vitamin and mineral sources from herbs

Vitamin and Mineral Sources From Herbs

Vitamin and Mineral Sources from Herbs By Dr. Thomas Stearns Lee, NMD

Herbs can be a good source of many valuable nutrients. Here is a list of herbs that supply commonly needed nutrients.

Vitamin A Alfalfa, Burdock, Cayenne, Dandelion, Garlic, Kelp, Marshmallow, Papaya, Parsley, Pokeweed, Raspberry, Red clover, Saffron, Watercress, Yellow dock

Thiamine (B1) Cayenne, Dandelion, Fenugreek, Kelp, Parsley, Raspberry

Riboflavin (B2) Alfalfa, Burdock, Dandelion, Fenugreek, Kelp, Parsley, Raspberry

Niacin (B3) Alfalfa, Burdock, Dandelion, Fenugreek, Kelp, Parsley, Sage

Pyridoxine (B6) Alfalfa, Wheat, Corn, Mugwort

Cobalamine (B12) Alfalfa, Kelp

Vitamin C Alfalfa, Burdock, Boneset, Catnip, Cayenne, Chickweed, Dandelion, Garlic, Hawthorn Berry, Horseradish, Kelp, Lobelia, Parsley, Plantain, Pokeweed, Papaya, Raspberry, Rose Hips, Shepherd's purse, Strawberry, Watercress, Yellow Dock

Vitamin D Alfalfa, Watercress

Vitamin E Alfalfa, Dandelion, Kelp, Raspberry, Rose hips, Watercress

Vitamin K Alfalfa, Plantain, Shepherd's purse

Rutin Dandelion, Rose hips, Rue

Calcium Coltsfoot, Chive, Chamomile, Caraway seed, Cleavers, Dandelion, Dill, Horsetail, Meadow sweet, Mistletoe, Nettles, Parsley, Pimpernel, Plantain, Poppy seed, Raspberry, Shepherd's purse, Silverweed, Watercress, Yellow dock

Chlorophyll Alfalfa, most leafy green potherbs

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Vitamin and Mineral Sources From Herbs

Chlorine Alfalfa, Dandelion, Dill stems, Fennel stems, Goldenseal, Kelp, Myrrh, Nettles, Parsley, Plantain, Raspberry, Uva ursi, Watercress, Wintergreen

Copper Agar-agar, Dandelion, Dulse, Kelp, Liverwort, Nettles, Parsley, Sorrel

Fluorine Corn silk, Dill, Garlic, Horsetail, Plantain, Watercress

Iodine Dulse, Garlic, Irish moon, Kelp, Sarsaparilla, Mustard, Parsley

Iron Alfalfa, Burdock, Blue cohosh, Cayenne, Dandelion, Dulse, Kelp, Mullein, Nettles, Parsley, Pokeweed, Rhubarb, Rose hips, Yellow dock

Magnesium Alfalfa, Blue cohosh, Carrot leaves, Cayenne, Dandelion, Dill, Kelp, Mistletoe, Mullein, Nettles, Peppermint, Primrose, Raspberry, Skullcap, Walnut leaves, Willow, Wintergreen, Manganese, Agar-agar, Bladderwrack, Burdock, Dulse, Kelp, Nettles, Sorrel, Strawberry leaves, Wintergreen, Yellow dock

Phosphorus Alfalfa, Blue cohosh, Calamus, Calendula, Caraway, Cayenne, Chickweed, Dandelion, Garlic, Irish moss, Kelp, Licorice, Parsley, Purslane, Pokeweed, Raspberry, Rhubarb, Rose hips, Watercress, Yellow dock

Potassium Alfalfa, Blue cohosh, Birch, Borage, Chamomile, Coltsfoot, Comfrey, Centaury, Dandelion, Dulse, Eyebright, Fennel, Irish moss, Kelp, Mistletoe, Mullein, Nettles, Papaya, Parsley, Peppermint, Plantain, Primrose, Raspberry, Shepherd's purse, White oak bark, Wintergreen, Yarrow

Selenium Kelp, most seaweeds

Silicon Alfalfa, Blue cohosh, Burdock, Chickweed, Corn silk, Flaxseed, Horsetail, Kelp, Nettle, Poppyseed, Raspberry, Sunflower seed

Sodium Apple tree bark, Alfalfa, Cleavers, Dandelion, Dill, Dulse, Fennel, Irish moss, Kelp, Mistletoe, Nettles, Parsley, Shepherd's purse, Thyme

Sulphur Alfalfa, Burdock, Cayenne, Coltsfoot, Eyebright, Fennel, Garlic, Irish moss, Kelp, Mullein, Nettles, Parsley, Plantain, Raspberry, Sage, Shepherd's purse, Thyme

Zinc Kelp, Marshmallow

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Food Sources of Mineral Nutrients

Food Sources of Mineral NutrientsHere is a list of good food sources for a number of important minerals that are an essential part of good nutrition.

Calcium Almonds, figs, beans, carrots, pecans, raisins, brown rice, apricots, garlic, dates, spinach, sesame seeds, brazil nuts, cashews, papaya, avocados, celery.

Chromium Brewers yeast, clams, cheese, corn oil, whole grains.

Copper Soy beans, Brazil nuts, bone meal, raisins, legumes, seafoods, black strap molasses.

Iodine Kelp, dulse, beets, celery, lettuce, Irish moss, grapes, mushrooms, oranges.

Iron * Kelp, raisins, figs, beets, soy beans, bananas, asparagus, carrots, cucumbers, sunflower seeds, parsley, grapes, watercress.

Magnesium Honey, almonds, tuna, kelp, pineapple, pecans, green vegetables.

Manganese Celery, bananas, beets, egg yolks, bran, walnuts, pineapples, asparagus, whole grains, leafy green vegetables.

Phosphorus Mushrooms, cashews, oats, beans, squash, pecans, carrots, almonds.

Potassium Spinach, apples, tomatoes, strawberries, bananas, lemons, figs, celery, mushrooms, oranges, papaya, pecans, raisins, pineapple, rice, cucumbers, Brussels sprouts.

Sodium Turnips, raw milk, cheese, wheat germ, cucumbers, beets, string beans, seafoods, lima beans, okra, pumpkins.

Sulphur Bran, cheese, eggs, cauliflower, nuts, onions, broccoli, fish, wheat germ, cucumbers, turnips, corn.

Zinc Mushrooms, liver, seafood, soy beans, sunflower seeds, brewers yeast.

* NaturoDoc Note: Iron has been found to be problematic for people who have high levels from their diet and environment. Many mineral supplements are now formulated without iron because of its inflammatory and toxic effects on some people

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Vegan Protein Sources

Vegan Protein SourcesBy Thomas Stearns Lee, NMD

Plant foods contain the same eight amino acids as animal foods do, only in differing amounts. As long as you are getting enough calories from a healthy diet, plant foods give you all the amino acids you need, by themselves or in combination with one another.

Foods listed below are considered complete proteins, meaning they contain all of the essential amino acids:

● Nuts

● Soy foods, such as tofu, tempeh, miso, and soy milk

● Sprouted seeds -- each type of sprout has differing proportions of nutrients, so it's best to eat a variety of them

● Grains, especially amaranth and quinoa, are highest in protein and are high-quality proteins

● Beans and legumes, especially when eaten raw

● Spirulina and chorella (blue-green algae), which are over 60 percent protein

Common Sources of Essential Amino Acids

Histidine: Apple, pomogranates, alfalfa, beets, carrots, celery, cucumber, dandelion, endive, garlic, radish, spinach, turnip greens.

Arginine: Alfalfa, beets, carrots, celery, cucumbers, green vegetables, leeks, lettuce, potatoes, radishes, parsnips, nutritional yeast.

Valine: Apples, almonds, pomegranates, beets, carrots, celery, dandelion greens, lettuce, okra, parsley, parsnips, squash, tomatoes, turnips, nutritional yeast.

Tryptophan: Alfalfa, brussel sprouts, carrots, celery, chives, dandelion greens, endive, fennel, snap beans, spinach, turnips, nutritional yeast.

Threnoine: Papayas, alfalfa sprouts, carrots, green leafy vegetables such as celery, collards, kale, and lettuce (especially iceberg), lima beans, laver (Nori -- a sea vegetable).

Phenylalanine: Apples, pineapples, beets, carrots, parsley, spinach, tomatoes, nutritional yeast.

Methionine: Apples, pineapples, Brazil nuts, filberts, brussels sprouts, cabbage, cauliflower, chives, dock (sorrel), garlic, horseradish, kale, watercress.

Lysine: Apples, apricots, grapes, papayas, pears, alfalfa, beets, carrots, celery, cucumber, dandelion

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Vegan Protein Sources

greens, parsley, spinach, turnip greens.

Leucine: Avocados, papayas, olives, coconut, sunflower seeds.

Isoleucine: Avocados, papayas, olives, coconut, sunflower seeds.

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Aspartame Dangers

Aspartame

A Bitter Sweetener

From Complementary Health

Aspartame, known to the public as NutraSweet, Equal, and Spoonful, has been the subject of controversy since it first became an ingredient in food products in 1981. In 1985, Americans used 800 million pounds of Aspartame, with an average intake of 5.8 pounds per person. They consumed more than 20 billion cans of aspartame-sweetened soft drinks in 1985 alone.

A study of available literature on the subject reveals that over the years more and more indications have arisen that suggest that the public is at great risk through its repeated use. Serious consideration should be given to discontinuing the ingestion of aspartame until the safety or lack thereof is firmly established.

For this article, the Complementary Medicine Association interviewed authorities George Schwartz, M.D. and Mary Nash Stoddard. Dr. Schwartz is a trauma surgeon and the author of In Bad Taste: the MSG Syndrome. Ms. Stoddard, editor of The Deadly Deception, founded the Aspartame Consumer Safety Network and the worldwide Pilot's Hotline for reporting adverse reactions to aspartame. We will also refer to a comprehensive text entitled Excitotoxins: The Taste That Kills by Russell L. Blaylock, MD. We are grateful to these individuals for their support.

What does aspartame do?

First, aspartame releases aspartate during digestion. Aspartate is a neurotransmitter used by the neurons in the brain. It is a type of excitatory amino acid. Excitatory amino acids are normal and necessary brain chemicals, and as such, they are allowed to cross the blood-brain barrier. Aspartate, the principal chemical component of aspartame, is a neurotransmitter and a type of excitatory amino acid. It is a natural and necessary body chemical. Neurotransmitters cross the blood-brain barrier.

The blood-brain barrier is designed to protect the brain from the invasion of harmful chemicals. When normal neurotransmitters such as aspartate and glutamate cross this barrier in excess, they will cause poisoning and lead to the death of the nerve cells within the brain and spinal cord. The blood-brain barrier cannot discern the amount that is needed from too much. So these neurotransmitters can build up undetected until a toxic level is reached. This accumulation seems to be particularly insidious in its effect on the developing brains and nervous systems of children.

"The nervous system is designed to control the concentration of excitatory amino acids in the fluid surrounding the neurons, the extracellular space. The main ones concerning us are glutamate and aspartate. The nervous system does this by pumping the excess back into glial cells which surround the neurons and supply them with energy. While this pumping system is very efficient, it uses enormous amounts of ATP, a high-energy compound that all cells in the body use for energy.

"If energy production is reduced in the brain, the protective pumps begin to fail and glutamate begins to accumulate in the space around the neuron, including the area of the synapse. If the energy is not restored the neurons will burn up; they are literally excited to death."1

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Aspartame Dangers

What are the risks to children who consume excess aspartame?

The protective enzymes in a baby's brain are still immature, and therefore are unable to effectively detoxify the excitotoxins that enter its brain. This would mean that in the case of a pregnant woman eating meals high in excitotoxin taste enhancers, the baby could be exposed to these high glutamate levels for many hours. It is not unreasonable to assume that mothers will eat several meals and snacks containing various forms of excitotoxins such as MSG, hydrolyzed vegetable protein, and aspartame. This could produce a high concentration of glutamate exposure in the baby's brain several times a day. Also significant is the fact that the immature brain is four times more sensitive to the damaging effects of excitotoxins than the adult brain. Thus, following a dose of MSG, the baby's blood level of glutamate may remain high for many hours. Since no experimental work can be done on pregnant women or children, we must look to animal research studies for some clues.

"In a study with mice and rats Toth and Lajtha found that, when giving aspartame and glutamate either as single amino acids or as liquid diets over a prolonged time (several hours to days), they could significantly elevate brain levels of these supposedly excluded excitotoxins. Brain tissue levels of aspartic acid rose as high as 61% and glutamate levels rose 35% in brain tissue over prolonged feeding... Humans are exposed to high concentrations of excitatory food additives throughout the day by consuming a variety of processed foods and diet drinks."2

Plasticity of the brain is important in the learning process. Even when the baby is in the womb, the brain of the infant is being stimulated by sounds, touch, and even light, causing changes in the brain's structure in important ways. Babies move and play with their toes, suck their thumbs, and react to noises and music after only six weeks in the womb. All of this stimulation causes the pathways in the brain to change and develop.

At birth the baby's brain chemistry functions homogeneously -- the biochemical reactions occur evenly throughout the brain. But soon after birth, the brain undergoes a rapid acceleration in growth and function. During this period the level of glutamine, the precursor of glutamate, rises very rapidly in some of the areas of the brain. Glutamate helps to regulate the development of the wiring of nerves in the new brain. As the child grows, even beyond teen years, these developing connections grow as well.

This process of molding the brain continues throughout life, but the majority of growth takes place within 0-7 years of life. During these critical years, if unborn and young children are fed drinks or food containing aspartame, over-stimulation can occur.

It is important to appreciate that many of the toxic effects of excitatory amino acids occur at a time when no outward symptoms develop. The child does not become sick or throw up, or have any behavior that would alert the parents that something is wrong.3

How was aspartame approved?

Dr. Schwartz was asked to elaborate on a statement attributed to former Senator Metzenbaum, now of the Consumer Federation of America in Washington, DC who said, "The approval process of aspartame has had a questionable history."

Dr. Schwartz: "When aspartame was first introduced for approval by the FDA, it was considered to be a sweetener, not an additive or a drug, and with a great deal of lobbying, the discussions were propelled through the approval proceedings, and the numerous case reports from individuals with adverse reactions were ignored."

From Dr. Blaylock's book we learn that, "In 1975 the drug enforcement division of the Bureau of Foods


Aspartame Dangers

investigated the G. D. Searle company as part of an investigation of "apparent irregularities in data collection and reporting practices." The director of the FDA at that time stated that they found "sloppy" laboratory techniques and "clerical errors, mixed-up animals, animals not getting the drugs they were supposed to get, pathological specimens lost because of improper handling, and a variety of other errors, (which) even if innocent, all conspire to obscure positive findings and produce falsely negative results."

"The drug enforcement division carried out a study under the care of agent Jerome Bressler concerning Searle's laboratory practices and data manipulation. This important report was buried in a file cabinet, never to be acted on by the FDA.

"Although aspartame-produced tumors in rats do not equal tumors in humans, after aspartame consumption began, there have been more brain tumors. In the years 1973 to 1990, the number of brain tumors in people over sixty five has increased by 67 percent (National Cancer Institute SEER Program Data)."4

Is it proven that people drinking, or eating artificial sweeteners don't lose weight?

Mary Stoddard says, "It's well documented that excitotoxins like aspartame have the reverse affect on weight. People drinking diet drinks and eating diet food will get more hungry. The FDA no longer allows manufacturers of diet supplement drinks and foods containing aspartame to label them as weight reduction products, but requires that they be labeled as diet drink or diet food. A study of 80,000 women who use sweeteners were evaluated through the Centers for Disease Control. It was found that they gained rather than lost weight using artificial sweeteners."

Why do pilots need to avoid aspartame?

Mary Stoddard explains, "In a letter to the editor and in one article published in the United States Air Force AirMen's News, it was noted that aspartame ingestion causes elevated spiking on the EEG, resulting in grand mal seizures and blackout episodes in the cockpit. Dozens have lost their jobs due to aspartame-related medical problems."

How does aspartame affect vision?

Dr. Schwartz states, "Diet drinks with aspartame release small amounts of methanol when the aspartame is broken down through digestion in the small intestine. It is well documented that methanol interrupts the retina and optic nerve transmissions and causes visual problems. Even though the FDA has thousands of cases of visual disturbances on record from individuals drinking too many diet drinks with aspartame, there have been no formal, unbiased, scientific studies done. Vision studies need to be done."

Is there a known connection between increasing consumption of diet drinks and headaches?

In the New England Journal of Medicine, Dr. Donald R. Johns reported what appeared to be a connection between a case of migraine and the consumption of large amounts of a beverage containing NutraSweet™. A thirty-one-year-old woman with a known history of well-controlled migraine headaches began drinking six to eight 12-ounce cans of diet cola sweetened with NutraSweet, 15 tablets of aspartame, and other foods containing aspartame (approximately 100 to 1500 mg) daily. About two hours after ingesting the drinks, she noticed stomach upset and a throbbing headache. When taken off


Aspartame Dangers

aspartame, she noticed steady improvement and eventually the headaches disappeared altogether.

In the May 1988 issue of the New England Journal of Medicine, two letters appeared from the following physicians regarding headaches and aspartame. In the first, Dr. Richard B. Lipton and coworkers at the Montefiore Headache Unit reported that, in their studies using 171 patients, 8.2 percent of the patients who had headaches were sensitive to aspartame. They found that stress and tension also trigger migraines and other headaches. Dr. Lipton concluded that "sufferers of migraines or other vascular headaches should be warned to avoid NutraSweet." If you are a person who suffers headaches from low blood sugar levels, you also should avoid excitotoxins, including aspartame, because they aggravate

hypoglycemia."5

A group of headache sufferers who have identified aspartame as the trigger setting off their headaches where given 30 mg/kg/day to study their aspartame sensitivity under double-blind controlled conditions. Of a total of 32 subjects, randomized to receive aspartame and a placebo in a two-treatment, four-period crossover design, "18 completed the full protocol, and 7 completed part of the protocol before withdrawing due to adverse effects. Three withdrew for other reasons. Two were lost to follow-up; one was withdrawn due to noncompliance, and one withdrew and gave no reason. Each experimental period lasted 7 days. Individuals receiving aspartame reported having headaches on 33 percent of the days as

compared with 24 percent for the placebo treatment group (p = 0.04)."6

Individual subjective evaluation of aspartame versus placebo was shown to be statistically significant. It appears that some people are particularly susceptible to headaches caused by aspartame and may want

to limit their consumption."6

Is there an aspartame connection to other health conditions?

In treating stroke victims, researcher Roger Simon has shown that energy-starved neurons are infinitely more vulnerable to excitotoxin damage. There are a growing number of conditions affecting the nervous system that are related to accumulations of excitotoxins. Excess excitotoxins can have a devastating effect on the nervous system.

Dr. Blaylock states that a primary concern is the possible effect of these powerful brain cell stimulants on the adult's brain, especially related to the development of neurodegenerative diseases such as Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's dementia, Huntington's disease and ALS. The brain uses excitatory amino acids as normal neurotransmitters, but there exists a delicate balance of excitatory and inhibitory

chemicals in the brain. When this balance is upset, serious disorders of the nervous system can result.7

"Those who suffer mood disorders seem to be very vulnerable to the effects of aspartame. A study required that 40 patients with unipolar depression and a similar number of individuals with a psychiatric history receive 39 mg/kg/day or placebo for 7 days. The project was halted by the Institutional Review Board of the Northeastern Ohio Universities College of Medicine after 13 of 40 individuals with a history of depression experienced severe reactions. There was a significant difference between patients taking aspartame and those taking the placebo in the number and severity of symptoms that these patients with depression reported. Individuals with mood disorders are particularly sensitive to aspartame, and its use should be discouraged."

Three cases are reported from patients who had episodic movement disorders triggered by foods or other components of their diets. One of those cases told of rhythmic contractions of the arms and legs that were triggered by aspartame.

Can seizures be triggered by aspartame?


Aspartame Dangers

In 1985, Dr. Richard Wurtman reported several cases of seizures brought on by drinking too many diet drinks. The first case involved a woman with no previous seizure activity who developed seizures after drinking seven liters of NutraSweet-containing beverages per day.

In the second case, a woman 27 years old had a grand mal seizure after drinking 4 to 5 glasses of Crystal Light™ containing NutraSweet. This patient experienced twitching, trembling, jerking, and hyperventilation.

The last case was a 36-year-old male professor who drank one liter of ice tea sweetened with NutraSweet every day and developed grand mal seizures after several days. He had no previous history

of seizures nor of aspartame consumption."10

Who else should avoid aspartame?

"Diabetics, people with hypoglycemia, people prone to confusion or memory loss, pregnant women, the elderly, infants, children, patients with epilepsy, liver, kidney disease, and eating disorders, the relatives of those individuals who are sensitive to aspartame, diabetics, and patients with phenylketonuria

(PKU)."11

During digestion, aspartame is broken down into aspartic acid, phenylalanine, and methanol. Those with PKU must restrict their intake of phenylalanine.

Where do we go from here?

Considering what is now known about brain chemistry, as well as the now numerous documented reports of adverse reactions to aspartame, it would be prudent to eliminate aspartame from the diet.

Reading labels on food items is important but not sufficient. Labeling regulations make it possible to conceal from the public information needed to make good decisions about diet. For example, there are some circumstances in which a substance like aspartame or glutamate does not have to be shown on the label. Often it is included under another term like "enhanced flavors or spices." The public needs to be aware of these problems and demand more information.

References

1. Russell L Blaylock. Excitotoxins: The Taste that Kills. Health Press, Santa Fe, NM, 1995, p. 39.

2. Ibid, p. 74-75, 78. 3. Ibid, p. 64, 71-72. 4. Ibid, p. 213. 5. Ibid. p. 198-199. 6. S.K. Van den Eeden, et al. Aspartame Ingestion and Headaches: A Randomized Crossover

Trial Abstracted from Neurology, 44 (10), Oct. 1994, pp. 1787-93. 7. Blaylock, p. 215. 8. Reported by R.G. Walton et al. in "Adverse Reactions to Aspartame: Double-blind challenge

in Patients from a Vulnerable Population," Biological Psychiatry, 34 (1-2) , July 1-15, 1993. 9. International Journal of Neuroscience. 76 (1-2): 61-9, May 1994.

10. Possible Effects on Seizure Susceptibility." Lancet, Nov 9, 1984, p. 1060. 11. H.J. Roberts, MD. Aspartame (NutraSweet): Is it Safe? Philadelphia: Charles Press, 1989.


Aspartame Dangers

Top


Effects of Drugs on Nutrition

The Effects of Drugs on NutritionBy Dr. Theresa MacLean

The following classes of pharmaceutical medications have various effects upon the nutritional status of the user. Over time, these effects can become very significant as to the comfort level and even the survival of the person taking them. Compare these effects with those described by your physician and inform him or her of any concerns you might have.

Loop diuretics (furosemide)

● Excretion of sodium, chloride, potassium, hydrogen ions, calcium, magnesium, ammonium bicarbonate, and possibly phosphate is enhanced.

● After 4 weeks of furosemide use, thiamin concentrations and transketolase activity were significantly reduced.

Thiazide diuretics (hydrochlorthiazide)

● Excretion of sodium, chloride, potassium, bicarbonate, magnesium, phosphate, and iodine are enhanced.

● Calcium excretion is decreased.

Triamterene-containing diuretics (Dyazide, Dyrenium, Maxzide)

● Triamterene is potassium-sparing; supplementation could result in potassium overload.

● Folic acid deficiency is possible.

Histamine H2 antagonists (Tagamet, Zantac, Pepcid, Axid)

● Reduction of gastric acid secretion, resulting in poor digestion of protein.

● Decreased vitamin B12. Gastric acid is required for B12 absorption.

● Tagamet inhibits cytochrome P-450 pathways.

Biquanides (Metforman)

● Interferes with glucose absorption.

● Decreases absorption of B12.

Potassium Chloride

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Interferes with the absorption of B12.

Sulfasalazine

Interferes with folic acid metabolism.

Oral contraceptives

● Oral contraceptives have significantly increased plasma Vitamin A levels. This is thought to be mediated by steroid-induced alterations in the rate of retinal-binding protein synthesis and release; depletion of reserves may result.

● Vitamin B6 deficiencies due to alteration in B6 and tryptophan metabolism.

● Interference with folate absorption.

● Reduced serum B12 levels.

● Increased serum copper as a result of increased plasma ceruloplasm; clinical importance has not been determined.

● Increased serum iron and increased total iron-binding capacity, along with increased incidence of iron deficiency anemia.

● Increased serum magnesium and zinc; clinical importance has not been determined.

Corticosteroids (hyrocortisone, prednisone, dexamethasone, etc.)

● Corticosteroids increase the rate of Vitamin A transport from the liver, resulting in elevated serum levels and depletion of reserves.

● Negative nitrogen balance due to increased protein catabolism.

● Increased calcium excretion (increased catabolism).

● Sodium retention (mineralocorticoid activity).

● Increased potassium excretion ( sodium is exchanged for potassium).

● May deplete Vitamins B6, B12, and folic acid.

● May deplete Vitamin D3.

Bile acid sequestrants (Questran)

● Interference with absorption of fats and fat-soluble vitamins.

● Enhanced absorption of chloride ions in exchange for bicarbonate ions, which may lead to acidosis.



● Increased urinary calcium excretion.

● Increased urinary magnesium excretion.

● Altered absorption of phosphate and nitrogen.

● Vitamin K deficiency.

● Reduced folic acid absorption.

● Reduced absorption of Vitamin E and iron are possible.

HMG-CoA reductase inhibitors (Zocor, Mevacor, Pravachol)

● Block the biosynthesis of Coenzyme Q-10.

Levodopa

● Pyridoxine reverses the effects of levodopa, although this does not occur when levodopa is given with carbadopa. (Pyridoxine stimulates decarboxylation of levodopa in the periphery; carbadopa inhibits decarboxylation.)

Phenytoin (Dilantin)

● Folate deficiency -- Increased folate catabolism or utilization as a result of enzyme induction is considered to be the mechanism. However, supplementation may decrease the effectiveness of the phenytoin.

● Interference with Vitamin D metabolism.

Folic acid analogs (methotrexate, pyrimethamine, trimethoprin)

● These antagonists inhibit the enzyme dihydrofolate reductase, which can lead to a functional folate deficiency. Supplementation can antagonize the effects of these drugs.

NSAIDS (Motrin, Naprosyn, Tylenol, ASA, etc.)

● Reduce nighttime melatonin secretion (related to prostaglandin inhibition).

Isoniazid

● Increases excretion of pyridoxine into the urine, resulting in deficiency.

● Inhibits the tryptophan-to-niacin pathway, resulting in increased need for niacin and tryptophan.


Fats For Health - Flax and Borage Seed Oils

Fats for Health: Flax and Borage Seed Oils

Two fats we need may also need each other

By Jade Beutler

In this day and age of fat phobia and the resultant barrage of low fat and non-fat food products lining the grocery store aisles, a recommendation to supplement your daily diet with one to two tablespoons of essential fatty acid rich oil would appear to go against the grain. To the contrary, this is exactly what health conscious consumers are doing across the country, not only to attain and maintain optimal health, but in many instances, as a treatment for the over 60 health ailments the essential fatty acids have been scientifically validated to benefit.

While it is true Americans should not consume more than 20-30 percent of daily calories as fats, a lack of the dietary essential fatty acids has been suggested to facilitate degenerative disease. If surveys are correct that approximately 80 percent of our population is deficient in the essential fatty acids, this may present a serious health threat. Unfortunately, mass commercial refinement of fats and oils products and foods containing them has effectively eliminated the essential fatty acid from our food chain, contributing to our modern-day deficiency.

Organic, unrefined flaxseed oil is considered by many to be the answer to this health dilemma. Oil extracted from organic flaxseeds is unique because it contains both essential fatty acids: alpha-linolenic, an omega-3 fatty acid, and linoleic acid, an omega-6 fatty acid, in appreciable amounts. Flaxseed oil is the world's richest source of omega-3 fatty acids, at a whopping 57 percent (over two times the amount of omega-3 fatty acids as fish oils). Omega-3 fatty acids have been extensively studied for their beneficial effects toward:

● high cholesterol levels

● high blood pressure

● arthritis

● multiple sclerosis

● psoriasis and eczema

● cancer

The high content of omega-3 fatty acids inherent in flaxseed oil is but one of its positive attributes. The essential fatty acids combined here have proven to impart a regulatory function in the body's fatty acid metabolism. Fat metabolism is as important, if not more critical, than our body's metabolism of proteins and carbohydrates, as evidenced by the drastic rise in fat-related degenerative diseases such as vascular disease and strokes. Dietary essential fatty acids common to flaxseed oil are ultimately converted to hormone-like substances known as prostaglandins, and are important for the regulation of a host of bodily functions including:

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● inflammation, pain, and swelling

● pressure in the eye, joints, or blood vessels

● secretions from mucus membranes, and their viscosity

● smooth muscle and autonomic reflexes: gastrointestinal, arterial, ear, and heart

● water retention

● blood-clotting ability

● allergic responses and rheumatoid arthritis

● nerve transmission

● steroid production and hormone synthesis

Scientists continue to discover regulating effects of prostaglandins. Without the essential fatty acids -- the building blocks of Prostaglandins -- a malfunction of fat metabolism is certain, as are problems in the regulation of the above-listed bodily functions.

For some individuals, flaxseed oil may offer only half of the solution. Those deficient in co-factor nutrients, specifically the Vitamins pro-A, A, C, E, B2, B6, pantothenic acid, B12, biotin, and the minerals calcium, magnesium, potassium, sulfur, and zinc, sometimes have difficulty in converting the omega-6 fatty acid, linoleic acid, found in flax and other seed oils, to the healthful prostaglandins.

Still others are thought to lack the necessary enzyme (catalyst) to make this conversion; particularly those afflicted with diabetes, asthma, cystic fibrosis, multiple sclerosis, alcoholism, and the aged.

For those suffering from co-factor deficiencies, two broad-spectrum multi-vitamin and mineral supplements may be recommended with perhaps an oil supplement rich in gamma-linolenic acid (GLA). Individuals who may lack the proper enzyme system would require a GLA supplement in addition to the flaxseed oil to effectively skip over the absent or impaired enzyme and continue on toward normal production of beneficial prostaglandins.

Nature's most potent concentration of GLA comes in the form of organic borage seed oil (24 percent). A great deal of scientific research has been conducted with supplements rich in GLA, resulting in significant interest regarding the aforementioned health ailments, as well as those affected by premenstrual syndrome, benign breast disease, eczema, psoriasis, obesity, and vascular disorders.

When considering an essential fatty acid supplement and deciding on either organic flax or borage seed oils, the most sensible solution may be a formulation of the two. The combination of both organic flax and organic borage seed oil yields a true omega twin by providing nature's best of the omega-3 fatty acids in flax with the best of omega-6 fatty acids in GLA rich borage oil. This option has now been made available by a flax/borage oil product that can be found in many health food stores.

Supplementation with a combination of organic flax and borage seed oils makes good sense for the following reasons:

● Omega-3 fatty acids and GLA together exert favorable effects on the production of beneficial prostaglandins.



● A number of health problems have proven to benefit from both omega-3 fatty acids and GLA supplementation.

● Organic flaxseed oil combined with organic borage oil may exhibit synergistic, complementary effects.

● Optimal conversion or fatty acids to beneficial prostaglandins is more likely assured.

● A combination of flax and borage oils in a single formulation is less expensive than purchasing both separately.

In conclusion, the answer appears not to be no fat, but the right fat, as common to organic flax and borage seed oils, to achieve optimal health.

Summary

Past and present scientific research supports the use of essential fatty acid nutrients in promoting optimal health. Flaxseed oil is recognized as nature's richest source of essential and omega-3 fatty acids. Borage seed oil is recognized as nature's richest source of GLA. These natural plant substances used alone have created a great deal of interest in the treatment of numerous health problems. Evidence exists to suggest the combination of omega-3 fatty acids with gamma-linolenic acid (GLA) may further complement the therapeutic result of either fatty acid used singularly.

References

1. The Essential Fatty Acids. Sardosal. V.M. (Nutrition in Clinical Practice, August, 1992).

2. The Metabolic Role of W-3 Polyunsaturated Fatty Acids: Relationship to Human Disease, Kelly, F.J. (Comparative Physiology, 1991).

3. Summary of the NATO Advanced Research Workshop on Dietary Omega-3 and Omega-6 Fatty Acids, Simopoulos, A.P. (Journal of Nutrition, April 1989).

4. The Effects of Flaxseed Supplementation on Early Risk Markers for Mammary Carcinogenesis, Serraino, M. (Cancer Letter, November 1991.

5. High Alpha-Linoleic Acid Flaxseed, Some Nutritional Properties in Humans, Cunnane, S.C. (British Journal of Nutrition, March 1993).

6. Effect of Flaxseed Supplementation on Arachidonic Acid Metabolism. Bowen, P.E. (University of Illinois at Chicago).

7. The Effects of Dietary Flaxseed on Estrogen Metabolism in Women, Kurzer, M.S. (Proceedings of the Flax Institute).

8. Borage or Primrose Oil Added to Standardized Diets are Equivalent Sources of Gamma-Linolenic Acid in Rats, Raedarstorff, D. (Lipids, December 1992).

9. The Effects of Gamma-Linoleic Acid on Human Diabetic Peripheral Neuropathy, Jamal, G.A. (Diabetic Medicine, May 1990).

10. Significance and Motivation of the Chemical Use of Essential Fatty Acid Derivatives, Especially GLA (Clinica Terapeutica, March 1990).



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The Vegetarian Society - Vegan Nutrition Information Sheet

Vegan Nutrition

Jump to: Protein : Essential Fatty Acids : Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin) : Vitamin B12 : Vitamin D : Calcium : Iodine : Infants : Vegan Storecupboard

vegetables

A vegan is a strict vegetarian who does not eat any dairy products, eggs or honey. A well balanced vegan diet can provide all the essential nutrients you require and shares the same health advantages as a vegetarian diet. Nutritional guidelines for vegans are essentially similar to those for vegetarians. However, vegetarians gain certain nutrients from dairy products and eggs. Vegans need to ensure their diets contain plant food sources of these nutrients, the main ones of which are discussed below.

Protein

Obtaining adequate protein on a vegan diet is not a problem. Nuts & seeds, pulses, wholegrain and grain products and soya products all supply protein. Previously, it has been thought that plant proteins are of a lower quality than animal proteins in terms of their essential amino acid content. However, this is no longer regarded as a problem and eating a balanced diet of plant foods will provide all the essential amino acids in adequate amounts.

Essential Fatty Acids

There are two essential fatty acids which must be supplied by the diet. These are linoleic acid and a-linolenic acid. Essential fatty acids are important for cell membrane function, cholesterol metabolism and the synthesis of various metabolites. Good sources of essential fatty acids are vegetable oils. It is important to have the correct balance between linoleic acid and a-linolenic acid. It has been suggested that vegans should use soyabean or rapeseed oils rather than sunflower or corn oils as these help give a better dietary balance.

Vitamin B2 (Riboflavin)

Certain studies have found vegans to have a low intake of the vitamin, riboflavin. Riboflavin is important in converting protein, fats and carbohydrates into energy, and the synthesis and repair of body tissues. Good sources of riboflavin include whole grains, mushrooms, almonds, leafy green vegetables and yeast extracts.

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Vitamin B12 is found primarily in meat, dairy products and eggs and is absent from plant foods. Considerable research has been carried out into possible plant sources of B12. Fermented soya products, seaweeds and algae such as spirulina have all been proposed as containing significant amounts of B12. However, the present consensus is that any B12 present in plant foods is likely to be in a form unavailable to humans and so these foods should not be relied upon as safe sources.

Vitamin B12 is important in the formation of red blood cells and the maintenence of a healthy nervous system. When deficiency does occur it is more likely to be due to a failure to absorb B12 from the intestine than a dietary deficiency.

Vegans can obtain B12 from a wide range of foods which have been fortified with the vitamin. These include certain yeast extracts, veggieburger mixes, breakfast cereals, vegetable margarines and soya milks. You should check the packaging to see which individual products are fortified with B12.

Vitamin D

Vitamin D is present in oily fish, eggs and dairy products in variable amounts. It is not found in plant foods. However, vegans can obtain vitamin D from vegetable margarines, some soya milks and certain other foods which are fortified with the vitamin.

Vitamin D is also synthesised by the skin when exposed to sunlight. Synthesis of vitamin D in this way is usually adequate to supply all the body's requirements. Most vegans will obtain sufficient vitamin D providing they spend time outdoors on bright days. Fortified foods further ensure adequate amounts.

Vegans who may be confined indoors may be recommended a vitamin D supplement. Also, infants who are seldom oudoors or who are dark-skinned may require supplements. Asian vegans may also be at risk of deficiency, particularly Asian women who may be required to keep their skin covered for cultural reasons.

Calcium

The major source of calcium in British diets is generally milk and dairy products. Vegans can obtain adequate calcium from plant foods. Good sources include tofu, leafy green vegetables, watercress, dried fruit, seeds and nuts. Also, white bread is fortified with calcium, as are some soya milks. Hard water can also provide significant amounts of calcium.

Iodine

Milk is the primary source of iodine in the British diet and studies have indicated some vegans may have a low iodine intake. Seaweeds are a good source of iodine, and vegetables and grains can contain iodine depending on the amounts in the soil.

Infants

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It is perfectly possible to bring up a child on a vegan diet. Vegan children should be given plenty of nutrient rich foods and need good sources of protein, calcium, vitamin B12 and vitamin D. High fibre foods can fill up a child without filling their nutritional needs as well as interfering with mineral absorption from the intestine. For these reasons, foods high in fibre shouldn't be overused.

Vegan Storecupboard

Dairy products can largely be replaced with various soya products. There are several brands of soya milk. It can be purchased either sweetened or unsweetened, plain or flavoured. Different brands may be fortified with vitamin B12, vitamin D and calcium.

Soya cheeses, yoghurts and cream are all available from health food stores. Eggs can be replaced in recipes by commercial egg replacer products, also available from health food stores.

The Vegan Society's Animal-Free Shopper is a useful guide for vegan shoppers and includes suitable cosmetics, supplements, clothing and various household goods as well as food products

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Nutrients, Vitamins, Minerals and Dietary Information


NutriStrategy

Nutrition and Diet Info

Calories Burned During Exercise

Healthy Eating Tips

Strength Training Workouts

Health Benefits of Activity

Weight Control and Exercise

Fitness and Nutrition Software

Order Information

Overview of nutrition, nutrient food sources and the function of nutrients in the body.

CALORIES are needed to provide energy so the body functions properly. The number of calories in a food depends on the amount of energy the food provides. The number of calories a person needs depends on age, height, weight, gender, and activity level. People who consume more calories than they burn off in normal daily activity or during exercise are more likely to be overweight.

Fat: Protein: Carbohydrates: Alcohol:

1 gram = 9 calories 1 gram = 4 calories 1 gram = 4 calories 1 gram = 7 calories

FAT should account for 30% or less of the calories consumed daily, with saturated fats accounting for no more than 10% of the total fat intake. Fats are a concentrated form of energy which help maintain body temperature, and protect body tissues and organs. Fat also plays an essential role in carrying the four fat-soluble vitamins: A, D, E, and K. Excess calories from protein and carbohydrates are converted to and stored as fat. Even if you are eating mostly "fat free" foods, excess consumption will result in additional body fat. Fat calories in food are readily stored, while it takes energy to transform protein and carbohydrates to body fat. The only proven way to reduce body fat is to burn more calories than one consumes.

Saturated Fat: • tends to increase blood cholesterol levels. Most saturated fats tend to be solid at room temperature, with the exception of tropical oils. • found mostly in meat and dairy products, as well as some vegetable oils, such as coconut and palm oils (tropical oils). Butter is high in saturated fat, while margarine tends to have more unsaturated fat.

Polyunsaturated Fat:

• tends to lower blood cholesterol levels • found mostly in plant sources. (safflower, sunflower, soybean, corn, cottonseed)

Monounsaturated Fat:

• tends to lower LDL cholesterol (the "bad" cholesterol) • found in both plant and animal products, such as olive oil, canola oil, peanut oil, and in some plant foods such as avocado

CHOLESTEROL intake should not exceed 300 milligrams a day. Individuals differ on their absorption of dietary cholesterol, what is important is one’s level of blood cholesterol. High blood cholesterol has been linked to the occurrence of atherosclerosis. Atherosclerosis is a buildup of fatty deposits in the coronary arteries and other blood vessels, and is a leading cause of heart attacks. Dietary cholesterol is only found in foods from animal sources, including meat, fish, milk, eggs, cheese, and butter. You may have heard the terms HDL and LDL discussed in relation to blood cholesterol and heart disease. HDL and LDL are lipoproteins, substances found in the bloodstream, that transport cholesterol and triglycerides in the body.

• HDLs help remove cholesterol from the blood, protecting you from heart disease (atherosclerosis). • LDLs are thought to deposit cholesterol in artery walls, increasing your risk of heart disease (atherosclerosis). Most abundant type, LDL carries approximately 65% of the total circulating cholesterol. High levels of LDL are associated with atherosclerosis.

CARBOHYDRATES are a major source of energy and should account for 50% to 60% of calories consumed each day.

Sugars: • monosaccharides and disaccharides • found in fruits (sucrose, glucose, fructose, pentose), milk (lactose), and soft drinks and sweets.

Complex Carbohydrates:

• polysaccharides • found in whole grain cereals, flour, bread, rice, corn, oats, potatoes, and legumes.

DIETARY FIBER Sources of fiber from highest to lowest are highfiber grain products, nuts, legumes (kidney, navy, black and pinto beans), vegetables, fruits, and refined grain products.

Soluble Fiber: • may help lower blood cholesterol by inhibiting digestion of fat and cholesterol; helps control blood sugar in people with diabetes. • found in peas, beans, oats, barley, some fruits and vegetables (apples, oranges, carrots), and psyllium.

Insoluble Fiber: • helps prevent constipation, hemorrhoids, and diverticulosis • found in bran (wheat, oat, and rice), wheat germ, cauliflower, green beans, potatoes, celery

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PROTEIN should account for 10% to 20% of the calories consumed each day. Protein is essential to the structure of red blood cells, for the proper functioning of antibodies resisting infection, for the regulation of enzymes and hormones, for growth, and for the repair of body tissue. Amino acids are the building blocks of protein and are found in a variety of foods. Meat, milk, cheese, and egg are complete proteins that have all the essential amino acids. Other sources of protein include whole grains, rice, corn, beans, legumes, oatmeal, peas, and peanut butter. For those who do not eat meat, eggs, or dairy products, it is important to eat a variety of these other foods in order to get enough protein. SODIUM intake is recommended to be less than 3,000 milligrams daily. One teaspoon of table salt contains about 2,000 milligrams of sodium. The difference between "sodium" and "salt" can be confusing. Sodium is a mineral found in various foods including table salt (sodium chloride). Table salt is 40% sodium. People with high blood pressure (hypertension) may be instructed by their doctor or dietitian to reduce sodium intake. High blood pressure can increase the risk of heart attack, stroke, or kidney disease. The body needs a small amount of sodium to help maintain normal blood pressure and normal function of muscles and nerves. High sodium intake can contribute to water retention. Sodium is found in table salt, baking soda, monosodium glutamate (MSG), various seasonings, additives, condiments, meat, fish, poultry, dairy foods, eggs, smoked meats, olives, and pickled foods. POTASSIUM is essential for maintaining proper fluid balance, nerve impulse function, muscle function, cardiac (heart muscle) function Sources: bananas, raisins, apricots, oranges, avacadoes, dates, cantaloupe, watermelon, prunes, broccoli, spinach, carrots, potato, sweet potato, winter squash, mushrooms, peas, lentils, dried beans, peanuts, milk, yogurt, lean meats VITAMINS AND MINERALS are required for the regulation of the body's metabolic functions, and are found naturally in the foods we eat. Many foods are fortified in order to provide additional nutrients, or to replace nutrients that may have been lost during the processing of the food. Most people are able to obtain satisfactory nutrition from the wide selection of foods available in the United States. If a person is not able to eat a variety of foods from the basic food groups, then a vitamin and mineral supplement may be necessary. However, except for certain unusual health conditions, very few persons should need more than 100% of the Recommended Daily Allowance for any single nutrient. Large doses of vitamin and mineral supplements can be harmful. Vitamins come in two varieties: fat soluble and water-soluble. Fat-soluble vitamins can be stored in the body for long periods of time, while excess amounts of water-soluble vitamins are excreted in the urine.

Vitamin A • needed for new cell growth, healthy skin, hair, and tissues, and vision in dim light • sources: dark green and yellow vegetables and yellow fruits, such as broccoli spinach, turnip greens, carrots, squash, sweet potatoes, pumpkin, cantaloupe, and apricots, and in animal sources such as liver, milk, butter, cheese, and whole eggs.

Vitamin D • promotes absorption and use of calcium and phosphate for healthy bones and teeth • sources: milk (fortified), cheese, whole eggs, liver, salmon, and fortified margarine. The skin can synthesize vitamin D if exposed to enough sunlight on a regular basis.

Vitamin E • protects red blood cells and helps prevent destruction of vitamin A and C • sources: margarine and vegetable oil (soybean, corn, safflower, and cottonseed), wheat germ, green leafy vegetables.

Vitamin K • necessary for normal blood clotting and synthesis of proteins found in plasma, bone, and kidneys. • sources: spinach, lettuce, kale, cabbage, cauliflower, wheat bran, organ meats, cereals, some fruits, meats, dairy products, eggs.

Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid)

• an antioxidant vitamin needed for the formation of collagen to hold the cells together and for healthy teeth, gums and blood vessels; improves iron absorption and resistance to infection. • sources: many fresh vegetables and fruits, such as broccoli, green and red peppers, collard greens, brussel sprouts, cauliflower, lemon, cabbage, pineapples, strawberries, citrus fruits

Thiamin (B1) • needed for energy metabolism and the proper function of the nervous system • sources: whole grains, soybeans, peas, liver, kidney, lean cuts of pork, legumes, seeds, and nuts.

Riboflavin (B2) • needed for energy metabolism, building tissue, and helps maintain good vision. • sources: dairy products, lean meats, poultry, fish, grains, broccoli, turnip greens, asparagus, spinach, and enriched food products.

Niacin • needed for energy metabolism, proper digestion, and healthy nervous system • sources: lean meats, liver, poultry, milk, canned salmon, leafy green vegetables

Vitamin B6 (Pyridoxine)

• needed for cell growth • sources: chicken, fish, pork, liver, kidney, whole grains, nuts, and legumes

Folate (Folic Acid) • promotes normal digestion; essential for development of red blood cells • sources: liver, yeast, dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, and some fruits

Vitamin B12 • needed for building proteins in the body, red blood cells, and normal function of nervous tissue • sources: liver, kidney, yogurt, dairy products, fish, clams, oysters, nonfat dry milk, salmon, sardines



Calcium • needed for healthy bones and teeth, normal blood clotting, and nervous system functioning • sources: dairy products, broccoli, cabbage, kale, tofu, sardines and salmon

Iron • needed for the formation of hemoglobin, which carries oxygen from the lungs to the body cells • sources: meats, eggs, dark green leafy vegetables, legumes, whole grains and enriched food products

Phosphorus • needed for healthy bones and teeth, energy metabolism, and acidbase balance in the body • sources: milk, grains, lean meats, food additives

Magnesium • needed for healthy bones and teeth, proper nervous system functioning, and energy metabolism • sources: dairy products, meat, fish, poultry, green vegetables, legumes

Zinc • needed for cell reproduction, tissue growth and repair • sources: meat, seafood, and liver, eggs, milk, whole-grain products

Pantothenic Acid • needed for energy metabolism • sources: egg yolk, liver, kidney, yeast, broccoli, lean beef, skim milk, sweet potatoes, molasses

Copper • needed for synthesis of hemoglobin, proper iron metabolism, and maintenance of blood vessels • sources: seafood, nuts, legumes, green leafy vegetables

Manganese • needed for enzyme structure • sources: whole grain products, fruits and vegetables, tea


Essential Plant Nutrients

Essential Plant NutrientsHere is relevant information about the nutrients that are essential for plants. So gardeners here is some reading material for you.


What is Plant Nutrition? Every living thing needs nutrients fir its survival and so does plants. These nutrients facilitate the life cycle of the plant and its growth. There are 16 such nutrients, which the plant might need and out of these sixteen, nine are essential and the other seven are required by the plants but in the absence of the remaining seven the plant would not die. The nutrients can be further classified into the following:

● Primary Nutrients ● Secondary Nutrients ● Micronutrients

Essential Plant Nutrients: Description and Significance The Primary Nutrients consist of Carbon (C), Oxygen (O) and Hydrogen (H) along with Nitrogen (N), Phosphorus (P) and Potassium (K). The latter three are commonly found in most of the fertilizers and the former are found in air and water from the atmosphere. These nutrients are required and are utilized more than the secondary and the primary nutrients. Carbon is required in photosynthesis and are important constituents of biomolecules like cellulose and starch. Oxygen is elemental for cellular respiration, which generates energy for the plant called ATP (Adenosine Tri-phosphate). Hydrogen is also essential since it helps in the generation of sugars and thus contributes in the growth of the plant. Nitrogen is part of the DNA of the plant and is major contributor towards the growth of the plant. Phosphorus is an important part of ATP and has a role to play in the conversion of light energy into chemical energy during Photosynthesis. Potassium plays an important part in water retention by the plant; it also regulates the opening and closing of stoma.

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The Secondary Nutrients consist of Magnesium (Mg), Sulfur (S) and Calcium (Ca) which though are required in smaller amounts are required by the plant for various reasons. Magnesium is a part of Chlorophyll pigment without which Photosynthesis would not be possible and the plant would fail to prepare food and energy. Sulfur is required for the generation of energy in the plant body. Calcium is helpful in the transportation of nutrients in the plant body. Then comes the Micronutrients like Zinc (Zn), Copper (Cu), Boron (B), Manganese (Mn), Iron (Fe) and Molybdenum (Mo). These nutrients are required in very small quantities as the name suggests. Zinc has a huge role to play in the stimulation and activation of enzymes; therefore it is required though in a small amount for the proper functioning of the plant. Copper is also important for Photosynthesis and it also a part of various enzymes. Boron is an important component of the cell walls. Beside sit also helps in the transportation of sugar and cell division. Manganese helps in the building of Chloroplasts and it also activates enzymes. Iron also helps in photosynthesis and enzyme reaction. It also helps in the synthesis of chlorophyll. Molybdenum plays an important role in the fixation of Nitrogen and also is important element when it comes to the generation of amino acids. Sources of Essential Plant Nutrients There are various sources of plant nutrients some natural and some synthetic. The natural sources have to be necessarily air, water and soil but the synthetic sources are fertilizers and manures. There are certain fertilizers, which supply certain nutrients for example calcium and magnesium can be found in Dolomitic Lime or Aglime. Similarly sulfur can be obtained from Sulfur compounds, Gypsum and Magnesium and Potassium Sulfate. Micronutrients like manganese, copper, boron, zinc and molybdenum are available from manganese, copper and zinc sulfates, their oxides, oxy sulfates and in chelates. These nutrients can also be obtained from ammonium molybdate and boric acid. What can be the Effects of Plant Nutrition Deficiencies? The deficiencies of various nutrients leads to a various problems, which are as follows:

● Calcium deficiency would lead to a decrease in the growth level of the plants.

● Deficiency of Nitrogen would lead to stunted growth of the plants and also weaken the plant as a result of which it might also not flower.

● Deficiency of Phosphorus would lead to fading of leaves and



slow plant development. ● Deficiency of Potassium would lead to the yellowing of leaves

and premature withering. ● Iron Deficiency leads to development of white patches in

between veins and that leads to the death of young leaves. ● Sulfur deficiency leads to the yellowing of leaves and weakening

of plants, the effects are very similar to that of Nitrogen deficiency.

● Boron deficiency leads to deformation and death of leaves along with the death of growing buds.

● Manganese Deficiency leads to the yellowing of leaf veins. ● Magnesium Deficiency leads to the yellowing of leaves and poor

development of the plant and the fruits. ● Zinc Deficiency can lead to the yellowing of leaves and a

reduction in the size of the leaf.


Nutrient Cycling & Maintaining Soil Fertility in Fruit and Vegetable Crop Systems


Peter M. Bierman and Carl J. Rosen Department of Soil, Water, and Climate

University of Minnesota

[printer-friendly pdf version of the whole bulletin]

● Introduction �❍ Objectives

● Nutrient Cycling �❍ Essential Plant Nutrients �❍ Sources of Plant Nutrients in the Soil �❍ Losses of Plant Nutrients from the Soil �❍ Nutrient Pools in the Soil �❍ Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC) �❍ Organic Matter �❍ Nutrient Cycles �❍ Nutrient Balance & Nutrient Budgets �❍ Whole-Farm Nutrient Budgets

● Maintaining Soil Fertility �❍ Crop Rotations �❍ Soil & Water Conservation Practices �❍ Cover Crops �❍ Manure Management �❍ Compost & Other Soil Amendments �❍ Healthy, Vigorous Root Systems �❍ Soil Acidity & Liming �❍ Fertilizer Applications �❍ Soil Testing �❍ Plant Analysis

● Summary

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Introduction

Conventional agriculture, alternative agriculture, organic agriculture, chemical agriculture, industrial agriculture, eco-agriculture: Sharp distinctions are drawn among crop production systems attached to these labels. Differences in practices and philosophy are real, and can be a source of controversy and heated discussion, but there are important underlying similarities among farming systems of all types and labels.

Plants require three factors for growth and reproduction: light, water, and nutrients. The third of these factors, managing crops to provide an optimum nutrient supply, is where some of the major differences among farming systems occurs. These differences frequently are described as biological vs. chemical methods of maintaining soil fertility. This distinction is meaningful, but the categories are not mutually exclusive. It is important to understand both biological and chemical processes to effectively and efficiently provide plants with nutrients. Plant nutrients are chemical elements that are mostly absorbed by plant roots as inorganic chemicals dissolved in water. At the same time, plant nutrients are used by other forms of life and go through many biological transformations that determine when and how plants take them up. Biological materials like manure are major nutrient sources on many “conventional” farms, as well as organic farms, while inorganic minerals (chemical materials) like rock phosphate and lime are acceptable fertility amendments for certified organic production.

Objectives

The focus of this bulletin is on biology, placing nutrient cycling at the center of nutrient management, but the biological emphasis is not meant to disregard other factors. The objectives are to examine and illustrate:

● Biological, chemical, and physical processes plant nutrients go through as they cycle through the soil

● How these processes affect nutrient availability to plants and nutrient movementfrom farm fields to surface or groundwater

● Ways to manage crops and soils to maximize nutrient availability and minimize nutrient movement to the surrounding environment

Understanding processes helps identify practical options that fit different farming systems. Understanding nutrient cycles helps all types of farmers maintain the fertility of their soils, while at the same time protecting our water resources.



Nutrient Cycling


There are at least 16 essential chemical elements for plant growth. Carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen, obtained in large amounts from air and water, make up the bulk of plant dry matter in the products of photosynthesis, but usually are not included as “nutrient” elements. Nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), sulfur (S), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), boron (B), molybdenum (Mo), and chlorine (Cl) are obtained from the soil and required by all plants. Sodium, silicon, and nickel are essential elements for some plant species and, although not required, have positive or beneficial effects on the growth of other species. Cobalt is essential for nitrogen fixation by legumes. Additional elements, such as selenium and iodine, are not required by plants, but can be important in plant nutrition because they are essential nutrients for humans and other animals that consume plants.

All essential nutrients are equally important for healthy plant growth, but there are large differences in the amounts required. N, P, and K are primary macronutrients with crop requirements generally in the range of 50 to 150 lbs/acre. Ca, Mg, and S are secondary macronutrients, required in amounts of about 10 to 50 lbs/acre. Micronutrient requirements (Fe, Mn, Zn, Cu, B, Mo, and Cl) are generally less than 1 lb/acre.

Sources of Plant Nutrients in the Soil

Plants obtain mineral nutrients through root uptake from the soil solution. Sources of these soluble nutrients in soil include:

● Decomposition of plant residues, animal remains, and soil microorganisms ● Weathering of soil minerals ● Fertilizer applications ● Manures, composts, biosolids (sewage sludge), kelp (seaweed), and other organic

amendments such as food processing byproducts ● N-fixation by legumes ● Ground rock products including lime, rock phosphate, and greensand ● Inorganic industrial byproducts such as wood ash or coal ash ● Atmospheric deposition, such as N and S from acid rain or N-fixation by lightning

discharges ● Deposition of nutrient-rich sediment from erosion and flooding



Losses of Plant Nutrients from the Soil

Mineral nutrients also can be lost from the soil system and become unavailable for plant uptake. Nutrient losses are not just costly and wasteful, they can be a source of environmental contamination when they reach lakes, rivers, and groundwater. Nutrient losses occur through:

● Runoff – loss of dissolved nutrients in water moving across the soil surface ● Erosion – loss of nutrients in or attached to soil particles that are removed from fields

by wind or water movement ● Leaching – loss of dissolved nutrients in water that moves down through the soil to

groundwater or out of the field through drain lines ● Gaseous losses to the atmosphere – primarily losses of different N forms through

volatilization and denitrification (see Nitrogen Cycle on page 5) ● Crop removal – plant uptake and removal of nutrients from the field in harvested

products

click to enlarge

Nutrient Pools in the Soil

In addition to the variety of inputs and outputs, plant nutrients exist in many different forms, or nutrient pools, within the soil (Fig. 1). These pools range from soluble, readily available forms, to weakly bound forms that are in rapid equilibrium with soluble pools, to strongly bound or precipitated forms that are very insoluble and become available only over long time periods. Nutrients in solution can be taken up immediately by plant roots, but they also move with water and can easily leach below the plant root zone or be lost in runoff from farm fields. The “ideal” fertile soil has high nutrient concentrations in the soil solution when crop growth rates are high and a large storage capacity to retain nutrients when crop needs are low or there is no growing crop.

Exchangeable cations (see text box below) are a short-term storage pool that can rapidly replenish nutrient ions in the soil solution. Soil organic matter releases nutrients slowly as it decomposes, but is an important supply of N, P, S, B, and trace-metal micronutrients. Soil minerals vary from relatively soluble types (chlorides and sulfates) to insoluble forms (feldspars, apatite, mica) that release nutrients through weathering reactions with chemical and biochemical agents such as organic acids. Adsorbed anions, like phosphate and iron


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oxides bound to clay and organic matter surfaces, are held strongly and released very slowly, but can contribute to the long-term supply of plant-available nutrients.

Cations & Anions

Ions are chemical elements or compounds with an electrical

charge. Cations have a positive charge and anions

have a negative charge. Most plant-available forms of essential

plant nutrients are ionic.

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Cation Exchange Capacity (CEC)

Clay particles and organic matter have negatively charged sites that hold positively charged ions on their surfaces (Fig. 2). CEC protects soluble cations from leaching out of the plant root zone. These ions are rapidly exchangeable with other soluble ions, so when root uptake depletes the nutrient supply they replenish plant-available cations in the soil solution. Cation exchange is the major nutrient reservoir of K+, Ca2+, and Mg2+, is important for holding onto N in the ammonium (NH4+) form, and to some extent supplies micronutrient trace metals like Zn2+ and Mn2+. Cation exchange helps soils resist changes in pH in addition to retaining plant nutrients.

Organic Matter

Soil organic matter is a very important factor in soil fertility. It is a reservoir of plant nutrients, has a high CEC, buffers soil pH, and chelates micronutrients. Organic matter exists in different forms in soil, ranging from living soil organisms to fresh, readily decomposed plant residues to humus that is very stable and resistant to further degradation. Living soil organisms include bacteria, fungi, actinomycetes, nematodes, earthworms, mites, and insects. They make up the soil food web, which carries out biological nutrient cycling. Plant roots are a sometimes forgotten part of the living soil biomass. Readily decomposed or active organic matter is the form of organic matter through which nutrients are actively recycled. Decomposition produces gums, polysaccharides (sugars), and other compounds that are the “glues” of water-stable soil aggregates necessary for good soil structure. Stable humus contributes to long-term nutrient supply and is the organic matter fraction with high CEC. Chelation is the ability of soluble organic compounds to form complexes with





micronutrient metals that keep them in solution and available for uptake. In organic soils (peats and mucks), trace metal complexes with organic matter can reduce their availability.

The cycling of plant nutrients through soil organic matter supplies a significant portion of a growing crop’s nutrient needs. Another aspect of this cyclical process is that organic matter not only contributes to soil fertility, but fertile soils contribute to the production of organic matter. One of the best ways to add organic matter to the soil is to maintain fertility and grow healthy crops that add large amounts of plant residue.

Nutrient Cycles

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Soil fertility can be maintained when nutrients are efficiently recycled through the soil food web and soil-plant-animal system. Nutrient cycling is conveniently illustrated in diagrams that range from very simple (see Fig. 3 – Basic Plant Nutrient Cycle) to extremely complex (see Fig. 4 – Nitrogen Cycle) .

Basic Plant Nutrient Cycle. The basic plant nutrient cycle highlights the central role of soil organic matter. Cycling of many plant nutrients, especially N, P, S, and B, closely follows parts of the Carbon Cycle. Plant residues and manure from animals fed forage, grain, and other plant-derived foods are returned to the soil. This organic matter pool of carbon compounds becomes food for bacteria, fungi, and other decomposers. As organic matter is broken down to simpler compounds, plant nutrients are released in available forms for root uptake and the cycle begins again. Plant-available K, Ca, Mg, P, S, and some micronutrients are also released when soil minerals and precipitates dissolve (see Fig. 1).

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Nitrogen Cycle. The N cycle (Fig. 4) is the most complex nutrient cycle (the S cycle is equally complex). N exists in many forms, different physical states as well as both organic and inorganic compounds, so transformations between these forms make the N-cycle resemble a maze rather than a simple, circular cycle. Biochemical transformations of N (see text box below), such as nitrification, denitrification, mineralization, immobilization (assimilation), and N-fixation, are performed by a variety of soil-inhabiting organisms. Physical transformations of N include several forms that are gases, which move freely between soil and atmosphere. Although the N-cycle is very complex, it is probably the most important nutrient cycle to understand. There are two reasons for this: 1) N is usually the most growth-limiting plant nutrient in terrestrial (land) ecosystems, so there is often a very large crop-yield response to







additional N, and 2) N in the nitrate form is very soluble and one of the most mobile plant nutrients in soil, so it can easily be lost from farm fields and become a contaminant in surface or groundwater. Managing N is a critical part pf soil fertility management.

Biological Transformations of Nitrogen

Nitrification: conversion of ammonium-N (a cation held in soil by CEC) to nitrate-N (a soluble anion easily lost in runoff or leaching)

Denitrification: conversion of plant-available nitrate-N to N-gases that are unavailable to plants and easily lost from soil

Mineralization: biological breakdown of organic-N and release as plant-available ammonium-N

Immobilization (assimilation): uptake of inorganic-N from soil and incorporation into organic-N compounds in microbes (N becomes unavailable to plants)

N-Fixation : conversion of N-gas in the air to organic-N that becomes available to plants (performed by bacteria associated with roots of legumes & other plants and some free-living soil microbes)

Nutrient Balance & Nutrient Budgets

Nutrient cycling is not 100% efficient. There are always some losses or “leaks” from the cycles, even for natural ecosystems. In farming systems, where products are bought and sold, the balance between nutrient inputs and outputs is easily shifted in one direction or the other. When the balance between inputs and outputs is quantified, a nutrient budget can be calculated. Nutrient budgets can be determined at different scales, from single fields ® to whole farms ® to landscapes and even broader regional areas. Strictly speaking, a cycle is a circular, closed-loop pattern, so the nutrient cycles diagrammed in Figs. 3 and 4 are not true cycles. There are cycles within them, but they include other components and describe a larger picture where there is movement or flows of nutrients into and out of smaller systems such as farm fields. Nutrient balances or budgets look at these nutrient flows between different systems.



Whole-Farm Nutrient Budgets

Different types of farms have different patterns of nutrient flow. They vary in patterns of internal movement within the farm as well as in the amounts of external transfers both on-to- and off-of- the farm. Cash crop and concentrated livestock farms represent two extremes in nutrient-flow patterns, with mixed crop and livestock farms in an intermediate position. Looking at these three farm types outlines the consequences and challenges faced by a range of different farm types in maintaining soil fertility, using plant nutrients efficiently, and eliminating uncontrolled nutrient flows off farms and into the surrounding environment.

Cash Crops. Cash grain and vegetable farms that do not have livestock frequently export large amounts of plant nutrients in off-farm sales. A 500-cwt/acre potato crop, for example, removes about 215 lbs of N, 30 lbs of P, and 240 lbs of K in the harvested tubers. A 150-bushel/acre corn crop contains about 135 lbs of N, 25 lbs of P, and 35 lbs of K in the grain. When corn stover or small grain straw is sold in addition to grain, nutrient losses from the farm are larger, especially for K. To maintain high yields, these nutrients must be replaced. Biologically-fixed N from soybeans or other legumes in the rotation supplies some N, but large N inputs from forage legumes are not usually part of systems without livestock to consume the forage. When high quality hay is grown as a cash crop, nutrient exports off the farm are even greater than for grain or vegetables. There are some deep, naturally fertile soils with high organic matter and mineral reserves that can be “mined” and meet many crop nutrient needs for some time, but large amounts of off-farm fertilizer inputs are required in most soils for cash-crop systems to maintain nutrient sufficiency and crop yields. In this age of globalization, international grain sales have become an important market for U.S. farmers. One consequence of global trade is the associated, worldwide transfer of plant nutrients.

A Present-Day Flow of Phosphorus

phosphate rock mined in Florida→→ processed into phosphate fertilizers & transported to the Corn Belt→→

fertilizer

applied to corn & soybean fields →→ harvested grain processed into animal feeds →→ feed shipped to

the Delmarva Peninsula & fed to chickens→→ litter applied to nearby cropland→→ excess P contributes to



nutrient loading & impaired water quality in Chesapeake Bay

The Delmarva (Delaware, Maryland, Virginia) Peninsula is a major poultry production area that supplies consumers throughout the country. Concentrated production makes it difficult to recycle the P in litter, however, because the industry produces several times the amount of P required to meet crop needs on surrounding cropland. Among the strategies explored by the poultry industry to reduce P movement into Chesapeake Bay are: 1) a program to pelletize excess litter into a fertilizer product that can be efficiently transported to a larger region, 2) managing feed rations to supply only enough P to meet the dietary needs of poultry, 3) adding the enzyme phytase to poultry feed to make the P in feed more available nutritionally and reduce the amount that must be fed, and 4) adding aluminum sulfate to litter to chemically immobilize P before landspreading manure.

Mixed Crop & Livestock. Farms with both crops and livestock have the potential to recycle a large portion of the nutrients used by crops back to the soil, because about 75% or more of the NPK consumed in animal feed is excreted in manure or urine. Efficient recycling depends upon storage, handling, and application methods that minimize losses, and an effective nutrient management plan that applies manure to fields in amounts matching crop needs with the nutrient content of the manure . Within a farm, manure applications can be a method of transferring nutrients between fields. Depending upon the balance between crop and livestock enterprises, whole-farm nutrient budgets on mixed farms include different amounts of nutrient losses in milk, meat, or eggs, and different levels of nutrient inputs from purchased feed and fertilizer.

Concentrated Livestock. Concentrated animal-feeding operations import large amounts of plant nutrients in purchased grain, forage, and bedding. They are generally net nutrient importers, because purchased inputs exceed nutrient losses from milk, meat, or egg sales. These excess nutrients accumulate in animal wastes that often create storage or disposal problems. High-density livestock operations frequently have an inadequate land base to efficiently use all the manure they generate, so there is the potential for increased risk of water contamination. As livestock operations have become larger, they have also tended to concentrate regionally, resulting in increased geographic separation between feed-grain producers and consumers. Manures are bulky products that are difficult and costly to apply and transport long distances. In some locations it currently is not economical to recycle the nutrients in animal waste, so long-term storage rather than re-use has become the solution to the waste problem. The net result is increasing transfer of nutrients from one part



of the country to another and increased dependence on purchased fertilizer inputs in grain production areas (see text boxes on phosphorus flows).

Maintaining Soil Fertility

Management Practices to Maximize Nutrient Cycling & Nutrient-Use Efficiency. Nutrient management can be defined as “ efficient use of all nutrient sources” and the primary challenges in sustaining soil fertility are to:

● Reduce nutrient losses ● Maintain or increase nutrient storage capacity ● Promote recycling of plant nutrients ● Apply additional nutrients in appropriate amounts

In addition, cultural practices that support the development of healthy, vigorous root systems result in efficient uptake and use of available nutrients. Many cultural practices help accomplish these goals, including establishing diverse crop rotations, reducing tillage, managing and maintaining crop residue, growing cover crops, handlingmanure as a valuable nutrient source, composting and using all available wastes or byproducts, liming to maintain soil pH, applying supplemental fertilizers, and routine soil testing. These beneficial management practices have multiple effects on nutrient cycling and soil fertility, which make it important to integrate their use and examine their effects on the complete soil-crop system, rather than just a single component of that system. There are many good ways to farm, so different solutions or combinations of practices are appropriate for different systems to reach similar goals.

Phosphorus Flows and the Minnesota River

Phosphorus enrichment of surface waters is a major issue in some parts of Minnesota. In fresh water systems, P is usually the limiting nutrient for growth of algae and aquatic plants, so their growth is stimulated when P in runoff or eroded soil enters lakes and rivers. Algal blooms lead to accelerated eutrophication of surface waters and degradation of water quality. In extreme cases, depleted levels of dissolved oxygen in the water cause death of fish and other aquatic life.

Water quality concerns led to a recent Minnesota law restricting P fertilizer application on home lawns and other



turfgrass areas. In the agricultural landscape, similar concerns are expressed about the role of agriculture in P enrichment of the Minnesota River. P loading into the Minnesota River comes from a variety of sources, including stream bank erosion, water treatment plants, and industrial activity. The extent of the contribution from agriculture is difficult to measure, but P in runoff from farm fields and P attached to eroded soil are certainly potential pathways of P delivery to the river and its tributaries.

Phosphorus flows into Minnesota are not as dramatic as those described for the poultry production areas of the Delmarva Peninsula, but there are similarities and some common pathways. Phosphate rock mined in Florida or other distant locations is processed into phosphate fertilizers that are transported to Minnesota and applied to crop fields. Some of the grain harvested from these fields becomes part of animal feeds that are shipped to places like the Delmarva Peninsula, and additional harvested products are transported for other uses, so some of the imported P flows back out of the state in exported agricultural products. However, some of the imported P accumulates in various forms and locations, and is a potential source of nutrient loading and impaired water quality in the Minnesota River if not properly managed.

Accumulation of P in manure and increasing levels of P in the soil are two ways the flow of P into the state can build up and threaten the Minnesota River or other surface water bodies if not managed efficiently. Concentrated livestock production is not as widespread as it is in the Delmarva Peninsula, but in localized areas the amount of P in manure exceeds the amount of P required to meet crop needs on surrounding cropland. Manure is a valuable resource, but fields with a long history of heavy manure application can exceed the capacity of the soil to efficiently recycle the amount of P in continual manure additions. Buildup of soil P can also occur when P fertilizer is applied at rates exceeding crop P requirements.

Efficient use of fertilizer and manure P requires sound nutrient management planning to reduce the potential for environmental problems. This includes soil testing to determine the need for P, manure analysis, proper storage and handling of manure, and fertilizer and manure application



methods that reduce the potential for movement of P from farm fields. In addition, soil management practices that limit surface runoff and reduce soil erosion help protect water quality, as well as sustaining long-term soil productivity.

Crop Rotations

The term rotation effect was coined to describe the observation that yields for a crop grown in rotation with other crops are usually 5 to 15% greater than for continuous monoculture of that same crop. The reason for increased yields is not always clear, and in most cases it is probably not due to a single cause, but growing a variety of crops in sequence has many positive effects on soil fertility. In a diverse rotation, deep-rooted crops alternate with shallower, fibrous-rooted species to bring up nutrients from deeper in the soil. This captures nutrients that might otherwise be lost from the system. Differences in plant rooting patterns, including root density and root branching at different soil depths, also results in more efficient extraction of nutrients from all soil layers when a series of different crops is grown.

Including sod-forming crops in rotation with row crops decreases soil and nutrient losses from runoff and erosion, and increases soil organic matter. Growing legumes to fix atmospheric N reduces the need for purchased fertilizer and increases the supply of N stored in organic matter for future crops. Biologically fixed N is used most efficiently in rotations where legumes are followed by crops with high N requirements. Rotating crops also increases soil biodiversity and nutrient cycling capacity by supplying different residue types and food sources, reduces the buildup and carryover of soil-borne disease organisms and insect pests (breaks disease and pest cycles), and can help create favorable growing conditions for healthy, well-developed crop root systems.

Soil & Water Conservation Practices

Soil erosion removes topsoil, which is the richest layer of soil in both organic matter and nutrient value. Implementing soil and water conservation measures that restrict runoff and erosion minimizes nutrient losses and sustains soil productivity. Tillage practices and crop residue cover, along with soil topography, structure, and drainage, are major factors in soil erosion. Surface residue limits erosion by reducing detachment of soil particles by wind or raindrop impact and restricting water movement across the soil. Tillage practices manage the amount of crop residue left on the soil surface. Reduced tillage or no-till maximizes residue coverage. Water moves rapidly and is more erosive on steep slopes, so reducing tillage,



maintaining surface residue, growing sod crops, and planting on the contour or in contour strips are recommended conservation practices. Using diverse rotations and growing cover crops also can reduce erosion.

Soils with stable aggregates are less erodible than those with poor structure, and organic matter (including the activity of living soil organisms and fine roots) helps bind soil particles together into aggregates. Tillage breaks down soil aggregates and also increases soil aeration, which accelerates organic matter decomposition. Well-drained soils with rapid water infiltration are less subject to erosion, because water moves rapidly into and through them and does not build up to the point where it moves across the surface. Drainage improvements on poorly drained soils reduce runoff, erosion, and soil compaction. Improving drainage also decreases N losses from denitrification, which can be substantial on waterlogged soils, by increasing aeration. Improving aeration in the plant-root zone also promotes healthy root growth. A negative consequence of improved drainage is loss of nitrate-N and other nutrients through tile outlets to surface waters. Especially important are flushes of residual N after late winter/early spring rains.

Cover Crops and Green Manures

Growing cover crops and green manure crops can be viewed as a type of crop rotation, where adding a non-revenue generating crop between annual cash crops extends the growing season. Many of the benefits, therefore, are the same as those achieved with crop rotation.

The terms cover crop and green manure are frequently used synonymously. They perform many similar functions and many of the same plant species are used as both cover crops and green manure crops. The main difference between the two is that the primary purpose of growing a cover crop is to protect the soil surface from raindrop impact, runoff, and erosion and the primary purpose of a green manure is as a soil-building crop to produce organic material for incorporation into the soil. Winter grains like cereal rye planted after potatoes are cover crops that are designed to hold soil in place until the next main crop is planted in the spring, but they also add organic matter to the soil when they are turned under. Rapidly growing summer annuals like buckwheat and sorghum-sudangrass are planted between short-season vegetable crops as green manures to add organic matter to the soil, but they also protect the soil from erosion between spring and fall vegetables.

Growing legume cover crops adds biologically fixed N. The additional plant diversity with cover crops stimulates a greater variety of soil microorganisms, enhances carbon and nutrient cycling, and promotes root health. The soil surface is covered for a longer period of time during the year, so nutrient losses from runoff and erosion are reduced. This longer



period of plant growth substantially increases the amount of plant biomass produced, which in turn increases organic matter additions to the soil. The extended growth period obtained with cover crops also extends the duration of root activity and the ability of root-exuded compounds to release insoluble soil nutrients.

A winter cover crop that makes good fall growth traps excess soluble nutrients not used by the previous crop, prevents them from leaching, and stores them for release during the next growing season . Complementary cover crop mixtures produce root exudates with varying composition and effects, and have different zones of nutrient uptake, because they differ in amount, depth, and patterns of root branching. Deep-rooting cover crops, like sorghum-sudangrass hybrids and sweet clover, can break up some types of compacted soil layers and improve rooting depth for the next crop. Cereal rye, sorghum-sudangrass, and brassicas (mustards), such as oilseed radish and forage turnip, all suppress some nematode species and may be useful cover crops in fields with moderate infestation levels. Cover crops also can suppress weeds, which otherwise would compete with crops for nutrients.

Cover crop benefits are probably greatest as soil-building crops preceding high-value perennial fruits and in rotations with low-residue, short-season crops such as annual vegetables. It is often easier find places to grow cover crops in vegetable rotations than in agronomic rotations, and there may be opportunities to grow both summer and fall cover crops in vegetable systems. Many vegetables have relatively shallow, sparse root systems, but are well fertilized because of their value. Both summer and fall cover crops absorb residual nutrients, in addition to increasing the time and amount of surface cover.

Disadvantages of growing cover crops are:

● Large amounts of residue can make planting difficult and reduce crop stands ● In wet springs, planting may be delayed if wet soil conditions delay killing the cover

crop ● Soil warms more slowly in the spring under cover crops than for tilled soil and lower

soil temperatures can slow seed germination, reduce early-season growth, delay maturity, and reduce crop yields

● Spring cover crop growth uses water, which can adversely affect the following cash crop in a dry year (in wet years, cover crop water use may be beneficial on poorly drained soils)

● Some cover crops attract and/or harbor pests that can damage succeeding crops ● There are expenses and management time required to grow cover crops

Cover crops have many benefits, but when you grow them you need to commit time to their selection and management to fully realize their benefits and avoid potential problems. Select cover crops with characteristics that will meet your objectives and fit your rotations, and then manage them with the same attention and skill you give any other crop.



Manure Management

Returning manure to crop fields recycles a large portion of the plant nutrients removed in harvested crops. On farms where livestock are fed large amounts of off-farm purchased feeds, manure applied to crop fields is a substantial source of nutrient inputs to the whole farming system. However, just as nutrients can be lost from the soil, nutrient losses from manure during storage, handling, and application are both economically wasteful and a potential environmental problem. Soluble nutrients readily leach from manure, especially when it is unprotected from rainfall during storage. N is readily lost through volatilization of ammonia, both during storage and when manure is not incorporated soon after field application . Nutrient losses from manure also occur when it is applied at rates exceeding crop nutrient requirements.

Nutrient Management is the efficient

use of all nutrient

sources. A Nutrient

Management Plan that takes all nutrient

sources into account is not

just environmentally

sound, it is good business.

Analyze manure for its nutrient content and adjust application rates according to crop needs, soil tests, and frequency of manure applications. Avoid applying manure at rates that exceed crop requirements for any nutrient, but especially for N and P on fields that receive manure on a regular basis. This often means that rates should be based on P requirements rather than N requirements. Following heavy manure applications with crops that have high nutrient requirements (especially for N and P) reduces losses and increases nutrient-use efficiency. In addition to nutrient value, manure adds organic matter to the soil, which can improve soil structure and increase CEC . Refer to Using Manure and Compost as Nutrient Sources for Vegetable Crops for further information on nutrient content, nutrient availability, and calculation of application rates for efficient use of manure as a source of plant nutrients for vegetable crop production.

Compost & other Soil Amendments

In addition to manure, organic amendments such as biosolids, food processing wastes, animal byproducts, yard wastes, seaweed, and many types of composted materials are nutrient sources for farm fields. Biosolids contain most of the essential plant nutrients, and are much “cleaner” than they were twenty years ago, but regulations for farm application must be followed to prevent the possibility of excessive trace metal accumulation. Biosolids


http://www.extension.umn.edu/distribution/horticulture/M1192.html

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are also not an acceptable nutrient source for certified organic production.

Composting is a decomposition process similar to the natural organic matter breakdown that occurs in soil. Proper composting conserves volatile and soluble N, and other mobile nutrients in waste products, by incorporating them into organic forms where they are more stable and less readily lost. Composting reduces the bulk of organic wastes and makes transportation and field application of many waste products more feasible. On-farm composting of manure and other farm wastes also facilitates their handling. Most organic materials can be composted, nearly all organic materials contain plant-nutrient elements, and recycling all suitable wastes or byproducts through soil-crop systems by either composting or direct field application should be encouraged. These practices build up soil organic matter and provide a long-term, slow-release nutrient source. Some composts also have disease-suppressive properties that improve root growth and health.

Inorganic byproducts also can be recycled through the soil and supply plant nutrients. Available materials vary by region, but wood ash, rock dust from quarries, gypsum from scrubbers in power plants burning high-sulfur coal, and waste lime from water treatment plants are among the waste products that are beneficially re-used. When considering the agricultural use of any byproduct, a thorough chemical analysis and review of possible regulations should be done to avoid soil contamination problems. Even seemingly benign byproducts should be analyzed and field-tested on a trial basis before using them on a large acreage.

Table 1. Percentage of the Total Soil Volume Occupied by Plant Roots (in the surface 8-inches of soil)

Crop Root Volume (%)

Kentucky Bluegrass 2.8

Winter Rye 0.9

Oat 0.6

Soybean 0.4 - 0.9

Corn 0.4

Adapted from S. Barber, Soil Nutrient Bioavailability, 1984.

Healthy, Vigorous Root Systems



Vigorous root systems tap nutrient supplies from a larger volume of soil, so management practices that stimulate healthy root growth can also increase nutrient uptake. Uptake efficiency by extensive, well-distributed root systems results from increases in the amount of root surface area in contact with the soil. The extent of root-soil contact is limited by the fact that roots occupy only about 1 to 3% or less of total soil volume, even for fibrous-rooted plants in the surface layer of soil where root density is greatest (Table 1) . For immobile nutrients like P, root growth to the nutrient is especially important for uptake, because in most soils P moves only about 1/10 of an inch over the entire growing season.

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Root-soil contact is determined by root length (both vertical & horizontal), root branching, and root hairs. Root hairs are located just behind the root tip and have a relatively short life span of a few days to a few weeks. Actively growing feeder roots are necessary to continually renew these important locations for nutrient uptake. Symbiotic associations between soil fungi and plant roots also increase nutrient absorbing capacity (Fig. 5) . These fungi, called mycorrhizae (“fungus roots”), function as an extension of plant root systems. Mycorrhizae obtain food from plant roots and in return increase the nutrient absorbing surface for the plant through their extensive network of fungal strands ( hyphae). Mycorrhizae are particularly important for P uptake in low P soils. They can increase Zn and Cu uptake and also provide some protection against root disease.

Root activity also has direct effects on nutrient availability in the soil . Insoluble nutrients are released and maintained in solution by the action of organic acids, chelates, and other compounds produced by roots . Nutrients are also released because the soil immediately adjacent to roots, the rhizosphere, often has a lower pH than the bulk soil around it as a consequence of nutrient uptake . The rhizosphere stimulates microbial activity and microbes also release compounds like organic acids, enzymes, and chelates that solubilize nutrients.

A number of soil factors and management practices affect root growth, distribution, and health. Compacted soil layers restrict root penetration, low pH in the subsoil can restrict rooting depth, water saturation and poor aeration inhibit root growth, and roots will not grow into dry zones in the soil. Alleviating these conditions through some of the management practices described in this bulletin can increase nutrient uptake . Cultural practices that promote soil biodiversity help maintain healthy root systems, because an active and diverse microbial population competes with root pathogens and can reduce root disease.





Phosphorus Cycling: the Critical Importance of Soil P Transformations

Soil P is chemically and physically very reactive, so P transformations in the soil (see Fig. 1) are a critical part of the P Cycle and control P availability to plants. The necessity for dynamic nutrient cycling processes in soil is clearly illustrated by comparing crop requirements for P with typical P concentrations in the soil solution. A 150-bushel/acre corn crop has about 40 pounds of P in the grain and stover, so the crop requirement is 40 pounds of P/acre (ignoring the P requirement of roots). P solubility is very low and the soil solution concentration commonly ranges from less than 0.01 to 1 part per million (ppm). An “average” value for a fertilized agricultural soil is about 0.05 ppm of dissolved, available P. Soil with a 25% water-holding capacity holds nearly 250,000 gallons of water in the upper 3-feet of one acre when it is at field capacity. However, because P solubility is so low, the soil solution in this soil will contain only 1/10 of a pound of plant-available, dissolved P/acre. This means that soil-P nutrient pools, both inorganic and organic, must be able to replenish available P in the soil solution 400 times during the growing season to meet crop needs. Roots occupy only a small part of the soil volume and P moves only a short distance during a growing season, so the actual turnover rate in the vicinity of plant roots will have to be much greater.

Soil Acidity & Liming

Soil pH has strong effects on the availability of most nutrients. This is because pH affects both the chemical forms and solubility of nutrient elements. Trace metals such as Fe, Zn, and Mn are more available at lower pH than most nutrients, while Mo and Mg are more available at higher pH than many other nutrients. The ideal soil pH for many crops is slightly acid, between about 5.8 and 7.0, because in that range there is well-balanced availability for all nutrients. This pH range also promotes an active and diverse soil microbial population and is a healthy range for earthworms and other soil organisms. Alkaline soil conditions reduce Fe availability, resulting in Fe chlorosis (“lime-induced chlorosis”) on crops like soybeans when soil pH is above 7.2.



Some crops grow better at distinctly lower or higher soil pH than 5.8 to 7.0, usually because of specific nutrient requirements. Blueberries grow best around pH 4.5 to 4.8 and often are Fe deficient when the pH is above 5.2. Most other crops suffer from Al or Mn toxicity when soil pH is that low . Legumes do best at higher pH than most other crops, due to the high requirement for Mo by N-fixing bacteria . Potatoes are often grown at a pH of 5.4 or less, but to reduce the incidence of potato scab rather than for fertility reasons.

The target pH range for crops grown on organic soils is about 1 to 1.5 units lower than it is on mineral soils. Liming is generally not beneficial unless soil pH is 5.4 or less and lime recommendations for organic soils are only designed to raise pH to 5.5. Mn deficiency can occur on vegetable crops like onions when soil pH is 5.8 or higher on organic soils. Plant roots can tolerate lower soil pH on muck or peat soils than they can on mineral soils, because amounts of potentially toxic metals like Al and Mn are lower and they are also bound by the high organic matter levels. However, formation of similar Cu-organic matter complexes can cause Cu deficiency in sensitive crops like carrots on organic soils.

Limestone is the most commonly used material to increase soil pH. Liming also supplies Ca and dolomitic lime supplies Mg as well. Liming rates depend upon the buffering capacity of a soil, in addition to the measured pH. Buffering capacity, or ability to maintain pH within a given range, is related to CEC and increases as clay and/or organic matter content of the soil increases. The lime requirement for raising soil pH a given amount is much larger for fine-textured, high organic matter soils than for sandy, low organic matter soils. Liming frequency also depends on soil buffering capacity. Because soil pH changes more slowly on well-buffered, high CEC soils, their larger lime requirements are applied at more widely spaced intervals than on poorly-buffered, low CEC soils, where more rapid changes in pH require smaller, but more frequent, lime applications.

Regular lime applications are required on many soils to maintain soil pH in the desired range, because soil acidification is an ongoing process. Major causes of acidity are leaching and plant uptake of basic cations (Ca and Mg), production of organic acids from organic matter decomposition, and application of acidifying N fertilizers. Ammonium/ammonia N sources, including products like urea that break down to release ammonia, generate acidity when they are converted to nitrate or taken up directly by plant roots.

Reducing soil pH is often necessary for acid-requiring crops like blueberries. Elemental S is the most economical and commonly used material to lower soil pH. Al-sulfate and Fe-sulfate effectively reduce pH, and act more rapidly than elemental S, but they are more expensive and much higher rates are required for equivalent pH changes. Al-sulfate should be avoided, especially on low organic matter soils, because of the potential for Al toxicity to plant roots. Fertilizing with ammonium sulfate, the most acidifying N fertilizer, helps maintain soil pH after it is lowered to the desired range. Do not use ammonium sulfate for large pH changes, because that will result in excessive N applications. Unprocessed elemental S can be



applied to reduce soil pH in organic crop production, but not Al, Fe, or ammonium sulfates.

Ca:Mg Ratios

Some nutrient management philosophies stress exchangeable cation ratios, especially the importance of a large ratio of Ca to Mg. If Ca:Mg is less than 6 or 7:1, application of high-Ca limestone or gypsum (Ca-sulfate) is recommended. Soil Ca certainly can be low, and balance between nutrient cations is important, but from a fertility standpoint, the actual amount of exhangeable Ca or Mg in soil, rather than the ratio between them, is the most critical factor. In Minnesota, 300 ppm Ca and 100 ppm Mg are adequate soil test levels. There is very little research evidence supporting the existence of an ideal Ca:Mg ratio, while a number of studies show that as long as adequate amounts of both Ca and Mg are present, and Ca:Mg is at least 1:1, crops yield equally well over a wide range of ratios. In fact, a soil could have the “ideal” ratio of Ca:Mg, but actually be deficient in both nutrients. Ca is usually adequate if soil pH is maintained in the proper range. Lime should generally be purchased on the basis of cost per unit of total neutralizing power (TNP). When Mg is low and the ratio of Mg:K is less than 2:1, dolomitic (Ca + Mg) limestone is preferred over high-Ca liming materials.

Fertilizer Applications

Many materials can be applied to soil as sources of plant nutrients, but the term “ fertilizer” is often used to refer to relatively soluble nutrient sources with a high analysis or concentration. Commercially available fertilizers supply essential elements in a variety of chemical forms, but many are relatively simple inorganic salts. Advantages of commercial fertilizers are their high water solubility, immediate availability to plants, high concentration and low price per unit of nutrient, and the uniformity and accuracy with which specific amounts of available nutrients can be applied. Because they are relatively homogeneous compounds of fixed and known composition, it is fairly easy to calculate precise application rates and attain relatively consistent performance. This is in contrast to organic nutrient sources, which are a much greater challenge to manage, because of their variable composition, variable nutrient availability, and patterns of nutrient release that are greatly affected by temperature, moisture, and other conditions that alter biological activity.



Don’t Forget About Magnesium

Concern about maintaining high soil Ca levels, relative to Mg, should not lead to the misconception that Mg is something to be avoided. Mg is an essential plant nutrient. Among other functions, it is the central atom in the chlorophyll molecule and required for photosynthesis. Forages grown on low Mg soils can cause grass tetany, a serious nutritional deficiency of Mg in cattle. When Ca applications are excessive, other exchangeable cations like Mg (and K) are displaced and can be lost through drain lines or by deep leaching. It is important to maintain adequate amounts, and balance between, all essential cations.

Dolomitic limestone is an important source of Mg, but we sometimes forget that it still contains more Ca than Mg. Dolomites range from 6 to 12% Mg and 20 to 30% Ca (on a weight basis). Expressed on a cation equivalency basis, dolomite that is 12% Mg and 21% Ca has a Ca:Mg ratio of a little more than 1:1. Many factors affect the balance between Ca and Mg in the soil (more Ca is removed by crops, Mg is more easily lost through water movement), but it is important to recognize that commonly available dolomitic limestone in the Midwest (10 to 12% Mg) cannot by itself reduce the Ca:Mg ratio in soil to less than 1:1.

Situations where calcitic lime is preferred over dolomitic lime certainly can occur, but evaluate that need carefully before you pay a significantly higher price for calcite that has to be transported a long distance to your farm.

The solubility of commercial fertilizers can sometimes be a problem, because soluble nutrients may move out of farm fields when applied in excess or when large rains occur soon after fertilizer application. Soluble nutrients can be lost by leaching on well-drained soils and through tile outlets or in runoff on poorly drained soils. Denitrification can cause large losses of nitrate-N from water-saturated soils in wet springs.

Increasing soil CEC by increasing organic matter reduces the movement and loss of some nutrients, although not nitrate-N (an anion). Management practices that synchronize nutrient



availability with crop demand and uptake also minimize losses. Both application timing and the amount of fertilizer applied are important. Splitting fertilizer application into several small applications, rather than a single, large one, is especially important to limit N leaching on sandy, well-drained soils. Split N applications can also reduce N losses in runoff or from denitrification on poorly drained soils. Excess nutrient applications can be eliminated or at least significantly reduced by soil testing on a regular basis, setting realistic yield goals and fertilizing accordingly, accounting for all nutrient sources such as legumes, manure, and other amendments, and using plant analysis as a monitoring tool for the fertilizer program.

What About Ca Amendments, Ca:Mg Ratios, and Soil Structure?

Applying gypsum, high-Ca lime, or other Ca amendments is sometimes recommended to add Ca, increase Ca:Mg ratios, and improve soil structure. Ca ions with multiple positive charges help build good soil structure by acting as “bridges” that bind negatively charged clay particles together. These “flocculated” clays are basic building blocks in the formation of stable soil aggregates. The cation sodium (Na), with a single charge, does not promote aggregation and has adverse effects on soil structure (see below). Mg ions are similar to Ca with two positive charges, but some believe that too much Mg relative to Ca forms “tight” soils due to differences in size between Ca and Mg. However, within the ranges of these the two ions commonly found in soil, there is no clear evidence for a Ca:Mg ratio effect on soil structure.

Do some of our fine-textured soils have weak structure and poor drainage because they lack Ca? Soil structure is affected by many factors (e.g. clay, humus, roots, microorganisms, earthworms, tillage), so it is difficult to clearly separate and evaluate the contribution of Ca. It is clear that Ca is important and high Ca levels are commonly associated with soils that have good structure. What is not always clear are the specific soil conditions where a benefit from Ca can be consistently expected.

Soil conditions where Ca amendments have improved structure include:

● Soils with high amounts of exchangeable Na, where Na ions with a single positive charge tend to



disperse clay particles rather than flocculate them. This leads to plugging of soil pores with clay particles, restricted water movement, and surface crusting. Adding gypsum can replace Na with Ca and improve structure, but Na dominated soils occur in arid climates and in higher rainfall areas leaching prevents Na accumulation. Claims that gypsum (Ca) is a universal soil conditioner that loosens tight soils may arise from an erroneous extrapolation of the benefits in arid, irrigated areas to soils with poor structure in all regions.

● Soils where organic matter is low, easily dispersed clays dominate, and soil aggregates are weak and readily broken down by physical forces like tillage and raindrop impact. In these situations, gypsum can promote clay binding, improve structure at the soil surface, and reduce crusting. The gypsum effect is often short-lived, however, and long-term improvements in soil structure require additional changes in soil management such as addition of organic matter and reduced tillage.

● Soils with low amounts of Ca in the subsoil. Gypsum is more soluble than lime, so incorporation of gypsum is a better (although still not rapid) way of moving Ca into high clay subsoils and improving root growth. Often these low Ca subsoils are very acid and better root growth results from displacement of toxic Al by Ca rather than better soil structure. Extremely acid subsoils are rare in the agricultural regions of Minnesota.

Ca amendments can improve soil structure, but their usefulness probably has to be evaluated on a case-by-case basis. This may mean testing their effectiveness on strips in a field before making a large investment to treat the entire area. On a practical basis, it is important to remember that the formation of stable soil aggregates requires organic matter, and the presence and activity of a variety of soil organisms, not just Ca binding of clay particles. In addition, maintaining good soil structure requires soil management that avoids mechanical compaction, avoids physical destruction of soil aggregates by excessive tillage, and uses crop residue management to reduce surface crusting. Good soil structure results from the interaction of many physical, chemical,



and biological factors.

Organic agriculture’s approach to fertilization is to feed the soil and let the soil feed the plant. Manure, compost, kelp, and other organic fertilizers that supply multiple nutrients are emphasized, but inorganic materials are also important. Inorganic fertilizers for organic crop production must be from natural rock deposits and cannot be chemically processed. They are relatively insoluble with slow release of plant nutrients. Ground minerals like rock phosphate (P), especially colloidal or soft rock phosphate, greensand (K, P), gypsum (Ca, S), and limestone (Ca, Mg, pH) are commonly applied. Even less soluble products like basalt and granite dust (K, Mg, Ca, trace-metal micronutrients) are also used.

Nutrient release from minerals with low solubility depends upon accelerated weathering reactions, which are stimulated by an active population of soil microbes. Living microorganisms themselves are also a major nutrient storage pool, so organic cultural practices to maintain soil fertility are designed to enhance soil biological activity. Ideally, this microbial population functions both as a “sponge” that soaks up excess nutrients and a nutrient source that releases nutrients when the population turns over, in addition to its role in promoting release of nutrients from minerals and decomposing organic matter. The phrase “feed the soil” refers to the importance of meeting the nutrient needs of these soil organisms and their subsequent roles in meeting the nutrient needs of plants.

Soil Testing

The first step in maintaining soil fertility is to know current nutrient levels. This is accomplished bysoil testing, which is an important soil management tool and effective basis for nutrient and lime recommendations. The goal of soil testing is no longer simply to find out whether the soil contains adequate plant nutrients for optimum growth. It also is a tool for determining whether nutrient levels are excessive and prone to move off-site. Soil fertility today is a social issue as well as a crop production concern .

Soil test each field every 1-3 years, depending upon crop rotation, field history, and the value of the crop. Testing every 3-5 years is probably sufficient for agronomic crop fields with a stable rotation, long-term record of soil tests, and no recent manure or compost applications (only commercial fertilizer since the last soil test). Choose a reliable, experienced laboratory that makes recommendations suitable for the soil types and growing conditions in your location. Laboratories using procedures described in Recommended Chemical Soil Test Procedures for the North Central Region, NCR Publication 221, are preferred, because fertilizer recommendations based on University research trials in this region are calibrated



using those procedures.

Soil sampling. Collecting a representative soil sample is often the weakest link in a soil-testing program. Each field sampled should be divided into uniform areas having the same soil texture and color, cropping history, and fertilizer, manure, and lime applications. Standard soil sampling depths are 6 to 8 inches for annual crops and 10 to 12 inches for perennial crops. Collect a 0- to 2-foot sample for a soil nitrate test. About 15 to 20 subsamples, one core per subsample, should be collected in a random, zig-zag pattern across the field or sampling area. If you are tempted to save time or money and collect fewer cores to represent more acres, remember that any soil test can only be as accurate as the sample you submit. A single soil sample should never represent more than 20 acres on a level, uniform field or 5 acres on hilly, rolling ground.

Site-specific soil sampling methods for use with the modern technological tools of precision farming, such as yield maps and variable-rate lime and fertilizer application equipment, are continually being developed and refined. Two approaches are currently used: 1) zone sampling, where fields are divided into management zones by soil type, topography, soil color, and similar criteria, and 2) grid sampling, where fields are systematically divided into uniform-sized grids (the most common size is 2.5 acres).

Types of soil tests. Standard soil testing in Minnesota focuses on soil organic matter, the macronutrients P and K, soil pH, and the lime requirement if pH is below the desired range. A number of other soil tests are available, but their value is very localized. Their use in different regions of the state depends upon soil types, crops grown, the likelihood of a specific deficiency, and availability of research to usefully interpret soil test results and make reliable recommendations for fertilizer use. Soil tests for Ca, Mg, Mn, Cu, Zn, and soluble salts are useful on some soils and for some cropping systems, but are not usually necessary on a routine basis.

Fertilizer recommendations are commonly based on either sufficiency level or buildup and maintenance philosophies. The main difference between the two approaches is that ideal soil nutrient levels, and therefore typical fertilizer rates, are higher for buildup and maintenance (feeding the soil) than the more conservative sufficiency level approach (feeding the plant).

Fertilizer recommendations for N are not routinely based on soil tests for N. Organic N is the largest pool of N in the soil, but testing for organic N is a poor measure of available N because the rate of organic matter breakdown and N release is variable and unpredictable. It is a biological process that varies with temperature, moisture, aeration, the type of organic compounds being decomposed, and the relative



Plant roots grow

through soil containing

about 1,000 lbs of N per acre for

every 1% organic

matter the soil

contains. Plant

leaves are bathed in air that is

about 78% N, so there are about 70 million pounds of

N in the column of air above

every acre of land.

Despite this abundance of N in both the soil and atmosphere,

N is commonly the most limiting

nutrient for crop

production.

abundance of different types of soil organisms.

In Minnesota the type of crop grown and the “average” requirement for N by that crop at a specific, anticipated yield level is one of the two primary criteria determining N fertilizer recommendations. The other major factor is soil organic matter content, but organic matter measurements are used to estimate an “average” release of N from organic matter during the growing season. These average requirements are determined by research over many years and weather patterns, and across the different soil types of the region. Additional adjustments to the crop N requirement are made for preceding legume crops, manure applications, other N sources, and in some situations a soil test for nitrate-N.

Soil nitrate testing. The majority of the N taken up by most crops is in the nitrate form andtesting for soil nitrate is used to adjust N fertilizer recommendations in regions with low rainfall and limited leaching. Under these conditions , residual soil nitrate from a previous crop can accumulate in the soil profile and be available for root uptake by the following crop. Soil testing for nitrate-N is strongly recommended for the western part of Minnesota to improve the accuracy of N fertilizer recommendations. Collect soil samples to a depth of 2 feet, either in the fall or in the early spring before planting. The measured amount of nitrate-N is used to adjust N recommendations and prevent excessive N fertilizer applications.

In more humid areas, soil nitrate testing has not been considered an accurate measure of nitrate availability during the growing season, because it is easily lost before crops are planted or established by denitrification, leaching, or through tile lines. However, recent research has led to development of a recommended procedure for measuring residual nitrate-N in south central, southeast, and east central Minnesota. In contrast to recommendations for western Minnesota, samples for nitrate testing should not be collected in the fall for these parts of the state with higher rainfall. Sample to a depth of 2 feet, but only in the spring before planting, at planting, or soon after planting. At the present time, recommendations for adjusting N rates in these regions have only been developed for corn. The importance of N management for both crop production and water quality protection may stimulate additional research to extend its use to other crops, but currently it should only be used for monitoring purposes on crops other than corn. Nitrate testing is not recommended on sandy soils.



Conventional Soil Testing and Organic Agriculture

Conventional soil tests use chemical solutions to extract nutrient elements from soil. These chemical extractants include acid, alkaline, or concentrated salt solutions, and various complexing agents and buffers. Questions are sometimes raised about the validity of such “chemical” methods for evaluating soil fertility in “non-chemical” organic farming systems. An alternative advocated by some is that a simple water extraction is more natural and better suited for organic agriculture.

These are reasonable questions, but the goals of soil testing and the role of nutrient cycling in soil fertility supports the idea that conventional soil testing methods are as useful to organic farming as they are to conventional agriculture. Solutions to fertility problems will differ, but conventional soil testing is reasonably accurate for assessing the fertility needs of soils in both conventional and organic systems.

The goal of analyzing soil samples is to find out whether the soil contains adequate, but not excessive, plant nutrients for optimum growth and crop production. Roots absorb nutrients from soil water, so mixing soil with water removes soluble nutrients and analyzing this solution tells you the supply of nutrients immediately availableforplant uptake. This method works well in situations like frequently fertilized greenhouse crops, which are grown in artificial media with low nutrient-holding capacity, but gives only part of the picture for field-grown crops. Simple water extractions don’t provide sufficient information to analyze the nutrient status of field soils, because what you really want to know are the total amounts of nutrients that will be available to a crop throughout the full growing season. In addition to what is immediately available, you need a measure of the capacity of the soil to replenish the supply of nutrients in the soil solution as roots absorb them (e.g. see “Soil P Transformations”).

The native soil solution is not pure water. It is a chemically reactive solution that solubilizes nutrients and plays an active role in nutrient cycling, so extractants that mimic this activity are the most “natural” and useful. Organic farming depends upon building a biologically active soil as a basis for fertility, which means creating a corresponding soil solution that is chemically and biochemically active. If anything, it is



probably even more important in an organic farming system, than a conventional system, to measure the slowly available supply of soil nutrients.

The ideal chemical extractant removes all nutrient forms capable of cycling into the soluble, readily available nutrient pool during the next growing season. No extractant is that complete or selective, but useful chemical procedures remove an extractable fraction of one or more soil nutrients that is well correlated with nutrient uptake by plants. The extracted amount is a useable index of nutrient availability. Soils with low soil-test values are very likely to respond to nutrient additions, while high-testing soils are very unlikely to benefit. Specific fertilizer recommendations are based on calibration research that determines the amount of fertilizer a crop will respond to at any given soil test level.

Development of chemical extractants specifically designed for organic systems probably could improve their accuracy. For example, conventional soil tests may underestimate P availability in soils with large amounts of organic P, and depending on the method, may be low or high for soils where large applications of rock phosphate have been made. However, more correlation and calibration research on organic crops, measuring responses to organically certified nutrient sources, could be a more productive approach than developing completely different extractants. Results of conventional soil tests are definitely useful to organic agriculture, but there are opportunities to improve the way they are applied.

Plant Analysis

Plant analysis is a nutrient management tool most effectively used in conjunction with a regular soil-testing program. The crop integrates effects of soil fertility and other growth factors, and balanced

plant nutrition is the ultimate goal of crop nutrient management, so it makes sense to directly analyze plants. Just as in soil testing, proper sampling is critical. Nutrient sufficiency levels are based on analyzing specific plant parts, sampled at a specific growth stage. Recently matured, fully expanded leaves, or petioles (leaf stalks) from recently matured leaves, are the most frequently used plant tissues.

A shortcoming of plant analysis is that when a nutrient deficiency is diagnosed, it may be too late in the season to correct the problem for the current crop. However, plant analysis is a requirement for sound nutrient management of perennial fruit crops, can be cost effective on



a routine basis for high-value vegetables, and is a useful validation tool for the fertility program of all crops. Plant analysis is the only way to confirm a crop nutrient deficiency and is often a better diagnostic tool than a soil test for micronutrients.

Soil tests in conjunction with plant analysis are necessary because: 1) when a nutrient deficiency is diagnosed by plant analysis, there usually are no standardized recommendations for the amount of that nutrient you need to apply to overcome the deficiency, and 2) when a nutrient deficiency is diagnosed, the cause is not necessarily inadequate nutrient supply in the soil.

Several plant tests are specifically designed to refine N management. Chlorophyll meters are hand-held instruments used in the field to measure the “greenness” or chlorophyll content of plant leaves. They give an indirect measure of leaf N, because most N in leaves is contained in chlorophyll. Another approach, used for intensively grown, drip-irrigated vegetables, is on-farm analysis of sap squeezed from fresh petioles. Both nitrate-N and K can be monitored with petiole-sap testing and results used to determine fertigation rates for these nutrients through the irrigation system.

Keeping detailed records of plant analysis, soil tests, lime and fertilizer applications, crop yields and quality, and changes that occur over time are key elements of a nutrient management program. This information permits producers to monitor crop responses on their own farms to different soil test levels and standard fertilizer recommendations . They can use the accumulated results to adjust these “average” recommendations to the unique conditions of their farms and cropping systems.

Summary

Goals of effective nutrient management are to provide adequate plant nutrients for optimum growth and high-quality harvested products, while at the same time restricting nutrient movement out of the plant-root zone and into the off-farm environment. Biological processes control nutrient cycling and influence many other aspects of soil fertility. Knowledge of these processes helps farmers make informed management decisions about their crop and livestock systems. How these decisions affect soil biology, especially microbial activity, root growth, and organic matter, are key factors in efficient nutrient management. Managing soil organic matter and biological nutrient flows is complex, because crop residues, manures, composts, and other organic nutrient sources are variable in composition, release nutrients in different ways, and their nutrient cycling is strongly affected by environmental conditions.

Chemical and physical processes in soil largely control mineral solubility, cation exchange,



solution pH, and binding to soil particle surfaces . Knowledge of soil chemistry makes it possible to formulate fertilizers that supply readily available plant nutrients. Management of inorganic nutrient sources is simpler than organic nutrient sources, because of their known and uniform composition and the predictability of their chemical reactions, but they are also more easily lost from farm fields. Chemical and biological processes and their effects on plant nutrients cannot be clearly separated, because inorganic nutrients are quickly incorporated into biological cycles and biological processes release nutrients from organic matter in plant-available, inorganic forms.

Use chemical fertilizers only after accounting for all organic nutrient sources to avoid overloading the system and losing soluble nutrients . For many farming systems,inorganic fertilizer will still be the largest nutrient input, but even then it is useful to think of chemical fertilizers as supplementary nutrients. When used to supplement biological nutrient sources, inorganic fertilizers can help make more efficient use of other available plant-growth resources, such as water and sunlight, by eliminating nutrient supply as the limiting factor in crop growth and yield. Chemical processes should be managed so they work together with biological processes for a productive agriculture and healthy environment.

This bulletin was originally published by the Ohio State University Piketon Research & Extension Center (SWR-2, 1999). It has been updated and adapted to fit Minnesota conditions and University of Minnesota recommendations.


Mineral Chart | Nutrient chart | Minerals in fruits and vegetables

Dr. Decuypere's Nutrient Charts™ ~~ Minerals Chart ~~

Use these charts to find the nutrient contents of your favorite fruits, nuts, proteins and vegetables.

Click on the buttons below to visit each chart:

Minerals | Vitamins | Fruits | Vegetables | Nuts & Seeds | Proteins

Minerals are elements that originate in the soil and cannot be created by living things, such as plants and animals. Yet plants, animals and humans need minerals in order to be healthy. Plants absorb minerals from the soil, and animals get their minerals from the plants or other animals they eat. Most of the minerals in the human diet come directly from plants, such as fruits and vegetables, or indirectly from animal sources. Minerals may also be present in your drinking water, but this depends on where you live, and what kind of water you drink (bottled, tap). Minerals from plant sources may also vary from place to place, because the mineral content of the soil varies according to the location in which the plant was grown.

Note that I have listed only those foods which contain the listed vitamins in significant quantities. For more detailed information, please visit the United States Department of Agriculture (USDA) Food & Nutrition Center.

Nutrient - Estimated Amounts Needed

Benefits/Deficiency Symptoms Fruit Sources Vegetable

SourcesNut/Seed/Grain

Sources

Meat/Dairy/Protein Sources

calcium - nutritional info

Adults need 1000 mg/day.

Children need 800 to 1300 mg/day.

Recommended supplement: Coral Calcium Supreme

Calcium eases insomnia and helps regulate the passage of nutrients through cell walls. Without calcium, your muscles wouldn’t contract correctly, your blood wouldn’t clot and your nerves wouldn’t carry messages.

If you don’t get enough calcium from the food you eat, your body automatically takes the calcium needed from your bones. If your body continues to tear down more bone than it replaces over a period of years in order to get sufficient calcium, your bones will become weak

Most fruits contain some calcium, these have a bit more than usual: Blackberries Blackcurrants Dates Grapefruit Mulberries Orange Pomegranate Prickly Pears

Most vegetables contain some calcium, these have a bit more than usual: Amaranth leaves Bok Choy Brussels Sprouts Butternut squash Celery Chinese Broccoli

Almonds Amaranth Brazil Nuts Filberts/Hazelnuts Oats Pistachios Sesame Seeds Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard White

Meat and Proteins: Cheddar Cheese Cottage Cheese Cream Cheese Cows Milk Eggs Caviar Perch Pollock Sardines Goat Milk Goat Cheese Soy Beans Yogurt

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http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html

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http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic

http://www.nal.usda.gov/fnic

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/coral-calcium-solution.html

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/coral-calcium-solution.html

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Blackberries

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Blackcurrants

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Dates

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Grapefruit

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Mulberries

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Orange

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Pomegranate

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Pricklypears

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Amaranth leaves


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Bok Choy

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Brussels Sprouts


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Butternut squash


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Celery

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Chinese Broccoli

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Chinese Broccoli

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#almonds

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#amaranth

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#brazilnuts

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#hazelnuts

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#oats

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#pistachios

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#sesameseeds

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#durum wheat

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#hard white wheat

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cheddar cheese

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cottage cheese

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cream cheese

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cowsmilk

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#eggs

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#caviar

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#perch

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#pollock

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#sardines

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#goat milk

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#goat cheese

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#soybeans

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#yogurt


and break easily.

Deficiency may result in muscle spasms and cramps in the short term and osteoporosis.

French Beans Kale Okra Parsnip Spirulina Swiss Chard Turnip

Sour Cream Lowfat Yogurt

copper - nutritional info

The estimated safe and adequate intake for copper is 1.5 - 3.0 mg/day. Many survey studies show that Americans consume about 1.0 mg or less of copper per day

Copper is involved in the absorption, storage and metabolism of iron and the formation of red blood cells. It also helps supply oxygen to the body. The symptoms of a copper deficiency are similar to iron-deficiency anemia.

Most fruits contain a small amount of copper, but kiwi fruit has a significant amount. Avocado Blackberries Dates Guava Kiwi Fruit Lychee Mango Passionfruit Pomegranate

Most vegetables have some copper, but Lima Beans have a significant amount. Amaranth leaves Artichoke French Beans Kale Lima Beans Parsnip Peas Potatoes Pumpkin Spirulina Squash - Winter Sweet Potato Swiss Chard Taro

Most nuts contain a trace amount of copper. Brazil Nuts Buckwheat Cashews Chestnuts Filberts/Hazelnuts Oats Sunflower Seeds Walnuts Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard Red

Most proteins contain a trace amount of copper. Beef Cheddar Cheese Perch Salmon Sardines Goat Cheese Soy Beans Soy Milk Turkey Bacon Veal Turkey Leg Roast Duck


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#French beans

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Kale

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Okra

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Parsnip

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Spirulina

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Swiss Chard

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Turnip

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#sour cream

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#lowfat yogurt

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Kiwi


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Avocado



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Guava


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Lychee

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Mango

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Passionfruit


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Limabeans



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Artichoke

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#French Beans




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Peas

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Potatoes

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Pumpkin


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Squashwinter


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Sweetpotato


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Taro


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#buckwheat

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#cashews

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#chestnuts



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#sunflowerseeds

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#walnuts


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#hard red wheat

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#beef



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#salmon




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#soymilk

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#turkey bacon

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#veal

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#turkey leg

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#duck


iodine - nutritional info

Adults should get 150 mcgs per day.

The children’s recommendation for iodine is 70 to 150 mcg (that is micrograms).

Iodine helps regulate the rate of energy production and body weight and promotes proper growth. It also promotes healthy hair, nails, skin and teeth.

In countries where iodine is deficient in the soil, rates of hypothyroidism, goiter and retarded growth from iodine deficiency are very high.

In developed countries, however, because iodine is added to table salt, iodine deficiencies are rare.

Fruits grown in iodine-rich soils contain iodine.

Vegetables grown in iodine-rich soils contain iodine.

Nuts grown in iodine-rich soils contain iodine.

Proteins produced in iodine-rich areas contain iodine.

iron - nutritional info

Women and teenage girls need at least 15 mg a day, whereas men can get by on 10.

It is important that children get about 10 to 12 mg of iron per day, preferably from their diet. Breastfeeding is the best insurance against iron deficiency in babies.

Most at risk of iron deficiency are infants, adolescent girls and pregnant women.

Iron deficiency in infants can result in impaired learning ability and behavioral problems. It can also affect the immune system and cause weakness and fatigue.

To aid in the absorption of iron, eat foods rich in vitamin C at the same time you eat the food containing iron. The tannin in non-herbal tea can hinder absorption of iron.

Take iron supplements and your vitamin E at different times of the day, as the iron supplements will tend to neutralize the vitamin E.

Vegetarians need to get twice as much dietary iron as meat eaters.

While most fruits have some iron, probably the best source of iron for children is raisins, which are rich in iron. Other fruits which have a good amount of iron are: Avocado Blackberries Blackcurrant Boysenberries Breadfruit Cherries Dates Figs Grapes Kiwi Lemon Loganberries Lychee Mulberries Passion Fruit Persimmon Pomegranate

Vegetables: Amaranth leaves Bok Choy Brussels Sprouts Butternut squash French Beans Kale Leeks Lima Beans Peas Potatoes Pumpkin Spirulina Swiss Chard

Most nuts contain a small amount of iron. Amaranth Buckwheat Cashews Coconut Oats Pine Nuts/Pignolias Pumpkin Seeds Rye Spelt Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard Red Wheat - Hard White

Meat and Proteins: Beef Caviar Sardines Goat Cheese Lamb Soy Beans Soy Milk Turkey Bacon Turkey Leg Roast Duck Hamburger Beef Sausage Beef Jerky Ground Turkey


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Raisins



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Blackcurrant

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Boysenberries

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Breadfruit

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Cherries


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Figs

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Grapes


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Lemon

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Loganberries




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Persimmon











http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Leeks










http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#coconut


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#pineneuts

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#pumpkinseeds

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#rye

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#spelt








http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#lamb






http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#hamburger

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#beef sausage

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#beef jerky

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#ground turkey


Raspberries Strawberry Watermelon

magnesium - nutritional info

Adults need 310 to 420 mg/ day.


Magnesium is needed for bone, protein, making new cells, activating B vitamins, relaxing nerves and muscles, clotting blood, and in energy production.

Insulin secretion and function also requires magnesium. Magnesium also assists in the absorption of calcium, vitamin C and potassium.

Deficiency may result in fatigue, nervousness, insomnia, heart problems, high blood pressure, osteoporosis, muscle weakness and cramps.

Fruits: Avocado Banana Blackberries Blackcurrants Breadfruit Cherimoya Dates Guava Kiwi Loganberries Mulberries Passion Fruit Pomegranate Prickly Pear Raspberries Watermelon

Vegetables: Amaranth leaves Artichoke Butternut squash French Beans Lima Beans Okra Peas Spirulina Swiss Chard

Nuts: Almonds Amaranth Brazil Nuts Buckwheat Cashews Oats Peanuts Pine Nuts/Pignolias Pumpkin Seeds Quinoa Rye Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard Red Wheat - Hard White

Meat and Proteins: Beef Cheddar Cheese Caviar Cod Herring Perch Pollock Salmon Sardines Tuna Goat Milk Soy Beans Soy Milk Lowfat Yogurt

manganese - nutritional info

2.0-5.0 mg/day for adults 2.0-3.0 mg for children 7 - 10 1.5-2.0 mg for children 4 - 6 1.0-1.5 mg for children 1 - 3 0.6-1.0 mg for children 6 mo - 1yr 0.3-0.6 mg for infants 0-6 months

The functions of this mineral are not specific since other minerals can perform in its place. Manganese does function in enzyme reactions concerning blood sugar, metabolism, and thyroid hormone function. Deficiency is rare in humans.

Most fruits contain manganese, but the following fruits have a significant amount: Avocado Banana Blackberries Blackcurrants Blueberries Boysenberries Cranberries Dates Gooseberries Grapefruit Guava Loganberries Pineapple Pomegranate Raspberries

Vegetables: Amaranth leaves Brussels Sprouts Butternut squash French Beans Kale Leeks Lima Beans Okra Parsnip Peas Potatoes Spirulina Squash - Winter Sweet Potato

Most nuts contain manganese, but the following nuts have a significant amount: Buckwheat Coconut Filberts/Hazelnuts Macadamia Nuts Oats Pecans Pine Nuts/Pignolias Pumpkin Seeds Rice Brown Rye Spelt Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard Red Wheat - Hard White

Meat and Proteins: Eggs Anchovies Herring Perch Sardines Goat Milk Goat Cheese Soy Beans Soy Milk Veal Sour Cream Beef Jerky Hot Dog (Beef)


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Raspberries

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Strawberry

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Watermelon


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Banana




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Cerimoya








http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Prickly Pear




















http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#peanuts



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#quinoa








http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cod

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#herring





http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#tuna






http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Banana



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Blueberries

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Boysenberries

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Cranberries


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Gooseberries




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Pineapple











http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Leeks









http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Sweetpotato




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#macadamianuts


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#pecanss



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#brown rice



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#durum wheats




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#anchovies









http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#sour cream


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#hot dog


Strawberry Swiss Chard Taro

phosphorus - nutritional info

Adults need 700 mg/day.


In combination with calcium, phosphorus is necessary for the formation of bones and teeth and of the nerve cells.

Phosphorus is second to calcium in abundance in the body.

It is very widely distributed in both plant and animal foods so it is unlikely that deficiency would be a problem.

Fruits: Avocado Blackcurrants Breadfruit Dates Guava Kiwi Lychee Mulberries Passionfruit Pomegranate

Vegetables: Amaranth leaves Artichoke Brussels Sprouts Celeriac Corn French Beans Lima Beans Parsnip Peas Potatoes Pumpkin Spirulina Taro

Nuts: Brazil Nuts Buckwheat Cashews Oats Pine Nuts/Pignolias Pumpkin Seeds Quinoa Rye Spelt Sunflower Seeds Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard Red Wheat - Hard White

Meat and Proteins: Beef Cheddar Cheese Herring Perch Pollock Salmon Sardines Tuna Goat Milk Goat Cheese Soy Beans Turkey Bacon Lowfat Yogurt

potassium - nutritional info

Estimated Minimum Requirements 2000 mg/day for adults and adolescents.

Potassium is essential for the body’s growth and maintenance. It is necessary to keep a normal water balance between the cells and body fluids.

Potassium plays an essential role in proper heart function.

Deficiency may cause muscular cramps, twitching and weakness, irregular heartbeat, insomnia, kidney and lung failure.

Fruits: Avocado Bananas Blackcurrants Breadfruit Cherimoya Cherries Chinesepear Dates Grapefruit Guava Kiwi Lychee Papaya Passionfruit Pomegranate Pricklypear Watermelon

Vegetables: Amaranth leaves Bamboo Shoots Bok Choy Butternut squash French Beans Lima Beans Parsnips Potatoes Pumpkin Spirulina Sweet Potatoes Swiss Chard

Nuts: Almonds Buckwheat Chestnuts Coconut Oats Pistachios Pumpkin Seeds Rye Sunflower Seeds Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard Red Wheat - Hard White

Meat and Proteins: Beef Cows Milk Catfish Herring Perch Pollock Salmon Sardines Tuna Goat Milk Pork Soy Beans Turkey Bacon Veal Yogurt Lowfat Yogurt Pork Sausage Ground Chicken


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Strawberry


















http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Celeriac

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Corn




































http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Bananas



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Cherimoya

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Cherries

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Chinesepear






http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Papaya



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Pricklypear




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Bamboo Shoots






http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Parsnips




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Sweet Potatoes




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#chestnuts



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#pistachios









http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#catfish








http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#pork






http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#pork sausage

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#ground chicken


selenium - nutritional info

Men need 70 mcgs/day.

Women need 55 mcgs/day.

Selenium is a part of several enzymes necessary for the body to properly function. Generally, selenium functions as an antioxidant that works in conjunction with vitamin E.

Selenium deficiency is rare in humans.

Most fruits contain a small amount of selenium, but dates have a significant amount. Bananas Breadfruit Guava Lychee Mango Passionfruit Pomegranate Watermelon

Vegetables: Asparagus Brussels Sprouts French Beans Lima Beans Mushrooms Parsnip Peas Spirulina

Most nuts contain selenium, but the following nuts have a significant amount: Amaranth Barley Brazil Nuts Buckwheat Cashews Coconut Rye Wheat - Durum Wheat - Hard Red

Meat and Proteins: Beef Cheddar Cheese Chicken Breast Chicken (dark meat) Eggs Anchovies Caviar Cod Herring Perch Pollock Salmon Sardines Tuna Lamb Pork Soy Beans Turkey Breast Turkey Bacon Veal Turkey Leg Roast Duck Hamburger Bacon Ground Turkey

sodium - nutritional info

500 mg/day for adults

120 mg for infants

Daily Value recommendation - no more than 2,400 to 3,000 mg/day

Sodium is required by the body to regulate blood pressure and blood volume. It helps regulate the fluid balance in your body. Sodium also helps in the proper functioning of muscles and nerves.

Many people get far more sodium than they need, which tends to cause health problems.

Different body types need

Sodium occurs naturally in almost all fresh, whole fruits but passionfruit has a significant amount.

Sodium occurs naturally in almost all fresh, whole vegetables, these have significant amounts: Amaranth leaves Artichoke Broccoli Beetroot

Most seeds, nuts and grains have some sodium, these have more than others: Amaranth Coconut Pumpkin Seeds Quinoa Spelt

Meat and Proteins: Cheddar Cheese Cottage Cheese Cream Cheese Cows Milk Eggs Anchovies Caviar Herring Pollock Sardines



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Bananas




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/fruit-nutrition-chart.html#Mango




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Asparagus



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#French beans


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Mushrooms





http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/nut-seed-nutrition-chart.html#barley










http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#chicken breast

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#chickendark

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#chickendark




http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cod







http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#lamb

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#pork


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#turkey breast





http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#hamburger

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#bacon

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#ground turkey





http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Broccoli

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Beetroot







http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cottage cheese

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#cream cheese









different amounts of sodium. Bok Choy Brussels Sprouts Celeriac Celery Fennel Kale Spirulina Spaghetti squash Sweet Potatoes Swiss Chard

Goat Milk Goat Cheese Soy Milk Turkey Bacon Yogurt Lowfat Yogurt Hot Dog (Turkey) Bacon Pork Sausage Beef Sausage Beef Jerky Hot Dog (Beef)

zinc - nutritional info

Men need 15 mgs/day.

Women should get 12 mg/day.


Vegetarians need about 50 percent more zinc in their diet than meat eaters.





http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Celeriac

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Celery

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Fennel



http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Spaghetti squash

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Spaghetti squash

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/vegetables-nutrition-chart.html#Sweet Potatoes








http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#turkey hot dog

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#bacon

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#pork sausage

http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#beef sausage


http://www.healthalternatives2000.com/meat-protein-nutrition-chart.html#hot dog

Eating Tree Nuts for Health: Bioactive Nutrients Reduce Risk of Disease

http://naturalmedicine.suite101.com/article.cfm/tree_nuts_for_health (1 of 3) [02/05/2010 15:47:37]

vitamin and mineral sources from herbs

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