vegetation dynamics in the western himalayas, diversity indices and climate...

Sci., Tech. and Dev., 31 (3): 232-243, 2012

*Author for correspondence E-mail: [email protected]

VEGETATION DYNAMICS IN THE WESTERN

HIMALAYAS, DIVERSITY INDICES AND CLIMATE

CHANGE

SHUJAUL M. KHAN1*, SUE PAGE2, HABIB AHMAD3, HAMAYUN SHAHEEN4

AND DAVID HARPER5

1Department of Botany, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan. 2 Department of Geography, University of Leicester, UK 3 Department of Genetics, Hazara University, Mansehra, Pakistan. 4 Department of Botany, Azad Kashmir University, Muzaffarabad, Pakistan. 5 Department of Biology, University of Leicester, UK

Abstract

Vegetation provides the first tropic trophic level in mountain ecosystems and hence

requires proper documentation and quantification in relation to abiotic environmental variables

both at individual and aggregate levels. The complex and dynamic Himalayas with their

varying climate and topography exhibit diverse vegetation that provides a range of ecosystem

services. The biodiversity of these mountains is also under the influence of diverse human

cultures and land uses. The present paper is not only first of its kind but also quite unique

because of the use of modern statistical techniques for the quantification of Diversity Indices of

plant species and communities. The vegetation was sampled in three categories, i.e., trees,

shrubs and herbs, as follows: a height of ≥ 5m were classified in the tree layer, shrubs were all

woody species of height 1m and 5m and, finally, the herb layer comprised all herbaceous

species less than 1m in height. The presence/absence of all vascular plants was recorded on pre-

prepared data sheets (1, 0 data). For the tree layer, the diameter of trees at breast height was

measured using diameter tape. Coverage of herbaceous vegetation was visually estimated

according to Daubenmire and Braun Blanquet methods. It gives overall abundance of vascular

plants on one hand and composition of these species on the other. Data was analysed in

Canonical Community Coordination Package (CANOCO) to measure diversity indices of plant

communities and habitat types. Results for five plant communities/habitat types indicated that

plant biodiversity decreased along the altitude. Shannon Diversity Index values range between

3.3 and 4. N2 index and Index of Sample Variance were also designed. All of these Diversity

Indices showed the highest values for the communities/habitats of north facing slopes at middle

altitudes. Higher plant diversity at these slopes and altitudes can be associated to the period of

snow cover which is longer and a relatively denser tree cover as compared to the southern

slopes and hence the soil has high moisture which supports high biodiversity in return. Global

warming causes desertification in number of fragile mountain ecosystem around the globe.

These findings suggest that species diversity decreases along the measured ecological gradient

under the influence of deforestation coupled with global climatic change.

Keywords: Biodiversity, Diversity Index, Climate, Mountain Ecosystem, Western Himalayas,

Vegetation.

Introduction

Mountains are the most remarkable land

forms on earth surface with prominent vegetation

zones based mainly on altitudinal and climatic

variations. Variations in aspects also enhance

habitat heterogeneity and bring micro-

environmental variation in vegetation pattern

(Clapham, 1973; Khan et al., 2011b). In north-

western Pakistan, three of the world’s highest

mountain ranges, i.e., the Himalayan, Hindu Kush

VEGETATION DYNAMICS IN THE WESTERN HIMALAYAS, DIVERSITY INDICES AND CLIMATE CHANGE 233

and Karakoram, come together, ensuring high

floral diversity and phytogeographic interest.

Plant biodiversity survives at the edge of life at

these high mountains where climatic changes are

more visible and species extinction very rapid.

Studies on mountainous vegetation around the

globe show that ecological amplitude of alpine

species shifted to even higher elevations over the

recent decades. Species preferred temperatures in

higher altitudinal zones. Therefore, many alpine

species are under the risk of extinction due to

their requirements for germination and

reproduction (Grabherr et al., 1994; Holzinger et

al., 2008). Unlike the eastern Himalayas, where

monsoon-driven vegetation predominates under

higher rainfall and humidity (Chawla et al., 2008;

Dutta and Agrawal, 2005; Anthwal et al., 2010;

Behera et al., 2005; Roy and Behera, 2005), the

vegetation in the western Himalayas in general

(Chawla et al., 2008; Kukshal et al., 2009;

Shaheen et al., 2011; Ahmad et al., 2009; Dickoré

and Nüsser, 2000; Shaheen et al., 2012) and in the

Naran Valley (Khan et al., 2011b) in particular

have closer affinities with that of the Hindukush

mountains, which have a drier and cooler climate

(Ali and Qaiser, 2009; Wazir et al., 2008;

Noroozi et al., 2008). A recent study showed that

with the passage of time, homogeneity takes place

in the vegetation of a region due to continuous

dominance of certain resistant and vigorous

species. This phenomenon is further enhanced by

selective utilisation of species by human

intervention (Del Moral et al., 2010). Similarly,

the tree-line vegetation and indicator species shift

upwards due to climate change.

Mountainous vegetation has manifold

functions, not only within the system where it

exists regionally in the lowland ecosystem by

regulating floods and flow in streams and

globally in combating the climate change and

greenhouse effects. Regionally, shrubby

vegetation of high altitude regulates avalanche

movements and protects soil but in majority of

places, it is threatened due to human and climatic

influences (Hester and Brooker, 2007). Plant

biodiversity is necessary for regulation of overall

system in the mountain, e.g., the Himalayas is the

birth place for 10 largest rivers in the Asia and a

big and important carbon sink. Ecological

changes in the Himalayas affect global climate by

bringing changes in temperature and precipitation

patterns of the world. Himalayan Vegetation is

diverse and range from tropical evergreen species

in the south east to thorn steppe and alpine

species in the north western parts (Behera and

Kushwaha, 2007). Melting of its snow in a

regular fashion is related to its vegetation cover.

Irregular loss of its ice might have dangerous rise

in world sea-levels (Xu et al., 2009). These

mountains are extremely sensitive to global

climatic change. Such hazardous glimpses have

already been observed in the form of flood in

Pakistan, India, China and Thailand in the last

three years.

The Naran Valley is located at the far west of

the Western Himalayas on the border with the

Hindu Kush range which lie to the west and near

to the Karakorum Range to the north (Figure 1).

Due to this transitional location the valley host

representative vegetation types from all three

mountain ranges. Monsoon winds are main

source of precipitation and also a primary force of

controlling erosion and climatology over millions

years of time and thus modify its climate,

topography and vegetation of Himalayas but in

the western Himalaya, especially in Naran Valley,

high mountains situated at the opening of the

valley act as barriers to the incoming summer

monsoon from the south and limit its saturation

into upper northern parts. Thus, summers remain

cool and relatively dry and make most of the

valley as a dry temperate-type of habitat. There

are clear seasonal variations. Total average

annual precipitation is low at only 900-1000mm

but there is heavy snowfall in winter which may

occur any time from November to April (average

annual snowfall 3m). The range reflects a sharp

increase in depth of snow with increasing altitude.

There is a distinct wet season in January-April

whilst the driest months of the year are June-

November. As far as temperature of the area is

concerned, most of the year, it remains below

10°C. December, January, February and March

are the coldest months of the year in which

temperature remains around the freezing point or

even below most of the times. June to August is

the main season for growth, with average daytime

temperatures in the range 15-20°C. Geologically,

the valley is located where the Eurasian and

Indian tectonic plates meet and where the arid

climate of the western Eurasian mountains gives

way to the moister monsoon climate of the Sino-

234 SHUJAUL M. KHAN ET AL.

Japanese region (Qaiser and Abid, 2005;

Takhtadzhian and Cronquist, 1986; Kuhle, 2007).

The valley thus occupies a unique transitional

position in the region. In remote mountainous

valleys like the Naran, the complexity of

ecosystems, their inaccessibility and the cost and

time factors make it extremely difficult to observe

each and every aspect of vegetation features.

Perhaps those were the reasons that in spite of its

high phytogeographic importance, there have

been no previous quantitative studies of the

vegetation in this valley. The present study is not

only the first of its kind but also quite unique

because of the use of modern statistical

techniques for the quantification of plant species

and communities along geo-climatic

environmental gradients that has limited

comparator studies in this region (Wazir et al.,

2008; Saima et al., 2009; Dasti et al., 2007). The

Naran Valley, which is floristically located in the

Western Himalayan province of the Irano-

Turanian region, forms a botanical transitional

zone between the moist temperate (from the

South East) and dry temperate (from the North

West) vegetation zones of the Hindu Kush and

Himalayan mountain ranges, respectively. A

phyto-climatic gradient of vegetation based on

life forms further emphasizes the nature of the

area and makes apparent the transitional position

of the region, though predominated by alpine

species (Khan et al., 2011b & c).

The quantitative approaches to vegetation

description and analyses deployed in this study

not only fill methodological deficiencies (Khan,

2012) and gaps in the literature, i.e., evaluation of

diversity indices but also provide a firm basis for

extending this approach to the adjacent mountain

systems that are in need of up to date vegetation

mapping (Fosaa, 2004; Mucina, 1997). In

addition, the present study documents and

provides suggestions for the conservation of

mountain plant biodiversity under a scenario of

continuous human exploitation and climate

change. It is necessary to maintain ecosystem

services in general and food security in particular,

not only within mountain system but also for the

people and ecosystems of the lowlands that

depend on those mountains (Rasul, 2010;

Manandhar and Rasul, 2009; Sharma et al., 2010;

Khan et al., 2011a).

Fig. 1. Physiographic map showing the elevation zones and position of the Naran Valley, western

Himalayas (study area) in relation to Karakorum and Hindu Kush mountains


Methodology

In total of 432 quadrats in 144 replicates, the

vegetation was sampled in three layers i.e., trees,

shrubs and herbs. Quadrats sizes used in this

study were 10x5 (for trees layer), 5x2 (for shrubs

layer) and 1x0.5 (for herbs layer). Trees had a

height of ≥ 5m, shrubs were all woody species of

height in the range 1-5 m and the herb layer

comprised all herbaceous species less than 1m in

height. The presence of all vascular plants was

record on pre-prepared data sheets (1, 0 data). For

the tree layer, the diameter of trees at breast

height was measured using diameter tape

(Figure 2). This enabled an assessment of tree

cover values in the quadrats. For the shrub and

herb layers, abundance/cover values were visually

estimated according to a regulated Braun-

Blanquet scale later on modified by Daubenmire

(Table 1) (Braun-Blanquet et al., 1932;

Daubenmire, 1968). Absolute and relative values

of density, cover and frequency of each vascular

plant species at each station were calculated using

phytosociological formulae to finally calculate

Important Value Index (McIntosh, 1978).

Fig. 2. Measuring diameter of tree species through diameter tape in a 10x5m quadrat in the field at

Lalazar, Naran.

Table 1. Braun Blanquet covers classes modified by Daubenmire.

Cover Class Range of Percent Cover Midpoint

1 0-5% 2.5%

2 5-25% 15.0%

3 25-50% 37.5%

4 50-75% 62.5%

5 75-95% 85%

6 95-100% 97.5%


In the past, it was a very common technique

to classify plant communities based on Important

Value Index (IVI) of plants species. In this sort of

characterization and classification in

phytosociology, the species with the highest

Importance Values IV are considered as dominant

plant species and communities are attributed with

them. Even today, it is a very common method of

classifying plant communities. The present day

revolution of computer based technology in every

field of science has modified the older techniques.

The IVs were calculated by adding the values of

relative density, cover and frequency and then

dividing by 3. In our study, we use IV data

mainly for ordination purposes.

Data analysis

Ecologists use number of diversity indices for

measuring the plant species diversity in different

habitat types and plant communities. CANOCO

version 4.5 (Ter Braak 1988, Ter Braak 1989, Ter

Braak and Smilauer 2002) was used to analyse

IVI data to assess diversity indices. The main

objective of these statistical packages is to

formulate the study more precisely. As

phytosociology is concerned with vegetation

itself, the sites in which it occurs and the

environmental variables related with those sites

hence need to be examined in a statistical

framework (Kent and Coker, 2002; 1995,

Lambert and Dale, 1964). Plant biologists often

need to test hypotheses regarding the effects of

investigational factors on whole groups of species

(Khan et al., 2011b; Shaheen et al., 2011;

Anderson et al., 2006). CANODRAW is a utility

of CANOCO and was used to generate data

attribute plots (graphic forms) of

indicator/characteristic species. It also gives the

opportunity to utilise index of number of species,

Shannon Weiner index, index of species richness,

evenness, sample variance, etc. Diversity indices

were calculated at the community through data

attribute plot under the DCA function of

CANODRAW.

Results

Floristic composition of the Naran Valley

A total of 198 plant species belonging to 150

genera and 68 families were recorded at the 432

replicates of relives/quadrats. The division into

major taxonomical groups (Table 2) indicates that

dicotyledonous angiosperms are the most

abundant. Five plant communities were identified

and discussed in our first paper from this project

(Khan et al., 2011b). There is a clear altitudinal

zonations, i.e., (i) the lower altitude (2450-3250

m) dominated by temperate vegetation and (ii)

the higher altitude (3250-4100 m) dominated by

subalpine and alpine vegetation. The most

abundant plant family was Asteraceae

(Compositae) with seventeen species and a 25%

share of all species. Rosaceae represented by

fourteen species (with a 21% share) was the

second most species rich family in the study area.

Lamiaceae, Ranunculaceae, Poaceae and

Polygonaceae were represented by 13, 12, 11 and

10 plant species respectively. The remaining

families all had less than 10 species each.

Importance Values of the top 15 abundant species

are given in Table 3.

Table 2. Taxonomic divisions of recorded plant species.

Taxonomic distribution No. of

Families

No. of

Species

Dicot 53 161

Monocot 9 23

Subtotal of Angiosperms 62 184

Gymnosperms 3 8

SUBTOTAL OF

SPERMATOPHYTA

65 192

Pteridophyta (Ferns and allies) 3 6

TOTAL NO. OF PLANT

SPECIES

68 198

Table 3. Important Value Index (IVI) of the top 15

species reported from the region.

S.No. Name of the Species Importance

Value (IV)

1 Abies pindrow 584

2 Betula utilis 582

3 Sambucus weghtiana 446

4 Juniperus communis 338

5 Pinus wallichiana 323

6 Salix flabillaris 160

7 Rosa webbiana 137

8 Artemesia absinthium 135

9 Rhododendron hypenanthum 116

10 Fragaria nubicola 112

11 Berberis pseudoumbellata 111

12 Thymus linearis 109

13 Iris hookeriana 104

14 Cedrus deodara 103

15 Viola canescens 96

Based upon plant growth habit, 12 trees, 20

shrubs and 166 herbs shared 6, 10 and 84%,


respectively, in the plant diversity of the vegetation of the Naran Valley (Figure 3).

Fig. 3. Percent share of various habit forms of vegetation of the Naran Valley.

Species richness along environmental

gradients

Analyses show that the main influencing

environmental variables are altitude, aspect (slope

direction) and soil depth and that both species

richness and diversity vary along these gradients.

Analysis of the elevation gradient showed that

species richness was higher at lower altitudes and

lower at higher elevations. Species β-diversity

gradually decreased along the altitudinal gradient

as soil depth and temperature decreased.

Similarly species richness on slopes with a

northern aspect was slightly higher than those

with a southern aspect (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. Average β-diversity of plant species along the altitudinal gradient.


Diversity indices using DCA analysis

Data attribute plots using Deterended

Correspondence Analysis (DCA) were used to

calculate diversity indices. The first sort of

diversity index based on species richness was the

calculation of species number per community

(Figure 5). The highest number of plant species

was reported in community 2 at middle altitude

northern aspect habitats followed by lower

altitude valley bottom habitats. The high diversity

of these habitat types can be attributed to high

soil depth with high moisture retaining capacity

and relatively high temperature at those

somewhat lower altitudes. The lowest number of

species scored in the index was for the

community number 5 at peak elevations above

the tree line habitats.

The Shannon Diversity index values range

between 3.3 and 4. Being constituted of both

Northern and Southern aspect stations,

community 1 has the highest value of 3.98

amongst all the groups whilst community 5 has

the lowest value due to narrow ecological

amplitude (Figure 6). High values of index are

due to the inclusion of considerable number of

stations in a single community.

Fig. 5. Index of species number (alpha diversity) amongst all community types through DCA data

attribute plots along the gradients.

Fig. 6. Shannon Weiner diversity index at community level through DCA data attribute plots show the

gradient of the community.


The N2 index is the reciprocal of Sampson

diversity index and is available in the

CANODRAW utility of CANOCO. This index

showed the highest value for community 2

followed by community 1 (Figure 7).

Index of sample variance showed the highest

variance at community 2 amongst the groups. As

the altitudinal pattern (Figure 4) showed that

species richness is optimum at the middle altitude

especially on north facing slopes. This index

reconfirmed the phenomenon of species richness

phenomenon through sample variance index

(Figure 8).

Fig. 7. N2 diversity index at community level through DCA data attribute plots along the gradient of the

community.

Fig. 8. Index of Sample Variance amongst all community types through DCA data attribute

plots along the gradient.

The pattern of plant communities in the

valley is largely determined by aspect and

altitude. Four plant communities can be separated

on the basis of these two variables, whilst one

community is established under the combined

effect of lower altitude and greater depth of soil

(the third most important variable). Relatively

higher summer temperatures and soil moisture are

the co-variables associated with the low elevation

and deeper soil. Predominantly, community 1

reflects the latitudinal gradient of vegetation from

moist temperate to dry temperate along the valley

on either side of the River Kunhar at lower

altitudes. Species diversity and richness are


optimal at the middle altitudes (2800-3400m), in

contrast to the lower altitudes (2400-2800m)

where direct anthropogenic activities have had

their greatest impact.

Discussion

Diversity amongst plant communities/habitat

types

Short summer, deep snow, low temperature,

intense solar radiation and cold speedy winds in

the valley in general and higher altitude and

special slope orientation in particular result xeric

condition for plant growth and hence the 𝛽-

diversity is gradually decreasing both along the

altitudinal and latitudinal gradients of the valley.

Though drawing a sharp line in any natural

ecosystem of mountains is difficult as the rapid

micro climatic and edaphic variations overlap

each other due to number of driving agencies and

historical perspectives but based on some

indicator species, vegetation zonation and

association can be established. Both at habitat and

community level, the plant species richness and

diversity is strongly influenced by elevation,

aspect and soil depth which in turn are associated

with precipitation and soil moisture. Various

diversity indices including number of species,

Shannon Weiner, sample variance and N2 show

maximum values for the middle altitude northern

aspect plant community (Com. 2) followed by the

subalpine (Com. 4) and middle altitude southern

aspect plant communities (Com. 3). Similar

patterns of diversity across altitudinal gradients

have been observed in other studies in the

Himalayan regions (Kharkwal et al., 2005;

Tanner et al., 1998; Vázquez and Givnish, 1998).

Implications of the present project for future

studies

Observing biodiversity is a lifelong process

and needs inputs from various disciplines from

the natural as well as the social sciences. For

better ecosystem management and protection,

plant biodiversity should be studied at species,

community and ecosystem levels. The

mountainous valleys need more botanical

exploration for the complete description of their

plant taxa, abundance and conservation status.

There are also extensive gaps in information on

ecosystem services in the Himalayan region.

Most of the vegetation studies have been carried

out solitarily either based on scientific approaches

or public perception for making inventories. We

also believe and propose that such approach must

be statistically sound and communicable to

conservationists, planners, politicians and policy

makers. Furthermore, we suggest that the

identification of indicator species for specific

habitats will assist in monitoring and assessment

of the biological diversity on the one hand and the

effects of climatic change on the other. In

addition, a broad scale deterioration of the natural

ecosystems due to agriculture, expansion of

roads, increases in population and deforestation

cause enormous losses to the natural vegetation.

In spite of IUCN recommendations, there is very

limited and small scale documentation on Red

List Categories for plant species in the Himalayas

as well as in Pakistan more generally (Ali, 2008;

Pant and Samant, 2006; Chettri et al., 2008).

Being a member state of the CBD, Pakistan

should give top priority to this issue as addressed

by Khan (2012) and Khan et al., (2011b & c).

The three mountain ranges i.e., the

Himalayas, Hindu Kush and Karakorum, provide

essential ecosystem services to millions of people

across 10 countries of the world (Dong et al.,

2010; Khan et al., 2007). These services include

provisioning, regulating, supporting and cultural

services. In the present study, the main focus was

on vegetation mapping and provisioning services

in one of the Himalayan valley. Most of the

provisioning services considered in the present

study can further be evaluated at molecular and

biochemical levels in the future. Beyond the

direct role of plant biodiversity in the

socioeconomics of the mountain people, it is

indispensable for the people living in the plains

and hence this mountain valley can be studied for

the evaluation of the other kinds of services,

including those of regulatory nature, that it

provides on a broader level, e.g., flood control,

erosion control, irrigation water and hydropower

development. These mountains also provide

Supporting Services, e.g., soil formation,

biogeochemical and nutrient cycling, etc. These

mountain systems host characteristic biodiversity

on the one hand and a long established and

unique cultural diversity on the other.

Preservation of their indigenous knowledge and

its utilization in environmental management can

also be potential topics for future studies (Fig. 9).


Fig. 9. Sketch showing the potential topics for future to study different aspects of biodiversity of the

western Himalayas

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