water quality study on rivers in sarawak
TRANSCRIPT
WATER QUALITY STUDY ON RIVERS IN SARAWAK
PRAKASH A/L VIJAYA KUMAR
This project is submitted in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Bachelor of Engineering with Honours
(Civil Engineering)
Faculty of Engineering UNIVERSITI MALAYSIA SARAWAK
2005
I
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
First of all I would like to take this opportunity to express my gratitude to my
supervisor Mr Jethro ak Henry Adam, in appreciation of the support, patience and
guidance he had provided during the completion of my final year project. I would
also like to thank Dr. Law Puong Ling for his guidance as my second supervisor. It
has been a great experience under the supervision of these two dedicated lecturers.
Besides that, I also like to express my sincerest thanks to all of the lecturers of
the Faculty of Engineering whom have shared their knowledge regarding this topic. l
also wish to thank my beloved family and all my friends for their moral support and
encouragement that have been a source of inspiration for me.
Last but certainly not least, I would like to thank God. Without His help, I
would not have been able to finish my final year project on schedule.
Thank you once again.
11
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
ABSTRAK
Sungai merupakan sumber air yang paling penting untuk kehidupan manusia
dan hidupan akuatik. Kepentingan ini telah dicemari oleh pelbagai pihak dan
mengakibatkan pencemaran air yang serius. Tujuan utama projek ini adalah untuk
mengenalpasti tahap pencemaran Sg. Sarawak di beberapa bahagian dengan mengkaji
beberapa parameter kualiti air seperti pH, suhu, permintaan oksigen biokimia (BOD),
permintaan oksigen kimia (COD) dan lain-lain. Keputusan tahap pencemaran
dtunjukkan dalam projek ini.
Semua nilai untuk parameter adalah diperolehi melalui analisis di tapak kajian
dan ujian makmal. Semua nilai yang diperolehi untuk parameter kemudiannya
digunakan untuk mengira Indeks Kualiti Air (WQI) dengan menggunakan formula.
Indeks Kualiti Air ini digunakan untuk mengklasifikasikan kelas sungai. Melalui
kajian ini, dapat disimpulkan bahawa semua sungai jatuh di kelas III yang bermaksud
air adalah sesuai untuk digunakan selepas rawatan yang terperinci.
111
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
ABSTRACT
River is the most important water resource for human and aquatics living.
Importance of the river has been deteriorated by many irresponsible peoples and
caused serious water pollution. Main purpose of this project is to identify the level of
pollution of Sungai Sarawak in various parts with identifying several water quality
parameters such as pH, temperature, Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD), Chemical
Oxygen Demand (COD) and etc.
All the values for parameters are obtained from the in-situ analysis and
laboratory test. The value obtained for each parameter is then used to calculate the
Water Quality Index (WQI) which is then used to classify the class of the rivers. From
the studies it can be concluded that the rivers falls in class III which is used for
consumption after excessive treatment.
IV
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
TABLE OF CONTENTS
CONTENTS
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
ABSTRAK
ABSTRACT
TABLE OF CONTENTS
LIST OF FIGURES
LIST OF TABLES
LIST OF ABBREVATIONS
CHAPTER 1- INTRODUCTION
1.0 General
1.1 Water Quality Standards
1.2 Background
1.3 Study Objective
1.4 Scope of Studies
CHAPTER 2- LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Water Pollution
2.1 Classification of Water Pollutants
2.1.1 Point Source Pollutants
2.1.1.1 Industrial Waste
PAGE
11
111
iv
V
X
X1
xii
I
2
2
3
4
7
S
8
9
V
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
2.1.1.2 Poultry and Domestic Sewage Waste
2.1.2 Dispersed Source Pollutants
2.1.2.1 Agriculture Waste
2.1.2.2 Municipal Waste
2.1.3 Other Source of Pollutants
2.2 Parameters of Water Quality
2.2.1 Physical Parameters of Water Quality
2.2.1.1 Turbidity
2.2.1.2 Temperature
2.2.1.3 Color and Salinity
2.2.1.4 Taste and Odor
2.2.1.5 Water Acidity
2.2.2 Chemical Parameters of Water Quality
2.2.2.1 Dissolved Oxygen (DO)
2.2.2.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD)
2.2.2.3 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD)
2.2.2.4 Total Suspended Solids (TSS)
2.2.2.5 Total Dissolved Solids (TDS)
2.2.3 Biological Parameters of Water Quality
2.2.3.1 Microorganisms
2.2.3.2 Bacteria
2.2.3.3 Algae
2.2.3.4 Protozoa
2.3 Management of Control of Water Pollution
9
11
11
12
13
14
14
15
16
17
18
18
19
19
20
21
23
24
25
25
26
27
27
28
vi
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
CHAPTER 3- METHODOLOGY
3.0 Data and Information Collection
3.1 Collection of Samples
3.2 In-situ Analysis
3.2.1 pH Test
3.2.2 Temperature Test
3.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen (DO) Test
3.2.4 Conductivity Test
3.2.5 Salinity Test
3.3 Sampling and Laboratories Analysis
3.3.1 Chemical Oxygen Demand (COD) Test
3.3.2 Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) Test
3.3.3 Suspended Solids Test
3.3.4 Ammoniacal Nitrogen (AN) Test
3.4 River Classification
CHAPTHER 4- RESULTS AND ANALYSIS
4.0 Quality of Results
4.1 Sample Collection
4.2 Analysis Results
4.2.1 pH Test Results
4.2.2 Temperature Test Results
4.2.3 Dissolved Oxygen(DO) Test Results
4.2.4 Conductivity Test Results
4.2.5 Salinity Test Results
29
29
31
31
32
32
33
33
34
35
35
35
36
36
42
43
44
44
45
45
46
46
vii
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
4.2.6 Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD) Test Results
4.2.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD) Test Results
4.2.8 Suspended Solids(SS) Test Results
4.2.9 Ammoniacal Nitrogen(AN) Test Results
4.2.10 Water Quality Index (WQI)
CHAPTER 5- CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS
5.0 Conclusions
5.1 Recommendations
REFERENCES
APPENDIX I
APPENDIX II
APPENDIX III
APPENDIX IV
APPENDIX V
APPENDIX VI
APPENDIX VII
APPENDIX VIII
APPENDIX IX
APPENDIX X
47
48
48
49
49
61
61
64
65
66
67
68
69
70
72
74
75
77
viii
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
LIST OF FIGURES
FIGURES PAGE
1.1 Sg. Sarawak and Its Main Tributaries
1.2 Tributaries of Sg. Sarawak in the Kuching City
3.1 First Location of the Station ( Near Waterfront)
3.2 Second Location of the Station ( Pending Industrial Area)
5
6
39
39
3.3 Third Location of the Station ( Sg. Entinggan) 40
3.4 Fourth Location of the Station (Kota Samarahan Jetty) 40
3.5 Equipment Used to Measure pH, Temperature, Conductivity, Salinity and 41 Dissolved Oxygen(DO)
4.1 Results of pH Test
4.2 Results of Temperature Test
4.3 Results of DO Test
4.4 Results of Conductivity Test
4.5 Result of Salinity Test
4.6 Results of COD Test
4.7 Results of BOD Test
4.8 Results of SS Test
4.9 Results of AN Test
4.10 WQI Results
56
56
57
57
58
58
59
59
60
60
X
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
LIST OF TABLES
TABLES PAGE
3.1 Water use at different salinity levels 43
3.2 pH as an indicator of water pollution 43
4.1 pH Test Results 50
4.2 Temperature Test Results 50
4.3 Dissolved Oxygen Test(DO) Test Results 50
4.4 Conductivity Test Results 51
4.5 Salinity Test Results 51
4.6 Chemical Oxygen Demand(COD) Test Results 51
4.7 Biochemical Oxygen Demand(BOD) Test Results 52
4.8 Suspended Solids(SS) Test Results 52
4.9 Ammoniacal Nitrogen(AN) Test Results 52
4.10 Water Quality Index(WQI) for Si 53
4.11 Water Quality Index(WQI) for S2 53
4.12 Water Quality Index(WQI) for S3 54
4.13 Water Quality Index(WQI) for S4 55
4.14 Reading for maximum, average and minimum Water Quality Index 55
X1
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS
ADD
As
BOD
Ca
Cd
Cl
COD
DBKU
DID
DO
DOE
E-Coli
EMS
EQA
INWQS
JKR
KBM
KWB
MBKS
South
ML/d
NREB
Average Daily Demand
Arsenic
Biochemical Oxygen Demand
Calcium
Cadmium
Chlorine
Chemical Oxygen Demand
Dewan Bandaraya Kuching Utara (Kuching North City
Hall)
Department of Irrigation and Drainage
Dissolved Oxygen
Department of Environment
Escharichia Coli (Bacteria)
Environmental Management System
Environmental Quality Act
Interim National Water Quality Standard
Jabatan Karja Raya (Department of Public works)
Kuching Barrage Management Sdn Bhd
Kuching Water Board
Majlis Bandaraya Kuching Selatan (Kuching City
Council)
Megalitres per day
Natural Resources and Environment Board
xii
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
Sg.
TDS
TSS
WQIS
It
mg/1
Sungai (River)
Total Suspended Solids
Total Suspended Solids
Water Quality Information System
Micron, Specific Biomass Growth Rate
milligram per litre
X111
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
CHAPTER 1
INTRODUCTION
1.0 General
Everyone knows that water is essential to continue normal life. We depend on
water for more than just for drinking, cooking, and personal usage. Big amount of
water are often required for industrial and commercial uses. In some parts of the
country, large quantities of water for irrigation are necessary to support agriculture.
We also depend on our water resources for power generation, recreation, fish and
navigation.
Most of the part of the earth is covered by water. Estimated that about 71 % of
the earth is covered by sea with 1,370 million km3 volume of water. But with that
amount of water only about 3% of water is consumptive (Jerry, 1986). River is the
most important resource of water supply to human and other activities. River also
used as a transportation mode during old civilization and still a main transportation in
some part of Malaysia as in Sarawak.
Department of Environment Malaysia (DOE) conducts annual monitoring of
river water quality throughout Malaysia. In 1997, DOE reported that out of 117
rivers monitored only 24 (20.5%) rivers were categorized as clean or not polluted.
According to DOE, water demand will increase 60% from 9,543 ML/d in 1995 to
15,285 ML/d in 2010. In 1998, several parts of Malaysia experienced severe water
shortage due to drought. Thus, proper water management is appropriate to have
adequate water supply in years to come. (Source: DOE monitoring report in 1998)
I
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
1.1 Water Quality Standards
In the urban and industrial area it is important to have legal basis for
protecting water quality. Water quality standards are limits on the amount of
physical, chemical, or microbiological impurities allowed in water that is
intended for a particular use. Derived criteria applied into the Water Quality
Standard based on system consisting of 2 components that is River Water Quality
Classification (Class I-V) and Interim National Water Quality Standards
(INWQS). Both classifications are shown in Appendix I and Appendix II.
1.2 Background
Sarawak has been identified as the main water supply in future for rapid growing
Kuching City. Main river in Kuching City is Sg. Sarawak. Sg. Sarawak has two
principal tributaries namely Sg. Sarawak Kiri and Sg. Sarawak Kanan, rising in the
mountain ranges to the south of Kuching at the border to Indonesia.
The two tributaries meet near Batu Kitang, some 34 km upstream of Kuching.
From Batu Kitang the mainstream Sg. Sarawak meanders across a wide coastal flood
plain and through the city of Kuching. Downstream of Pending, the industrial area in
the eastern part of the city of Kuching, Sg. Sarawak confluence with Sg. Kuap and
further downstream by Loba Batu Belat at further downstream before discharging to
the South China Sea at Muara Tebas (Figure 1.1).
In Kuching City, several small tributaries discharge to Sg. Sarawak including
Sg. Maong, Sg. Bintangor, Sg. Padungan Sg. Sekama, Sg. Bintawa and Sg. Biawak. A
total of 21 drainage sub-catchement areas in Kuching are discharging into the part of
Sg. Sarawak, which is flowing through Kuching. The remaining part of the city,
2
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
including the Sama Jaya Free Industrial Zone drains to Sg. Kuap. In 1997, a gated
barrage (Figure 1.2) was constructed through the Sejingkat Isthmus and the river
was blocked by causeways at Jalan Keruing and Jalan Bako in order to regulate the
tidal influence on the river.
In June 1999, the State Government of Sarawak initiated the Sustainable
Urban
Development Project in collaboration with the Danish Cooperation on Environment
and Development (DANCED). The purpose of the project is to develop and
implement an Environmental Management System (EMS) for the City of Kuching
within two areas of concerns namely river water quality and waste management.
1.3 Study Objective
The main objectives of this study are to determine the water quality of Sungai
Sarawak according to certain objectives as stated below:
a) to determine the activities which is potential to pollute the research area;
b) to recommend steps of prevention and management of water quality of
river and effectiveness; and
c) to determine the water quality of Sg. Sarawak and verify the quality of
water whether it is polluted or clean by using Water Quality Index (WQI)
including parameters such as biochemical oxygen demand (BOD),
chemical oxygen demand (COD), suspended solids (SS), ammoniacal
nitrogen (AN), and pH scale.
3
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
1.4 Scope of Studies
Studies which will be done are mainly concentrated on Sg. Sarawak which flows
through Kuching City. Concentration will be given to determine the sources of
pollutants of river based on the land use of the area near the river.
Water quality of river near the research area is determined based on physical and
chemical parameters such as DO, BOD, COD, AN, SS, pH, color, odor and
temperature. Level of water quality on research area is determined using the data
provided by DOE and Alam Sekitar Malaysia (ASMA).
Besides that, observation is done on pollution of rivers and several prevention
measurements will be recommended to maintain the quality of the river water so that
it is not deteriorated furthermore.
4
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
Figure 1.1: Sg. Sarawak and Its Main Tributaries
5
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
Figure 1.2: Tributaries of Sg. Sarawak in the Kuching City
6
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
CHAPTER 2
LITERATURE REVIEW
2.0 Water Pollution
There is no 100% pure water in this world. Water has a tendency to dissolve
other substances. Changes in water quality begin with precipitation. During
precipitation, rainwater absorbs many polluted particles such as gases and dust. As it
transforms to rain and flows on earth surface as surface water, it picks up suspended
and dissolved organics. In general terms, water is considered to be polluted when it
contains so much of unknown material to cause the water unfit for a specific
beneficial use, such as for drinking, recreation, or fishing. (Jerry, 1986)
Environmental Quality Act (EQA) 1974 defined pollution as "... indirect or
direct changes to physical properties, temperature, chemically, or biologically to any
parts of environment by releasing or producing waste discharge which means harm
to health or safety of civil or to any living things in water or against the rules released
by the act".
River pollution seems to be the biggest threat to various living things in water,
land, human and plants. River pollution also indirectly affects the tourism but there is
a major problem if this contaminated water consumed as drinking water. Water
quality is much affected by human activities, including land use like agriculture and
the direct discharge of municipal or industrial wastewaters to the environment.
7
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
2.1 Classification of Water Pollutants
To understand the effects of water pollution and the technology applied in its
control, it is useful to classify pollutants into various groups or categories. Pollutants
can be classified according to the nature of its origin as either a point source or a
dispersed source pollutant (Jerry, 1986). Besides classification based on its origin,
water pollutants also can be classified into groups of substances based primarily on
their environmental or health effects.
2.1.1 Point Source Pollutants
Point source pollutant can be defined as pollution occurs with the sources is
known. As example, industrial waste, treatment plants, and etc. Point source
pollution represents every human activity which produces wastewater and discharges
directly to treatment plant then discharged through pipe to the river. Point source
pollutants can be controlled if proper management and each individual play their
roles in implementing this project.
All the wastewater produced from factories, municipal, and etc has to be
managed efficiently so that this waste do not discharged directly to the river. Point
source pollutants can be reduced by treating this waste before discharging it into the
river. In Malaysia, the main sources of these pollutants are industrial wastewater,
poultry area, treatment plants and etc. From all of these sources, industrial waste is
the primary of point source pollutant in our country.
8
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
2.1.1.1 Industrial Waste
Industrial waste from factories is the main contributor to the problem of water
pollution in our country. Neglection by the owner of the factories makes the thing
even more badly. This neglection causing the problems more hard to be solved
although many laws and acts have been introduced and implemented. Organic waste
discharged from factories contains the same chemical substances as in raw sewage.
Chemical and organic waste from factories must be treated before discharged to the
rivers it can be dangerous to the ecosystem of the river.
Besides organic and chemical waste, heat also considered as one of the
industrial waste. Heat is considered as a water pollutant because of the adverse effect
it can have on the oxygen level and the aquatic life in the river. Unfavorable heat will
reduce the level of dissolved oxygen (DO). DO is important to maintain the
ecosystem of aquatic livings. Continues releasing of heat will increase the
temperature of the water and decreases the solubility of oxygen and increases the rate
of metabolism of fish. This changes the ecological balance in the river. Also, the
sudden change in water can cause many fish killed.
2.1.1.2 Poultry and Domestic Sewage Waste
Sewage is defined as liquid waste containing suspended, colloidal, and
dissolved solids. Raw sewage (untreated sewage) from domestic and poultry farm are
the primary source of the pollutants. Pathogens or disease causing microorganisms
are excreted in the feces of infected persons or animals and may be carried into water
receiving sewage discharges. Sewage from communities with large populations is
very likely to contain pathogens of some type.
9
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
Sewage also carries oxygen-demanding substances organic wastes that exert a
biochemical oxygen demand as they are decomposed by microbes. BOD changes the
ecological balance in a body of water by depleting the dissolved oxygen (DO)
content. Nitrogen and phosphorus, the major plant nutrients, are in sewage too, as
well as in runoff from farms and suburban lawns.
Thus, it is important to provide some treatment or purification before
discharging wastewater back into the environment and the natural hydrologic cycle.
The main purpose of this purification is to kill the pathogenic microorganisms and to
remove most of the suspended and dissolved biodegradable organic materials.
Disinfection usually with chlorine serves to kill most pathogens and help prevent the
transmission of spread- able disease.
Discharge to the river from treatment plants also seems to have the ability in
polluting the water quality. Pipe leakage and septic tank at treatment plants tends to
pollute the water quality of river and can lead to serious pollution to the environment.
Heat generating at treatment plant powerhouse also can cause pollution through heat
release. Heat released together with treated sewage which is then discharged into the
river has the ability to reduce the amount of DO. Reduction in DO will cause the
aquatic living things to die and will deteriorate even worse the situation of water
pollution.
10
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
2.1.2 Dispersed Source Pollutants
Dispersed source pollutants are defined as pollution comes from many sources
caused mainly by rainfalls and snow falling as pollution agents who distribute the
pollutants to other areas. Surface runoff picks up silt particles, bacteria, organic
material and dissolved materials then discharged into river causing serious water
pollution.
The main characteristic of dispersed source pollutants is it reacts with
hydrological conditions which are hard to identify and controlled. Also, dispersed
source pollutants affects to the activities mainly on land and also connected with
human activities. Land use activities for agriculture, mining, construction and town
development are the main source of the pollution. Dispersed pollutions is hard to
control and to identify because the pollutants merged with the water source directly
without undergoing certain process. This problem will be more serious if human
activities are not controlled.
2.1.2.1 Agriculture Waste
The most significant contaminants from agriculture activities are fertilizers and
pesticides. Pesticides may be carried into the water in the surface runoff from
agricultural areas. Perhaps the most dangerous type is the family of chemicals called
chlorinated hydrocarbons. Common examples are known by their trade names as
chlordane, dieldrin, heptachlor and the infamous dichlorodiphenyltritrichloroethane
(DDT). DDT is known as dissolved biodegradable organic materials which do not
dissolve in water and this is a big threat to living aquatics. Concentrations in the
11
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)
rivers increased significantly during periods of runoff and these pesticides were
present in agricultural watersheds for periods of 2-6 months or longer.
Common agriculture contaminants are nitrate, phosphorus and sulfates.
Nitrogen is a basic nutrient that is essential to the growth of plants, particularly in the
nitrate form. Application of fertilizers results in concentrations of nitrate can be toxic
to infants. Excessive nitrate concentrations in water surface also encourage the rapid
growth of microscopic plants called algae. Excessive growth of algae causes the
water quality to degrade. Like nitrate, phosphorus is an essential nutrient that
contributes to the growth of algae. Sulfates are not very dangerous to public health
but its contents in sewage can result in offensive odors.
2.1.2.2 Municipal Waste
Municipal water supplied to its consumers, after being used, comes out as
wastewater. This wastewater contains different types of impurities which may be
suspended, colloidal or dissolved in nature and pollute the environment. With the
population growth the trend of people for better comfortable services lead to the
setting up more and more industries of different nature. Water consumption will
increase and indirectly increases the amount of wastewater.
Municipal wastewater contains solid waste, organic waste from industrial and
smoke from vehicles which will be transported by rainfall on surface runoff and
directly will reach river or any other water source nearby and pollute them. Solid
waste is defined as any material that is discarded as useless or unwanted material
(Jerry, 1986). At first, solid waste appears to be an ordinary problem. But now there
are many difficulties that make solid waste disposal is a complex technical and
12
Demo (
Visit h
ttp://
www.pdfsp
litmerg
er.co
m)