The relationship between color

and vocabulary learning

Graduation Thesis

Presented to

the Faculty of the Department of

English Language and Literature

Notre Dame Seishin University

In Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirement for the Degree

Bachelor of Arts

Natsumi Migaki

2016

i

ContentsAbstract

Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 Introduction 1

1.2 Vocabulary learning 1.2.1 Forgetting curve 2

1.2.2 Depth of processing 3

1.3 The role of vocabulary learning

1.3.1 Sensory memory 4

1.3.2 Working memory 5

1.3.3 Long-term memory

7

1.3.4 Phonological loop 8

1.4 The effect of color on memory

1.4.1 Previous research 8

1.4.2 Color psychology 11

1.5 Research question 13

1.6 Summary 14

Chapter Two: The experiment

2.1 Introduction 15

2.2 The experiment

2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment 15

ii

2.2.2 Aim 16

2.2.3 Method

(1) Subjects 16

(2) Test design 16

(3) Procedure 18

2.3 Result 18

2.4 Summary 24

Chapter three: The results of the experiment

3.1 Introduction 26

3.2 Summary of the results 26

3.3 Discussion of the results

3.3.1 Discussion of the score from the data

27

3.3.2 Discussion of the score from the questionnaire

28

3.4 Answering research questions

29

3.5 Implication 30

3.5 Limitation of the experiment

30

3.7 Further research 31

3.8 Conclusion 31

iii

Reference 33

Appendices 36

iv

AbstractFor speaking English, vocabulary learning is the first step.

Color supports the role of memory because colors come into the eyes

in an instant. This thesis discusses what the relationships between

color and vocabulary learning are.

In the first part of Chapter One, we described vocabulary

learning, and kinds of memory. In the latter part, we looked at the

previous research and various color psychology.

In Chapter Two, we explained the process and the result of the

experiment and questionnaire. To examine the differences between

red versus blue, and between ink versus block, 38 Notre Dame

Seishin University students were asked to take the experiment. They

memorized 32 Dutch words using four different patterns, and then

they answered the questionnaire. In addition, a week later, subjects

took the second test. Then we compared the scores of the

experiment.

In Chapter Three, we discussed the results of the experiment

and the questionnaire in detail. Also, the research questions were

answered. The most important finding is that there are no huge

differences between red and blue, and between ink and block. The

reason is red enhances one’s visual effects. Blue enhances one’s

v

concentration. By color psychology, each color has unique aspect to

human mentality. This study proposed it is important to understand

the characteristics of each color and to use colors properly.

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Chapter One: Introduction

1.1 IntroductionNow, the world has become globalized. In modern society,

people around the world speak English everywhere for communication

each other, for business, or for trips. In addition, people are required

to speak English as a minimum skill. Particularly, vocabulary learning

is the first step for speaking English. There are a lot of the ways of

learning vocabulary. For example, using flashcards, listening, writing it

many times, connecting pictures and words, using gestures, making

sentences and so on.

One of these ways is using color. When people write down

some important things, they use colored pens like red, blue, or

highlighter. Everyone has underlined and marked the important points

of the textbook. Sometimes, people have underlined too much so that

they can make no sense of where is important. Moreover, people have

a concrete image about the meanings of the colors (for example, red

is seen as caution, passion or excitement, blue denotes calm, cool,

green denotes harmony, peace yellow denotes joy, happiness and so

on). We can thus assume that the colored information will tend to

affect memory and this thesis will examine this assumption. Color

1

supports the role of memory because colors come into the eyes in an

instant. By showing the coloring words visually, we may be able to

improve the vocabulary learning effect.

1.2 Vocabulary learning1.2.1 Forgetting curve

The forgetting curve shows how information is lost over time

when there is no attempt to retain it. It is clearly shown in German

psychologist Hermann Ebbinghaus's study in 1885. The graph shows

that after 20 minutes we forget 42% of the items we learn, after 1

hour 56%, the next day 74%, the next week 77%, and the next month

79%. The result of this experiment clearly shows that (1) memory

forgets nearly half of the information almost immediately and (2) but

the retained memories are forgotten more slowly and remain for a

prolonged period of time slowly decaying. In addition, research has

found that re-learning is much faster than initial learning.

2

Figure 1: Ebbinghaus’s Forgetting Curve

1.2.2 Depth of processing

Psychologists Craik and Lockhart (1972) proposed the levels

of processing model of memory. They showed deep processing

produces longer lasting, and stronger memory traces than shallow

processing. Shallow processing is input and receptive. For example, it

might include repeating or writing out words. We can learn quickly but

forgetting is also quick. Deep processing can also involve output and

productive use of the knowledge. For example, it might include

making original sentences or trying to use the words in conversation.

Studying in different ways shows learning is deeper because you

connect knowledge to all your senses. Different sensory organs, five

senses—sight, hearing, smell, taste, and touch involve different

3

depths of processing by nature, generally producing higher recall

value in certain senses than others. Visual input creates the strongest

recall value of all senses, and also allows the widest spectrum of

levels-of-processing modifiers.

Figure 2: Stage of memory

1.3 The role of memory in vocabulary learningRichard Atkinson and Richard Shiffrin (1968) proposed a

theory of human memory. They used ‘The Atkinson-Shiffrin model’ to

show that the human memory could be broken down into three

different memory stores, sensory memory, working memory, and

long-term memory.

Deep processingSemantic encoding emphasizes the meaning of verbal

input

Intermediate processingPhonemic encoding emphasizes what a word sounds like

Shallow processingStructual encoding emphasizes the physical structuere

of the stimulus

4

1.3.1 sensory memory

Sensory memory is very short-term memory. Sensory memory

cannot be controlled and lasts only a few seconds at most. Sensory

memory is often confused with working memory but there is a

significant difference. Sensory memory is the initial level of your

memory. Humans have five main senses: sight, hearing, taste, smell,

touch, plus others such as balance, time, pain,. Before the information

comes in your brain, any memory will go through the processing

center. The two most studied types of sensory memory are iconic

memory (visual) and echoic memory (sound). George Sperling

proposed iconic memory in the 1960s, and it stores information for

200-500 milliseconds, that is, less than a second. Figure 3

summarizes the discussion of sensory memory in this section.

5

Figure 3: the way of sensory memory

1.3.2 Working memory

Working memory has ability to process a lot of information at

the same time. It is said that it is “the brain’s Post- it note”. Miller

(1956) said that the only a small amount of information (7±2 words or

chunks) stays in working memory for about 15-30 seconds. For

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example, when people are given a phone number and are forced to

memorize it because there is no way to write it down. The majority of

people will find it difficult to remember more than a handful of digits

for any length of time unless the number was repeated in their mind

over and over again. So, working memory holds a small amount of

information for a short time. Short-term memory decays rapidly and

usually disappears from a person's mind within 30 seconds. In this 30

seconds, people select rehearsal and encoding or forget. Rehearsal

means that people repeat the information again and again in their

head. The more time people repeat the information, the more likely it

is the information will be sent to long-term memory.

In addition, working memory is influenced by the ‘serial

position effect’. Murdock (1962) conducted the experiment in which

participants learned a list of words that varied in number from 10 to

40 words and freely recalled them. Each word was presented for one

to two seconds. They tend to remember the first few and last few

words and are more likely to forget those in the middle of the list. This

is called the ‘bath-tub effect”. The improved recall of words at the

beginning of the list is called ‘the primary effect’ and that at the end

of the list is called ‘the recency effect’. Murdock suggested that words

early in the list were put into long-term memory (primacy effect)

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because the person has time to rehearse each word again and again.

Words from the end of the list were put into working memory (recency

effect) that can typically hold about 7±2 items in memory.

1.3.3 Long-term memory

Long-term memory has a permanent large capacity. In order

not to forget new information, we need to connect memories in long-

term memory. They divide into two parts, declarative memory and

procedural memory. Declarative memory is memory of verbal

information and can explain this information. In addition, declarative

memory can be divided into semantic memory and episodic memory.

Semantic memory includes general facts and details like names or

words and episodic memory has episode that express own

experiences or past memories. Also, procedural memory has

unconscious action or thinking that have nothing to do with verbal

information.

8

Figure 4: Mastin’s table of memory types

1.3.4 Phonological loop

Baddeley (1974) follows the model of Atkinson and Shiffrin

but he divides working memory into three systems, the phonological

loop, the visuo-spatial sketchpad, and the central executive.

Phonological loop retains verbal information as phonetic code for a

short time. Stated quite simply, we recall the voice or sounds that

someone said just by listening in the brain. For example, when a

teacher said, “Repeat after me,” first students just listen and then

students recall and copy the teacher’s voice.

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Figure 5: Schematic of Baddeley's Model

1.4 The effects of color on memory

1.4.1 Previous researchColor has as a supporting role of memory, and has a major

impact on cognition and behavior, so that many researchers are

interested in color. For example, Soldat et al. (1997) showed color had

an effect on test performance. And, Verhoeven et al. (2006) proposed

color had effects on the well being of hospital patients. In addition,

Babin et al. (2003) researched color had effect on product evaluation

and purchase intention. While these studies show good results, some

studies lead to conflicting and inconsistent results. For example, they

are divided on whether warm (e.g. red) versus cool color (e.g. blue)

10

enhance cognitive task performance. While Elliot et al. (2007) and

Soldat et al. (1997) have showed that cool colors led to better

performance than warm colors, while Hatta et al. (2002), Kwallek and

Lewis (1990) have found the opposite.

In the major result from resent studies, Mehta and Zhu (2009)

has explained that warm colors (e.g. red) led to better performance

than cool colors (e.g. blue). First, they suggested that different colors

could activate types of regulatory focus, and affect performances on

different types of cognitive tasks. Higgins (1987) suggested

regulatory focus theory that people could achieve their goals in two

different ways, with a promotion or a prevention regulatory focus.

People who have a promotion focus think of their goals as hopes and

aspiration, and approach them hard. On the other hand, people who

have a prevention focus think of their goals as duties and obligations,

and avoid mistakes carefully.

Also, Elliot et al. (2007) conducted that people develop shared

associations with colors. For example, while red is often associated

with danger and mistakes, blue is often associated with openness and

freedom. Red is likely to activate a prevention focus because it has

something to do with danger and mistakes. Blue is likely to activate a

promotion focus because it has something to do with openness and

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freedom. In addition, Fridman and Forster et al. (2003) examined that

a promotion focus increases performance speed and creativity, a

prevention focus increases performance accuracy. Then, they

assumed that while red leads to a prevention focus and then better

performance on detailed-oriented tasks, blue leads to a promotion

focus and thus better performance on creative tasks.

In this study, researchers at the University of British Columbia

conducted experiments with 600 participants to see how cognitive

performance varies when people see red or blue. Participants

performed tasks in which words or images were displayed against red,

blue or neutral backgrounds on computer screens. Based on their

experiments and analysis, they realized that red groups did better on

tests of recall and attention to detail, like remembering words or

checking spelling and punctuation, however blue groups did better on

tests requiring invention and imagination, like creative uses for a brick

or creating toys from collections of shapes. They suggested that while

red leads to better performance on detailed-oriented tasks, blue leads

to better performance on creative tasks.

1.4.2 Color psychologyOur lives are surrounded by color; color affects the human

mind more than we might think. We induce colors unconsciously,

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conversely speaking; it is possible to induce memories if we know

how color influences people’s minds. Color has a psychological

impact, a physiological impact, an emotional impact, and a cultural

impact. According to the psychological impact, your memorization

force, your reminiscence force, and your cognition increase. Also, you

can easily understand when learning with color. Next, according to the

physiological impact, it affects the nerves. The research suggests red

will increase the blood pressure because it gives a stimulus to the

sympathetic nervous system. Conversely speaking, blue or green are

said to relax us. So, our emotions and moods are greatly influenced

by color. For example, a person becomes cheerful if they look at

yellow. If you look at green such as a houseplant, people may feel

relieved. Last, culture provides basic values and feelings so that

colors have different impressions on people according to their culture.

For example, in Western culture black is a symbol of death but in the

Eastern culture white is.

The following are some common psychological effects of

colors

Red; love, romance, gentle, warmth, comfort, energy, excitement,

intensity, life, blood,

Pink; romance, love, gentle, calming, agitation

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Orange; happy, energetic, excitement, enthusiasm, warmth, wealth

prosperity, sophistication, change, stimulation

Yellow; happiness, laughter, cheery, optimism, hunger, frustration,

anger, attention-getting

Green; natural, growth, health, envy, tranquility, harmony,

calmness, fertility

Blue; calmness, serenity, cold, uncaring, wisdom, loyalty, truth,

focused, un-appetizing

Purple; royalty, wealth, sophistication, wisdom, exotic, spiritual,

prosperity, respect, mystery

Brown; reliability, stability, friendship, sadness, warmth, comfort,

security, natural, organic

Gray; neutral, timeless, practical

Black; authority, power, strength, evil, intelligence, thinning /

slimming, death or mourning

White; purity, innocence, cleanliness, sense of space, neutrality,

mourning (in some cultures/societies)

Red is said to be very attractive in colors. Red is likely to be

attracted people and also to be stored in their memory. If you want to

attract people or want to remember things, it is effective that you use

red. Then, red has a long wavelength of light so that red is easy to

14

reach people’s eyes in most colors. For example, the signal has three

colors; red, yellow, and blue. And red has the meaning of “STOP”

because red attracts people’s interest and direct people’s attention

towards. Red is often used things that is shown such as “stop, ban, or

danger” because it must catch people’s attention. In the other hands,

blue gives relax to people so it is said that suppress the blood

pressure. Then, blue gives concentration so that people feel slow the

time. The effect that people feel slow time is, in a sense, people fool

themselves and people lead into a kind of “zone”, therefore people

keep the high concentration and they can study long time.

Colors can greatly affect the human mind and feelings,

because they give psychological and physiological effects. Then, we

have been controlled in colors unconsciously.

1.5 Research questions From the study above, we have learned about vocabulary

learning and color psychology. We will examine these three questions

below.

(a)What color is useful for vocabulary learning?

(b)Is there a difference between presenting words in red or

blue?

15

(c) Is there a difference between presenting words in colored

type or with a block-colored background?

1.6 Summary In this chapter, we learn how memory works when we

memorize something. Also, we learn the impact and effects of color

from previous research. According to previous research, it seems red

leads is to better memorize vocabulary. We will discuss the three

research questions and results of the experiment in Chapter Two.

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Chapter Two: The experiment

2.1 Introduction

In Chapter One, we could learn about vocabulary learning and

color psychology. In this chapter, we will find out what the

relationships are there between color and vocabulary learning, the

difference between presenting words in red and blue, and the

difference between presenting words in colored type or with a block-

colored background.

2.2 The experiment2.2.1 Introduction to the experiment

The experiment was designed to find out the difference

between presenting words in red and blue, and the difference

between presenting words in colored type or with a block-colored

background through a test. We aimed to determine which color, red or

blue, is better to memorize vocabulary according to the test scores

and compared the first test score with the second test score. Also we

planned to determine whether the words in colored type or with a

block-colored background are better by comparing their test scores.

17

2.2.2 Aim

The aim is to examine whether there is a difference between

presenting words in red or blue and also whether there is a difference

between presenting words in colored type or with a block-colored

background. Moreover, we will examine which color is better to study

vocabulary.

2.2.3 Methods

(1) Subjects

38 third or fourth grade subjects in Notre Dame Seishin

University participated in this experiment. They major in English

linguistics or literature. All of them were females. Seven people were

3rd university students and the rest of them are 4th students. They had

studied English for more than eight years.

(2) Test design

The subjects memorized 8 Dutch words written in the booklet

and answered the questions. For my research questions, the booklet

was divide into four patterns, red words on a white background, blue

words on a white background, white words on a red background, and

white words on a blue background. Put example below and the whole

18

of the test booklet are put in the Appendix.

19

Example of blue words.① 友達 vriend② 重い zwaar③ 地震 aardbeving④

Example of red background① 金曜日 vrijdag　

② 絵を描く schilderen③ 祈る bidden④

Example of red background

① おいしい lekker② 理科 wetenschap　

③ 遊ぶ spelen④

Example of red words.① 感じる voelen② 着る dragen③ 三角 driehoek④

20

In addition, subjects learned French or German when they

were 1st grade. So, I choose Dutch because nobody had learned.

However, Dutch and Germany are similar. On the classification of

linguistics, Dutch is the one dialect of a broad German (Germanic

German). So, I avoid the similar Dutch words and chose nouns, verbs,

adjectives, and adverbs equally.

3) Procedure

The test had 32 questions in total and each section had 8

questions. The students were asked to write their student number and

their names on the test book. They memorized 8 Dutch words in 2

minutes for each section. When they answered questions, the

students could not use their dictionaries and go back to the previous

page. After they finished, all the test books were collected. The

second test was about a week later.

2.3 ResultsFirst we will look at the data by the subjects for discussing

whether there are some differences between red and blue and

between ink and block.

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Table 1: the data by subject

　

RED BLUEInk Block Ink Block

1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2ndHaruna 8 1 6 0 5 0 8 0Mika 3 0 6 0 4 0 4 1Yurina 5 0 6 1 4 1 6 0Mina 6 2 7 3 8 3 8 0Harukame 5 0 6 0 3 0 8 1

Mariko 8 1 8 2 6 2 8 0Yuki 4 0 3 0 3 1 3 0Yumiko 2 0 7 3 5 2 7 0Yuri 7 1 8 0 7 3 6 2Kokoro 8 2 5 0 0 0 7 1Anna 7 1 5 0 6 0 3 0Maya 7 1 2 0 6 0 8 0Sakko 4 1 7 2 6 0 8 4Ayako 5 1 7 2 4 0 6 2Haruka 4 0 5 0 5 0 5 0Hiroko 8 7 8 4 7 4 8 7Yuki 7 2 5 0 5 1 6 0Aya 7 4 6 2 7 4 8 2Anna 6 1 8 0 8 1 8 2Rui 8 0 8 0 8 0 8 1Mari 8 2 8 0 8 2 7 1

22

　

RED BLUEInk Block Ink Block

1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2nd 1st 2ndNatsumi 7 1 8 0 8 1 8 0Yuki 8 5 7 3 7 6 8 5Saki 8 2 8 2 8 3 8 2Riko 8 2 6 1 5 1 8 0Miho 7 3 6 3 8 5 8 4Shiho 8 2 1 0 8 0 8 2Saki 7 1 8 2 7 3 7 2Yuka 8 0 8 5 8 0 6 1Sakura 8 0 8 1 8 0 8 0Saya 7 1 5 1 7 0 4 0Saki 8 0 8 0 8 0 8 0Tomoe 6 0 6 0 4 1 6 1Yume 8 1 8 0 7 0 6 0Yuna 8 1 8 1 8 1 8 1Mina 2 0 5 1 4 0 7 2Wako 8 3 8 1 8 4 7 6Ayano 8 0 8 0 8 1 7 2Average

6.61

1.29

6.50

1.05

6.21

1.32

6.89

1.37

Table 1 shows the scores of the experiment for all subjects

and also the average score. The average score of the first experiment

is 6.61 (red ink), 6.50 (red block), 6.21(blue ink), and 6.89 (blue

block). Blue block has a little higher score, but it can’t be said that

there is a huge difference between the four patterns. Then, the

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subjects were asked to rememorize and do the same experiment after

a week. The average score of the second experiment was 1.29 (red

ink), 1.05 (red block), 1.32 (blue ink), and 1.37 (blue block). As in the

first experiment, the blue block has the highest score. These four

patterns have almost the same score.

Table 2: the average data from Table 1 for the post-test and the delay

data

The average score Standard deviation (std)

First test Second test First test Second test

Red 6.55 1.17 1.41 1.22

Blue 6.55 1.34 1.42 1.54

Ink 6.41 1.3 1.62 1.47

Block 6.70 1.21 1.31 1.32

The standard deviation scores (std) seem to show that there

is considerable individual variation between subjects. The research

question asks about the difference between presenting words in red

or blue and about the difference between presenting words in colored

type or with a block-colored background. For the research question,

we divided the experiment score into red and blue and into ink and

block (Table 2). The score average of the first score about red and

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blue is the same (6.55). And the standard deviation scores from the

first experiment is 1.41 (red) and 1.42 (blue). This shows that there is

no difference between red and blue. The average score of the first

score is 6.41 (ink) and 6.7 (block). And the standard deviation scores

of first experiment is 1.62 (ink) and 1.31 (block). This shows that ink

shows some difference in the result of the experiment for each

subject. Therefore, block pattern helps raise the experiment score

more than ink pattern.

In this experiment, 38 subjects were asked to memorize 32

unknown Dutch words in four ways: red ink, blue ink, red block, and

blue block. In addition, we asked the subjects that which color was

easier to remember after this experiment. And also, we asked to the

subjects that what colors they like because the result of the

experiment may change due to likes or dislikes.

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red pink

orang

eye

llow green blu

ena

vybro

wn glay

black

white

0123456789

10

5

9

3 3 3

7

2 2 2 2

6

Figure 6: what colors do you like? (Questionnaire)

We allowed multiple answers to the subjects. We see from

figure six that the nine subjects like pink, seven like blue, and six like

white. Therefore, the differences of the results will not be observed by

colors.

26

red42%

blue58%

Figure 7: Which do you like red ink or blue ink? (Questionnaire)

We see from figure seven that the subjects like blue (58%)

and red (42%). We asked the reason why they like the color. Most of

the students who chose blue answered, “Because it is easy to read or

because I can concentrate on the experiment.” On the other hand,

the subjects chose red, “Because I felt I must remember the words or

felt the important words.” And one negative reason for red is

“Because red is irritating my eyes.”

27

red21%

blue79%

Figure 8: Which do you like red block or blue block? (Questionnaire)

We see from figure eight that the subjects like blue (79%) and

red (21%). We asked the reason why they like the color. Most of the

students who chose blue answered, “Because it is easy to read,

increased concentration or I felt relax.” On the other hand, the

subjects chose red, “Because it increased motivation.” And some

negative reason for red was “Because my eyes got tired.”

2.4 SummaryIn this chapter, we conducted an experiment and reported the

results. In the experiment, 38 subjects were asked to memorize Dutch

words. The delay test was conducted about a week later. The result of

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our experiment clearly shows that the average score of the first

experiment is 6.61 (red ink), 6.50 (blue ink), 6.21 (red block), and

6.89 (blue block). It is said that there is almost same scores between

four patterns. The reasons for these data, the result and others will be

analyzed in the next chapter.

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Chapter Three: The results of the experiment

3.1 Introduction

In Chapter One, we studied vocabulary learning and color

psychology. In Chapter Two, we considered whether there are

differences of the experiment score depending on red or blue,

whether there are differences between presenting words in colored

type or with a block-colored background, by asking NDSU 38 students

to take experiments.

In this chapter, we would like to analyze the results of the

experiment and discuss the data in detail. In conclusion, we will show

the answers to the three research questions.

3.2 Summary of the resultsIn Chapter Two, we looked at the results of the experiment. All

the subjects took tests two times by four colors pattern. The average

score of the first experiment is 6.61 (red ink), 6.50 (blue ink), 6.21

(red block), and 6.89 (blue block). It can’t be said that there is a huge

difference between four patterns. Then, after a week, subjects were

asked to do the same experiment. The average score of the second

experiment is 1.29 (red ink), 1.05 (blue ink), 1.32 (red block), and

30

1.37 (blue block). These four patterns are almost the same score.

The average score of first score about red and blue is the

same (6.55). And the standard deviation scores of first experiment is

1.41 (red) and 1.42 (blue). Then, the average score of first score is

6.41 (ink) and 6.7 (block). And the standard deviation scores of first

experiment is 1.62 (ink) and 1.31 (block).

3.3 Discussion of the resultsIn this section, we will discuss the results of the experiment in

detail.

3.3.1 Discussion of the score from data

First, we will discuss about red versus blue. The average score

of first experiment about red and blue is the same (6.55). And the

standard deviation scores of first experiment are 1.41 (red) and 1.42

(blue). Then, the average score of the second test about red and blue

is 1.17 (red) and 1.34 (blue). And the standard deviation scores of the

second test were 1.22 (red) and 1.54 (blue). There was no huge

difference between red and blue. That is reason subjects are affected

by color psychology of each color. According to color psychology, red

is said to be a very attractive color. Red has a deep relationship to the

vision among the five senses. Red help us develop a memory

remaining in our mind because red comes into their view. On the

31

other hand, blue relaxes people so it is said that it lowers the blood

pressure. So, blue helps concentration. In short, red enhances one’s

visual effects. Blue enhances one’s concentration. For that reason,

someone has had influence by red and someone has had influence by

blue. Therefore, the experiment score is almost equal.

Next, we will discuss ink versus block. The average score of

first experiment is 6.41 (ink) and 6.7 (block). And the standard

deviation scores of first experiment are 1.62 (ink) and 1.31 (block).

Then, the average score of the second test was 1.3 (ink) and 1.21

(block). And the standard deviation scores of the second test were

1.47 (ink) and 1.32 (block). There are also no huge deference

between ink and block. In terms of red, the average score of the first

experiment is 6.61 (red ink) and 6.50 (red block). On red block, red

area is large but red makes our eyes tired and are irritated from a

psychological aspect. Therefore, red block isn’t suitable for study.

However, some subjects said in the questionnaire that blue block is

easy on the eyes. As a result, the average score of the first

experiment is 6.21(blue ink), and 6.89 (blue block). Therefore, in

terms of blue, block is more suitable for study than ink.

3.3.2 Discussion of the score from questionnaire

We see from questionnaire that the subjects like blue ink

32

(58%) and red ink (42%), in addition, blue block (79%) and red block

(21%). On both of questionnaire, many subjects answered blue. Color

psychology shows blue can relax. As the evidence, many subjects said

that they could felt relax and could concentrate on test. On the other

hand, some subjects said red felt important words but some subjects

said negative answer that red is irritating and their eyes got tired. All

you have to study is to concentrate. Therefore, we see from

questionnaire that blue is better for learning than red.

3.4 Answering the Research QuestionsWe will examine these three questions in the first chapter.

The research questions for this thesis are:

(a)What color is useful for vocabulary learning?

(b)Is there a difference between presenting words in red or

blue?

(c) Is there a difference between presenting words in colored

type or with a block-colored background?

Then, in this section, we will answer these three research

questions one by one. First, about (a) it is said by color psychology

that red is an attractive color, and blue raises the concentration. Each

color has unique aspect for human mentality. Therefore, it is

33

important to understand the characteristics of each color and to use

colors properly. Next, about (b) there are no huge differences between

red and blue. The experiment shows that red enhances human’s

visual effect so that the memory efficiency is enhanced. Then, blue

enhances human’s concentration so that the memory efficiency is

enhanced. Last, about (c) there are also no huge differences between

ink and block but there is something to do with colors. Red block is

not suitable for the learner because red irritates them. It’s not good

for study. However, blue can help us relax so that blue block is better

for study than red block.

3.5 Implications

Red is likely to be attractive people and also helps words to be

stored in their memory. On the other hand, blue relaxes us and helps

concentration so that people feel the time slows. Blue is intense for

human’s study. Therefore, we will use black when you write the

insignificant things and blue for the important things. In addition, if

there is something more important than blue, then we will use red.

We will sustain concentration by blue and then we will become

excited by red so that the important things became established more

34

memory.

3.6 Limitations of the experiments

There are some limitations of the experiment. First, for

example, it is said that the study by Mehta and Zhu (2009) did not

involve different cultures, like China, where red symbolizes prosperity

and luck. In addition, in Japan the sun is often written in red, but in

western countries it is often written in yellow. So, the results might

change if the subjects had some different culture. Another limitation

is that we understand the results of only young females. Last, this

time we use red and blue for the experiment. Therefore, we discussed

about only red and blue. That is, we don’t know about another color.

For example, yellow is one of the three primary colors and use the

traffic light for meaning of caution.

3.7 Further research

To follow up this research, there are some ideas. Firstly, our

subjects are only female. However, it is said that male brain and

female brain have some differences. If we asked for male and female,

35

the results of the experiment would change. Secondly, we use only

two colors, red and blue, for the experiment. The three primary colors

are red, blue, and yellow. If we used another color, there would be a

huge difference.

3.8 Conclusion

The purpose of this thesis is to find out the relationships

between colors and vocabulary learning. Previous research suggested

that while red leads to better performance on detailed-oriented tasks,

blue leads to better performance on creative tasks. From the

experiment, it can be said that there are no huge differences between

red and blue, and between ink and block. For this reason, red

enhances one’s visual effects. Blue enhance one’s concentration. So,

some are influenced by red and someone by blue. Therefore, the

experiment score is almost equal. It is difficult to say the best

memorizing color method but it can be said that there is something

effect of colors and vocabulary learning. Each color has unique aspect

to human mentality. Therefore, it is important to understand the

characteristics of each color and to use colors properly.

36

References

Art Therapy, Color Psychology: The Emotional Effects of Colors.

http://www.arttherapyblog.com/online/color-psychology-psychologica-

effects-of-colors/#.VkrzrbSQtmA, (Accessed October 11, 2015)

Memorize, Sensory Memory Is Your Brain Hub.

https://memorise.org/brain-articles/sensory-memory-brain-hub,

(Accessed November 10, 2015)

Ravi Mehta and Rui (Juliet) Zhu, Blue or Red? Exploring the Effect of

Color on Cognitive Task Performances

http://www.uvm.edu/~pdodds/files/papers/others/2009/

mehta2009a.pdf, (Accessed November 17, 2015)

Simply Psychology, Working Memory.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/working%20memory.html, (Accessed

November 10, 2015)

Simply Psychology, Levels of Processing.

http://www.simplypsychology.org/levelsofprocessing.html, (Accessed

May 10, 2015)

37

The Human Memory, Sensory Memory.

http://www.human-memory.net/types_sensory.html, (Accessed

November 10, 2015)

The Human Memory, Short-term (working) Memory.

http://www.human-memory.net/types_short.html, (Accessed

November 10, 2015)

The Human Memory, Long-term Memory.

http://www.human-memory.net/types_long.html, (Accessed November

10, 2015)

The New York Times, Colors may affect performance, study suggests.

http://www.nytimes.com/2009/02/06/health/06iht-

color.1.19983382.html, (Accessed November 17, 2015)

The Team W Blog, Red Or Blue?: Research On Screen Color That May

Surprise You

http://www.blog.theteamw.com/2013/07/17/red-or-blue-research-on-

screen-color-that-may-surprise-you/, (Accessed September 28, 2015)

Training Industry, Forgetting Curve.

38

https://www.trainingindustry.com/wiki/entries/forgetting-curve.aspx,

(Accessed November 16, 2015)

39

① 秋 de herfst　

② デザート nagerecht　

③ 上に boven

④ 愛する houden

⑤ 書く schrijven

⑥ 閉める sluiten

⑦ 偽る liegen

⑧ 可笑しい grappig

AppendicesExample first test

Please learn these Dutch words.

1

Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.

① liegen ( )

② boven ( )

③ de herfst ( )

④ houden ( )

⑤ grappig ( )

⑥ nagerecht ( )

⑦ schrijven ( )

⑧ sluiten ( )

3.

Please learn these Dutch words.

① 金曜日 vrijdag　

② 絵を描く schilderen

③ 祈る bidden

④ 乾いた droog

2

Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.

① bidden ( )

② scheikunde( )

③ droog ( )

④ vrijdag ( )

⑤ schilderen ( )

⑥ klein ( )

⑦ verkopen ( )

⑧ gebruiken ( )

5.

Please learn these Dutch words.

① おいしい lekker

① 金曜日 vrijdag　

② 絵を描く schilderen

③ 祈る bidden

④ 乾いた droog

3

② 理科 wetenschap　

③ 遊ぶ spelen

④ きれいな schoon

⑤ 建物 bouw

⑥ 浮く drijven

⑦ 得点 doelpunt

⑧ 失う verliezen

6.

Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.

① bouw ( )

② lekker ( )

4

③ schoon ( )

④ drijven ( )

⑤ verliezen ( )

⑥ doelpunt ( )

⑦ spelen ( )

⑧ wetenschap ( )

7.

Please learn these Dutch words.

① 感じる voelen

② 着る dragen

③ 三角 driehoek

5

④ 最高の prima

⑤ 友達 vriend

⑥ 重い zwaar

⑦ 地震 aardbeving　

⑧ 少ない weinig

8.

Don’t look back and please write the Japanese meaning.

① zwaar ( )

② dragen ( )

③ prima ( )

④ vriend ( )

6

⑤ aardbeving( )

⑥ weinig ( )

⑦ voelen ( )

⑧ driehoek ( )

9.

It is end of the test.Thank you for cooperating with this test.

Please answer these question.Q1 What colors do you like? ( )

Q2 Which do you like RED letters or BLUE letters? ( RED / BLUE )Q3 And why? ( )

7

Q4 Which do you like RED background or BLUE background? ( RED / BLUE )Q5 And why? ( )

10.

Example second test

Please write the Japanese meaning.

① schrijven ( )

② nagerecht ( )

③ grappig ( )

④ sluiten ( )

⑤ boven ( )

8

⑥ houden ( )

⑦ liegen ( )

⑧ de herfst ( )

Please write the Japanese meaning.

① droog ( )

② klein ( )

③ gebruiken ( )

④ verkopen ( )

⑤ schilderen ( )

⑥ scheikunde( )

⑦ bidden ( )

⑧ vrijdag ( )

9

2.

Please write the Japanese meaning.

① drijven ( )

② spelen ( )

③ lekker ( )

④ bouw ( )

⑤ schoon ( )

⑥ verliezen ( )

⑦ wetenschap ( )

⑧ doelpunt ( )

3.

10

Please write the Japanese meaning.

① driehoek ( )

② zwaar ( )

③ dragen ( )

④ voelen ( )

⑤ vriend ( )

⑥ aardbeving( )

⑦ weinig ( )

⑧ prima ( )

4.

11