WATERWATER

Patterns of Production and Patterns of Production and ConsumptionConsumption

Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold Global freshwater consumption rose sixfold between 1900 and 1995 - more than twice the between 1900 and 1995 - more than twice the rate of population growth. About one third of the rate of population growth. About one third of the world's population already lives in countries world's population already lives in countries considered to be 'water stressed' - that is, where considered to be 'water stressed' - that is, where consumption exceeds 10% of total supply. If consumption exceeds 10% of total supply. If present trends continue, two out of every three present trends continue, two out of every three people on Earth will live in that condition by people on Earth will live in that condition by 2025.-- 2025.-- Kofi Annan, in Kofi Annan, in We The PeoplesWe The Peoples, 2000 , 2000 

“ “Water-related problems have been Water-related problems have been recognised as the most immediate and recognised as the most immediate and serious threats to humankind”serious threats to humankind”

Dr. Klaus TöpferDr. Klaus TöpferUnited Nations Under-Secretary GeneralUnited Nations Under-Secretary General

IB Syllabus Outline #1IB Syllabus Outline #1

Patterns of production and consumptionPatterns of production and consumption

Describe the spatial distribution of Describe the spatial distribution of production and consumption of the water production and consumption of the water resource and how this has changed over resource and how this has changed over time and place.time and place.

The Worlds Water CycleThe Worlds Water Cycle

How Much Freshwater is There on How Much Freshwater is There on Earth?Earth?

Where are the Worlds Freshwater Where are the Worlds Freshwater Resources?Resources?

Where are the World’s Freshwater Where are the World’s Freshwater Water Resources Distributed?Water Resources Distributed?

How Much Water are We How Much Water are We Withdrawing and Consuming?Withdrawing and Consuming?

In the future, annual global water withdrawal is In the future, annual global water withdrawal is expected to grow by about 10-12% every 10 expected to grow by about 10-12% every 10 years, reaching approximately 5 240 km3 (or an years, reaching approximately 5 240 km3 (or an increase of 1.38 times since 1995) by 2025. increase of 1.38 times since 1995) by 2025. Water consumption is expected to grow at a Water consumption is expected to grow at a slower rate of 1.33 times. slower rate of 1.33 times.

In the coming decades, the most intensive In the coming decades, the most intensive growth of water withdrawal is expected to occur growth of water withdrawal is expected to occur in Africa and South America (increasing by 1.5-in Africa and South America (increasing by 1.5-1.6 times), while the smallest growth will take 1.6 times), while the smallest growth will take place in Europe and North America (1.2 times). place in Europe and North America (1.2 times).

IB Syllabus Outline # 2IB Syllabus Outline # 2

Factors affecting patterns of productionFactors affecting patterns of production

Analyse the reasons for changes in Analyse the reasons for changes in patterns of production and consumption in patterns of production and consumption in terms of economic development level, terms of economic development level, access to capital and technology, political access to capital and technology, political and economic control and possible and economic control and possible environmental and cultural factors.environmental and cultural factors.

Although the absolute quantities of freshwater Although the absolute quantities of freshwater on Earth have remained approximately the on Earth have remained approximately the same, the uneven distribution of water and same, the uneven distribution of water and human settlement continues to create growing human settlement continues to create growing problems of problems of freshwater availability and freshwater availability and accessibility.accessibility.

Definitions of Water Stress and Scarcity:Definitions of Water Stress and Scarcity: An area An area is experiencing is experiencing water stresswater stress when annual water when annual water supplies drop below 1 700 m3 per person. When supplies drop below 1 700 m3 per person. When annual water supplies drop below 1 000 m3 per annual water supplies drop below 1 000 m3 per person, the population faces person, the population faces water scarcitywater scarcity. .

Water scarcityWater scarcity occurs when the amount of water occurs when the amount of water withdrawn from lakes, rivers or groundwater is so withdrawn from lakes, rivers or groundwater is so great that water supplies are no longer adequate to great that water supplies are no longer adequate to satisfy all human or ecosystem requirements, satisfy all human or ecosystem requirements, resulting in increased competition between water resulting in increased competition between water users and demands users and demands

According to the UN more than 2.8 billion people in According to the UN more than 2.8 billion people in 48 countries will face water stress or scarcity 48 countries will face water stress or scarcity conditions by 2025. Of these countries, 40 are in conditions by 2025. Of these countries, 40 are in West Asia, North Africa or Sub-Saharan Africa. Over West Asia, North Africa or Sub-Saharan Africa. Over the next two decades, population increases and the next two decades, population increases and growing demands are projected to push all the West growing demands are projected to push all the West Asian countries into water scarcity conditions. Asian countries into water scarcity conditions.

By 2050, the number of countries facing water By 2050, the number of countries facing water stress or scarcity could rise to 54, with their stress or scarcity could rise to 54, with their combined population being 4 billion people - about combined population being 4 billion people - about 40% of the projected global population of 9.4 billion40% of the projected global population of 9.4 billion

Many African countries, Many African countries, with a population of with a population of nearly 200 million people, nearly 200 million people, are facing serious water are facing serious water shortages. By the year shortages. By the year 2025, it is estimated that 2025, it is estimated that nearly 230 million nearly 230 million Africans will be facing Africans will be facing water scarcity, and 460 water scarcity, and 460 million will live in water-million will live in water-stressed countries.stressed countries.

Today 31 countries, accounting for less than 8% Today 31 countries, accounting for less than 8% of the world's population, face chronic of the world's population, face chronic freshwater shortages. freshwater shortages.

Among the countries likely to run short of water Among the countries likely to run short of water in the next 25 years are Ethiopia, India, Kenya, in the next 25 years are Ethiopia, India, Kenya, Nigeria and Peru. Parts of other large countries Nigeria and Peru. Parts of other large countries (e.g. China) already face chronic water (e.g. China) already face chronic water problems.problems.

Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United Bahrain, Kuwait, Saudi Arabia and the United

Arab Emirates have resorted to the Arab Emirates have resorted to the desalinisation of seawater from the Gulf. Bahrain desalinisation of seawater from the Gulf. Bahrain has virtually no freshwater. has virtually no freshwater.

Three-quarters of Saudi Arabia's freshwater Three-quarters of Saudi Arabia's freshwater comes from fossil groundwater, which is comes from fossil groundwater, which is reportedly being depleted at an average of 5.2 reportedly being depleted at an average of 5.2 km3 per year km3 per year

Some 460 million people - more than 8% of the Some 460 million people - more than 8% of the world's population - live in countries using so world's population - live in countries using so much of their freshwater resources that they can much of their freshwater resources that they can be considered highly water be considered highly water stressedstressed. A further . A further 25% of the population lives in countries 25% of the population lives in countries approaching a position of serious water stress approaching a position of serious water stress

It is estimated that water pollution/contamination It is estimated that water pollution/contamination denies close to 1.3 billion people (~ 20% of the denies close to 1.3 billion people (~ 20% of the global population in 2000) access to clean water global population in 2000) access to clean water supplies. supplies.

In 1986, WHO reported that there were 250 In 1986, WHO reported that there were 250 million new cases of waterborne diseases each million new cases of waterborne diseases each year, causing the deaths of nearly 3.5 million year, causing the deaths of nearly 3.5 million people. An estimated 4.2 billion cases of people. An estimated 4.2 billion cases of waterborne diseases are reported each year, waterborne diseases are reported each year, with diarrhoea accounting for 4 billion of the total with diarrhoea accounting for 4 billion of the total

An Example of Groundwater An Example of Groundwater Pollution: Hat Yai, ThailandPollution: Hat Yai, Thailand

Hat YaiHat Yai, Thailand: Mixing of unpolluted regional , Thailand: Mixing of unpolluted regional groundwater and canal seepage has occurred in groundwater and canal seepage has occurred in this busy border city. It was discovered that the this busy border city. It was discovered that the most polluted urban groundwater has high most polluted urban groundwater has high chloride concentrations, indicating that canal chloride concentrations, indicating that canal water seepage has occurred at groundwater water seepage has occurred at groundwater abstraction points and where downward leakage abstraction points and where downward leakage is greatest. is greatest.

Drainage Basin ModificationsDrainage Basin Modifications Freshwater ecosystem alterationsFreshwater ecosystem alterations have been have been

carried out by man through much of modern carried out by man through much of modern history, with the intensity of modifications history, with the intensity of modifications increasing in the early to mid-1900s. increasing in the early to mid-1900s.

Common waterway modifications - such as the Common waterway modifications - such as the construction of dams and irrigation channels, construction of dams and irrigation channels, inter-basin connections and water transfers - can inter-basin connections and water transfers - can impact on the hydrology of freshwater systems, impact on the hydrology of freshwater systems, disconnect rivers from floodplains and wetlands, disconnect rivers from floodplains and wetlands, and decrease water velocity in riverine systems.. and decrease water velocity in riverine systems..

This, in turn, can affect the seasonal flow and This, in turn, can affect the seasonal flow and sediment transport of rivers downstream, sediment transport of rivers downstream, impacting on fish migrations and changing the impacting on fish migrations and changing the composition of riparian ecosystemscomposition of riparian ecosystems

Damming and flood control can have negative Damming and flood control can have negative impacts, such as declining fish catches, loss of impacts, such as declining fish catches, loss of freshwater biodiversity, increases in the freshwater biodiversity, increases in the frequency and severity of floods, loss of soil frequency and severity of floods, loss of soil nutrients on floodplains, and increases in nutrients on floodplains, and increases in diseases such as schistosomiasis and malaria. diseases such as schistosomiasis and malaria.

In Egypt, for example, the massive Aswan Dam In Egypt, for example, the massive Aswan Dam has caused the fertile Nile Delta to shrink, with has caused the fertile Nile Delta to shrink, with 30 of 47 commercially exploited fish species 30 of 47 commercially exploited fish species becoming economically or biologically extinct. becoming economically or biologically extinct.

River fragmentationRiver fragmentation - the interruption of a - the interruption of a river's natural flow by dams, inter-basin transfers river's natural flow by dams, inter-basin transfers or water withdrawal - is an indicator of the or water withdrawal - is an indicator of the degree to which rivers have been modified by degree to which rivers have been modified by man. A fragmentation analysis carried out by the man. A fragmentation analysis carried out by the University of Umea and the World Resources University of Umea and the World Resources Institute showed that, of 227 rivers assessed, Institute showed that, of 227 rivers assessed, 37% were strongly affected by fragmentation 37% were strongly affected by fragmentation and altered flows, 23% were moderately and altered flows, 23% were moderately affected, and 40% were unaffected. affected, and 40% were unaffected.

Water has been associated with Water has been associated with conflictsconflicts between several neighbouring countries. In between several neighbouring countries. In Africa, Central Asia, West Asia and the Africa, Central Asia, West Asia and the Americas, some countries are arguing fiercely Americas, some countries are arguing fiercely over access to rivers and inland seas, and over access to rivers and inland seas, and confrontations could arise as water shortages confrontations could arise as water shortages grow (Gleick, 2000).grow (Gleick, 2000).

Countries currently or potentially involved in Countries currently or potentially involved in international disputes over access to river water international disputes over access to river water and aquifers include:and aquifers include:

Turkey, Syria and Iraq (the Tigris and Euphrates Turkey, Syria and Iraq (the Tigris and Euphrates rivers); rivers);

Israel, Jordan, Syria and Palestine (the Jordan Israel, Jordan, Syria and Palestine (the Jordan River and the aquifers of the Golan Heights); River and the aquifers of the Golan Heights);

India and Pakistan (the Punjab rivers); India and Pakistan (the Punjab rivers);

India and Bangladesh (the Ganges and India and Bangladesh (the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers); Brahmaputra rivers);

China, Indochina and Thailand (the Mekong China, Indochina and Thailand (the Mekong River); River);

Tajikistan, Kyrghyzstan and Uzbekistan (the Tajikistan, Kyrghyzstan and Uzbekistan (the Oxus and Jaxartes rivers); Oxus and Jaxartes rivers);

Ethiopia, Sudan and East African riparian Ethiopia, Sudan and East African riparian countries, including Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, countries, including Kenya, Tanzania, Rwanda, Burundi, Uganda and Egypt (the Nile River).Burundi, Uganda and Egypt (the Nile River).

The Aral Sea: A Shrinking The Aral Sea: A Shrinking Regional ResourceRegional Resource

Over the past 30 years, the Aral Sea in the Over the past 30 years, the Aral Sea in the former Soviet Union has shrunk to less than half former Soviet Union has shrunk to less than half of its original size. of its original size.

The reduction in the quantity and quality of water The reduction in the quantity and quality of water in the Aral Sea basin, and the resulting spread of in the Aral Sea basin, and the resulting spread of toxic dusts, has caused an ecological and socio-toxic dusts, has caused an ecological and socio-economical disaster in the regioneconomical disaster in the region