed me the coat that she hadbought.

Non-defining relati$e clauses &extrainformation clauses) are used to addextra information which is not necessary.We put commas etween the noun and a

(r ry, who speaks five languages, worksas a translator for the %6.

The area, which has very high


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ou ha$e finished the work% haven2t"ou4 ou ha$en't finished the work% have "ou4

e will arri$e on time% on2t he4 e won't arri$e on time% ill he4

ou know him% don2t "ou4 ou don't know him% do "ou4

e earned a lot of money% didn2t he4 e didn't earned much money% did he4

/here is enough time% isn2t there4 /here isn't enough time% is there4

Less usual tag 6uestions

(mperati$e0e careful% on2t "ou4

on't e late% ill "ou4

fter let's 3et's go to the cinema% shall e4

3elative pronouns3elative pronouns

We use ho when we talk a out people. I don't know who told you that.

We use hich or that when we talka out things.Which is more formal than that .Which and that can e left out of adefining relati$e clause.

It's the watch which my husband boughtme for my birthday.It's the watch that my husband bought mefor my birthday.It's the watch my husband bought me formy birthday.

We use hose to show possession. 7ohn, whose brother was also a musician, plays over // concerts every year.

We use here hen when we talka out place or time.

(y wife and I went to the bar where wefirst met.It was when I was living in 8ondon.

5uestions


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#or*ing 6uestions

$tructures of 6uestions

(f there is an auxiliary &helping) $er & be,have, can, will, etc.) we put it efore the

su ject &he, she, I, etc.)

Is any#ody in the office# $ave you ever visited 8ondon#

What time Will they be here# (f there is no auxiliary &helping) $er % weput do, does or did efore the su ject.

Do you know my older brother# Did he come in time#

We put wh- words & when, where, why,who, how, etc.) at the eginning of the#uestion.

ow long have you been waiting for me# Where is their office# Which colour do you like best#

We don't use do, does or did when we usewhat, which, who or whose as thesu ,ect.

What happened to you# Who told you about it#

5uestions - co**on *ista es

Co**on *ista es Correct version Wh"4

What meant you y sayingthat

What did you mean ysaying that

(f there is no auxiliary&helping) $er % we put do,does or did efore thesu ject.ou like this film o you like this film

Where you are going thisafternoon

Where are you going thisafternoon We put an auxiliary $er

efore the su ,ect.ou did read the letter id you read the letter

Who did gi$e you theinformation

Who ga$e you theinformation

We don't use do, does or did when we use what, which,who or whose as the su ,ect.

oes he knows your sister oes he know your sister When there is an auxiliary$er % the main $er is in theinfiniti$e form.Where will she studies Where will she study

;an you tell me where can( uy a good camera

;an you tell me where ( canuy a good camera

Word order in indirect#uestion is the same as in anormal sentence: 9E?0 +...

#or*ing indirect 6uestions


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$tructures of indirect 6uestions

Word order in indirect #uestion is the same as in a normal sentence:9E?0 + ...

Direct 6uestion Indirect 6uestion

Where can I u" ink for the printer ;an you tell me where I can u" ink forthe printer

Wh" do "ou ant to work for ourcompany

e asked me why I anted to work fortheir company.

What is the nu* er of the last in$oice ( am calling to ask you what the nu* er of the last in$oice is .

ow much did it cost o you know how much it cost

ow did it happen id she tell you how it happened

PrepositionsPrepositions of placePrepositions of place

(1 1 /

inside an area or spacein the city, in the sky, inbed

in contact with a surfaceon the wall, on the table

close toat the table, at the bus stop

on a lineon the river, on the e9uator

efore nouns referring to aplace or positionat the top, at the front, atthe end

ut in the middle

arri$e in a cityarrive in 8ondon, in

1msterdam

arri$e at a small placearrive at the station, at themeeting

when expressing 'towards'

point at something, smile atsomeone

Prepositions of ti*ePrepositions of ti*e

(1 1 /


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years & in ::; ) days of the week & onThursday ) hours of the clock & at 1ugust ) religious festi$als & at %aster )

seasons & in summer ) on (onday morningpoints in time & at the end ofthe week )

parts of the day & in theafternoon %in the morning 0


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to apply for something

to formally ask someone for somethingsuch as a ,o or permission to dosomethingWhy didn't you apply for a bank loan#

to complain to some ody a outsomething*some ody

to say you are annoyed a out somethingIf the service is not satisfactory, you shouldcomplain to the customer service about it.

to conform to somethingto e in accordance with somethingThis signal system doesn't conform to theofficial safety standards.

to consist of something

to mention all of the things that somethingcontainsThe delegation consists of over 2// people,including interpreters and $ournalists.

to hear from some ody

when someone% especially someone youknow well% writes to you or telephones youWhen was the last time you heard fromhim#

to insist on something

to say that something must happen orsome ody must do somethingI insist on speaking to the head of theoffice.

to refer to something

to talk a out some ody or something in acon$ersation% speech or a piece of writing%veryone knows who she was referring to

in her speech. Prepositions after adjectives '8(Prepositions after adjectives

afraid of somethingafraid of doing something

)he is afraid of driving on motorways. 1re you afraid of the dark#

angry a out somethingangry ith some ody

I am really angry about what she did.Why did she do it# I am really angry withher.

concerned a out something I'm concerned about his e3am results.

pleased ith someone * something I was very pleased with his performance.

sorry a out somethingsorry for doing something

Was she sorry about the mistake# I'm sorry for being late.

good at something e is good at languages.


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Prepositions after adjectives '9(Prepositions after adjectives

&un)aware of something Is he aware of the problem#

dependent on something )he is still dependent on her parents.

famous for something e is famous for his sportingachievements.

impressed "! ith something I was very impressed by his performance.

similar to something is interests are similar to those of hisbrother.

upset a out something I was really upset about it.


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Verb structures :er 0 are infinitive

:er 0 are infinitive

)he are infinitive &infiniti$e without'to') is used after certain $er s which arefollowed y an o ,ect: let, make, see,hear, feel.

(y parents didn't let me watch T@ atnight.

id you see anyone enter the building.e made me laugh .

)he are infinitive is used after modal$er s can, should, could, might, may, etc.

e can't sing .It might #e a good idea.

:er 0 -ing 'gerund(

:er 0 -ing

)he gerund for* &-ing) is used aftercertain $er s: avoid, admit, can't stand,deny, dislike, en$oy, hate, like, love,mind, practise.

I enjoy go ing to the cinema.I don't like liv ing in a city.

)he gerund for* &-ing) is used afterver 0 preposition : insist on, lookforward to, etc.

I'm looking forward to see ing you.e insisted on see ing the shop manager.

:er 0 to 0 infinitive

:er 0 to infinitive

2)o2 infinitive is used after such $er sas: agree, arrange, decide, offer, seem,

plan, want, need, promise, hope, refuse,start, stop

I have decided to lend him the car.e offered to help me.

e promised not to say anything.

2)o2 infinitive is used after certain $er swhich are followed y an o ,ect: ask, tell,want, need

e asked me to go there with him.)he told me to help her.


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:er 0 o ject 0 to-infinitive structure

:er 0 o ject 0 to-infinitive structure

fter some $er s we need to include ano ,ect efore to-infinitive .9ome of these $er s are: advise, ask,allow, e3pect, encourage, force, help,invite, order, persuade, teach, tell.

They considered him to #e the best personfor the position.

)he asked me to give her some advice.

I told my assistant to send the letter.


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Modal verbs ;odal ver s and their negatives;odal ver s and their negatives

positi$e negati$e

*ust &used for a personal opinion)e must be cra?y.

can2te can't be cra?y.

*ust ! have to ! has to &used foro ligation)4ou must arrive by ; o'clock.4ou have to arrive by ; o'clock.

don2t have to ! needn2t ! something isnot necessary4ou don't have to arrive by ; o'clock.4ou needn't arrive by ; o'clock.

can &used for a ility)I can play the guitar.

can2t ! cannotI can't play the guitar.

can &used for possi ility)4ou can smoke here.

can2t ! cannot ! *ustn2t4ou can't smoke here.4ou mustn't smoke here.

;odal ver s in the past;odal ver s in the past

present past

should e should ha$e een

could e could ha$e een

will e would e

may e may ha$e een

might e might ha$e een

would e would ha$e een

$hould 'to e7press o ligation(

$hould - to e7press o ligation


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9tructure: should + infiniti$eWe use should for the present and thefuture.We use should to gi$e ad$ice to someoneand to say that something is a good idea.$hould is weaker than have to or *ust.

4ou should tell them the truth.4ou shouldn!t smoke , it's bad for you.I don't think you should do it.

$hould have 'to e7press past o ligation(

$hould have - to e7press unfulfilled past o ligation

9tructure: should + ha$e + past participleWe use should have for the past.We use should have to say thatsomeone didn't do something% ut itwould ha$e een etter to do it.

4ou should have told them the truth.4ou shouldn!t have gone there 5 it was amistake.I don't think you should have done it.

;ust ! have to

;ust ! have to

present past

( must go. * ( ha$e to go.&when we want to express o ligation) I had to go.

e must e here.(t must e great.&when we want to express a personalopinion)

e must have been here.It must have been great.

Present pro a ilit" - *ust ! can2t ! *a" ! *ight ! could

;ust ! can2t - to e7press pro a ilit"

9tructure: modal + infiniti$e without tomust e% must ha$e% can't go% etc.

We use *ust to express that we feel surethat something is true.

They are really good, they must win.They must be very rich. 8ook at the house.

We use can2t to say we are sure thatsomething is impossi le.

)he can!t be ill. I've $ust seen her in the

shop and she looked fine.It can!t be true. I don't believe it.

;a" ! *ight ! could - to e7press pro a ilit"

9tructure: modal + infiniti$e without tomay e% might do% could go% etc.


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We use *a" or could or *ight to saythat it is possi le that something willhappen or is happening.

They may be arriving tomorrow.e might be away on holiday.e could be away on holiday.e might be offered the $ob.

/he negati$e of *a" is *a" not./he negati$e of *ight is *ight not.

/hey oth mean that it is possi le thatsomething will not happen or is nothappening.We 1 / use could not to expresspro a ility.

e might not be offered the $ob. I may not pass the e3am.I might not go to the match tomorrow.

Past pro a ilit" - *ust have ! can2t have ! *ight have ! *a"have

;ust ! can2t ! couldn2t have - to e7press pro a ilit" in the past

9tructure: modal + ha$e + past participlemust ha$e een% can't ha$e gone% etc.

We use *ust have to express that wefeel sure that something was true.

They must have left early.e must have already gone.

We use can2t have * couldn2t have tosay that we elie$e something wasimpossi le.

e can!t have escaped through thiswindow. It is too small.)he can!t have said that.)he couldn!t have said that.

;a" ! *ight ! could have - to e7press pro a ilit" in the past

9tructure: modal + ha$e + past participlemay ha$e een% could ha$e gone% might ha$e lost% etc.

We use *a" ! could ! *ight have tosay that it was possi le that somethinghappened in the past & ut we are not788@ sure).

e may have missed the bus.The road might have #een blocked.

/he negati$es are *a" not have and

*ight not have.

e may not have left yet.The assistant might not have receivedhis message.

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various grammar rules

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