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http://tinypic.com/r/vpgebl/6

 Energy, types of energy(chemical, mechanical, kinetic, potential, thermal, gravitational, sound, elastic, electromagnetic, torque, light), generators/motors, solid/liquid/gas, matter, Law of Conservation of Mass/Law of Conservation of Energy/Law of Conservation of Charge, Content Standard 9.1:Energy cannot be created or destroyed; however, energy can be converted from one form to another.            Energy enters the earth system primarily as solar radiation, is captured by materials and photosynthetic processes, and eventually is transformed into heat. Heat: the transfer of energy from one body/system to another.

-         temperature-         form of energy

        amount of work a force can perform-         Heat only flows naturally from an object with a high temperature to an object with a low temperature.-         Heat can be transferred by radiation, convection, and conduction

 States of Matter:

Plasma- Higher energy level than gases, seen in stars-not on the earth, except as lightening   Gas- molecules farthest apart, free movement of molecules, most energy, no shape or volume, energy gained from the environment, there is a small electrostatic attraction between gas molecules, least dense   Liquid- fixed volume, no shape, molecules can move freely, but are attracted to each other a little   Solid- fixed volume and shape, molecules vibrate, don’t move, least energy, densest Temperature- basis of “hot” or “cold”, unit of measure for the rule of heat flow(from high temp to low temp body), direct measurement of the speed(kinetic energy) of the atoms of a substance.   Temperature Scales-            Fahrenheit- -460- supernovae are in the 100,000,000’s.  Freezing pt is 320F and boiling- point is 2120F.               Celsius- -273- 100,000,000’s.  Freezing point is 00C and boiling point is 1000F.              Kelvin- goes from 0 up.  0 =   no motion of molecules and represents “absolute zero”.  Freezing point is 2730K and boiling point is 3730K.   Energy of Phase Changes-  Exothermic – “ex” > “out from/out”Heat is coming out of a reactionExample of Exothermic: burning/fire - coal has energy in it, it is burned, and the energy is transfered... afterwards, the ash doesn't have a lot of energy.Why? It’s hot, heat comes out of it.When the phase change goes from higher energy to lower energy(condensing, freezing) energy is released into the environment and the container holding the matter will warm.  Endothermic – “endo” > “into”Heat is going into/absorbed into a reaction.Example of Endothermic: Boilingwhen the phase change goes from lower energy to higher energy(melting, evaporating/boiling) energy is absorbed from the environment and the container holding the matter will cool.   

Boiling Vs. Evaporation- boiling occurs by energy causing a liquid to hit 2120F or 1000C.  All of the liquid boils at the same temp.  Evaporation- occurs at all temps above freezing at all times, a little at a time.  Methods of Heat Transfer:

 Radiation- can travel thru space as electromagnetic waves.  All objects emit radiation, which really means light.  Hot objects like the sun emit visible radiation and cool objects like clouds, the earth and our bodies emit infrared radiation.  Great for space.     Convection- upward movement of molecules which are warm.  Also, the downward movement of cold molecules.  Works well with liquids and gasses.   Conduction- transfer of heat between two touching surfaces caused by a difference in temp between the two spots.  Works well with metal.   http://www.wisc-online.com/objects/index_tj.asp?objid=SCE304 Local Breezes-            Sea Breeze- breeze from the sea to the land created by temp differences between the land and water which creates pressure differences which creates wind.  Daytime Breeze               Land Breeze- wind from the land formed by small differences in temperature between the land and water.  Water warmer than land.  Nighttime Breeze   Both types of breezes are more likely to occur if the difference in temp is greater, and if the day/night is clear.    

          

Unit 9.2Magnets

  Field: produced by electric currents; electrons must line up perpendicular to magnet Domain: cluster (1,000,000) of atoms with electrons lined up (fields of atoms that are lined up) Ferromagnetic materials:  iron ( Fe ), nickel ( Ni ), Cobalt ( Co )  (these 3 are  in the core of the earth), magnetite, hematite          Ferromagnetic – can have a field Making a magnet: ( must be ferromagnetic ) rub a magnet on a ferromagnetic substance, leave it near a magnet Breaking a magnet: when breaking a magnet then you  create a new magnet 

 Electric Field

Area perpendicular to a wire that has field lines like our magnet lab.  

Electric ChargeBuildup of electrons that makes an object have a net negative or positive charge.(will never have both + and – charge) 

Electric CurrentFlow of electrons / charge from high potential to low potential.  

Electrical CircuitPath for current to flow consisting of potential source(battery or wall socket), wires, resistor(light bulb), switch 

ElectromagnetismSolenoid- coiled wire, more coils=more strength, ends of wire are like poles, poles can switch if current is reversed Electromagnet- solenoid with ferromagnetic core creates a temporary magnet(can be turned on/off) How to strengthen an Electromagnet:1-more current2-more loops3- coils tighter  4- stronger core 

Static 

Static Electricity- Build up of a charge(electrons ; the particle that gets traded or shared) Static Cling- Tendency of light objects to stick from the electric charge of static Static Charge- Quality of subatomic particles where electrons are conserved between two particles Electric Field around a Single Charge- exerts a force on other charged particles

-         can be positive OR negative Static Discharge- the balance of electrons from an area with a lot of electrons to an area with fewer electrons(ex. causes the spark you see with static) Friction- A force opposite the direction of something caused by 2 surfaces rubbing against each other Conduction- A transfer of charges by touching Induction- A transfer of charges by being close to each otherPotential: The energy that is possible for an object to exert. Electric potential is the difference between area electrons. Volts: the amount of potential difference between any 2 spots in a circuit Resistance: a measure of the amount of opposition to flow of current in a circuit. Resistance is based on1. What type of circuit.2. How many objects are using the current.3. Friction with in the wires.            Width of wires                                                 The quality of the conducting metal that is the wire                    Length of the wire Resistance is measured in ohm’s            1. The current within a wire is directly proportional to the potential difference between any 2 points along the wire.            2. The current within a wire is inversely proportional to the resistance along the wire.V=IRI=V/RR=V/I Also, P=VI, V=P/I and I=P/V 

 Series Circuits

1 path for electricity to flow- therefore, removing one bulb causes all of the others to go outEx. = Christmas tree lightsPotential will get split evenly between light bulbs Current is the same at all points in a series circuit.  However, as R goes up and V stays the same, I goes down. 

Parallel Circuits

Multiple paths for the electronsIf one bulb goes out, the others stay on because the electricity has a choice of pathsBecause of multiple paths, adding bulbs will reduce R and increase I.   

           

Electrical and Mechanical Energy Energy- ability to move an objectElectrical Energy- when a current causes something to moveElectrical Energy is converted to mechanical energy when a current carrying wire is placed in a magnetic field. The device that does this is called a motor. A device that takes motion and stores electrical energy is a generator.  

Induction of Electric CurrentWhen a moving wire or the magnets are moving, an electric current will be created(induced). Electromagnetic Induction is the process of having a moving field and a solenoid produce a current.      

GeneratorsDevice that converts mechanical energy to electric energy.  

TransformersStep Up- going from less to more coilsStep Down- going from more to less coils 

TurbineLarge circular device with blades(propeller)Turbine Power Sources- steam(fossil fuels burning, nuclear power, solar, geothermal), wind, water, tides, 

Generating ElectricityLimited by availability, cost, pollutionRenewable Power Source- replaced in nature as fast as it is used(water, wind, sun, tides, geothermal)Non-Renewable Power Source- supply is set and once it is used, it is over(coal, oil, gas, some types of nuclear energy)Fuel Cell Pro/Con     Pro- Made from Hydrogen, the most abundant element in the universer     Con- Stores energy, doesn't produce it, so you need a primary source of energy to store in the Hydrogen. 

Unit 9.3Various Sources of Energy Are Used By Humans And Each Have Advantages And Disadvantages

 Sources of Electricity-

1-                  Sun(Solar Energy)2-                  Water(Hydroelectricity)

a.       Rivers via Damsb.      Tides(moon’s gravity)c.       Rainfall in Guttersd.      Waves(wind)e.       Ocean Currents

3-                  Wind4-                  Fuel Cells5-                  Biomass(dead plant matter)6-                  Fossil Fuels

a.       Coalb.      Petroleum(oil)c.       Gasolined.      Natural Gase.       Deisel

7-                  Nucleara.       Fission(splitting atoms)b.      Fusion(combining atoms)

8-                  Trash to Electricity9-                  Wood10-               Geothermal(Earth’s hot core)

 Electrical Production:Fossil fuels 

1.                  Get the oil *2.                  Ship fuel ***3.                  Refine the oil *4.                  Transport from refinery to power plant *5.                  Burn fuel to produce heat *6.                  Boil water to create steam 7.                  Steam turns turbine *8.                  Solenoid spins between magnet *9.                  Step up transformer sends power to grid *10.               Step down transformer makes electricity safe * 

Pros ConsHigh yield, The infrastructure exists,  Naturally occ. Jobs

 

Acid rain Global warming, CO2, S, N Expensive factories Pollution* Limited supply War

Solar power1.                  Sunshine is the source2.                  Gather light3.                  Store energy in photovoltaic cell(battery)4.                  Battery stores energy to be used by home owner5.                  If solar plant is used then same steps 10 and 11 apply  

Pros- sun is neverending supply, reduction in pollutionCons- inconsistent, expensive List of Energy SourcesA=Alternative   F=Fossil FuelR= Renewable    N= Nonrenewable

1.                  Petroleum (FN)<!--[if !supportLineBreakNewLine]--><!--[endif]-->

2.                  wind power uses turbine (AR) inconsistent 3.                  hydro power – river (AR) not everywhere has a river4.                  nuclear power (AN)  good- lots of energy  bad- waste, accidents, cost5.                  solar power (AR) inconsistent, expensive, batteries6.                  geothermal energy (AR) expensive to dig7.                  biomass – using trash and scrap plants (AN) global hunger

8.                  natural gas (FN) 9.                  waves (AR) cost10.              tides (AR) cost

 Steps to Create Electricity-

1-                  Fuel/Energy Source2-                  Heat(unless using wind/water/sun)3-                  Boil Water(not for wind/sun/H2O)4-                  Steam5-                  Steam turns turbine6-                  Turbine spins rotor which means coiled wire wrapped around iron core is generating electrical

energy from mechanical energy(the rotor is the GENERATOR)Moving magnetic field creates electricity.

7-                  Step-up transformer transmits electricity8-                  Step-down transformer on street makes electricity usable at home9-                  Use at home

 The Carbon Cycle             Cycle of carbon between earth, atmosphere and living creatures.  Carbon is the most abundant element.  Carbon is found in all living creatures.  Animals breath in oxygen and exhale carbon dioxide.  Plants breath in carbon dioxide and exhale oxygen.  When plants and animals die, the carbon that made them up is released to both the air and the ground.  When Carbon is released to the air it forms Carbon Dioxide which is a Greenhouse Gas(GHG).  When Carbon is absorbed into the ground, over a very long time, it forms fossil fuels.  When fossil fuels are burned millions of years of Carbon are released into the air.   Carbon returns to the earth by plants photosynthesizing.   Nuclear Power 

-          Uses U235-          Neutrons break apart U235-          Splitting U235 releases heat-          Heat boils water-          Boiled water makes steam-          Steam spins turbine-          Turbine turns rotor/stator(generator)-          Electricity goes to cities

  

Websites for Studying:

http://www.ndt-ed.org/EducationResources/HighSchool/highschool.htm

       - use for electricity and magnetism review. Ignore parts on x-rays and sound. Ignore anything we haven't gone over before... use the notes above to guide studying.

 

           

           

Acids/Bases/Salts/Neutralization 

pH Scale- range of chemicals from acids to bases(alkaline). Scale goes from 0-14. From 0-7=acid, 7=neutral, 7-14=basic. Acids are stronger as they are lower. Bases are stronger as they are higher. Further from seven = stronger.       Indicators of pH-

Litmus PaperBlue turns red if in contact with an acid Red turns blue if in contact with a base

 Cabbage Juice- tells general strength of acid/base or neutral

 pH Paper- indicates actual numerical pH value

 Acids- substances that, when dissolved in water, release H+ ions.  Bases(Alkaline)- substances that, when dissolved in water, release OH-(Hydroxide) ions.  Neutralization- when an acid and a base are mixed, a neutral product is made(water). Also, salt is produced as a product.

 Acid Rain-

What is it?- any precipitation with a pH lower than 5.6.(must have H+ ions). How is it made?- primarily from the emission of Sulfur and Nitrogen compounds. Also, naturally, from volcanoes.  Where do Sulfur and the Nitrogen come from?- Sulfur compounds come from factories. Nitrogen compounds come from vehicles.  How does acid rain affect life/structures?- contaminate drinking water, kill vegetation, kill aquatic life, damage statues(if the statue has metal in it).  

Reaction Rate-Entirely based on Collision Theory!! There are 4 basic ways to increase collisions and, therefore, reaction rate: 

1.                  Increase in Temperature a.       When things are heated they expand and move faster. In a confined space, this means more reactants

“bumping into each other”b.      Higher temp = more reaction

2.                  Concentrationa.       Too little = low reactionb.      Higher = more reactionc.       Amount of solute (solid) in the solvent (liquid)d.      Juice example

                                                              i.      More mix = more sugary taste                                                            ii.      Less mix = yucky/watery

3.                  Catalysts/Inhibitors

a.       Catalyst                                                              i.      Alters rate of reaction without getting involved                                                            ii.      The “match-maker” of reactions.                                                           iii.      Reduce Energy needed

b.      Inhibitor                                                              i.      Salt is the infamous inhibitor

1.      blocks freezing/boiling                                                            ii.      Stops reactions from happening

4.                  Surface Areaa.       More surface area = higher reaction rateb.      Which would melt faster – a block of ice, or pieces of ice?

                                                              i.      Piecesc.        

Acids/Bases/Salts/Neutralization 

pH Scale- range of chemicals from acids to bases(alkaline). Scale goes from 0-14. From 0-7=acid, 7=neutral, 7-14=basic. Acids are stronger as they are lower. Bases are stronger as they are higher. Further from seven = stronger.       Indicators of pH-

Litmus PaperBlue turns red if in contact with an acid Red turns blue if in contact with a base

 Cabbage Juice- tells general strength of acid/base or neutral

 pH Paper- indicates actual numerical pH value

 Acids- substances that, when dissolved in water, release H+ ions.  Bases(Alkaline)- substances that, when dissolved in water, release OH-(Hydroxide) ions.  Neutralization- when an acid and a base are mixed, a neutral product is made(water). Also, salt is produced as a product.

 Acid Rain-

What is it?- any precipitation with a pH lower than 5.6.(must have H+ ions). How is it made?- primarily from the emission of Sulfur and Nitrogen compounds. Also, naturally, from volcanoes.  Where do Sulfur and the Nitrogen come from?- Sulfur compounds come from factories. Nitrogen compounds come from vehicles.  How does acid rain affect life/structures?- contaminate drinking water, kill vegetation, kill aquatic life, damage statues(if the statue has metal in it).  

Reaction Rate-Entirely based on Collision Theory!! There are 4 basic ways to increase collisions and, therefore, reaction rate: 

1.                  Increase in Temperature a.       When things are heated they expand and move faster. In a confined space, this means more reactants

“bumping into each other”b.      Higher temp = more reaction

2.                  Concentrationa.       Too little = low reactionb.      Higher = more reactionc.       Amount of solute (solid) in the solvent (liquid)d.      Juice example

                                                              i.      More mix = more sugary taste

                                                            ii.      Less mix = yucky/watery3.                  Catalysts/Inhibitors

a.       Catalyst                                                              i.      Alters rate of reaction without getting involved                                                            ii.      The “match-maker” of reactions.                                                           iii.      Reduce Energy needed

b.      Inhibitor                                                              i.      Salt is the infamous inhibitor

1.      blocks freezing/boiling                                                            ii.      Stops reactions from happening

4.                  Surface Areaa.       More surface area = higher reaction rateb.      Which would melt faster – a block of ice, or pieces of ice?

                                                              i.      Piecesc.        

 

 

9.7 Fill in the missing information on the

diagram below. (0.5 pts each) 

 

Erosion: Chemical vs. Physical/Mechanical

Chemical1)         Rusting2)         Acid Rain3)         Rotting/Decomposing/Mold4)         Fire  

 

Physical1) Wind2) Heat3) Water

a. Moving Waterb. Freezing/Thawingc. Physical contact of precip

hitting the ground like little bombs4) Plate Tectonics5) Gravity6) Vegetation7) Drought8) Animal Activity

Sink – an object that has sunken is temporarily gone  Where is Carbon “lost” in the carbon cycle for long periods of time? What parts of the cycle are sinks? 

Carbon Sinks1)         Plant/Animal Material is

deposited at death2)         Fossil Fuels3)         During the lifetime of any

organism4)         Fossils5)         Bottom Of Ocean 6)         Plate Subduction 7)         Landfills

 Layers of the Earth

Crust- Thin, we live on it, oceanic crust is denser/thinner than continental crust, coolest layer of earth, solid

 Upper Mantle- Convection current that

carries energy from the upper/lower mantle boundary up to the crust and back down

 

Lower Mantle- Solid, provides heat to drive upper mantle convection current.

Outer Core- Liquid-iron, nickel

Inner Core- Solid-iron. Gravity is too strong to let anything exist  Convection Currents- hot substances rise, cool substances sink, mantle, ocean currents, weather, ovens, boiling waterBasements are usually cooler than upper floors , Stove, Refrigerator ect. Land/sea breezesOceanic Currents – Gulf StreamMantle Water Cycle- Ocean waters evaporate from liquid to gas. Evaporated gas in the ATM condenses into clouds. Condensed droplets/flakes

precipitate back to earth. Water on earth can either runoff or infiltrate into groundwater. Some precipitation gets taken up by plants and then returns to the ATM by transpiration. Driving force of the water cycle is the sun. How would a warmer earth affect the water cycle?

1)             Increased Evaporation Rates 2)             Glaciers Melt

a.   Sea Level Risesb.  Increased Infiltrationc.   Increased Vegetation North

3)             Warm Water Takes up More Room 4)             Changing Rainfall Rates5)             Worse Storms6)             Droughts 7)             Increased Clouds

a.   Some Clouds Coolb.  Some Clouds Warm

8)             Increased Growing Season for Plants   

 The Greenhouse Effect(GHE)

Incoming solar(sun) radiation reaches the earth, but outgoing terrestrial(earth) radiation is trapped by our atmosphere. The hotter sun, with shorter wavelength light(visible), has radiation that can get through the ATM. The cooler earth, with longer wavelength light(Infrared), can not get through our ATM. This effect causes earth’s avg temp to be around 60F. Without the GHE, earth would have an avg temp of 0F(no life- frozen).  Evaporation Variables-

Warm the waterWarm the airIncrease Surface Area of Water

 Hints: use as little water as you can measure(10ml’s tops)Use the most accurate grad cyl you can find(smallest one)Set up and let experiment go while you write up and let evap continue for as long as possible (way more than 10 mins)

     

   

  

9.8 The Use of Resources by Human Populations May Affect the Quality of the Environment Accumulations of metal and non-metal ions used to increase agricultural productivity is a major source of water pollution.  Mercury- poisonous in any dose, heavy metal/dense Sources of Mercury- combustion of coal – number one source. Found in fish – biomagnification. Waste incineration. Landfills. Production of cement. Volcanoes. Result – nervous system damage. “Mad as a Hatter” Phosphates- only poisonous in large doses Source of phosphates- agriculture: fertilizer, pesticides, and animal waste.  Nitrates- only poisonous in large doses 

Source- agriculture: fertilizer, pesticides and animal waste.  Results: Eutrophication – too many nutrients. Causes algae bloom. Algae die, decomposers use up all oxygen in water, so nothing else can live – a dead zone.   

It Takes 9cal of energy to produce 1cal of food energy.   

9.9 Some material can be reused while other materials can not and, therefore, accumulate. The accumulation of non-recyclable materials may affect the balance of the Earth.

 

Ways that the US Gov’t Helps the Environment  

RCRA- Resource Conservation Recovery Act 1976

-      Reduce Waste-      Disposal of waste-      Protect Human Health-      Protect Environment-      Conserve Energy-      Conserve Natural Resources-      Insure Safe Waste

Management 

CERCLA- Comprehensive Environmental Response Compensation and Liability Act(Superfund)- designed to pay for damage to the environment. 1980

-      comprehensive – includes everything

-      compensation – ex/ get compensated for your time working/at a job with money. o  Ex/ you get sick because of

an industrial chemical leak, you get money from company that is liable because their company made you sick.

-      liability – to be held accountable for something

 Clean Air Act- 1970 Defines the EPA’s(Environmental Protection Agency = law enforcing agency) role in protecting the air and ozone.  Clean Water Act- 1972 Defines the EPA’s role in protecting the water of the earth.

Goals: eliminate release of toxic substances, eliminate water pollution by 1985, ensures water quality standards for human sports and recreation. Brownfield- a land previously used for industrial, or certain commercial, uses. Land is either abandoned or underused and needs remediation for reuse.

Not Superfund Sites, need less effort, and less money, but still need to be cleaned up.  

Scrap metal, PCB’s, petroleum, other metals

Metals, gasoline/fuel, wires(metals in the wires), PCB’s.

Hazardous substances.

Petroleum/petroleum products, PCB’s, lead, other metals, metals, gasoline. Oils, acids. Creosote.

Underground Storage Tanks.-      “leaking underground storage

tanks = ust’s”