Religion and Language

As Roman rule and Roman culture spread, so did Roman religion. The Romans were remarkably eclectic in religious matters: while there were certain observances which had to be made, they were reluctant to exclude any other religious belief, and happy to accept most of the gods and practices of the subject peoples of the empire. Native gods were seen as equivalent to, or as aspects of, the more familiar gods of Rome. In this way the Celtic war-god Camulos was considered as being equivalent to Mars, and Brigantia, tutelary goddess of the northern Britons, was represented as Minerva Victrix.

This doctrine made the spread of Roman religion throughout the empire remarkably easy. At the same time, Roman society absorbed many religious trends from the provinces: the cults of Mithras, Isis, Osiris, and, eventually, Christianity were all imported.

In addition to religion, Romans also spread their language. Before the Romans came to Britain, very few people could read or write. Instead, information was usually passed from person to person by word of mouth. The Romans wrote down their history, their literature and their laws. The Roman language was Latin, and it wasn’t long before some people in Britain started to use it too. However, it only really caught on in the new Roman towns - most people living in the countryside stuck to their old Celtic language.

English still has many words and phrases today that come from Latin. Words like ‘exit’, which means ‘he or she goes out’, and ‘pedestrian’, which means ‘going on foot’.

Roman tablet with Latin inscription.

Roman Cities and Buildings

Despite the obvious economic importance of the countryside, Roman life was characteristically the life of the cities and towns. Romans considered the city an essential part of civilization, and it is certainly true that, especially in the west (where settlement had previously been almost entirely rural), the creation of cities and towns was one of the most dramatic effects of Roman rule. Native people gravitated towards the towns: not only the upper classes, who were often enrolled as councillors and magistrates, but also the artisans and craftsmen who rapidly adopted the new styles and technologies.

Provincial towns could be of great magnificence, and were regularly distinguished by fine public buildings, temples, amphitheaters, and other amenities. The recently recognized basilica of Roman London was one of the largest in the empire. Public buildings such as the theatre at Arausio (Orange) or the amphitheatre at Arelate (Arles) are, even today, of breathtaking magnificence, and testimony to the importance, not solely of the provincial towns, but of communal, urban life.

Many of these Roman structures are still standing today thanks to the development of Roman cement and concrete. The Romans first began building with concrete over 2,100 years ago and used it throughout the Mediterranean basin in everything from aqueducts and buildings to bridges and monuments. Roman concrete was considerably weaker than its modern counterpart, but it has proved remarkably durable thanks to its unique recipe, which used slaked lime and a volcanic ash known as pozzolana to create a sticky paste. Combined with volcanic rocks called tuff, this ancient cement formed a concrete that could effectively endure chemical decay.

The front of the library in the Roman city Ephesus (modern-day Turkey).

An outdoor theater in Ephesus.

A Roman temple.

A Roman bath.

Taxation and Soldiers

Becoming a part of the Roman empire came with obligations on the part of the locals. The first main obligation was to pay taxes to the Roman empire. The typical tax rate paid by individuals ranged from 2 to 5%. The tax code was a complicated system of direct and indirect taxes, some paid in cash and some in product. Tax collection was justified by the need to maintain the military, and taxpayers sometimes got a refund if the army captured a surplus of booty.

Individuals paid a poll tax and a tax on their land, construed as a tax on its produce or productive capacity. In order to know how much people had to pay in taxes, Rome conducted a census, or population count. The census required each head of household to appear before the presiding official and provide a head count of his household, as well as an accounting of property he owned that was suitable for agriculture or habitation. (The United States has this practice of taking a census every ten years, though not for taxation purposes.)

The other main obligation was to provide men to fight in the Roman army. Auxiliary soldiers were recruited from non-Roman tribes. Their name means 'helpers', and they assisted the Roman legionary troops by providing extra manpower and specialized fighting techniques. Auxiliaries were paid less than the citizen soldiers and often had to fight on the front lines. However, after 25 years of service they were rewarded with Roman citizenship, which also extended to their sons. According to Tacitus, there were roughly as many auxiliaries as there were legionaries. The auxilia thus amounted to around 125,000 men, implying approximately 250 auxiliary regiments.

Most soldiers in the Roman Empire came from countries outside Italy. There were soldiers from Africa, France, Germany, Spain and the Middle East.

The auxiliaries included archers, recruited from Syria, Scythia (the Black Sea) and Crete.

Slavery

Being conquered by Rome meant that some of your fighting men would be captured and taken away as slaves. Throughout the Roman period many slaves for the Roman market were acquired through warfare. Many captives were either brought back as war booty or sold to traders, and ancient sources cite anywhere from hundreds to tens of thousands of such slaves captured in each war. While warfare during the Republic provided the largest figures for captives, warfare continued to produce slaves for Rome throughout the imperial period.

Slaves worked everywhere – in private households, in mines and factories, and on farms. They also worked for city governments on engineering projects such as roads, aqueducts and buildings. As a result, they merged easily into the population. Their living conditions and treatment depended on their situation. Some slaves lived in relative comfort, others in inhumane conditions.

Roman owners freed their slaves in considerable numbers: some freed them outright, while others allowed them to buy their own freedom. The prospect of possible freedom through manumission encouraged most slaves to be obedient and hard working.

Once freed, former slaves could work in the same jobs as plebeians – as craftsmen, midwives or traders. Some even became wealthy. However, Rome’s rigid society attached importance to social status and even successful freedmen usually found the stigma of slavery hard to overcome – the degradation lasted well beyond the slavery itself.

Slaves working on a farm.

Slaves help their mistress with her hair.

Serving a banquet.