Water for Lifewas conceived, designed and produced by Info Grafik, Inc. / EMA, Inc. / Honolulu Board of Water Supply

Photo and Illustration CreditsMalinda AbellRay BakerBishop MuseumBishop Museum, C.J. Hedemann CollectionDavid BoyntonCampbell EstateE.L. CaumLouis ChorisKatie DokaDavid FranzenHawai‘i State ArchivesHonolulu Board of Water SupplyHonolulu AdvertiserHonolulu Star-BulletinKen McGuirePeter MenzelDavid MuenchNASANew Bedford Whaling Museum, J. HillT. ParmanG. PearsonMarc SchechterOren SchliemanPhilip Spalding IIIU.S. NavyDietrich VarezJohn WebberCarol WilcoxWilliams Photography

Special thanks to:Bishop MuseumCampbell EstateTom CoffmanHawai‘i Department of Land and Natural Resources,

Division of Forestry and WildlifeJoseph FarberHawaii State Judiciary, Judiciary History CenterLyon ArboretumMaui Land & Pineapple Company, Inc.Pacific Basin CommunicationsThe Nature Conservancy of Hawai‘iVolcano Arts Center

For more information, please visit us on the web at www.boardofwatersupply.com or contact theBWS Communications Office at 748-5041.

Water for LifeThe History and Future of Water on O‘ahu

e at the Honolulu Board of Water Supply areworking hard to preserve and protect our most

essential resource – our water. We are blessed withmany gifts here in Hawai‘i, and a plentiful supply of thebest water in the world is at the top of that list. We havealso been blessed with a community that has worked withus when we have asked for conservation.

This is a new era, with new challenges, and the Board is meeting those challenges with a renewed commitmentto our vision and mission. We invite you to participate inour vision through planning efforts that will be undertakenin your community. To understand where we are going, itis necessary to understand where we have come from. To that end, we have prepared this booklet – Water for Life:The History and Future of Water on O‘ahu. Thank you foryour participation in making the Board’s conservationefforts a success.

Welcome to Water for Life.

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he Hawaiian Islands are part of a long chain of volcanoesrising up from the sea floor. Eruptions over hundreds of

thousands of years built an island that finally emerged above sea level. As the Pacific Plate moved to the Northwest,new islands emerged above the stationary hot spot.

O‘ahu was built by two volcanoes, the remnants of which are the Wai‘anae and Ko‘olau mountains. Over time,the two volcanoes joined to form a single island that wasfurther shaped by erosion and volcanic eruptions. Erosioncovered the coastal reefs and built the high, fertile plateau of central O‘ahu.

Born of Fire and Water

here is no life without water. Hawai‘i’s volcaniclandmass and high rain-catching ridges gaveeach island the tools to create an efficient anddependable water source. This fund of water

allowed a wealth of ancient life forms to take holdand flourish. A complex network of plants and animalsevolved and filled each geographic and climaticsub-zone with a web of life.

How O‘ahu Makes Our Water

Upper layers pushed deeper

Hot magma moves outwardfrom the earth’s core

MAGMA

CRUSTHOTSPOT

Diminishing volcanicactivity as older islandmoves farther fromthe hot spot

Volcanic island risesover hot spot

Volcanic eruptionreleases magmaat earth’s surface

Earth’s crust sinks at oceanic trench

PrecipitationWater vapor condenses and falls to earth as rain

Northeast TradewindsPrevailing winds in the tropiczone north of the equator

EvaporationHeat from thesun convertsocean waterto water vapor

StreamsSurface flows thatcarry water fromhigher elevation tothe sea

SpringGroundwater

released at the surface, fed by dikes,

perched water orunderground streams

Brackish WaterIntermediate zone ofmixed fresh and saltwater

SaltwaterDenser saltwater ofsea water salinity

SaltwaterDenser saltwater of seawater salinity

PercolationRainwater slowly sinks through the island’ssoil and porous volcanic rock. Passage of a

raindrop from mountain top to aquifertakes roughly 25 years

HeadThe layer of the freshwateraquifer that lies above sea level

TranspirationEvaporation through plantleaves releases water backinto the atmosphere

Spring

Sea LevelThe level of the ocean’ssurface

Freshwater Aquifer(Freshwater Lens)Reservoir bounded bydenser saltwater

Perched WaterSmaller volumes of groundwatertrapped between layers of porousand less porous material

CaprockA mixture of land

and ocean sediments that is impermeable

to water

Spring

The Origins of Waterhe hydrologic cycle on an oceanic island is one of constant motion

and transformation. As waterchanges form through evaporation,condensation, melting and freezing;energy is released and absorbed,linking water to the environment’slarger energy cycle.

Brackish WaterIntermediate zone of

mixed fresh and saltwater

How the Age and Shape of OurMountains Affect Rainfall

‘ahu’s steep mountains are key to the island’s ability toattract clouds and abundant rainfall.

Intermittent StreamFlows seasonally or only

after heavy storms

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1.2 billion B.C.First multicellular organisms appear.

450 million B.C. Insects and other

invertebrates moveon to land.

225 million B.C.Mammals anddinosaurs originate.

5 B 1 B 100 M

4.4 billion B.C.Water condensesinto oceans.

4.55 billion B.C.The earth forms.

7,000-2,000 B.C. Early settlements formaround the Tigris and

Euphrates Rivers.

150,000 B.C. Modern humans arise in Africa.

65 million B.C. Largedinosaurs go extinct, mammals dominate.

3 million B.C. The island of O‘ahu emerges.

50 M 1 M 500,000 100,000 50,000 1000 BC500 M

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Dike ConfinedWaterGroundwatertrapped in compartmentsformed bywalls of nonporous volcanic basalt

On young, high mountains such as the Big Island’s, clouds droptheir precipitation before they are pushed to the highestelevations, leaving the upper reaches dry and desert-like.

On older, eroded islands such as O‘ahu and Kaua‘i, rainfall isheaviest on the windward slopes and mountain peaks, allowinglush vegetation to cover even the highest ridges.

A relatively flat island such as Ni‘ihau has very little rainfallbecause it lacks the high elevation slopes. Without the slopes,winds cannot push moist air upwards to produce clouds andprecipitation.

The Watershed is Our Collection Basin

ainfall is only one part of the water cycleequation. O‘ahu also interacts with the skiesto funnel water from the atmosphere back toland. The island’s topography, augmented by a

healthy, balanced natural ecosystem, catches, collectsand stores water.

What is a Watershed?watershed is an area of land, such as a mountain or a valley,that catches and collects rainwater. Topography influences

whether rainwater moves toward the sea via rivers and streamsor via movement underground.

O‘ahu has two main watersheds: one in the Ko‘olauMountains and another on the crest of the Wai‘anae Range. The Ko‘olaus run perpendicular to the Northeast trades andexperience the heaviest rainfall. The Wai‘anae peaks, thoughhigher, sit in the Ko‘olau rain shadow and receive less rain, evenon their windward slopes.

Above: Rain falling alongO‘ahu’s upper slopes andridges flows downhilltoward the sea. From thesummit, water flows to bothsides of the island with agreater volume of waterfalling on windward slopes.

Right: The island chain seenfrom space.

What is a Rain Forest?rain forest is a forest ecosystem in which rainfallis abundant throughout the year. The covering in

the forest catches rain and dew and stabilizes theupper soil layers, letting rainwater filter through todeeper layers. Forest growth also stabilizes streambanks, limiting erosion debris in surface flow.The heavily forested regions on the mountain topsof each island are Hawai‘i’s primary watershed areas.

Emergent TreesKoa, ‘ohi‘a

Canopy Trees‘Ohi‘a

Subcanopy Trees & Shrubs‘Olapa, kawa‘u, hapu‘u tree ferns, alani

Ground CoverMosses, small ferns suchas hoe a Maui, ‘ekaha

These trees are the first to intercept heavy raindrops, absorbing the energy of their fall.Tree leaves pull moisture from passing cloudsvia condensation (fog drip). Water runs fromleaves, down branches, to plants at lower levels.

Canopy trees catch the majority of raindropsas well as additional fog drip. Water flowsalong branches to the trunk; bark textureslows the rate of flow.

This level absorbs tree drip from the layers above, holding much of the water in its vegetative structure and passing some flowalong stems to the ground. Subcanopy plantskeep the air near the ground water-saturated,slowing evaporation from the ground layer.

These plants form a spongy absorptive layerjust above the soil. They inhibit evaporationfrom the ground and prevent soil erosion.

Understory‘Ohelo, pu‘ahanui,alani, uluhe fern, ‘ama‘u, ho‘i‘o, ‘akolea

These ferns and shrubs absorb additionalwater from higher plants as well as the energy of dripping water.

What Happens When the Rain Forest is Degraded?

hen a forest is degraded,rain falling on bare earth

causes erosion. The water-retaining upper soil layers arewashed away, leaving behindless permeable clays. Water runsoff this impermeable surfacerather than filtering down toreplenish the aquifer.

Streams that emanate fromdeforested mountains floodduring rains. When the rainsstop, these streams run dry.The loss of stabilizing tree andplant roots results in landslides.Debris carried by streams endsup in ocean coastal areas,causing siltation of reefs.

When a native forest iseroded and damaged,opportunistic foreign speciesinvade. While these new plantscan stabilize bare ground, thewatershed cover they create isnot as effective as that of thenative forest.

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This eroded, barren tract used to be a healthy native rain forest. Thethinned vegetation now offers few layers to intercept rainfall and theremaining root systems are insufficient to hold the soil, so erosion is worsened. Runoff is greater and more water is now lost to evaporation due to the lack of shade and wind protection. Weedy grasses move in totake advantage of exposed soil.

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The Hawaiian RainForest is the UltimateWatershed Cover

awai‘i’s native forests have evolved over millions of years tobecome highly effective watershed covers. Vegetation in the

forest fills every level. It soaks up rainfall like a giant sponge,allowing water to drip slowly underground and into streams.

Rain Forests andthe Water Cycle H

O‘ahuWatershed Area

Aquifer: an underground bed or layerof earth, gravel, or porous stone thatyields water

Artesian well: a well drilled throughimpermeable strata to reach water;pushed by pressure from the underground aquifer, this water naturally rises to the earth’s surface

Boiling point: the temperature at which a liquid boils; for water this is 212 degrees Fahrenheit (100 degrees Celsius)

Desalination: removal of salt from seawater using a semi-permeable membrane; the membrane prevents

the passage of salts as the water isforced through it

Dew: water vapor that condenses onsolid surfaces that have cooled belowthe condensation point of water

Dew point: temperature at which watervapor condenses into cloud droplets

Dike: underground water barrierformed of nonporous, dense volcanicbedrock (basalt); can form water storage chambers

Evaporation: conversion of liquid waterthrough heat energy into water vapor

Fog drip: water vapor which condenseson cooler surfaces such as rocks andplants without falling to earth as rain

Ghyben-Herzberg lens: freshwateraquifer below a tropical ocean island;rainwater percolates through the island and floats above the surrounding seawater; this ground-water forms a root shape beneath the island, usually 40 times as thickbelow sea level as above

Groundwater: any water beneaththe earth’s surface; or a region of subsurface water that forms a saturation zone in which all pore spaces are filled with water

Hydrologic: concerning water on theearth’s surface, in the soil and under-lying rocks and in the atmosphere

Intermittent stream: surface water that flows seasonally or only afterheavy storms

Non-potable: water that is not ofdrinking water quality, but whichmay still be used for many other purposes, depending on its quality

Orographic lifting: winds push moist air up against mountains or cliffs toproduce clouds and precipitation

Perennial stream: permanently flowingwater, fed by consistent rainfall

Potable: drinkable water of excellentquality, conforms to state and federalrequirements

Precipitation: rain, snow, dew, frost,sleet, or hail condensed from atmos-pheric water vapor (clouds) and fallingto earth

Rain shadow: area sheltered from prevailing winds and rain by adjacenthigh ground or mountains and hencean area of low rainfall

Spring: water that emerges from anunderground source to feed streams or release freshwater directly into the ocean

Surface water: water flowing or collectingat the level of the earth’s surface, suchas streams, rivers, springs, or lakes

Transpiration: evaporation of waterfrom the surface of a plant

Water table: level under the ground inpermeable or porous rock below whichthe ground is completely saturated with water

Glossary of Basic Hydrology Terms

Ka Wai Ola a Kane

he Hawaiians saw gods everywhere in theirworld: in rocks, clouds, trees and all otherparts of the land, sea and sky that surroundedthem. Man and nature were believed to be

part of a larger story of divine creation, and water, thebasis of all life, was seen as one of the gods’ greatestgifts. It enabled birth, growth and prosperity; it wasessential to both physical and spiritual well-being.

Every Hawaiian, regardless of class or occupation,took an active part in maintaining and conservingwater. Waste of the priceless resource was believed todraw divine displeasure and lead to drought, famineand gradual death.

Kane and Kanaloa,The Gods of Hawai‘i’s Water

he Hawaiians knew some 40,000 gods in nature.Kane and Kanaloa, the gods of water, were

two of the four primary deities in the Hawaiianpantheon. They traveled throughout the islandchain, creating water sources to benefit and sustainall living things.

Both gods were fond of drinking ‘awa. Whenthirst overcame them, each would plunge hisdigging staff into the ground to bring forth waterto be seasoned with ‘awa root. Kane was said to be somewhat gruff and impatient in nature, so thewater that he drew from the earth rumbled androared in the form of large rivers and streams.Kanaloa was said to be very passive and easy-going;he is responsible for calmer water sources, such assprings and pools.

Kane and Kanaloa were known to roam thedrier and more desolate countryside to test thegenerosity of its people. In areas where fresh waterwas meager or absent, they would appear and askfor water. If they were turned away without beingoffered a drink, they would punish the inhospitableby drying up a water source. If they were offeredeven brackish water, the host would be rewardedwith a spring of sparkling fresh water.

Lono, God of the Winter Rainsono was another of Hawai‘i’s four primary gods; he was the god of rain clouds, the sea, agriculture and productivity.

Ho‘oilo (winter) was the season of Lono, the time when therains fell. Ho‘oilo was the time when the harvest occurred, taxes were paid and spectator sports and sham battles tookplace between chiefs and royal champions.

During Makahiki, the time of rituals and celebrations inhonor of Lono, his carved image was alwayspresent, a constant reminder of his role incontinuing the productiveness and fertility of land and sea.

Priests of Lono appealed to him forrain at heiau ho‘oulu ua (temples toincrease the rains). When severe flooding threatened the Islands, Lono’spriests invoked him at heiau kalua ua(temples to roast rain). Pleading for relief, priests used underground ovens to bake offerings of rainwater wrapped in folded and cupped ti leaves.

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he term Ka Wai Ola a Kane(Life-Giving Waters of

Kane) reflects the special linkbetween the divine and all lifeforms in nature. Hawaiiansbelieved that the gods wouldalways bless the earth withwater as long as water wasused with respect and watersources were cared for well.

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Water, the GreatGift of the Gods

Waiahole: mature ahole fish water

Waiaka: reflective, shadowy water

Waiaka‘ ılio: water used by the dog

Waiakamilo: water of the milo tree

Waiakea: broad waters

Waiakoa: water used by warrior

Wai‘alae: muhen water

Wai‘alala: screaming water

Wai‘ale‘ale: overflowing water

Waialua: two waters

Wai‘anae: mullet water

Waianiu: water for the coconut

Waianu: cold water

Waianuenue: rainbow water

Waianui: very big water

Wai‘apuka: water coming out

Waiau: swirling water

Waiehu: water spray

Waihe‘e: squid liquid/slippery water

Waihılau: many trickling waters

Waihohonu: deep water

Waihuna: hidden water

Waikahalulu: roaring water

Waikahe: stream

Waikakalaua: water rough in rain

Waikaloa: the length of water

Waikamoi: water of the moi taro

Waikane: God Kane’s water

Waikapuna: water of the spring

Waikele: muddy water

Waiki‘i: fetched water

Waikıkı: spouting water

Waikina: persistent water

Waikoko: blood water

Waikoloa: duck water

Waikolu: three waters

Wailala: screaming water

Wailana: floating water

Wailele: waterfall

Wailena: yellow water

Wailoa: long water

Wailuku: water of destruction

Wailupe: kite water

Waima: discolored water

Waimalu: sheltered water

Waimanalo: potable water

Waimano: many waters

Waimanu: bird water

Waimea: reddish water

Wainaku: pushing water

Wainanali‘i: chief-protected water

Wai‘ohinu: shining water

Waiohonu: water of the turtle

Waiokeola: water of the life

Waiola: water of life

Waiolani: water of heaven

Wai‘oma‘o: green water

Wai‘opilopilo: smelly water

Waipahoehoe: smooth lava water

Waipahu: bursting water

Waipi‘o: curved water

Waipu‘ilani: waterspout

Waipuna: spring water

Waipunalei: wreath spring water

Water-Related Hawaiian Place Names

“when the heavens weep, the earth lives”

- F R O M A N A N C I E N T C H A N T

Uwe ka lani, ola ka honua

“the mountain wallsleap with rain”

- F R O M A N A N C I E N T C H A N T

E nü mai ana ka ua i ke kuahiwi

Water in the Native Hawaiian Landscape

n ancient times as now, fresh water was the key tolife and prosperity. The early Hawaiians settled byperennial streams and springs where water was plentiful and reliable. The abundance allowed the

Hawaiians to develop an extensive agricultural systemand a sophisticated aquaculture: they built complexsystems of canals, ditches, terraces and fishponds andused water in highly efficient ways to grow taro andraise fish. Water was a gift from Akua (gods), and nonecould claim ownership.

Rivers and Fishpondsivers brought life to the landscape. A moderate rainfall sent waterfalls spilling into rivers that carried water to lower

elevations. As water flowed to the ocean, it passed throughcountless wetland taro pondfields before it returned to the riverto continue seaward. As it neared the shore, it rejuvenatedmarshes and wetlands and spilled into lokoi‘a (fishponds).

Hawaiians of old were masters of aquaculture. They builtlokoi‘a at river mouths to take advantage of the blend of freshwater and salt water–a blend that provided a favoriteenvironment for the choicest of fish. Building the kuapa (walls)of a lokoi‘a was hard work and took as many as 10,000 men.Every fishpond was unique and built to the contours of theland; kuapa were typically made up of coral or basalt blocks.

The Ahupua‘a Encompassed Alln pre-contact Hawai‘i, the land was divided intodistricts and then into smaller sections called

ahupua‘a. The lines of an ahupua‘a mirrored thelines of the natural ecosystem: its boundariesstretched from the mountain top through uplandforests and river valleys to flatlands and the shore.

Every tenant of an ahupua‘a was given access toupland timber for houses and canoes, to agriculturallands for growing crops, and to the ocean for fishingand travel by sea. Everyone was allowed to takewhat they needed to live a full life: spiritually,economically, educationally and physically.

But the concept of pono also governed theahupua‘a: no one could remove or take more thanwhat they could immediately use. The ahupua‘asystem ensured that natural systems were kept in balance and acknowledged the inherentrelationships between land and sea, and water and life.

Brother Taroaro was central to Hawaiian society; it wasknown as man’s older brother, the first-born

child of Papa and Wakea, the earth mother and skyfather. Hawaiians grew dry and wet taro. Wet tarowas grown largely in lo‘i (pondfields), which wereirrigated with diverted water that flowed througha complex network of ‘auwai (ditches).

‘Auwai were continually repaired to preventseepage and waste. Daily water distribution wasoverseen by a luna wai (water manager); farmerswere allowed to use water as long as they kepttheir lo‘i productive and helped to maintain streamsand ‘auwai.

Formal Rules Governed Distributionand Discouraged Waste

trict rules governed the use of water in ancient Hawai‘i,and it was a grievous offense to waste or misuse the precious

liquid. The ali‘i ai moku (district chiefs) were the trustees ofwater and exercised control over it as an instrument of thegods. They established and enforced regulations over water use in upland areas of an ahupua‘a so that a pure flow wasalways available to those who lived at lower elevations.

In addition, they set rigid schedules for cleaning anddiverting rivers and streams. Rights and privileges to water were earned, not guaranteed. Farmers were expected to keeptheir taro fields free of weeds and clutter and to help cleancommunal streams and rivers.

Those who failed in either regard were dispossessed of their land and banished. If a farmer dared to water his tarofields without the approval of the luna wai, he was put todeath. Disobeying water regulations jeopardized all; the godswere seen to be merciless in this regard.

sland topography produced very differentcommunities in leeward and windward areas.

Hawaiians gravitated to wetter windward valleysand used abundant stream water to cultivate theirstaple food, taro. Fishponds built at stream mouthsprovided a ready source of protein.

Drier leeward areas supported smaller communitieswhich often hugged the coast, giving easy access toocean fishing areas. Sporadic rainfall and intermittentstreams could not support wetland taro. Their maincrop was sweet potato. Farmers sometimes carriedwater to their crops in gourd containers.

Hawaiians used gourds to transport many things, including water.

An area that had many fishponds was called a “fat” land or ‘aina momona.This 1908 photograph of a Kane‘ohe fishpond (above) illustrates the splendor of these structures.

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Koa trees onridges, kukuitrees in moisterupper ravines

Streams fed bymountain rainfall

Fishingheiau

‘Ohi‘a, koaand kukuitrees

Water diverted to narrow taro lo‘i that fit into the upper valley

Swift streams carryrainwater from ridgesdown steep slopes

Manmade ‘auwai (ditches)lined with compacted dirt

Broader taro lo‘ifill the widervalley mouth

Fresh waterfeeds rockwall fishpondwhich is alsoopen to seawater

Coconut grove provides food and drink

Leeward fishing village

Rock markerat ahupua‘aboundary

Leeward Windward

A typical scene from a leeward coastal village.

Water leaving

the lo‘i returns

to themain

stream

Ancient HawaiiansLived in Harmonywith Water

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200 300

1-600 AD Most archaeologists agree the firstPolynesian settlers arrive sometime in these years.They settle on the windward sides of the major islandswhere reliable water sources are available for farming.

1000s-1300s Hawaiian settlementsspread to the leeward sides of the

islands with houses and farms in the lower valleys.

400 500 600 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200

1300s-1500s The Hawaiian populationgrows exponentially. Large heiau beginto appear. Scattered settlements spreadinland on leeward slopes.

1778 Captain Cook arrives.

1790s Goats, sheep andcattle are brought to Hawai‘i.

1795 Kamehameha I winsthe Battle of Nu‘uanu and

gains control of O‘ahu.

1600s-1700s Hawaiianpopulation and settle-

ment reach its peak.

1600s-1700s Land and waterresources are administered

within the ahupua‘a systemof land division.

1300 1350 1400 1450 1500 1550 1600 1650 1700 1750 18001 AD 100

he arrival of Western explorers sparked huge changes in every area of Hawaiian life. Western firepower helped

Kamehameha I unite the Islands for the first time and establishthe monarchy. Western disease decimated the native Hawaiianpopulation. Western traders, missionaries and settlers broughtnew belief systems: ideas about capitalism, Christianity andprivate property.

Tens of thousands of immigrants from China, Japan,Portugal, Korea and the Philippines moved to the Islands tolabor on the plantations, bringing more new ideas and newbeliefs. In the 1800s, nothing could resist the winds of change:Hawai‘i’s religious, political, economic and social systems were all transformed in the wake of contact with the outside world.

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1815-1830 The peak of thesandalwood harvest and

trade with China.

1800 1810 1830

1880 Top of Ghyben-Herzberglens is 42 feet above sea level.

1876 Reciprocity Treaty allowsfor tax-free trade between

Hawai‘i and the U.S.

1887 Kalakaua forcedto sign BayonetConstitution; it

reduces the kingto a figurehead.

1893Businessmen

overthrowthe Hawaiian

monarchy.

1861 American Civil Warbegins. Northern markets

cut off from Southern sugar supplies increase demand

for Hawaiian sugar.1820 First Protestantmissionaries arrive.

1839 First forestry lawin Hawai‘i restricts

cutting of sandalwood.

1815-1830 Grazing and rootingdamage by goats, pigs and

cattle is extensive.

1820 American William R. Warrenmakes first attempt (unsuccessful)to dig a well in Honolulu.

1822 Joseph Navarro of New York digsfirst water-producing well in Honolulu.

1846 Law passeddeclaring forests

to be property ofthe Hawaiian

Kingdom.

1848 The Mahele (Division

of Land) makes privateland ownership possible.

1848 Water tank andpiping network constructed to servewhaling ships callingat Honolulu Harbor.

1860s The traditionalahupua‘a system iseffectively gone.Large ranchesbegin to emerge.

1876 Firstgovernment

license allowsprivate businesses

to take waterfrom streams.

1870s Water crisisin Honolulu.

1840 1850 1860 1870 1880 18901820

1879 James Ashley, hired by JamesCampbell, drills first artesian well.

A Century of Change

n the 1800s, everything changed in the Islands.The kapu system was abandoned. Traditional landand water rights were abolished. A cash economygrew up, fostered first by whalers and traders,

then by sugar planters. Thousands of immigrantsarrived to work on the plantations. As the centurydrew to a close, the monarchy was overthrown andHawai‘i was annexed by the United States. O‘ahureeled, trying to cope with it all.

New Ways, New Water Systems‘ahu’s new industries – whaling, logging,ranching and sugar – all required water. Initially,

water was carried by hand from the mountains tothe port or pulled from shallow surface wells inHonolulu. But increasing demand soon forced newsolutions. In 1848, the first pipe was built totransport water and from that point on, waterengineering became theorder of the day on O‘ahu.

During the AmericanCivil War, Northernerscouldn’t get sugar fromSouthern plantations,and the price of sugarshot up 800 percent.Hawai‘i planters knewan opportunity whenthey saw one. In 1857,there were five sugarplantations in the Islands.By 1878, there were 46.

The industry created a huge demand for water.It takes 10,000 gallons ofwater a day to irrigateone acre of sugarcaneand before long planterswere growing 40,000acres on O‘ahu alone.

s new industries grew up on O‘ahu, thecomposition of the ahupua‘a began to

change. The largest changes involved water.Hawaiians had guarded the resource carefullyand used it primarily for taro lo‘i andfishponds; now it was being diverted in large

amounts to irrigate sugar and rice fields. Asnew ditches were built, old ‘auwai deteriorated.Small farms gave way to large plantations.Populations shifted from windward toleeward. Diverting the water ultimately meantdiverting everything.

aptain Vancouver brought the first cattle to Hawai‘i in 1793; by 1852, there were an

estimated 40,000 cows in the Islands, many of themferal. Cows polluted water sources and destroyedwatershed habitat. Eventually, a ranching industrygrew up in response to demands for meat, hides,and tallow (above). While never as important assugar, ranching did have its place in the economy, as evidenced by the cowboy on Kingdom banknotes (above left).

Sandalwood was another early crop thatbrought money to the Islands. This fragrant woodwas prized in China where it was crafted into,

among other things, fans (left).The beautiful curios came at

a high price: deforestation.

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Field workerhouses andcommunitybuildings

Harbortownreplacesnative fishingvillage

Heiau abandonedand deteriorating

Tunnel throughridge carrieswindward waterto leeward fields

Flumes carrywater to irrigationditches

Irrigation ditchcarries water tosugarcanefields

Mill uses water to process cane

Watershed damage byferal cows and pigs causestreams to run dry

Ancient ‘auwai allowedto deteriorate and tarolo‘i abandoned

Small dam collects anddiverts streamwater

Ditch carriesdiverted

wateralong ridge

contourSome taro lo‘i converted to rice fields

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In the wake of sugar’s success, pineapple became O‘ahu’s nextbig cash crop. It required less water than sugar but still tookits toll on the ground water supply.

Feral cattle stripped mountainsides bare,including the mountains overlookingManoa Valley

Watersheds Under Attack‘ahu’s forests were not immune to the changes occurring onthe island. They faced a double threat: from the sandalwood

trade and from newly introduced goats and cattle. In the 1820s, Hawaiians burned vast tracts of dry forest on

Oahu’s central plains in the hopes of detecting sandalwood’ssweet aroma. The heart of sandalwood could survive brush firesbut the rest of the forest could not.

Feral animals did even moredamage. Goats and cattlebrought by Western ships soonbegan to roam free and devournative plants. With no fences inplace and with their populationsspiraling, the feral animalswreaked havoc. They destroyedthe delicate undergrowth ofmany of O‘ahu’s forests,disrupting a complex web ofinterdependent plants andeventually causing trees to dieoff and whole forests todisintegrate. Without the forestsin place, erosion became anotherserious problem.

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Cows were murder on Hawai‘i’sforests: they trampled extensively,tracked alien seeds, grazed mercilessly and eventually caused the death of thousands of acres of native fauna.

Trade and IndustryTransformed OurNatural Systems

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To get water, planters built a massive web ofditches to divert streams. By 1920 more than 800 million gallons a day were being divertedfrom over a hundred of Hawai‘i’s streams.

Honolulu Harbor circa 1822. Change isliterally on the horizon for O‘ahu.

Above right: In 1852, the first major group of indentured laborers arrived inthe Islands. Mass immigration to O‘ahucontinued through the end of thenineteenth century.

Right: As the century progressed,Hawaiians were pushed to the marginsin their homeland and adopted anarray of new conventions, includingWestern-style clothing.

The Discovery of GroundwaterPromised Unlimited Growth

n 1879, James Campbell and John Ashleydiscovered O‘ahu’s vast underground water lens.Campbell had purchased 41,000 barren acres onthe ‘Ewa Plains. Hoping to find water, he hired

Ashley, a Californian, to drill a well on the land.Ashley dug 273 feet into the soil and hit liquid gold: a gusher of fresh, clean water. Before too long, wellswere being bored all over O‘ahu and suddenly, theisland’s growth seemed limitless.

ames Campbell wanted togrow sugar on his land but

he would never have succeededwithout underground water.Annual rainfall in the ‘EwaPlains is 20 to 30 inches a year;sugar requires at least 60 to 70.

But when Ashley tappedthe aquifer and let the waterout of the earth, brown turnedto green. The water madeeverything seem possible.

In the years that followed,Campbell drilled over 70 wellson his property. By 1925, hewas pumping 105 milliongallons a day.

Entrepreneurs around O‘ahudrilled artesian wells using steam-powered rigs that bored throughrock and soil to reach the ground-water below. Here the McCandlessbrothers are drilling a well on the‘Ewa Plains.

Dr. Augustus Marques drilledHonolulu’s first artesian well in 1880. Subsequent well developmentprovided a bounty of water andopened up new areas of Honolulu to small farmers.

Exploiting the Resources O‘ahu’s rapid growth continued, demands forwater escalated. Honolulu’s population was

swelling; it tripled between 1879 and 1915. Outsidethe city, more and more land was being put intosugar and other crops, including rice. Everyone, itseemed, needed more water.

In Honolulu, there were some early attempts tooversee water use and development. Outside thecity, government oversight was all but nonexistent.Through the end of the 1920s, water developmenton O‘ahu was widespread and largely unchecked.People took what they needed and left theplanning to someone else.

Below: Workmen at the Waiahole Tunnel Project. ManagerJorge Jorgensen noted: “At the beginning of the tunnelwork, three shifts of eight hours each were kept going. Thiswas continued until the large amount of water coming intothe tunnel... became troublesome, and on account of thehardship on the men, working for eight hours in the coldwater, it became necessary to cut the shifts down to six hours each, so that four shifts a day were employed.”

Tunnels Carried Water from WindwardValleys to Arid Central Plains

lanters bored 38 tunnels through the Ko‘olaumountain walls. The longest of these was 2.7

miles, tunneled through dense rock. Before thetunnel broke through to the other side, it wasdescribed as "a whirling rainstorm, a giant showerbath, a waterspout and a typhoon combined."Thirty-seven windward streams were divertedthrough the tunnels, for an average flow of 30million gallons a day.

The grueling work of digging tunnels was oftendone by hand.

Maintenance crews continuedto work on the tunnelslong after tunnel constructionwas complete.

This flume, built from redwood, was part of the WaimanaloSugar Company’s ditch system. Operating one of O‘ahu’ssmallest plantations, the company took most of its waterfrom the Kailua watershed. Putting in the Canavaro Well

in Pearl City circa 1922. Thedriller, A.H. Hobart, is theone in the pith helmet.

In the mid-1920s, O‘ahu begantrying to account for its wells:where they were and howmuch water they used.

Another of Hobart’s wells, this one in Kapahulu. Hobart hastraded in his pith helmet for a fedora but his well rig remainsthe same. Here he is using it to drill the Gouveia Well circa1920, which later became the Love’s Bakery Well.

One of the hundreds of ditches that carried water from theKo‘olau to leeward O‘ahu. Engineers came from as far awayas Ireland and Denmark to help develop the plantations’irrigation systems.

Ditches Crisscrossed O‘ahu, DeliveringStream Water to Plantation Fields

lanters around the island relied on an extensivesystem of ditches to irrigate their crops. The

earliest ditches resembled native ‘auwai but for onecritical difference: water was allowed to leave thewatershed. In the early years of the twentiethcentury, ditches on O‘ahu carried some 70 milliongallons a day. They took water from the Ko‘olau,Punalu‘u, Kailua and Maunawili and delivered itto Waialua, Wahiawa, Kahuku and Waimanalo.

Wells Tapped the Aquifer and Fueled the Island’s Growth

y 1889, just ten years after Ashley’s discovery,there were over 100 wells on O‘ahu; by 1910,

there were 430. In town, landowners bored privatewells on their properties. Outside the city, sugar wasdrinking up a storm. By 1925, sugar companies werepumping some 260 million gallons a day fromalmost 200 wells.

O‘ahu’s population was growing butits water usage was growing faster. In 1926, Honolulu residents wereeach using an average of 500 gallonsof water a day. By contrast, averagedaily per capita use in Dallas was 56

gallons. In San Francisco, it was 81gallons. Chicagoans, who were eachusing 275 gallons a day, wereordered by the U.S. War Departmentto cut their water use. Yet this wasbarely half of Honolulu’s daily usage.

The Impact of Over-Drillinghen the first artesian well was sunk on O‘ahu, it hit a pristineaquifer that had never been disturbed and water came

gushing forth. But as more and more wells were sunk on O‘ahu,the aquifer began to recede. As a result, brackish water intrudedon the fresh water lens, causing wells to “salt up.” More andmore wells yielded less and less potable water. By the timeO‘ahu’s wells numbered over 400, a water crisis was underway.

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1905

1898 Hawai‘iannexed bythe UnitedStates.

1903 Territory ofHawai‘i establishes

Board of Agricultureand Forestry.

1903 James Dole createsHawaiian PineappleCompany from hishomestead in Wahiawa.

1895 City Water Worksdrills first public well.

1896 The Republichires a sanitary engineer to planHonolulu’s sewer system.

1900 Territory of Hawai‘iassumes control of watersupply system.

1904 Firstforestreservesprotectupperwatershedareas.

1906 WahiawaReservoir built.

1910 Nu‘uanuReservoir

No. 4 built to supplement

lower elevation reservoirs.

430 wells operating on O‘ahu.

1910sHelemano and‘Opae‘ulaReservoirsbuilt, two offour systems engineered forWaialua SugarCompany.

1913 Territory turns overwater system to the City.

1915 The Board of Supervisorsestablishes the Honolulu WaterCommission.

1925 Honouliuli Forest Reserveis established after its valueas watershed is recognized.

Territorial Legislature establishesthe Honolulu Sewer and

Water Commission.

1923 Top of Ghyben-Herzberglens is 23 feet above sea level.1916 Waiahole

ditch system opens.

1899 Kalihi pumping stationbuilt to pump artesian waterfrom three wells.

1899-1902 Honolulu’s sewer system is built.

1920 192519101895 1900 1915

1908 HawaiianPineapple GrowersAssociation isfounded.

1914 The first cargo shipthrough the Panama Canal

carries Hawaiian sugar.1917 U.S. enters

World War I.

1918 PearlHarbor NavalStation opens.

1921 Reclamation of Waikıkıswamplands begins.

1894 Republic ofHawai‘i replacesProvisionalGovernment.

1878 1926

1880 1890 1900 1910 1920 1926

Population Growth in thousands

0

20

60

40

80

Water Consumption (mgd)

Comparison of Population to Water Usage.

UncontrolledDrilling Led toChaos and Drought

O‘ahu’s Water Boom Goes Busthe water free-for-all couldn’t last forever. When Ashleytapped the water lens beneath O‘ahu, it arced 42 feet above

sea level; by 1910 it had dropped by a third. With so muchwater being taken out, the rains could not replenish theaquifer. Wells began to salt up – or dry up altogether.

In 1917, the fledgling Honolulu Water Commission warnedthat the island’s water system was in danger of "completefailure or at least extreme diminution." Water panics began tohit the city. To compound it all, the driest weather on record hitO‘ahu in 1926. A change had to come.

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Frederick Ohrt: Engineer and Visionary

rederick Ohrt was a dynamic,forward-thinking engineer,

and he created a dynamic,forward-thinking organizationat the BWS. Ohrt, the Board’sfirst manager, transformedHonolulu’s water system from a series of inadequate andunrelated parts into a well-run,coordinated whole.

Born on Maui and agraduate of Cornell University,Ohrt was dedicated toprinciples that seemed radicalat the time: that individualsshould be held accountable forwater consumption; that gooddesign of water facilities costlittle more than bad design andadded value to the community;that education about waterconservation was vital. He ledthe Board from 1929 to 1952.

How Control of Honolulu’s WaterSupply Changed Hands

n the hundred years before the Board of WaterSupply, government control of water passed fromthe Kingdom to the Republic to the Territory andthen to the City. Engineers laid some water pipes

during Kingdom years and drilled municipal wells atBeretania and in Kaimukı and Kalihi during the timeof the Republic. During the City’s era, the HonoluluWater Commission was established. But no group haddevised a comprehensive water system, something thecity needed desperately as its population boomed.

Droughts and dropping water tables heightened thepublic’s concern, and when an embezzlement scandalrocked the City Water Works, the public demanded awell-run water system that was above politics. In 1929,after a battle that went all the way to the Hawai‘iSupreme Court, the Legislature took unilateral controlof water from the City and turned it over to a newlycreated semi-autonomous Cityagency, the Honolulu Board ofWater Supply.

The Board Gets Down to Business

he newly created Board of Water Supply wasgiven broad powers over water: to develop it,

sell it and plan for its future on O‘ahu. The BWSused the mandate to create the island’s first trulyeffective water management system.

Board employees located and capped wastefulartesian wells. They put casings inside leaky wells to prevent water loss. They created educationalcampaigns to teach the public about O‘ahu’shydrology. They installed water meters in homesand businesses all across the city and billed waterusers at fixed rates (in 1930, the going rate for 1,000 gallons of water was 12 cents).

All of the effort paid off. There was a markedreduction in the draw from O‘ahu’s aquifer and thewater table stabilized. To deal with O‘ahu’s growingpopulation–which doubled in the Board’s first 20years–BWS staff built water reservoirs, laid largerand better pipes, and made sure the city’s pumpingstations were in top shape.

They also looked for new sources of water forthe city. Just before the outbreak of World War II,

they began to developtheir first facilityoutside the city, a new station in Halawa Valley.

ct 96 established the structure of the Board. The Board’spolicies are set by a seven-member Board of Directors,

six of whom are appointed by the Mayor and approved by theHonolulu City Council. The Board is responsible for appointingthe agency’s Manager and Chief Engineer.

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Board employees also tested well water to make sure that itwas safe to drink. Here a technician takes a sample from aNavy well circa 1933 after a mineral analysis revealed thatthe water’s chloride content had reached 65 parts per million.

The Board began sealing wasteful artesian wells as soon asit took control and it continued to seal wells when they fellinto disuse. Here BWS employees are shown in 1938 sealingthe Star Dairy Well.

Board employees inspected wells around the island to checkon outflow rates and sample water. Honolulu’s water sanitationprogram was rigidly governed by standards established bythe U.S. Public Health Service.

In 1932, the Board introduced a monthly billing system forits customers. This report from 1935 shows the establishedrates of the time.

Inside Halawa Shaft,above. Concerned aboutthe threat of war, theBoard began developingthe new water source. The timing was prescient:the Board broke groundon the project onDecember 6, 1941.

Ohrt inspiredrespect and genuine affectionin those whoknew him. Hespent time out in the field withhis staff, bothabove ground(above, in the forest) or below(left, at HalawaShaft).

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1925

1926 Driest year on record for O‘ahu.

1927 Division of Forestry workers fence theboundary of the Honouliuli reserve, buildroads and trails, remove cattle and plantabout 1.5 million trees.

1940 BWS’ water distribution systemincludes 322 miles of pipe and covers

27.2 square miles from MoanaluaValley to Koko Head.

242 new fire hydrants are built, bringing the city’s total to 2,140.

BWS’ engineering division beginsmapping water distribution networks.

1940 130 ships of U.S. fleetarrive in Hawai‘i.

1935 1940

1927 First successful non-stop flightto Hawai‘i from the U.S. mainland.

1928 Universal metering policyadopted to promote conservation.

1929 Territorial Legislature establishesthe semi-autonomous Honolulu Board ofWater Supply, replacing the HonoluluSewer and Water Commission. EngineerFred Ohrt is the first Board Manager.

1932 43 wellssealed to date; 5 sealed in 1932.

6.9 miles of newpipe laid for watermains.

System of monthlybilling for waterintroduced (replacedquarterly billing).

1931 Twenty-five percent ofHawai‘i’s land is in establishedforest reserves (on public andprivate lands).

1934-1941 Civilian Conservation Corpsworkers plant an average of two million trees per year in forest reserves.

1935 Airmail service introducedbetween California and Hawai‘i.

1927-1929 Three new pumping plants at Beretania, Kalihi andKaimukı completed; booster station at Nu‘uanu completed.

1930

By 1940, the Board wasmonitoring 23,956 water meters.

The Early Years of the Board ofWater Supply

Board employees also continued to put casing insidewells to help catch water that was being lost; this photowas taken in 1940.

Above: The Beretania pumping station circa 1940.

When Frederick Ohrt retired after leading the Board for nearly 25years, the Honolulu Star-Bulletinpraised his “technical proficiency,mature judgment, far-seeing visionand fearless integrity.”

Dike TunnelDraws outgroundwater trappedbetween dikes.

Inclined ShaftReaches downto the top ofthe aquiferand skimsoff itsupper layers.

Deep Well Located over

the basaltaquifer. These

wells supplythe majority ofO‘ahu’s water.

Artesian Well Located in thecoastal plains. It will flow naturally if the ground is lowerthan the water table.

Caprock WellPulls non-potable water for irrigation. Located incoastal plain sediments.

Keeping Up with O‘ahu’s Changes

t the end of the 1950s, statehood and the comingof the jet airplane forced another major shift inthe Islands. As its population grew, O‘ahu’swater use rose dramatically: from 64 million

gallons a day in 1960 to 138 million gallons a day adecade later.

In 1959, the Board consolidated its control ofO‘ahu’s water when it took over the agencyresponsible for water use outside of Honolulu, theSuburban Water System. That year the Board wasalso given over $10 million to develop new watersources, stations and mains.

n the ensuing decades, the Board worked to furthermodernize the water system. In the 1960s, staff switched

from lead joint pipes to concrete cylinder pipes, making installation faster and easier. By 1970, electric pumps hadentirely replaced steam pumps in stations around O‘ahu.

As neighborhoods grew, new water tanks made fromreinforced concrete were built. Computers began to monitorisland water use and pump water accordingly. As the 20thcentury drew to a close, the Board was delivering safe, cleanwater to nearly a million people a day.

Above left: In 1951, the Navy gave the Board its water supply system at theNaval Air Facility. Here, Frederick Ohrt is shown with Captain W.B. Shortturning off the valve that controlled the Navy water.

Above right: Engineers Stanley Fujiyama and Noboru Taketa survey a reservoir.

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Your Water Todayhe Board of Water Supply now pumps anaverage of 150 million gallons of water a day.

It maintains over 2,000 miles of pipes, which rangein diameter from 3/4-inch to 42-inches. It takes careof four shafts and 12 tunnels around the island, aswell as 84 well stations, 200 wells and a whopping165 reservoirs. Those green maintenance trucks yousee on the road are being put to good use!

And the work doesn’t stop in the field. The BWS staff also track the water use of over 170,000services and make sure that each one of them isbilled correctly; test samples in BWS labs to ensurethat O‘ahu’s water meets state and federalstandards; run public education and conservationprograms; look for innovative new sources of waterand work constantly to ensure that our water is asgood, safe, and secure as it can be.

The Board’s network covers every part of O‘ahu. This mapshows the location of Board supply stations around the island.

How We Deliver Waterhen you turn on your tap, you set in motion a fantastic journey.

Water is pumped from the aquifer viawells, shafts and tunnels. Once up onthe surface, it enters an island-widetransmission system. Within the system,water is moved from pumping stations,sometimes via booster stations, to mainsand reservoirs where it is stored untilneeded by homes and businesses.

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Looking to the Futureince its beginning in 1929, the Board of WaterSupply has been committed to balancing

community needs, economic vitality and environ-mental integrity.

With the dawning of the new millenium, theBoard has taken the challenge more seriously thanever. Water shortages are looming around theglobe. The United Nations predicted that 2.7 billionpeople will be faced with severe water shortages by2025.

On O‘ahu, we have been blessed with abountiful supply of clean, fresh water. But as theevents of the early 1900s taught us, we cannotafford to take our water for granted. Our watersupply is not infinite and we must protect its healthcarefully. Our health–and the health of all livingthings in Hawai‘i–depends on it.

At the Board of Water Supply, we remaincommitted to taking care of O‘ahu’s people, O‘ahu’seconomy, and O‘ahu’s environment and making surethat we all have enough water for centuries to come.

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A view of ManoaValley in 1990(above). Beginningin 1918, Dr. Harold Lyon of HSPA experimented with 2,000 tree species on124 cattle-denuded acres above Manoa,looking for trees that would grow fastenough to stabilize the watershed. Hisbase of operations is now Lyon Arboretum.

From 1934 to 1941, workers with theCivilian Conservation Corps planted anaverage of two million trees a year inisland forest reserves.

Reforesting the Watershedy the beginning of the 1900s, thousands of acres of O‘ahu’s watershed forest had been destroyed. Sugar planters, who

used most of the island’s water, were the first to act to protectthe watershed. In 1903, the Hawai‘i Sugar Planter’s Association(HSPA) backed the creation of a Territorial Board of Agricultureand Forestry.

With a mandate to save the watersheds, Forestry stafffenced forest reserves, eliminated feral animals and reforestedlarge tracts of land. Initially, the planters used native trees like‘ohia and koa, but these trees grew too slowly to reverse theerosion and water loss that was plaguing O‘ahu. Foresters soonmoved to faster-growing foreign species like eucalyptus,ironwood, silk oak and Norfolk pine.

Emergency conservation workers planted trees for theForestry Board through the 1920s. In the 1930s, federal fundspaid for Civilian Conservation Corps workers to do the job. In 1945, a government act directed the Board of Water Supplyto safeguard Honolulu's watersheds. By 1946, the Board hadacquired over 240 acres of reserves in Kalihi, Pauoa and Manoa.

The conservation ethic continues today. O‘ahu now has32,500 acres of forest reserve. The BWS recently joined six majorlandowners, who collectively own 80 percent of the Koolauwatershed and formed the Ko‘olau Mountains WatershedPartnership. All groups have agreed to work together to protect this precious resource.

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1940 1950 1970

1941 Construction of Halawa Shaft begins in response togrowing population and expanded military presence.

1943 Emergency constructionprogram forms to meet wartime water demands. It is funded by theFederal Works Agency.

1953 WaimanaloSugar Company’swater license revertsto the Territorialgovernment.

1959Hawai‘ibecomesa state.

1961 State Land UseCommission is created. It is the first agency in the nation to authorizestate-wide zoning.

1944 Halawa station opens. It is the first waterfacility operating outside Honolulu city limits.

1946 The water main grid system consistsof 349 miles of pipe; 11.84 miles of newpipe are laid this year.

1959 O‘ahu’s Suburban Water System,which handled water outside theHonolulu area, is integrated into theBoard of Water Supply.

1961 Legislature passesGroundwater Use Act to regulategroundwater withdrawals.

Brannen Tract Reservoir built, the first elevated, pre-stressed concrete reservoir in the Islands.

1973 McBryde SugarCo. v. Robinson isdecided. The courtfinds that the stateholds water for the benefit of thepeople.

1976 Polynesian voyaging canoeHokule‘a sails to Tahiti.

1979 Kalihi pumpingstation established asFred Ohrt Museum.

1982 Reppun v.Board of WaterSupply affirmsthe McBrydedecision.

1987 State Water Code enacted. It regulatesboth groundwater and surface water and sets aprecedent for allocating water following theshutdown of a plantation irrigation system.

1994 O‘ahu Sugar Company closes,prompting a reevaluation of streamdiversion practices.

1980 1990 20001960

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Pumping StationPumps water from wells,shafts and tunnels into thetransmission system.

ReservoirStores water and ensures uniformwater pressure, even during morningand evening peak demand times.

Booster StationUsed to push water overlong distances and tohigher elevations.

Your HomeMost waterenters through a 3/4” pipe;pressure is created bypumps and by living lowerthan the reservoir.

6” Transmission Main

12” Transmission Main

An EffectiveIsland-WideWater System

Xeriscapingeriscaping” means using water efficiently inthe landscape. The Board maintains a three-

acre xeriscape garden in Halawa that showcaseshundreds of drought-resistant plants. The Friendsof Halawa Xeriscape Garden provides educationalmaterials and leads workshops on a wide varietyof plant-related subjects. Every summer the Boardsponsors an annual Unthirsty Plant Sale to remindgardeners to xeriscape.

Field Tripshe Board regularlyarranges field trips for

school children andcommunity members totour the Fred Ohrt watermuseum, Halawa XeriscapeGarden, and water facilitiesaround the island.

Community Eventshe Board participates in dozens of communityevents each year, including Children and Youth

Day and Earth Day activities, to encourageresponsible stewardship of our water supply.

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Our Work with Other Agenciesn our quest to safeguard Hawai‘i’s environment and thehealth of our customers, we work with a large group of

government agencies. For example, we have teamed up withthe U.S. Geological Survey (USGS) to analyze the island’s waterresources. USGS provides matching funds for BWS research projects and supplies hydrologists and geologists to study andmap O‘ahu’s aquifers.

On the state level, we work with the Commission on WaterResource Management (CWRM), which regulates all water onO‘ahu, including military water and water controlled by privatecorporations. The CWRM regulates the amount of water theBoard is allowed to withdraw from an aquifer. USGS, the CWRM and the BWS each have monitor wells and regularlyshare data to create a comprehensive picture of the island’swater supply.

We work closely with the State Department of Health(DOH). The DOH monitors BWS labs and conducts its own waterquality tests. Its Clean Water branch works with us to ensurethat BWS construction and repair projects don’t pollute streams.We work with the Division of Forestry and Wildlife on water-shed issues and with the State Historic Preservation Division tomake sure water projects do not disturb cultural sites.

All around the island, we are working together to protectour water. In collaboration with the Department of Land andNatural Resources, U.S. Army Corps of Engineers, and theDepartment of Environmental Services, we have completed jointwatershed studies in both west Honolulu and central O‘ahu.

We also work with community groups like Mohala I Ka Waiand Waihe‘e Ahupua‘a Initiative (WAI) to encourage watershedprotection. The watershed partnerships include watershed reforestation and protection projects and education programs.

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sustainable future exists when the needs of thecommunity, the economy and the environmentare balanced and in harmony. The Board iscommitted to creating a sustainable future on

O‘ahu, one in which there is enough water for manygenerations to come.

To understand our future, we at the Board believewe must understand our past. In old Hawai‘i, water wasrevered as the source of life. It was protected vigilantlyand every member of the community was an activesteward of the resource. Ancient Hawaiians understoodthat without careful planning and communalcommitment, they might lose their water and with it,their lives.

Working together for the health of our water, wecan ensure a sustainable future for all.

Creating aSustainable Future

he Board of Water Supply has a far-ranging series of programs to teach

O‘ahu residents all about water and how topreserve and protect O‘ahu’s precious watersupply.

How can you help create a sustainable future for O‘ahu?

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ll societies are complex; ours is no exception. Every day wehave to reconcile the goals of a flourishing community with

the needs of a complex, delicate ecosystem. As we move towardthe future, we must evolve in ways that protect our people, ourland and our water. To do that, we must bring together com-munity members, business leaders and government agencies.

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Sustainable Water Supply

Environment

• Watershed protection• Ecosystem balance• Non-native species control

Economy

• Evolution and diversification• Sustainable growth

Community

• Sufficient, reliable water supply• Participation in planning• Cultural access to water

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Neighborhood Board Meetingsttend anyneighborhood

board meeting on the island and chances areyou’ll find aBWS employee.Employeesregularly attendneighborhood board meetings in their communi-ties. They share information on BWS activities and report back with community concerns orquestions. The Board also runs a speakers bureauand will provide schools and community groupswith speakers to discuss topics including conser-vation, resource management, water quality and planning.

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Educationhe Board works hand-in-hand with schools

to teach O‘ahu’s childrenabout the importance ofwater. We provideschools with a widerange of educationalmaterials, including activity and coloring booksand age appropriate curriculum. We are alsoworking with schools on watershed management.Students from Wai‘anae High School have begunmonitoring the Makaha stream as part of awatershed project. Other schools are working withthe Board to adopt watersheds in their areas.

Poster Contestvery year, some 3,000 students participate inthe Board’s water conservation poster contest

by creating beautiful artwork encouraging waterconservation. Winning posters are printed in acalendar that is sent to classrooms and madeavailable to ourcustomers.

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BWS attends career days at local schools andpromotes water conser-vation at communityevents.

Poster winners arecelebrated by Perryand Price (right).

O‘ahuKo‘olauWatershed

Wai‘anaeWatershed

o create RO water for industry, microfiltrationunits are used to extract solid particles.

Reverse osmosis (RO) units then filter outdissolved minerals such as calcium, iron andsodium. (The process also removes bacteria andviruses, which are about 1,000 times larger thana calcium molecule.)

On the R-1 side, rapid mix tanks blendchemicals that help remove solid particles.Flocculators, which gently agitate the mixture,cause these particles to stick together so thatthey can be filtered out and sent back to thewastewater treatment plant. Ultraviolet (UV)light is used to kill disease-causing organisms.

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he earth’s population continues to grow andfreshwater supplies are under threat. In thecentury between 1950 and 2050, the amountof water available per person is expected to

decline by 74 percent. To combat a global water crisis,nations are inventing new technologies and strategiesto deal with water shortages. They are using scienceand ingenuity to create new water sources and torecycle their existing water. The Board of WaterSupply is at the forefront of this movement. Asstewards of O‘ahu’s water, the Board is committed tofinding state-of-the-art, environmentally soundmethods to guarantee the future of our water.

New Technologies,New Water

very day the world uses billions of gallonsof pristine drinking water to irrigate

crops, put out fires, and wash and coolindustrial plants. There is no need to usevaluable drinking water for these tasks, andcommunities around the globe areincreasingly turning to recycled water tomeet these needs.

Recycled (also called "reclaimed") wateris wastewater that has undergone a rigorouscleaning process. California, Texas, Australia,Namibia, the Middle East: many areas of theworld now rely on recycled water.

In 2000, the Board of Water Supplyacquired the state’s largest water recyclingplant, the Honouliuli Water Recycling Facility.The plant sits next to the city’s HonouliuliWastewater Treatment Plant and canproduce up to 12 million gallons of recycledwater a day.

The facility produces two grades ofrecycled water: one for irrigation, the otherfor industry. Recycled water is delivered tousers through pipes separate from thedrinking water distribution system. Thoughsafe for human contact, recycled water is notintended for drinking. Recycled water isregulated by the State Department of Healthto the highest levels of safety.

Did you know there are technologies that can help ensure we haveenough water for today and for future generations?

E efore the Honouliuli Water RecyclingFacility was built, wastewater was treated

and then discharged offshore. Now, waste-water arrives at the Honouliuli plant forfurther treatment and eventual reuse. Usingtwo separate processes, the Honouliuli plantproduces two grades of recycled water: RO(reverse osmosis) water for industrial uses and R-1 water for irrigation. Today, an average of 2 million gallons a day of RO water goes to industrial customers. Approximately 6.5 million gallons of R-1 water is used for irrigation of golf courses, parks and landscaping each day.

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Recycling O‘ahu’s Water

Planning for the Future

HonouliuliWastewaterTreatment Plant(HWTP)

ReverseOsmosis

(RO)

FlocculatorsRapid Mix Tanks

SecondaryEffluent

Micro FiltrationUnits

RO Storage

R-1 grade water is used to irrigate landscaping, golf courses and non-food crops.

Transfer Pump Station

UV Disinfection

R-1 StorageRO Delivery Pumps

R-1Delivery

Pump

RO R-1

SandFilters

RO water end user

R-1 water end user

RO water is used for industrial cleaning or to make steam for oil processing.

Honouliuli Water Recycling Facility

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Stay Involvedhank you for taking the time to learn about O‘ahu’s water. We hope that you have enjoyed this brochure

and that you will stay involved in the ongoing story of ourisland’s water.

There are many things you can do to get connected toconservation:

• Join a neighborhood stream cleanup. • Learn xeriscaping. • Look for water leaks in your house. • Turn off the tap!To learn more, please visit our web site at

www.boardofwatersupply.com. If you would like moreinformation, to schedule a speaker in your community, ortake a field trip into a watershed area, please give us a call at 748-5041.

Remember: each one of us on O‘ahu can help to preserveour water supplies. Please do your part to conserve water andprotect our watersheds.

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In 2000, the Board of Water Supply acquiredthe state’s largest water recycling plant, theHonouliuli Water Recycling Facility located in ‘Ewa.

Stay involved. Look for opportunities to conserve water and protect ourwatersheds.