MINISTRY OF PUBLIC HEALTH OF THE REPUBLIC OF

KAZAKHSTAN

KARAGANDA STATE MEDICAL ACADEMY

N.F. Saifulina, G.F. Galina

LECTURES ON HISTORY OF MEDICINEEducational manual

KARAGANDA, 2008

УДК 61(09)ББК 63.3+5 я 7 S16

REVIEWERS: D.M. Dzhangozina - department of pharmacognozy with course of medical –biological disciplines of Pharmaceutical Institute of Karaganda University “Bolashak”, head of department, d.m.s., professor.F.A. Mindubayeva – physiology department of Karaganda State Medical Academy, head of department, d.m.s., professor.O.K. Nikitina – department of history of Kazakhstan and social-political disciplines of Karaganda State Medical Academy, head of department.

S16 Saifulina N.F., Galina G.F. Lectures on history of medicine. - Educational

manual.- Karaganda.-2008. – p. 101

ББК 63.3+5 я 7

There was description about development of doctoring and medicine in all periods of world history since the primitive system to present times in the educational manual. The educational manual was prepared according to the model program on discipline “History of medicine” approved by the Department of medical science and education in 2005y. Lectures are intending for medical students, post-graduators, residents and broad circle of the readers taken an interest in history of medicine.

Discussed and approved at the meeting of Methodical Council of KSMAProtocol № 7 of 12.03.2008Confirmed and recommended for edition by Academic Council of KSMAProtocol № 8 of 28.03.2008

© N.F. Saifulina, G.F. Galina, 2008

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CONTENTS

Introduction …………………………………………………………………... 4

1. History of medicine as science and subject of teaching. Medicine in epoch of the primitive communal system……………………………… 5

2. Medicine in the slave-owning states of Ancient East: Babylon, Assyria, Egypt, India and China………………………………………. 17

3. Medicine development in Ancient Greece and Ancient Rome………… 27

3.1Medicine in Ancient Greece…………………………………………… 27

3.2 Medicine of Ancient Rome…………………………………………….. 36

4. Medicine during the period of feudalism in the countries of East and Western Europe……………………………………………………………… 42

5. Medicine development in capitalism epoch in Western Europe and Russia…………………………………………………………………………. 60

5.1. Medicine development in Western Europe…………………………… 60

5.2. Medicine development in Russia……………………………………… 69

6. Medicine development in Kazakhstan………………………………… 78

Test for the control of knowledge…………………………………………… 93

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Introduction

The history of medicine as a science and a subject of teaching have great

importance for education of the future doctor, formation of his scientific thinking

and ethics, expansion of general cultural and medical outlook, it allows to make

representation about medicine as the developing science and brings up patriotism.

Being a component of the general history of science and culture, history of

medicine reflects struggle of ideas, as in past as in the modern world, gives criteria

for right estimation of medicine’s theories and understanding of the present stage

of medicine and public health development.

The scientific discipline “history of medicine” studies laws of development

and history of doctoring, medical knowledge and medical activity at all people of

the world during the all periods of history of mankind (since the ancient times till

the modern time). It is in integrative connections with development and changes of

socioeconomic structures, history, philosophy, achievements of natural sciences

and culture.

History of medicine as the subject of teaching is independent discipline though

separate data on medical specialties’ development are studied on corresponding

theoretical and clinical departments of medical high schools. They detail and

supplement materials of the course of medicine history (life and activity of

prominent doctors and scientific-physicians, scientific achievements of their

schools, history of discoveries, etc.).

Being separated and not connected among them in historical sequence, these

data cannot replace the complete and systematized course of medicine history. On

the basis of historical and logic methods there are studied development of medicine

directions and theories as the world- historical process, bases of historical-medical

education of the student - doctor.

4

1. HISTORY OF MEDICINE AS SCIENCE AND SUBJECT OF

TEACHING. MEDICINE IN EPOCH OF THE PRIMITIVE COMMUNAL

SYSTEM

History of medicine as science and subject of teaching.

Significance of history of medicine in the system of higher education

Medicine, as knowledge, is result of long and difficult process of

development. Medicine presents definite stage of development in connection with

health and diseases of people, what is why to study history of medicine is need in

historic development. Past study helps us to understand better present, to fore see

future.

Present is characterized by speeded up development in all fields of

knowledge, including medicine. It is increased the role of independent thought of

every specialist. Doctor‘s profession requires logic thought, to find correlation

between past events and modern scientific achievements, to correctly decide.

History of medicine is science which study development of medical activities

and medical knowledge in the connection with development and changes of

social-economic structures, with people culture. Significance of history of medicine

is to display role and achievements of scientists in medicine development, their

place in world progress. Scientists influence on adjacent field of science and

practice is promoting comprehension of tasks of public health. Doctor’s activity

was and is directed on care attitude and conservation of environment which

influence on health and study social –economic and social-cultural conditions in

which originated and developed medical science and practice. Study of each

medical discipline begins from analysis of historic development. It allows to learn

well medical material and to realize creative potential of student or young

specialist.

5

Study sources of history of medicine

History of medicine is obliged by its existence to sources. Sources are

divided into natural (physical, chemical, biological, etc.) and social (historic,

philosophical, etc.). Historic sources are subdivided into primary sources and

secondary sources. Primary source is an object, created by person on the base of

subjective image of objective world. Secondary source is based on various primary

sources, on the one hand, summing up, on the other hand, analyzing and

comparing it. Primary source often reflects concrete, particular fact, events or

phenomenon, but secondary source reflects total sum of facts, events and

phenomenon.

According to classification, proposed in 40th years of XX c. by professor

Tikhomirov M.N., and a more precise definition was given by professor Pronshtein

A.P., all historic sources are divided into 7 main groups: written, material,

ethnographical, verbal (folkloric), linguistic, cinema-photo-documentary, phone-

documentary.

Written source are monuments of past, which were passed with help of

graphic signs, i.e. manuscript or printed document on paper, papyrus.

Epigraphic sources are similar to written sources. They are inscriptions on strong

materials- stones, trees, clays, etc. Epigraphic material is transitional group

between written and material sources. Written sources can be original or copy.

Material sources are different by shape. Main parts of them are archeological

monuments, which are important for study of before written period. Material

sources also include paleoanthropological material (fossil relics of man).

Ethnographical sources are phenomenon of cultural and social life, inherited

from previous epochs, preserved by memory and continue to exist in new form in

present time. They are superstitions, beliefs, customs, and rites.

Verbal (folkloric) source is a source, created by people and characterized by

verbal form of transmission, shape of reality. This source does not contain precise

6

information about persons, facts, events. Folk-lore is important part of people

culture and history of culture, is creation of mass with class features, with own

people estimation of historic events.

Linguistic sources are reflection of real historic reality in speech form.

Typical peculiarities of language can serve sources for solving of scantily explored

problems: relationship and interrelation between whole groups of people, border of

settling on early period of development of human society.

Cinema-photo-documentary is source which originated due to development of

photography and cinematography. Photography is static document of history.

Cinema-photo-documentary fixes events more precisely and can reproduce past.

Phone-documentary reflects sound side of historic fact and present

phonogram which made at the instant of event.

Transitional groups of sources between material and written are works of

small forms of imitative arts which are coins, medals, stamps, post-cards and etc.

They are object of study for auxiliary historic science like numismatics, philately,

phylocratics, etc.

Philately is a science about signs of post payment and their collection.

Medical themes can be presented by sections: “Prominent workers”, “Struggle

against tuberculosis”, “Medicinal plants”, “Work of Red Cross”, etc.

Philomenia is a collection of match-boxes. It aroused in 30-th years of XIXc.

Medical themes can reproduce by labels.

Phylocratics is a collection of post-cards. Many post-cards devoted to

prominent medical workers.

Ex-libris from Latin means “from books”. There were medical symbology

and attributes in ex-libris.

Numismatics is a science about coins, which study their picture, legends,

weigh, size and quality, area and time of their circulation, technique of making.

Numismatics is not only science about coins, but medals also.

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Bonistics is auxiliary historic discipline, which study paper monetary signs.

Paper money is objective and impartial documents of history. Legends on paper

money are fixed when and who issued them, their degree of securing, area of

circulation, etc.

Phaleristics is collection of badges. Nowadays every international meeting,

congress, jubilee of institutions is accompanied by issue of badge.

Main stages of medicine development in connection with development and

changes of social-economic structures

The one compulsory requirement in study of medicine history is

appointment of stages. Right division into periods is main precondition of

scientific historic research.

Character and level of medicine development is defined by social structure,

by productive forces, productive relations, and by level of knowledge.

History of medicine is divided into epochs, social-economic structures: primitive

communal system, slave-owning system, feudal, capitalist system and socialism.

Medicine has original features in every system. Medical science and practice

changed in connection with changes in economics, science and technique of each

epoch.

History of medicine visual shows progresses and changes in medicine, as

changes in society life.

Development of medicine during the epoch

of the primitive-communal system.

Becoming of the primitive society and origin of doctoring

(more 2 million years ago - about 40 thousand years ago)

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The history of mankind begins with the advent of the human, since that time

they appeared labour activity. The primitive history covers more than 99 % of all

history of mankind. Through a primitive-communal system have passed all

peoples of a planet, therefore great value has studying the initial stage of mankind

for correct understanding of all subsequent course of its historical development.

Transition from the nearest ancestors of the human /Australopithecus/ to

hominid subfamily was on a boundary tertiary and quaternary periods. The

hypothesis about an origin of the human from fossil humanoid monkeys has been

put forward by Ch .Darwin He had developed the concept about evolution of

animate nature on the basis of a principle of natural selection which has stated in

work "The origin of species by natural selection, or preservation of the elected

breeds in struggle for a life" (“The Origin of Species by means of nature

selection”, 1859).

There are two approaches in an establishment of border between fauna and the

human: anthropological and philosophical. The biological originality of the

human, his morphological differences from the nearest ancestors are the basis of

the anthropological approach This difference is defined by the hominid triad: 1)

erected man, or biped; 2) free hand with opposable big finger, hand able to do thin

labour operations; 3) rather large mature brain.

Signs of hominid triads were generated at different stages of evolution so erect

pacing was developed at the end of the tertiary period at Australopithecus, free

hand - on a boundary of the lower and average Paleolithic periods, an advanced

brain at a stage Paleonthrop.

In a basis of the philosophical approach to definition of border between fauna

and the human was the social essence of the human - his thinking, language, social

relations, labour activity.

One of the major problems of anthropogenesis is the question about home of

mankind. By the opinion of Ch. Darwin, an ancestral home of mankind is the

African continent where live most close to the human anthropoids - chimpanzee

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and gorilla. Last finds of remains of the most ancient hominids are the evidence of

the African ancestral home of mankind. But there are also other points of view.

The final decision of this question can probably only on the basis of the further

scientific researches.

The primitive human herd was the early form of the organization of the

ancient people. The most ancient people (arhanthrops) were erected, carried on

nomadic or semi-nomadic way of life. Their labour activity promoted formation of

primitive articulate speech, sources of languages, development of thinking and

consciousness. Paleopsychology defines 3 spheres of the primitive human

consciousness: 1) empirical experience, 2) generalizations of results of empirical

experience and 3) abstract consciousness. The first and second spheres are

chronologically inseparable and have arisen together with primitive thinking,

articulate speech and sources of languages. The third sphere of consciousness -

abstract thinking of arhanthrops has been still insufficiently developed, therefore

on early stages of anthropogenesis there were no burials and cults of died,

religious representations and magic actions, was not rocky figures and other

rudiments of primitive art.

Ancient people (paleonthrops) - ancestors of the human of modern kind - have

created the stone industry, were engaged in collecting, fishery, hunting, supported

fire, skins of animals were used for manufacturing clothes, warming of dwelling.

The first burial places (in caves of Le-Musteua, La Ferassi in territory of France;

in Keek-Coba in Crimea), testify to perfection at of abstract consciousness.

Thousand-year acquaintance of the most ancient and ancient people with

properties of plants has allowed them to singled out by empirical way suitable

plants for a feed, poisonous and medicinal substances.

Doctoring during the prosperity of primitive society

(about 40 thousand years ago - X-V millenniums B.C.)

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The anthropogenesis process and becoming of the modern kind human- Homo

sapiens have come to the end to the beginning of the upper Paleolithic period.

Hominid triad was finally generated. Oicumena has considerably extended. The

adaptation to various environmental conditions and formation of modern races

(Negroid, Europiad, Mongoloid and Austroloid) were in parallel ways.

Developments of collectivism, gun techniques, invention of a bow and arrows

(XIV-VII c.c. B.C.) have led to rise of productive forces. Early tribal community

of hunters, collectors and fishers, and later - the developed tribal community of

farmers and cattlemen were aroused.

The early tribal community of hunters, collectors and fishers was quite

generated human society. The woman was the most stable part of a society in

early human collectives. She cared of children, kept house. The cult of mothers –

the original mothers, hearth’s keeper was in that time. Man and woman were

equal, the head of a clan could be both either the woman, or the man.

Rational and irrational notions were closely bound in spiritual culture of early

tribal community. Result of rational outlook was knowledge and methods of

doctoring. Natives of Australia lived in the Stone Age. They cured diseases of a

stomach, stopped bleedings by ashes, webs; they made washings by urine and put

clay at skin diseases; they could splint, phlebotomy, used medical products of

vegetative, animal and mineral origin. They could do ritual circumcision and

Cesarean section. The first surgical tools were stone and bone knifes, the fish

scales, thorns and prickles.

By the empirical way natives of America used narcotics as anesthetics.

Cactuses’ juices and extracts were used as anesthetics within several days.

But knowledge of the primitive human was not so large. The primitive human

thought, that he was related to animals and plants which had human properties.

Thus, early kinds of beliefs have arisen: totemism, fetishism, animism and magic.

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Totermism is a religious belief that is frequently associated with shamanistic

religions. The totem is usually an animal or other naturalistic figure that spiritually

represents a group of related people such as a clan.

Fetishism is attributing some kind of inherent value or powers to an object.

For example, the person who sees magical or divine significance in a material

object is mistakenly ascribing inherent value to some object which does not

possess that value. A fetish (from French) is an object believed to have

supernatural powers, or in particular a man-made object that has power over

others.

Animism (from Latin anima, "soul") is the belief that souls inhabit all or most

objects. Animism attributes personalized souls to animals, vegetables, and

minerals wherein the material object is—to some degree—governed by the

qualities which compose its particular soul. Animistic religions generally do not

accept a sharp distinction between spirit and matter, and they generally assume

that this unification of matter and spirit plays a role in daily life. Animism (soul,

spirit) - belief in souls, spirits and general spiritual of nature.

The magic (sorcery) is belief in ability to human influence on other people,

subjects, events or natural phenomena by supernatural way.

There was also a medical magic - magical doctoring of wounds and the

illnesses, based on cult practice. Primitive cult practice was finally arranged

during the period of advanced tribal community.

Anthropologists studied primitive societies in the 19th and early 20th centuries.

Among them treatment for injury and sickness was a mixture of common sense and

magic. People knew, of course, that falls cause broken bones and fire causes burns.

Animal bites or human weapons cause wounds. Primitive people had simple

treatments for these things e.g. Australian Aborigines covered broken arms in clay,

which hardened in the hot sun. Cuts were covered with fat or clay and bound up

with animal skins or bark. However primitive people had no idea what caused

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illness. They assumed it was caused by evil spirits or magic performed by an

enemy. The 'cure' was magic to drive out the evil spirit or break the enemies spell.

The later tribal community of farmers and cattlemen is characterized, first of

all, by transition from an appropriating economy to making productive agriculture

(from IX-III millennium B.C.) and to rearing of pets (from VI-III millennium

B.C.)

During this period of a mankind history a dog, a sheep, a goat, the bull and a

horse have been domesticated; spinning, weaving, ceramics, wheel transport and a

sailing boat construction of buildings from a brick have been invented.

Complication of production activity of the primitive human has expanded a

circle of his knowledge: accounting devices were appeared, religious notions were

complicated. Notion about disease was as installation in a body of ill spirit of died

ancestor. It influenced on methods of doctoring which purpose became

banishment of spirit of an ancestor from the patient’s body. The ritual ceremony

was operation of craniotomy. The first of the fossil man has been found in Latin

America - in area of Cusco (Peru) in 1865. The analysis of trephined skulls

shown, that in most cases (about 70 %) trepanation was successfully operated:

formation of a callus testified to it.

The skull with a high brain box which belonged to the Europiad man (V-IV

B.C.) was found in the place Karabie (Karaganda region). On the left temporal

the skull had trepanation as 5 holes drilled one after another. Scientists

established, that trepanation was made by a metal drill. On trepanation of the fifth

hole the vessel, probably, has been touched, and hemorrhage became the reason of

death.

Modern neurosurgeons were surprised by great skill of their colleague of VI c.

The skull was found out in the south of Kazakhstan.

The primitive human thought, that through the hole in a skull the disease’s

spirit could leave the body of the patient. On island Uvei in the Pacific ocean till

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the middle of XIX c. absolute trepanation of skulls in newborns was exist as

preventive measure.

Many things of the primitive human usage were widely adopted in present

time: efedrum as a herb was known in China 5 thousand years ago. Medical

properties of cinchona had opened by Hincks. Adonis vernalis was used as drugs

for dropsy and breathlessness. Special knowledge was used in national medicine.

Knowledge of curative properties of some plants, herbs, leeches, mineral waters,

pitches of plants and many other things is inherited to us from national medicine.

Economic and social development of mankind during the advanced tribal

community has prepared preconditions for origin of the private property and

decomposition of the primitive-communal system which has begun before all in

fertile valleys of the largest rivers of our planet.

Doctoring during the period of the primitive society’s decomposition

(since X-V millenniums B.C.)

Decomposition of the primitive society passed in two forms: patriarchy and

late matriarchy which developed in parallel ways.

Patriarchy was more extended. The leading economic and social role of the

man was formed the social inequality.

Matriarchy was the rare form of decomposition of the primitive-communal

system and it was developed, when the public inequality was formed at leading

economic role of women. There were the tribes (hyraces, minanckbas, etc.) living

on traditions of matriarchy on our planet.

Process of decomposition of the primitive society in more favorable economic

regions had come to the end to III-II millennium B.C. (Mesopotamia, Egypt, basin

of Hind). In the least favorable areas of Oceania, Australia, Africa it is going on.

At the end of this period the major event was the invention of hieroglyphic

writing in IV c.B.C.: first at Sumerians and Egyptians, and later at Chinese.

14

Development of doctoring skills, usage of medical products, medical tools

from metal, and amputation of limb began to be applied. Obstetric aid was

improved.

Strengthening of the tribal organization promoted to development of religious

notions and professional servants of a cult have appeared. Their basic activity was

doctoring. Now in some countries of Asia, Africa, on islands of Oceania national

doctors-sorcerers are exists. Sorcerers are people with a high professional

standard. So, in Africa pupils of sorcerers forced to breathe up to a faint a smoke

in a special hut, and then they stood the test with big ants. In India since the

childhood pupils -vedyi should study medicinal substances, ways of their

preparation and usage, and also various spells and magic methods. If illness was

mighty evil, the healer should be more the big exorcist of demons. Frequently

sorcerers in the primitive society combined usage of special methods and medical

products: at treatment of gastrointestinal disturbance the patient drunk grasses’

extracts, at some other diseases he was whipped nettle. For treatment “magic

influence” was used: amulets which were frequently applied in a combination with

medicines. So, in beads of amulets was the medicinal substance. Amulets from

garlic were applied at such diseases, as a scarlet fever and diphtheria.

Thus, the medicine during an epoch of the primitive-communal system has

arisen and developed as a result of activity of primitive people at all stages of their

existence. Doctoring and usage of medical products were changed and improved

together with evolution of the society.

Experience taught primitive people to use natural medical remedies, to collect

plants and to prepare medicines, to apply antidotes, to use medical properties of

animals’ bodies. Numerous medical methods and medical products were the basis

of national medicine and national doctoring.

As a whole the primitive human had rather poor arsenal of medical products

and methods. Being weaker than his enemies, he created around himself other

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nature and became the mightiest powerful creature on the Earth changed the

world.

According to world history stages, the end of the primitive society coincides

with the beginning of the history of class societies when have appeared first

slaveholding states 4000 years ago. But the rests of the primitive-communal

system were kept in all class societies during all their history.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Арцишевский А. Этюды о врачевателях и фармацевтах /А.

Арцишевский //Казахстанский фармацевтический вестник. - 2002. -N 1. -C 8-

9; 2005.-

№ 16.- С 10-11.

2. Богоявленский Н.А. О значении данных археологии при изучении истории

отечественной медицины /Н.А. Богоявленский.- //Из истории медицины: Сб.

ст.- Рига, 1963.- С. 71-79.

3. Грибанов Э.Д. Источники изучения истории медицины и здравоохранения /

Э.Д. Грибанов.- Москва, 1980.- 19с.

4. Заблудовский П.Е. История медицины: Избранные главы /П.Е.

Заблудовский. - М.: Медгиз, 1953. – Вып. 1. - 88с.

5. История медицины / П.Е. Заблудовский, Г.Р. Крючок, М.К. Кузьмин, М.М.

Левит. - М.: Медицина, 1987. - 352 с.

6. Лисицын Ю.П.История медицины / Ю.П. Лисицын. - М.: ГЭОТАР-МЕД,

2004. -393 с.

7. Мультановский М.П. История медицины / М.П. Мультановский.-

М.:Медицина, 1967. - 272 с.

8. Петров Б.Д. От Гиппократа до Семашко: преемственность идей: [Очерки и

портреты] /Б.Д. Петров. - М.: Медицина, 1990.-168с.

9. Семенченко В.Ф. История фармации: Учебное пособие /В.Ф. Семенченко.-

М.: «МарТ»; Ростов н/Д: «МарТ», 2003.- 640 с.

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10. Сорокина Т.С. Атлас истории медицины. Древний мир/ Т.С. Сорокина. -

М.: УДН, 1981.-160с.

11. Сорокина Т.С. Атлас истории медицины. Первобытное общество. Древний

мир/ Т.С. Сорокина.- 2-е изд., перераб. и доп.- М.: УДН, 1987. - 170 с.

12. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины: Учебник для студ. высш. мед. учеб.

заведений / Т.С. Сорокина. – 4-е изд., стер.- М.: «Академия»,2005.-560с.

13. Сточик А.М. Избранные лекции по курсу истории медицины и

культурологии/ А.М. Сточик.- М.: МГП "ЭРУС", 1992.-88с.

2. MEDICINE IN THE SLAVE-OWNING STATES OF ANCIENT EAST:

BABYLON, ASSYRIA, EGYPT, INDIA AND CHINA

Epoch’s characteristics

In the conditions of decomposing primitive system the slave-owning system

was natural phenomenon. It showed wide opportunities of productive forces’

increase. Population was divided into free and slave in the slave-owning system.

Free persons were divided into class of big landowners (they were also big slave-

owners) and class of small producers (artisans, peasants). Priests played big role in

the epoch of slavery and they were big landowners and slave-owners.

Ancient East was cradle of human culture. Transition from primitive system to

slave-owning system happened there earlier than in other places. Slave-owning

system prevailed in Mesopotamia and Egypt (IV-III millennium B.C.), India (in

the middle of III millennium B.C.), China (II millennium B.C.), Transcaucasus

(state Urrartu, I millennium B.C.).

Predominant political system was despotic monarchy with survivals of tribal

system. Influential caste was priests.

Before some millenniums B.C. first sources of materialistic ideology and

knowledge about nature had occurred to East people. Materialistic thought of

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Ancient East considered world as it is, wanted to understand it as dynamic and

developed single whole.

Common features of medicine development in slave-owning states

of Ancient East

Invention of a written language (since IV millennium B.C.) and creation of

first medical texts (since III millennium B.C. in Sumerians).

Forming of two direction of doctoring: 1) Folk (empirical) doctoring based on

practical experience of people and 2) Cultic (temple) doctoring based on religious

beliefs;

Notion about diseases origin (moral-ethic, connected with nature, with

religion);

Teaching of doctors -healers (family tradition and study in temple schools);

Creation of ancient sanitary-hygienic constructions. Development of hygienic

skills;

Class approach of doctoring in class society. Forming of medical ethics’

basics;

Mutual influence and succession in doctoring development in ancient

civilizations.

Medicine of Babylon and Assyria

The name Mesopotamia (meaning "the land between the rivers") refers to the

geographic region which lies near the Tigris and Euphrates rivers and not to any

particular civilization.

Babylon state appeared in the end of III-beginning of II millennium B.C.

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Later in I millennium B.C., state Assyria arose in the south-eastern part of

Mesopotamia. The main place in economic and cultural development, especially in

medicine belonged to Babylon.

Numerous monuments testified to medicine existence in ancient slave-

owning states, which were between rivers Tigris and Euphrates - Babylon kingdom

(XX-IV B.C.) and Assyria (XV-VII B.C.).

Babylon kingdom reached high growth in the old-Babylonian period, great

ruler Hammurabi (1792-1750 B.C.) created powerful state during his reign for 42

years. After his death Babylon was many attacked by conquerors.

Great monument of Babylonian legislation – laws of King Hammurabi

(XVIII B.C.). These laws summarized all old laws. Articles, which engraved on

basaltic pillar, were devoted to activity of doctor and his responsibility.

Hammurabi, a great king of Babylon who lived around 2000 BC formulated

a set of drastic laws known as the Code of Hammurabi that governed the conduct

of physicians and provided for health practices. Doctors whose proposed therapy

proved wrong ran the risk of being killed. Laws relating to medical practice,

including fees payable to physicians for satisfactory services and penalties for

harmful therapy are contained in the Babylonian Code of Hammurabi, the very

first codification of medical practice. While the code of Hammurabi reflected a

high degree of social organization, the medicine of his time was devoid of any

scientific foundation.

Babylon’s neighbor was Assyria, which reached high growth by statesman

Assurbanipal (668-about 626 B.C.). During his reign, large royal library was

created in Nineveh. It had collection of clay tables. As a rule, tables began from

words “If a man ill …” The detailed description of disease’s symptom and advices

about preparing and use of medicine. Table ends with words “…he will recover”.

There were two different types of medical practitioners in Mesopotamia:

asutu (translation “art of doctors”) and ashiputu (“art of charmers”). Both

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traditions remained till the second half of I millennium B.C., then they became

one, closer to ashiputu.

Notions about diseases divided into three categories:

1. Supernatural reasons – “God’s hand”, “whiff of vicious ghost”, “embraces

of Lamashtu” (Old woman Lamashtu walked in night and spread children’

fever).

2. Retribution for violation of ritual, lawful, moral and other directions in

community.

3. Natural reasons, connected with nature phenomenon and way of life (usage

of unhealthy food, bathing in dirty river).

Doctor-asu thought that origin of diseases depends from natural reasons. His

prognoses were optimistically: “he will recover”, “he must treat”.

Doctoring of asu based on practice of doctor-empiric: his intuition plus

acquired knowledge. His aims of treatment were real: “to stop fever”, “lead

oedeata (hypostasis) ”, etc. Doctors - asu were great experts on medical flora. They

gathered, kept and made drugs by themselves. They cooked on honey, vinegar,

water or fat and used it as ointment, powder, pills, suppositories and plugs.

Ashipu’s set of medicinal remedies was less than asu’s set. But there were

instructions for using medicines. For example, “pound a sage and mix with oil, say

the conjuration three times and put on teeth”. This conjuration “Exorcism against

toothache” is great work of art of Ancient Mesopotamia.

Main method of doctoring ashipu was reading of invocations. Diagnosed a

disease and its cause, ashipu made prognoses before treatment. There were

inauspicious prognoses in his texts: “he will die”, “he will not recover”. Favorable

prognoses were rarely: “he will live”, “his disease will go”. If prognosis was

hopeless, ashipu didn’t treat.

Body structure was unknown in Mesopotamia, dissection didn’t make, but

dissections of sacrificial animals gave only common notion about internal organs:

liver, kidney, heart, stomach.

20

Only women were engaged in delivery (birth).

Big role played astrology in culture and in medicine of Assyrians and

Babylonians. They had astrologic calendar, there they defined star-location, good

or bad date for operation, for delivery, etc.

At the excavations of ancient towns (Babylon, Nineveh), remainders of

roadways, sewerage, and water pipes were found. Laws about sending away of

sick persons who had infectious disease.

Like in other countries of Ancient East, treatment was available for rich men

in Babylon. Greek historian Herodotus (V B.C.) described distinctive custom for

treatment of poor men: they went into streets and people, who were there, gave

poor men advices, based on their experience.

Medicine development in Ancient Egypt

The ancient hearth of Egypt civilization was lower reaches of the river Nile,

there appeared first settlements in VI millennium B.C., and then they became

cities-states. United state aroused about 3200 B.C.

Sources about medicine in Egypt are numerous hieroglyphic inscriptions on

sarcophagus, pyramids and papyruses (rolls, which were made from plant-papyrus

in the valley of the Nile.) More famous medical papyruses are: papyrus from

Kahun (about women’ diseases, 2000 B.C.), Smith’s papyrus (devoted to surgery,

1500 B.C.), big medical papyrus of Ebers (middle of II B.C.), Brugsh’s papyrus

(about 1450-1350 B.C.) devoted to treatment of children’s diseases. Papyruses

were studied especially by Russian Egyptologists.

The first doctor known to history was Sekhet-eanach who 'healed the pharaoh's

nostrils'. The second doctor we know of was Imhotep (2600 B.C.) who was vizier

or prime minister to the pharaoh. He was also a doctor and he was so famous that

after his death he was worshipped as a god.

21

Ancient Egyptians knew mathematical, astronomical, geographical and medical

knowledge. Knowledge acquisition in anatomy was lightening by methods of

embalming and mummification of dead body. Used in Egypt anatomical terms

testified about knowledge of internal organs: brain, liver, heart. Egyptians

emphasized heart with 22 divergent vessels.

Egyptians book described diseases of enteric, respiratory tract, skin,

bleeding, elephantiasis, eye diseases (widespread), and fever. Greek historian

Herodotus, traveled in Egypt in V B.C. said that “Egyptians had the doctors on

every body region”. It was evidence of doctor’s specialization in Ancient Egypt.

Big development achieved medical cosmetics; Egypt considered the land of

cosmetics. Only nobility could presume that medical branch. Rich people used of

massage, water-treatment, expensive drugs.

Military doctors what accompanied Egyptian host saved up knowledge about

treatment of wounds, fractures and traumas. Egyptian doctors used a huge range of

drugs obtained from herbs and minerals. They were drunk with wine or beer or

sometimes mixed with dough to form a 'pill'. Egyptian doctors also used ointments

for wounds and they treated chest complaints by getting the patient to inhale steam.

There were pictures of operations on tombs in Ancient Egypt.

However the Egyptians still believed that spells would help the sick and they

carried amulets to ward off disease. Nevertheless they were beginning to seek a

physical cause for illness.

Ancient Egypt was hearth of worm’s diseases. Moreover the Egyptians were

clean people. They washed daily and changed their clothes regularly, which must

have helped their health.

There were temple shelters chiefly for lunatics as in Mesopotamia as in Egypt.

They were more isolator, then treatment institution. These shelters were prototype

future hospitals attached to monasteries.

The profession of dentist was existed from of old in Egypt. Disease of tooth

and gums were described in papyruses. Toothache was explained by Egyptians as

22

worm is growing in tooth. Researches of mummies of Ancient Egypt revealed

about widespread inflammatory diseases of periosteum, which result was jaw’s

changes and falling of tooth. Even pharaohs had not stomatologic intervention:

packing of carious cavities, tooth filling by gold and other metals. Only witnesses

of tooth gold usage in Ancient Egypt were discovery of two lower molar (tooth)

which were connected by thin gold wire.

There were found diseased tooth on cemetery. It testified to stomatology was

conservative. Treatment was in medical pastes and solutions applying on disease

teeth. Papyruses of Ebers described about 11 prescriptions for sanitation and

treatment of tooth and gums. It helped to localize pain, but not to stop further

development of diseases.

They employed ointments, water solutions, bathing, enema (invention of

Egyptians), compresses, lotions, and plasters for treatment. Widely were used

plants, stones, salt. Products of organic origin (fats, animal blood, honey, livers,

etc.) were used.

Means for treatment of skin diseases were used, that’s why some historians

suppose Egypt is motherland of dermatovenerology.

Heritage of Egypt medicine had influence on medical knowledge development

in countries of Ancient East, Ancient Greece, and Rome.

Medicine in Ancient India

To the end of IV millennium B.C. – beginning of III millennium B.C. India had

slave-owning system.

Study sources about social system, economics, culture and medicine are Code of

laws of Manu (1000-500 B.C.), “Veda” – collections of religious and social

instructions, works of folk eposes – poems “Mahabharata”, “Ramayana” and

archeological data. Ayurveda (the science of living), the Vedic system of medicine

originating over 3000 years ago, views health as harmony between body, mind and

spirit. Its two most famous texts belong to the schools of Charaka and Sushruta.

23

According to Charaka, health and disease are not predetermined and life may be

prolonged by human effort. Sushruta defines the purpose of medicine to cure the

diseases of the sick, protect the healthy, and to prolong life.

Information about body structure was very complete in Ancient India.

Dissection of corpse was not prosecuted. Corpse was under process of

maceration during 7 days in flowing water. Anatomic terms were indicative of

presence of anatomic knowledge, even about brains and spinal cord, but not exact.

Doctor used by methods of interrogatory and examination. Tachycardia and

respiration were studied either at rest, as in work and running.

Surgical tools, discovered in excavations, testify about development of

surgery. Sushruta, one of the authors of “Ayurveda” considered surgery is the first

and the best medical science.

Indian doctors made some operations: amputation, ophthalmologic and plastic

operations – substitutions of defects of nose, ears, and lips; obstetric – Caesarean

operation.

Sources of specialization, notion about unity of medical activity were exist.

By opinion of Sushruta: “doctor, who can operate but neglect medical

knowledge, is a bird with one pinion”. Doctor was liable to fine for unsuccessful

operation. Size of fine was depending on caste of sick person.

Strong side of Indian medicine was hygiene. Hygienic directions were

included in Code of laws of Manu. It was condemned surfeit; it was recommended

fresh food and vegetable diet. Rules about body care, cleanness of vessels. But it

all was available to rich people. During the excavations in Machendgo-Daro were

found sewerage, water pipes, and ponds, concerned to the IV-beginning of III c.

B.C.

It was described a hospital, based in the second half of VI c. B.C., hospitals in

ports and in big roadways.

Religion in India had strong influence on medicine, at first it was Brahmanism,

then Buddhism.

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Secrecies of old Indian medicine consolidated in rules of deontology: respect

to teachers, blameless outward appearance, free treatment of poor and friends,

constant perfection of knowledge.

Medicine of Ancient India influenced on development of medicine in many

countries.

Medicine development in Ancient China

In the IV-III millennium B.C. one of the old civilizations was conceived in the

valley of the Hwang Ho River, then in the middle of II c. B.C. it was found state

system. Old China gave to world silk and powder, compass and paper, faience

(pottery) and porcelain, book-printing and many other discoveries in the field of

natural science and medicine.

Chinese medicine claims to be the world's first organized body of medical

knowledge dating back to 2700 BC. It is based on two principles - the yang and the

yin. The yang is believed to be an active masculine principle and the yin a negative

feminine principle. The balance of these two opposing forces meant good health.

Hygiene, dietetics, hydro-therapy, massage, drugs were all used by the Chinese

physicians.

The Chinese were early pioneers of immunization. They practised variolation

to prevent smallpox. To a Chinese, "the great doctor is one who treats not someone

who is already ill but someone not yet ill". The Chinese have great faith in their

traditional medicine, which is fully integrated with modern medicine. The Chinese

system of «bare-foot doctors» and acupuncture has attracted worldwide attention

in recent years.

Old hierologic books said about medicine development. The old is

encyclopedic work of Neijing (18 books). First nines (Su van) were devoted to

structure and functions of organism, diagnostics and treatment of diseases. The

others nine books (Lin Shu) described old method – chzen tzu therapy (chzen-

acupuncture or needle therapy; tzu-moxca or cauterization). Chinese doctors knew

about existence of “vital points”, irritation which had made medicinal effect. First

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detailed description was given in III B.C. To the XIV c. were counted 700 “vital

points”, which united in 14 “vital lines”.

Needles for irritation were made from flint and jasper, then from bones and

bamboo, later from metal – bronze, silver, gold, platinum. For training they had

special atlas and tailor’s dummies (mannequins).

Old doctors achieved big proficiency in pulse diagnostics. Their founder was

doctor Byan- tczyao; he recommended examining pulse in nine different places.

Chinese doctors marked out from 24 to 200 kinds of pulse, the main were 10.

In the III c. A.D. Chinese science about pulse were united in the 10 volumes

treatise (Mo-jing, 280).

Medicinal therapy achieved big proficiency in China. Monumental work of

Lee Shi Tjen in 52 volumes described 1892 medicinal means.

The system of payment to doctors widely used – not for treatment but for

prevention of diseases by advices.

They paid attention to treatment like diet, massage, water procedures, and

gymnastics.

China had state medical institution, main aim was service of emperor’s court,

but in fact their duties were wider (struggle with epidemics, etc.). Drug store also

existed as a special institution that time.

Thus, folk, secular and temple medicine existed in the conditions of slave-

owning system in the countries of Ancient East. Medicine much influenced on

temple medicine in Mesopotamia (Assyria), medical writing and first laws

(Babylon), sources of stationary attached to temples, especially for lunatics (Egypt)

and civil hospitals (India). There were drugs’ depot and places for its preparing in

Egypt, drug-store as special medical institution in China. Big towns of Ancient

East had elements of improvement and sanitation.

People of Ancient East had great experience for diagnostics and prophylaxis of

illnesses and means for their treatment.

26

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Арцишевский А. Этюды о врачевателях и фармацевтах / А. Арцишевский

// Казахстанский фармацевтический вестник - 2002.- N1-2. -С.8-9.

2. Богоявленский Н.А. О раковых заболеваниях в рабовладельческом

обществе / Н.А. Богоявленский.- // Из истории медицины: Сб. ст.- Рига, 1967.-

С. 129-135.

3. Георгадзе В.И.Эмблемы медицины / В.И. Георгадзе, Э.Д. Грибанов.-

Тбилиси, 1979. - 112с.

4. История медицины / П.Е. Заблудовский, Г.Р. Крючок, М.К. Кузьмин,

М.М. Левит. - М.: Медицина, 1987. - 352 с.

5. Камов Б. Секреты тибетских лекарей /Б. Камов.- // Фармацевтический

бюл. -2001.- N9.- С.35-36.

6. Лисицын Ю.П. История медицины /Ю.П. Лисицын. - М.: ГЭОТАР-

МЕД, 2004. -393 с.

7. Мультановский М.П. История медицины /М.П. Мультановский. - М.:

Медицина, 1967. - 272 с.

8. Сорокина Т.С. Атлас истории медицины. Древний мир / Т.С. Сорокина. -

М.: УДН, 1981.-160с.

9. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины. Краткий курс лекций / Т.С. Сорокина. -

М.: УДН., 1988.- 72 с.

10. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины: Учебник для студ. высш. мед. учеб.

заведений / Т.С. Сорокина. – 4-е изд., стер.- М.: «Академия», 2005.-560с.

3. MEDICINE DEVELOPMENT IN ANCIENT GREECE

AND ANCIENT ROME

Medicine in Ancient Greece

27

Countries of Mediterranean basin, in the first place Ancient Greece (Ellada)

and Ancient Rome had big influence on historic development of humanity. Ancient

Greece in the VI – IV B.C. consisted of small slave-owning states.

Originality of geographic and economic conditions of Ancient Greece

promoted that its people played big role in culture development. Greece was

commercial mediator between more ancient countries of Southern and Western

Europe, widely developed trade and handicrafts.

The highest internal growth of Ancient Greece, rise of art, science, philosophy

and culture was in V B.C. This growth was stipulated by social contradictions and

struggle in the country. Greece had big social upheaval, transition from primitive

system to class slave-owning system. Struggle for freedom and independence from

Persian conquerors, defeat of slave-owning aristocracy and successes of slave-

owning democracy provoked growth of art, science and philosophy.

Knowledge of Ancient Greeks was united in one notion - “philosophy”.

Ancient Greece’s natural history was characterized by limited accumulation of

exact knowledge and abundance of hypothesis and theories. Philosophy of Ancient

Greece was characterized by natural dialectics.

Philosophical tendencies – matherialism and idealism – reflected sharp class

struggle. Struggle of materialistic “line of Democritus” with idealistic “line of

Platoon” was struggle of progressive slave-owning democracy with reactionary

land slave-owning aristocracy.

Greeks’ participants in international commercial intercourse, communication

with different people, contact with different religions and cultures - all of them

promoted development of Greek world view, which came into history under the

name the Greek natural philosophy.

Democritus was a Greek materialist philosopher (born at Abdera in Thrace ca.

460 B.C.-370 B.C.). Democritus was a student of Leucippus and co-originator of

the belief that all matter is made up of various imperishable, indivisible elements

which he called atoma (atom) or "indivisible units".

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Though intelligence is allowed to explain the organization of the world,

according to Democritus, he does give place for the existence of a soul, which he

contends is composed of exceedingly fine and spherical atoma (now called atoms,

as mentioned above). He holds that, "spherical atoma move because it is their

nature never to be still, and that as they move they draw the whole body along with

them, and set it in motion." In this way, he viewed soul-atoma as being similar to

fire-atoma: small, spherical, capable of penetrating solid bodies and good examples

of spontaneous motion.

Democritus explained senses along these lines, as well. He hypothesized that

different tastes were a result of differently shaped atoms in contact with the tongue.

Smells and sounds could be explained similarly. Vision works by the eye receiving

"images" or "effluences" of bodies that are emanated. He stated that, "Sweet exists

by convention, bitter by convention, color by convention; but in reality atoms and

the void alone exist." Atomism was opposite to god’s influence on fate of world

and people.

There are two forms of knowledge: one legitimate, one bastard. To the sort

belong all the following: sight, hearing, smell, taste, touch. The legitimate is quite

distinct from this. When the bastard form cannot see more minutely, nor hear nor

smell nor taste nor perceive through the touch, then another finer form must be

employed. Democritus extracted the essence of every known herb and then

devoted the rest of his life to researches into the properties of minerals and plants.

Successor of Democritus was Epicurus.

Greek natural philosophy had influenced on development of material notions

and diseases.

Study sources about medicine of Ancient Greece

29

Ancient Greece’s literature is very old literature of Europe. First Greek literal

monuments are “Iliad” and “Odyssey” of Homer and they are only sources about

medicine of ХII – VI B.C.

Great monument of medical literature – “Hippocrates collection” testified

about medicine of classical period in Greece history. Some medical articles were

written by Herodotus (V B.C.) in his work “History in the 9 books”.

Archeological investigations in Miken (i. Crit) don’t yield to the values of

discovery of Tutankhamen’s tomb. Evans discovered ruins of great Cnoss palace

on i. Crit in 1900. There were catch pits, bath-houses, airings in III B.C. Treasure

from Kul – Ob funeral- is famous gold vase aimed for devotions, it kept in

Hermitage. By diggings it was discovered old temples, among it sanctuary of God

for doctoring Asclepios – asclepions. There was found one of the famous sanctuary

of Asclepios in town Epidavr in 1881-1887.

Мythology and medicine

“Childhood of human society was developed only splendid” in Ancient

Greece. It was more reflected in mythology and religion. Greek gods were invested

with all human qualities as good as bad.

Important place had gods-healers in Greek mythology. First of all was god

Apollo, he was father of god –doctor Asclepios. He embodied sun, which could

heal by its heat. He was healing god and god -prophet. Apollo was not only doctor

of gods and god of doctors but he was god of wisdom, poetry, music and beauty.

The most important medical deity was god of doctoring Asclepios. He was

pupil of Herron. Asclepios surpassed his teacher: he could not only treat, also he

could return died people to life. Asclepios healed people and may have even made

them immortal.

Antique art depicted Asclepios with stick embraced by snake, Hygeia was as

young beautiful girl in tunic with diadem and snack. Later snack became medicine

symbol. The famous children of Asclepios were Hygeia – goodness of health,

30

Panaceia – patroness of medicinal doctoring, Machaon became famous military

surgeon and Podalirius treated internal diseases. They all learnt medicine by their

father.

Folk and temple medicine

Roots of Greek medicine connected with medicine of Ancient East. Doctors

were respectable.

Homer in his poems described 141 damages on body and extremities, he knew

about medicinal properties of sulphur.

Herodotus described treatment of illnesses, climate influence on health, high

status of doctor in society, respect to this profession.

Sophocles had mentions about shivering (fever), medicinal mineral sources.

Development and strengthening of slave-owning system to the VI B.C.

stipulated intensification of religion positions. Those times were origin of temples

and temple medicine. So, Greek medicine was secular, folk, which temple

medicine couldn’t destroy.

On the one hand most Greeks believed in a god of healing called Asclepios.

Sick people made sacrifices or offerings to the god. They then slept overnight in

his temple. They believed that the god would visit them in their sleep (i.e. in their

dreams) and when they woke up they would be healed.

At the same time Greek doctors developed a rational theory of disease and

sought cures. However one did not replace the other.

There were more then 300 asclepieions in Ancient Greece. The majestic temple

was temple of Asclepios (IV B.C.). There were temples of Hygeia, Aphrodite,

Femida, and Apollo on the territory of sanctuary.

There were bath-house, library, gymnasium, stadium and theater on the

territory of sanctuary in Epidavrium.

Abaton – one from three component parts of asclepieions (temple, source and

abaton). Interpretation of dreams was base of temple medicine. Priests asked and

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then treated by physical methods of doctoring: massage, gymnastics, water

procedures, etc.

The cult of Asclepios and Greek medicine existed side by side.

Medical schools of Ancient Greece

Doctoring was family profession and handed down from father to son – it was

secret of family in Ancient Greece. Such system became family medical schools.

Later those schools were wider, because it had pupils for payment. Medical schools

were formed in Greece and in Greek colonies around the Mediterranean.

Greek medicine reflected two directions of philosophy: materialistic and

idealistic.

Idealistic tendency was in schools of Pythagoras, Plato.

Materialistic tendency displayed in schools on islands (i. Rodos, i. Cos, Asia

Minor), in towns (Cyrene, Crotona, Cnidus).

Glory of ancient medicine was in Crotona, Cnidus and Cos schools.

Crotona medical schools had growth in VIc.B.C. Their thesis: 1) organism – is

unity of opposites; 2) healthy organism – is a result of balance of opposite forces:

dry and wet, hot and cold, etc., prevalence of one is an illness cause; 3) opposite is

recovered by opposite. Prominent representative of this school was philosopher

and doctor Alcmaeon of Crotona (IV – V c. B.C.) in Italy said that a body was

healthy if it had the right balance of hot and cold, wet and dry. If the balance was

upset the body grew ill.

Cnidus medical schools 1) based humoral teaching, then health is favorable

mix (dyscrasia) of fourth liquids (blood, mucus, light bile and dark bile), but their

unfavorable mix (dyscrasia) is illnesses cause; 2) developed teaching about

symptoms of diseases and diagnostics (method by auscultation). Prominent

representative of this school was Euryphon of Cnidus (V c. B.C.).

32

Cos medical school was the main one in Ancient Greece. First information

was to 584 B.C. Growth of school was connected with name of Hippocrates II The

Great (about 460-about 377 B.C.), he is known as Hippocrates. Cos medical school

1) considered organism in close connection with nature; 2) elaborated principle of

observation and treatment near patient’s bed; 3) elaborated basis of doctor ethics.

33

Hippocrates. “Collection of Hippocrates”

Hippocrates, or Ippocrates (“horse-tamer” in Greek) lived in the period of the

highest internal bloom of Greece, there were many prominent representatives in

every field of human activities: in politics - Periclus, history had – Herodotus and

Phucididus, philosophy – Leucippus, Democritus, Empedocles, Socrat, Plato,

poetry had Sophocles, Euripides, Aristophanes, and in medicine it was epoch of

Hippocrates.

Hippocrates II The Great, was born on island Cos. His genealogy was from

clan asclepiads, from son of Asclepios – Padalirius. Asclepios clan had seven

Hippocrates. Hippocrates II The Great was doctor – periodevtist, he visited many

towns of Greece, Asia Minor, Skiff lands, Livia, east seaboard of the Black Sea,

Egypt. His fame about doctoring was spread in many countries.

The last days of his life, Hippocrates spent in Larissa (Fessaliya), when he died

in one day with Democritus.

Hippocrates had real notions about medicine, its possibilities, difficulties and

purposes. He was doctor- philosopher. He challenged the tradition of magic in

medicine, and initiated a radically new approach to medicine i.e., application of

clinical methods in medicine.

Heritage of Hippocrates and other doctors of Ancient Greece generalized in

“Collection of Hippocrates”, which was composed in III c. B.C. and was in famous

Alexandrian library. Library was based by successors of Alexander Macedonian -

Ptolemaists. By their order manuscripts of world scientists were brought in library.

72 medical works were written in Greek.

Works of Hippocrates are: “Aphorisms”, “Epidemics”, “About air, water,

places”, “About ancient medicine”, etc.

Hippocrates and other Greek doctors believed that the work done by a doctor

should be kept separate from the work done by a priest. They believed that

observation of a patient was a vital aspect of medical care. Ancient Greek doctors

34

did examine their patients but Hippocrates wanted a more systematic period of

observation and the recording of what was observed. Today, we would call this

‘clinical observation’. Such ideas have lead to Hippocrates being called the ‘Father

of Medicine’.

The Hippocratic Collection gave Greek doctors detailed advice on what to

do with their patients.

In the book "On Epidemics", doctors were told to note specific symptoms

and what was observed on a day to day basis. By doing this they could make a

natural history of an illness. Hippocrates and other doctors believed that by doing

this they could forecast the development of the illness in future.

The ideas of Hippocrates and others spread in the eastern Mediterranean and

others took to writing down what they saw with regards to illnesses. These writings

have survived and have given historians a vast resource to study.

Hippocrates and other doctors worked on the assumption that all diseases had a

natural cause rather than a supernatural one.

The definition of word “epidemics” was not clear, the Greeks called diseases

widely spread in people, such as fever, consumption, eye diseases, skin diseases,

etc.

Illness was considered by Hippocrates as change of 3 conditions: dampness,

welding and rarity. Hence, teaching about period, rhythms of diseases and main

methods of treatment:

1) First of all not to harm

2) Opposite is recovered by opposite.

3) Follow to law of proportionality.

4) Treat in conformity with nature laws, i.e. take into account “nature” of sick

man, conditions of his life, influence of environment.

Big significance had mode of life in ancient Greece. Teaching music, reading

and writing, hygiene, physical training and hardening were stand in one row.

35

Study of mode of life allowed Hippocrates to define 4 basic types of frame and

temperament of people. They based on notions of ancient Greeks about

predominance of one from 4 basic liquids in organism.

Works on surgery – “About fractures”, “About head wounds”, etc. gave notions

about high development teaching about bandages, treatment of fractures, wounds,

etc.

Doctors of Ancient Greece did not dissect and had not special knowledge on

anatomy. Their notions were empiric.

259 medicinal means of vegetable and 50 of organic origin were described in

“Collection of Hippocrates”. Hippocrates used 60-70 medicinal means.

There were 5 works in the “Collection of Hippocrates”, which were devoted to

deontology and behavior rules of doctor in Ancient Greece. They are: “Law”,

“Oath”, “About doctor”, “About decent behavior”, “Admonitions”.

Stable rules of behavior were devotion to teachers and respect to colleagues,

which consolidated in “Oath”, written down in III B.C. in Alexandrian library and

named after Hippocrates.

The Greeks gave a new direction to medical thought. They rejected the

supernatural theory of disease and looked upon disease as a natural process, not a

visitation from a god of immolation. The Greeks believed that matter was made up

of four elements - earth, air, fire and water. These elements had the corresponding

qualities of being cold, dry, hot and moist and were represented in the body by the

four humors - phlegm, yellow bile, blood and black bile.

Greeks postulated that health prevailed when the four humors were in

equilibrium and when the balance was disturbed, disease was the result. The

human body was assumed to have powers of restoration of humoral equilibrium,

and it was the physician's primary role to assist in this healing process. While the

humoral theory of Hippocrates was based on incorrect foundations, the concept of

the innate capacity of the body of responding to disturbances in the equilibrium

that constitutes health is highly relevant to modern medicine.

36

Outstanding amongst post-Hippocratic medical centre was Alexandria's huge

museum, the first University in the world which sheltered a library containing over

70,000 books. To this house of learning came eminent men. Between 300 BC and

30 BC, thousands of pupils matriculated in the school of Alexandria, which

replaced Athens as the world's centre of learning. In short, the Hippocratic school

inspired in turn the Alexandria school and the Arabo-Persian medicine. The

Hippocratic school changed the destiny of medicine by separating it from magic

and raising it to the status of a science. They had scientific method, although not

scientific knowledge. The glorious Greek civilization fell into decay and was

succeeded by the Roman civilization.

Medicine of Ancient Rome

Ancient Rome was a civilization that grew from a small agricultural

community founded on the Italian Peninsula in the IX B.C. to a large empire

straddling the Mediterranean Sea. In its twelve centuries of existence, Roman

civilization shifted from a monarchy, to a republic based on a combination of

oligarchy and democracy, to an increasingly autocratic empire. It came to

dominate Western Europe and the area surrounding the Mediterranean Sea through

conquest and assimilation.

To the end of III B.C. Ancient Rome became strong centralistic slave-owning

state of Western Mediterranean. Ancient Rome in I B.C. – was gigantic empire,

which includes territories of Western and South-Eastern Europe, Northern Africa,

and Asia Fore (Front). Period from II c. B.C. to II A.D. was the high blossom of

slave-owning social-economic structure and slave-owning production way.

Roman civilization is often grouped into "classical antiquity" with ancient

Greece, a civilization that inspired much of the culture of ancient Rome. Ancient

Rome contributed greatly to the development of law, war, art, architecture,

37

rhetoric, agriculture, philology, literature, technology, language and medicine in

the Western world.

Significant part of ancient Roman written monuments was lost. Some sources

(from III B.C.) have special interest, such as poem of T. Lucrecius Car “About

nature of things”, treatise “About medicine” by Cornelius Celsus, Galen’s work

“About aim of human body organs”. Information about medicine is also Greek and

Latin epigrams, devoted to doctor activity.

The healing profession was in the hands of priests, magicians, and elders of

the family. At first it was just the herbs that Romans used to cure their illnesses.

Diggings of ancient Rome cities allowed becoming the common property of the

history the life and medicine development. There were found set of medical

instruments, first in archeological history, in Pompey which was buried because of

volcano Vesuvius in 79 A.D. Second set consisted of 150 antique medical

instruments was discovered in 1893 in Baden, and third one was discovered in

1925 in Bingham.

Ancient roman hygienic constructions – therms or bath houses, aqueducts or

water-pipe, sewage are of big interest for medicine.

The Romans made fine roads throughout their empire, brought pure water to all

their cities through aqueducts, drained marshes to combat malaria, built sewerage

systems and established hospitals for the sick.

The Law of the Twelve Tables (about 450 B.C.) was the ancient legislation

that stood at the foundation of Roman law. The Law of the Twelve Tables formed

the centerpiece of the constitution of the Roman Republic. They were post up

behind Rome Senate. Official - edibles saw to realization of these laws. Also they

watched building and improvement in towns.

The Romans knew that dirt encourages disease and they appreciated the

importance of cleanliness. They built aqueducts to bring clean water into towns

since IV B.C. There were 11 aqueducts in Rome in I B.C. total length which was

436 kilometers. Aqueducts had state protection.

38

They also knew that sewage encourages disease. The Romans built public

lavatories in their towns. Streams running underneath them carried away sewage.

The famous underground channel - cloaca maхima – functions to present day.

Therms were wide spread in Roman Empire. Therms’ capacity allowed

washing 10 -100 thousand persons simultaneously. Splendid decoration had to bear

similarities to museums. There were checkrooms, rooms for physical activities,

rooms for oil rubbing, hot bath and basins in therms. Pictures of Asclepios and

Hygie were in honor place. Therms were centers of public and cultural life in

Roman Empire. Libraries, halls for banquet and meetings were attached to therms.

By the historians’ opinion therms were the best gift of Roman emperors to

population.

There were not doctors- professionals in Ancient Rome. The Romans

conquered Greece and afterwards doctors in the Roman Empire were often Greeks.

Many of them were slaves - prisoners of war. Every rich Roman wanted to have

slave-doctor. High cultural and professional levels of slave-doctor raise him and he

became free person. But he must treat his ex-master and his family free of charge.

Doctors had low status in Rome. However the state paid public doctors to treat

them poor.

Ancient Rome made contribution into military medicine. Constant roman

army waged war and needed in doctors-professionals. Each cohort consisted from

1000 soldiers and 4 surgeons. The Romans also had hospitals called valetudinarian

for their wounded soldiers.

Medical business was developed together with military medicine. Authority

established places of profit of doctors – arkhiatrs. Their duties were teaching

medicine in special schools in Rome, Alexandria and other towns. Besides state

schools there were private schools. Great one was school founded by Asclepiad.

With time doctor‘s position became consolidate. They had many rights and

privileges. During the war doctors and their sons were excused from compulsory

military service, and that attracted many foreign doctors. To the end of II B.C.

39

there were doctors of eyes, tooth, and surgeries in Ancient Rome. They made

herniotomy and lithotomy.

The Romans borrowed their medicine largely from the Greeks whom they had

conquered. While the politics of the world became Roman, medicine remained

Greek.

Philosophy of Lucrecius. Medical system of Asclepiad

World outlook of ancient Romans had influence of Greek philosophy.

Atomistic teaching, created by Greek philosophers – materialists Levkipius,

Democritus and Epicure, found their expression in poem of Titus Lucrecius Car

“About things’ nature”, there he gave characteristics of some illnesses, described

infectious diseases, etc.

He paid attention on spread infection from water, food and other things; he

outlined first ways of contagious concepts of transmission of infection.

Epicure teaching and Lucrecius looks had influence on Asclepiad from

Bithynia. His rule was: “treat safely, quickly and pleasantly”. His treating methods

were: diet, hygiene, massage, water treatment and moving.

From school of Lucrecius was Soran from Effess (II B.C.). He wrote the

biggest work on obstetrics, gynecology and pediatrics in ancient medicine.

Celsus (about 25-30 B.C. to 45-50 A.D.) is the only Roman who worked with

distinction in the medical field, but it is doubtful whether he was a physician. His

work, “About medicine” "De re medica libri viii", which is written in classical

Latin, and for which he used seventy-two works lost to posterity, gives a survey of

medical science from Hippocrates to imperial times. Very famous is his description

lithotomy. He wrote about hygiene, dyetetics, pathology, therapy and surgery.

Celsus was altogether forgotten until the fifteenth century, when Pope Nicholas V

(1447-1455) is said to have discovered a manuscript of his works.

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Galen - doctor and naturalist

One of the most influential people of ancient medicine was Galen. Departure

from the Hippocratic observation of nature led physicians to form numerous

mutually opposing sects. A man of great industry and comprehensive knowledge,

Galen of Pergamum (130-200 A.D.), tried to rescue medical science from this

labyrinth. He was from family of architect. Since 17 years he devoted himself to

medicine. He knew many languages (Greek, Latin, Persian and others), and

traveled a lot.

Galen- was an author of 125 medicine works, only 80 retained till our time.

There were “About purposes of human body parts”, “Therapeutic ways”, “About

anatomy”, etc.

Dualism of Galen displayed in his hesitation between materialism and

idealism.

Materialistic position was in his researches in anatomy and physiology.

Dissection of dead bodies was forbidden by religion in Alexandria, so Galen

anatomized monkeys, pigs, dogs, etc. He described bones, muscles, chords,

internal organs, and his great contribution to research of nervous system.

He correctly described structures of heart, vessels. But he thought heart

partition was permeable.

Galen had drug store; there was laboratory (officina) for preparing medicines.

He introduced into practice regulation for preparing medicine from plants: weight

and volume of materials, proportions and extragents.

Galen took the entire anatomical knowledge of his time, and out of it produced

a work the substance of which was for centuries regarded as inviolable. His

anatomy was to a large extent based upon the dissection of mammals, especially of

monkeys, and, like his physiology, was under teleological influence. Instead of

explaining the functions of organs on the basis of their structure, Galen chose this

reverse method. His anatomy and physiology were the most vulnerable part of his

system, and an earnest re-examination of these fields must necessarily have shaken

41

his entire scheme of teaching. Galen expressed the greatest respect for

Hippocrates, published his most important works with explanatory notes, but never

entered into the spirit of the school of Cos, although he adopted many of its

doctrines.

Galen is the culminating point and end of ancient Greek medical science. He

produced the concepts of anatomy, physiology, therapeutics, and philosophy. He

distinguished seven pairs of cranial nerves, described the valves of the heart, and

observed the structural differences between arteries and veins. One of his most

important demonstrations was that the arteries carry blood, not air, as had been

taught for 400 years. His vivisection experiments were also very notable. Such

experiments included performing a series of transactions of the spinal cord to

establish the functions of the spinal nerves, and tying off the ureters to demonstrate

kidney and bladder functions.

Galen and many other physicians used many tools in their practice. The most

interesting thing about these tools and procedures is that many of them have the

same names and uses today. His merits were either in making new medicinal

preparations, as in their theoretical substantiations. In the The Middle Ages

prominent scientists Paracelsus called whole group of medicinal preparations and

institutions in honor of Galen.

Galen correctly described that he saw, but he wrong interpreted getting results.

This was a dualism of Galen.

Galen was a prominent doctor of world; he was in one row with Hippocrates

and Abu Ali Ibn Sina.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Афоризмы Гиппократа // Твое здоровье. - 1996. - N4. -С.130 – 143.

2. Гиппократ. Избранные книги /пер. с греч. Под ред. В.П. Карпова.- М.:

Биомедгиз, 1936. -736с.

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3. Георгадзе В.И. Эмблемы медицины / В.И. Георгадзе, Э.Д. Грибанов. -

Тбилиси, 1979. - 112с.

4. Грибанов Э.Д. Источники изучения истории медицины и здра-

воохранения /ЭД Грибанов. -М., 1980. - 19с.

5. История Древней Греции: Учеб.для вузов по спец. "История"

/ Под ред.В.И. Кузищина: - М.: Высш. шк., 1986. - 381с.

6. История медицины / П.Е. Заблудовский, Г.Р. Крючок, М.К. Кузьмин,

М.М. Левит. - М.: Медицина, 1987. - 352 с.

7. Лисицын Ю.П. История медицины /Ю.П. Лисицын. - М.: ГЭОТАР-МЕД,

2004. -393 с.

8. Медицина в поэзии греков и римлян/Сост.Ю.Ф.Шульц. - М.:Медицина,

1987. - 128с.

9. Мультановский М.П. История медицины / М.П. Мультановский. - М.:

Медицина, 1967. - 272 с.

10.Сорокина Т.С. Медицина в рабовладельческих государствах

Средиземноморья /Т.С. Сорокина. - М., 1987. - 97с.

11. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины: Учебник для студ. высш. мед. учеб.

заведений / Т.С. Сорокина. – 4-е изд., стер.- М.: «Академия», 2005.-560с.

12. Семенченко В.Ф. История фармации: Учебное пособие / В.Ф.

Семенченко.- М.:«МарТ»; Ростов н/Д: «МарТ», 2003.- 640 с.

4. MEDICINE DURING THE PERIOD OF FEUDALISM IN THE

COUNTRIES OF EAST AND WESTERN EUROPE

Epoch’s characteristics

Materialistic notion about history includes obligatory consistent historism that

is to study of social phenomena in the process of its development. Feudal system

had been established in different time in different countries. In 476 Western Roman

43

Empire fall down by rush of barbarian German tribes. This date is considered de

bene esse as beginning of the Middle Ages and feudalism in Europe.

Feudal system was formed earlier in East countries: China – in IIIc., Caucasian

countries – in IVc. , Byzantine and countries of Middle Asia - in VIIc. , Russia –

in IXc.

Feudal epoch had division into three periods. First period (V – XI) was early

The Middle Ages, economics was concentrated in villages. Second period (XI –

XV) was period of developed feudalism, significance of towns – centers of trade

and handicraft. Third period (XV - XVII) was period of feudal decomposition and

origin of capitalistic elements. The end of The Middle Ages was a time of first

bourgeois revolutions and the main one was in England (1640 – 1649) That is why

1640 year was symbolized the beginning of new time and epoch of capitalism in

Europe.

Making of world religions – Christianity and Islam - had grave consequences.

Church influenced on all sphere of life.

With the fall of the Roman Empire, the medical schools established in Roman

times also disappeared. Europe was ravaged by disease and pestilence: plague,

smallpox, leprosy and tuberculosis. The practice of medicine reverted back to

primitive medicine dominated by superstition and dogma. Rejection of the body

and glorification of the spirit became the accepted pattern of behavior. It was

regarded as immoral to see one's body; consequently, people seldom bathed.

Dissection of the human body was prohibited. Medicine developed in difficult and

contradictory conditions.

Medicine in Byzantine Empire

Byzantine medicine is the medicine practiced in the Byzantine Empire from

about 400 A.D. to 1453 A.D. It drew largely on Ancient Greek and Roman

knowledge. However, Medicine was also one of the few sciences in which the

44

Byzantines improved on their Greco-Roman predecessors. The Byzantine

civilization has significant place in world history. It was the center of bright culture

within ten centuries. The history of Byzantine Empire began from the reign of

Constantine I the Great, (306 – 337); he was revered under the title "The Great" for

his contributions to Christianity. Emperor Constantine proclaimed Christianity the

state religion. In 324, Constantine announced his decision to transform Byzantium

into Nova Roma and on May 11, 330, he officially proclaimed the city the new

capital of the Roman Empire. The city was renamed Constantinople (modern

Stambul), The City of Constantine, after Constantine's death in 337. It would

remain the capital of the Byzantine Empire for over a thousand years, a reign

interrupted only briefly by its 1204 sacking and occupation in the Fourth Crusade,

until it finally fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

30 palaces and temples, more than 4 thousand buildings for nobility, two

theatres, a circus, a hippodrome, more than 150 bath-houses and 8 aqueducts have

been constructed during the reign of Constantine I.

Byzantine culture united cultural achievements of all people. One of

achievement was creation of Slavic alphabet – Cyrillic alphabet in IX. Alphabet’s

authors were brothers Cyril and Mefody.

An important contribution of Byzantium is arguably the fact that it was the first

Empire in which dedicated medical establishments - usually set up by individual

Churches or the State, which parallel modern Hospitals in many way, flourished.

Although similar establishments existed in Ancient Greece and Rome, they

differed in that they were usually either institutions for Military use, or places were

citizens went to die in a more peaceful way. Medical Institutions of this sort were

common in Imperial Cities such as Constantinople and later Thessaloniki.

The first hospital was built by Basil of Caesarea in the 370, and although these

Institutions flourished, it was only throughout the VIII - IX c.c. that they began to

appear in Provincial Towns as well as Cities, (although Justinian's subsidization of

private physicians to work publicly for six months of the year can be seen as the

45

real breakthrough point). Byzantine Medicine was entirely based around Hospitals

or walk-in dispensaries which formed part of the Hospital complex, there was a

dedicated hierarchy including the Chief Physician (archiatroi), professional nurses

(hypourgoi) and the orderlies (hyperetai).

Doctors themselves were well trained and most likely attended the University

of Constantinople as Medicine had become a truly scholarly subject by the period

of Byzantium (despite the prominence of the great physicians of antiquity, its

status as a Science was greatly improved through its application in formal

education (particularly in the University of Constantinople. Thus, we know that in

the twelfth century, Constantinople had two well organized hospitals staffed by

medical specialists (including women doctors), with special wards for various

types of diseases and systematic methods of treatment. Drug-stores also were

appeared in Byzantine Empire.

Byzantine physicians often compiled and standardized medical knowledge into

textbooks. These books tended to be elaborately decorated with many fine

illustrations, highlighting the particular ailment. Oribasius (325 – 403) perhaps the

greatest Byzantine compiler of medical knowledge, frequently made revisions

noting where older methods had been incorrect. Several of his works, along with

many other Byzantine physicians, were translated into Latin. His famous medical

encyclopedic work was “Sinopsis” in 70 volumes. Doctors Aetius and Alexander

of Tralles as well as Paul of Aegina were encyclopedists and they gathered and

systematized the heritage of ancient medicine. The Medical Compendium in Seven

Books, written by the leading physician Paul of Aegina, is of particular

importance. The compendium was written in the late seventh century and remained

in use as a standard textbook for 800 years.

Bizantine stopped its existence as state when Turkish army captured

Constantinople and came into the territory of the Ottoman Empire in 1453.

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For 10 centuries of the history Byzantium not only has kept and systematized

the antique heritage, but also has created original medieval culture which rendered

big influence on development of culture of many world nations.

Medicine in Arabian caliphates

The political structure of the Islamic states in the Middle East, North Africa,

and Spain was called the caliphate; the term is from the Arabic word for "successor."

The caliphs were successors of Muhammad, the founder of Islam, who died in 632

A.D. Arab conquests that began soon after Muhammad's death incorporated vast

territories into the realm of Islam within a few decades.

In the beginning of VII c. Arabs populated in west part of Arabian

Peninsula, had formed religion Islam, had organized Islamic state, which became

great feudal empire – Caliphate because of Arabian conquests.

First stage of conquest was in VIIc. States- Syria, Palestine, Iran, Egypt,

Cyprus and territories of Armenia and Georgia were included into part of Caliphate.

In the outcome of second conquest (end of VII c. и 30th years of VIII c.)

there were conquered North Africa, the biggest part of Pyrenean Peninsula, Asia

Minor and Caucasus. Borders of caliphates were from Atlantic Ocean to Hind, from

Asia Minor to North Africa. The armies of Islam set out from the Arabian Peninsula

to make conquests in nearly every direction. At its height the Muslim empire

stretched across North Africa and up into Spain, while eastward it incorporated the

entire Near East and extended into India. Caliphate exceeded in its size Empire of

Alexander Macedonian and Great Roman Empire.

Arabian culture influenced other countries of Asia, Africa, Europe and made

great contribution into world culture.

Medicine had got high development, according to prophet, knowledge

consisted from two parts: knowledge of religion and knowledge of body, i.e.

medicine.

47

During the eight centuries Arabian medicine hold a main place in

Mediterranean region. It kept and returned in improved type to Europe all important

knowledge of that time.

The greatest contribution of Arabs, in general, was in the field of

pharmacology. Seeking the "elixir of life", they developed pharmaceutical

chemistry, introducing a large number of drugs, herbal and chemical. Pioneers in

pharmacology, they invented the art of writing prescriptions, an art inherited by our

modern pharmacists.

They introduced a wide range of syrups, oils, poultices, plasters, pills,

powders, alcoholates and aromatic waters. The words drug, alcohol, syrup and sugar

are all Arabian.

Muslim physicians set up the earliest dedicated hospitals in the modern

sense, known as Bimaristans, which were establishments where the ill were

welcomed and cared for by qualified staff, and which were clearly distinguished

from the ancient healing temples, sleep temples, hospices, assylums, lazarets and

leper-houses which were more concerned with isolating the sick and the mad from

society "rather than to offer them any way to a true cure." The Bimaristan hospitals

later functioned as the first public hospitals, psychiatric hospitals and diploma-

granting medical universities.

Hospitals in the Islamic world featured competency tests for doctors, drug

purity regulations, nurses and interns, and advanced surgical procedures. Hospitals

were also created with separate wards for specific illnesses, so that people with

contagious diseases could be kept away from other patients. One of the features in

medieval Muslim hospitals that distinguished them from their contemporaries and

predecessors was their significantly higher standards of medical ethics. Hospitals in

the Islamic world treated patients of all religions, ethnicities, and backgrounds,

while the hospitals themselves often employed staff from Christian, Jewish and

other minority backgrounds. Muslim doctors and physicians were expected to have

obligations towards their patients, regardless of their wealth or backgrounds. The

48

ethical standards of Muslim physicians was first laid down in the 9th century by

Ishaq bin Ali Rahawi, who wrote the Adab al-Tabib (Conduct of a Physician), the

first treatise dedicated to medical ethics. He regarded physicians as "guardians of

souls and bodies", and wrote twenty chapters on various topics related to medical

ethics.

Dissection was prohibited by religion, but doctors – Muslims contributed a

lot of to anatomy and surgery development. Investigating of animals eye structure,

Egyptian doctor Ibn- al-Haisam (965 – 1039), who was the first explained beam

refraction in eyes and gave names to the parts (cornea, lens). Arabian school of

ophthalmology influenced till the XVIIc.

Ibn Nafis (d. 1288) described human blood circulation. This discovery

would be rediscovered, or perhaps merely demonstrated, by William Harvey in

1628, who generally receives the credit in Western history.

Big significance had questions on personal and general hygiene, rational

nourishments and dietetics.

Great scientists of East – Ar-Razi, Al-Farabi,

Al-Biruni, Abu Ali Ibn Cina

The Islamic World rose to primacy in medical science with such thinkers as

Ar- Razi (Rhazes), Al-Farabi, Al-Biruni, Ibn Sina (Avicenna).

Abu Bakr Muhammad Ibn Zakariya Ar-Razi (known in the west as Rhazes)

was the greatest physician of Islam and the Medieval Ages. He remained up to the

XVII c. the undisputable authority of medicine.

Ar-Razi was born at Ray near modern Tehran in 850. It is said that early in

his life al-Razi was interested in singing and music besides other professions.

Because of his eagerness for knowledge, he became more interested in the study of

alchemy and chemistry, philosophy, logic, mathematics and physics. It was the field

of medicine that he spent most of his life, practicing it, studying and writing about it.

49

Due to his fame in medicine he was appointed head of the physicians of the Ray

Hospital, and later put in charge of the Baghdad main Hospital during the reign of the

Adhud-Daulah.

An interesting episode of Al-Razi's remarkable method of choosing the right

spot for the Baghdad main hospital is described as follows. When Adhud Daulah

asked Al-Razi to build a hospital, he had pieces of fresh meat placed at various parts

of the city of Baghdad. Some time later, he checked each piece to find out which one

was less rotten than the others, and he chose the spot of the least rotten pieces of meat

a site for the hospital.

The greatest medical work of Ar-Razi, and perhaps the most extensive ever

written by a medical man, is al-Hawi, i.e., the "Comprehensive Book," which

includes indeed Greek, Syrian, and early Arabic medical knowledge in their

entirety. Throughout his life Ar-Razi must have collected extracts from all the

books available to him on medicine. In his last years, he combined these with his

medical experience into an enormous twenty five volume medical encyclopedia.

Al-Rhazi was the first to distinguish between smallpox and measles. Rhazes

became the first physician to systematically use alcohol, cotton in his practice as a

physician.

Abu Nasir Muhammad ibn Tarkhan ibn Uzlagh al-Farabi, Al -Farabi (870 –

950) was the great scientist – encyclopedists , philosopher who introduced Plato

and Aristotle to Muslim philosophy. He was born in Farab in Asia Minor (modern

Otrar) He was schooled in the towns of Farab and Bukhara, before continuing his

studies of Greek philosophy in Hanan and Baghdad. Al –Farabi knew 70 languages

and traveled widely throughout the Arabian kingdoms of Persia, Egypt, and Asia

Minor.

He made great contributions to astronomy, logic, music, mathematics,

sociology and ethics, philosophy and justice, medicine and psychology.

Al-Farabi had great influence on science and philosophy for several

centuries, and was widely regarded to be second only to Aristotle in knowledge

50

(alluded to by his title of "the Second Teacher"). He got title of “The Second

teacher” in Baghdad, political and cultural centre of that time.

He was author of more than 200 philosophical works. Treatises about

medicine were “About organs of human body”, “About soul”, “About objection

Galen in occasion of its disagreements with Aristotle concerning to organs of human

body”, “About Diseases of gastrointestinal tract and other diseases”. In his treatment

of the human soul, al-Farabi draws on a basic Aristotelian outline, which is informed

by the commentaries of later Greek thinkers. He says it is composed of four faculties:

The appetitive (the desire for, or aversion to an object of sense), the sensitive (the

perception by the senses of corporeal substances), the imaginative (the faculty which

retains images of sensible objects after they have been perceived, and then separates

and combines them for a number of ends), and the rational, which is the faculty of

intellection. It is the last of these which is unique to human beings and distinguishes

them from plants and animals. It is also the only part of the soul to survive the death

of the body.

Al-Farabi's treatise “Meanings of the Intellect” dealt with music therapy, where

he discussed the therapeutic effects of music on the soul.

He died in Damascus in 950 at the age of 80. Al-Farabi's work greatly

influenced the Islamic philosophers who followed him. Al-Farabi was world man, he

brought together and systematized achievements of Arabian, Persian, Greek, Indian

and his own Turks culture.

Al-Biruni (973-1048) was astronomer, geographer, ethnographer and historian.

He knew Greek, Arabian, Syrian, and Sanskrit languages. He worked in Kat, capital

of Horesmshah’s state. Al – Biruni wrote fundamental works devoted to

pharmacology, astronomy, medicine such as “Chronology”, “Pharmacology”,

“Mineralogy”, “Pharmacognosy”.

“Pharmacgnosy” was one manuscript which discovered in 1927 in Brucc and

valuable monument in East.

51

The great philosopher and doctor Ibn Sina (also known as Avicenna in the

western world) was another influential figure. His The Canon of Medicine, sometimes

considered the most famous book in the history of medicine, remained a standard text

in Europe up until its Age of Enlightenment and the renewal of the Islamic tradition of

scientific medicine.

He was born in Persia around 980 in Afshana, in Bukhara province, his

mother's home, a small city now part of Uzbekistan.

About 100 treatises were ascribed to Ibn Sina. Some of them are tracts of a

few pages, there are works extending through several volumes. The best-known

among them, and that to which Ibn Sina owed his European reputation, is his 5-

volume “The Canon of Medicine”, which was a standard medical text in Europe

and the Islamic world up until the XVIII c. The book is known for its introduction

of systematic experimentation and quantification into the study of physiology, the

discovery of contagious diseases and sexually transmitted diseases, the

introduction of quarantine to limit the spread of infectious diseases, the

introduction of experimental medicine, clinical trials, neuropsychiatry, risk factor

analysis, and the idea of a syndrome in the diagnosis of specific diseases, and

hypothesized the existence of microorganisms. It classifies and describes diseases,

and outlines their assumed causes. Hygiene, simple and complex medicines, and

functions of parts of the body are also covered. In this, Ibn Sīnā is credited as being

the first to correctly document the anatomy of the human eye, along with

descriptions of eye afflictions such as cataracts. It asserts that tuberculosis was

contagious, which was later disputed by Europeans, but turned out to be true. It

also describes the symptoms and complications of diabetes. Both forms of facial

paralysis were described in-depth. “The Canon of Medicine” was the first book

dealing with experimental medicine, evidence-based medicine, randomized

controlled trials, and efficacy tests, and it laid out the following rules and

principles for testing the effectiveness of new drugs and medications, which still

form the basis of clinical pharmacology and modern clinical trials:

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1. "The drug must be free from any extraneous accidental quality."

2. "It must be used on a simple, not a composite, disease."

3. "The drug must be tested with two contrary types of diseases, because

sometimes a drug cures one disease by its essential qualities and another by

its accidental ones."

4. "The quality of the drug must correspond to the strength of the disease. For

example, there are some drugs whose heat is less than the coldness of certain

diseases, so that they would have no effect on them."

5. "The time of action must be observed, so that essence and accident are not

confused."

6. "The effect of the drug must be seen to occur constantly or in many cases,

for if this did not happen, it was an accidental effect."

7. "The experimentation must be done with the human body, for testing a drug

on a lion or a horse might not prove anything about its effect on man."

First book contained medicine definition, anatomical and general

knowledge, health and treatment of diseases. Second book was devoted to simple

drugs and its action. Third book was about pathology and therapy, description of

some diseases and ways of its treatment. Surgery and fever were described in fourth

book. There were compound medicinal substances and antidote in fifth book.

“The Canon of Medicine” became the text book for medical education in the

schools of Europe. Scientists of Arabian Caliphates and Asia Minor influenced on

development of medicine in all world.

Medicine in Western Europe

In 476 the last Roman emperor Romul Augustul was decrowned. This date

designated the downfall of slave owning epoch in Europe and beginning of new

epoch – feudalism.

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Church was the main institution in feudal epoch. Christian church was

unified till the middle of XIc., then it was broken up into west (Catholic) and east

(Orthodox) in 1054.

First hospitals (co-called God’s houses) were attached to monasteries in

Western Europe. God’s houses appeared in Lion (VI c.) and Paris (VII c.) then

hospital of Saint Bartholomew in London (XII c.). Monks cultivated medical

plants, made room for its keeping. Connecting of religion and medicine put the

brakes on the scientific thought.

In the Middle Ages medicine was dominated by the ideas of Galen and the

theory of the four humours. Medieval scholiasts forget his many experimental

achievements in anatomy and physiology while weak points of his study about

pneuma, supernatural powers was rise to religious dogma and it became standard

of scholastic medicine. It aroused galenism – corrupt, one-sided understanding of

Galen’s study.

Furthermore outside many towns were leper 'hospitals' (really just hostels as

nothing could be done for the patients). Leprosy was a dreadful skin disease.

Anyone who caught it was an outcast. They had to wear clothes that covered their

whole body. They also had to ring a bell or a wooden clacker to warn people they

were coming. Fortunately leprosy grew less common in the XV c. and it died out

in Britain in the XVI c. In the The Middle Ages only monasteries had sanitation.

Streams provided clean water. Dirty water was used to clear toilets, which were in

a separate room. Monks also had a room called a laver where they washed their

hands before meals. However for most people sanitation was non-existent. In

castles the toilet was simply a long passage built into the thickness of the walls.

Often it emptied into the castle moat. Despite the lack of public health many towns

had public bath-houses were you could pay to have a bath.

The Black Death (bubonic plague with pulmonary infection), originating in

Eastern Asia, passed through India to Asia Minor, Arabia, Egypt, Northern Africa,

and directly to Europe by the Black Sea. In Europe the epidemic began in 1346,

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and spread first of all in the maritime cities of Italy (especially Genoa) and Sicily,

in 1347 it appeared in Constantinople, Cyprus, Greece, Malta, Sardinia and

Corsica, and, towards the end of the year, at Marseilles; in 1348 in Spain, Southern

France (Avignon), Paris, the Netherlands, Italy, Southern England and London,

Scbleswig-Holstein and Norway, and in December, in Dalmatia and Jutland; in

1349 in the Austrian Alpine countries, Vienna, and Poland; in 1350 in Russia,

where in 1353 the last traces disappeared on the shores of the Black Sea. First

quarantines were introduced in seaports of Italy in 1348.

In the XIII c. a new type of craftsmen emerged in towns. He (or she because

not all were male) was the barber-surgeon. They cut hair, they pulled teeth and

they performed simple operations such as amputations and setting broken bones.

However doctors looked down on barber-surgeons because they did manual

work. Therefore they were regarded as inferior to doctors who did not.

In the late XI c. a medical school was founded in Salerno in Italy. In the XII

c. another was founded at Montpellier. In the XIII c. more universities were

founded at Bologna, Padua, Neapol, Oxford, Paris and etc. Furthermore many

students studied medicine in European universities. Medicine became a profession

again. But it had dogmatic features.

Bologna has stained incomparable glory from the fact that Mondino de

Liucci (about 1275-1326), the reviver of anatomy, taught there. There, for the first

time since the Alexandrian period (nearly 1500 years), he dissected a human

corpse, and wrote a treatise on anatomy based upon personal observation - a work

which, for nearly two and a half centuries, remained the official textbook of the

universities. Although Mondino's work which appeared in 1316, contains many

defects and errors, if nevertheless marked an advance and incited men to further

investigation. Text book on surgery by Guy de Chauliac (XIV c.) was wide spread

in Western Europe.

Medicine of medieval Europe developed in difficult and negative conditions.

Nevertheless in depths future medicine of Renaissance became generated.

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Medicine development during the period of Renaissance

Medicine of the Renaissance era in Europe was from around 1400 to around

1750. The Renaissance marked a change of direction for medical knowledge and

practice following the stagnation of medieval medicine in the preceding period. A

rebirth of interest in the pursuit of new knowledge and scientific enquiry began,

similar to that found in ancient Greek medicine. The known world expanded for

Europeans, as they discovered the Americas and explored the continents of Asia

and Africa, making contact with new peoples and civilizations. New medicinal

plants and treatments were brought back to Europe and new technologies such as

the microscope emerged, influencing medical development. The spirit of discovery

encouraged scientific research that overturned the traditional practices of the

Middle Ages, which had been based on the classical teachings of Egypt, Greece,

and Rome.

During the XVIc. there were some improvements in medicine. However it

remained basically the same as in the Middle Ages. Medicine was still dominated

by the theory of the four humours.

From the time of Mondino, anatomy had been diligently cultivated at the

universities, especially in Italy. Anatomy made special progress because of the

artists. Thus Raphael Sanzio (1488-1520) already makes use of the human skeleton

when making his sketches, so as to give his figures the proper posture. We possess

numerous anatomical descriptions and sketches by Leonardo Da Vinci . Leonardo

Da Vinci (1452-1519) dissected some human bodies and made accurate drawings

of what he saw. The great Michelangelo (1475-1564) left sketches of the muscles

and in 1495, in the monastery of Santo Spirito at Florence, made studies for a

picture of the Crucified with cadavers as models.

Big influence on development of natural science had activity of English

philosopher F. Beckon (1561 – 1626) – forefather of English materialism and

modern experimental science.

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René Descartes (1596-1650) was a highly influential French philosopher,

mathematician, scientist, and writer. He made sketches of reflex arch, divided

nerves into centripetal and centrifugal. He considered that all life movement

subordinated to laws of mechanics.

In 1478 a book by the Roman doctor Celsus was printed. (The printing press

made all books including medical ones much cheaper). The book by Celsus

quickly became a standard textbook. However in the early 16th century a man

named Theophrastus von Hohenheim called himself Paracelsus (meaning "equal to

or greater than Celsus", a Roman encyclopedist from the first century known for

his tract on medicine). Theophrastus Aureolus Bombastus von Hohenheim (1493-

1541), was born in Einsiedeln, Switzerland. He denounced all medical teaching not

based on experiment and experience. However traditional ideas held sway for long

afterwards.

In 1506 he went to the University of Basle; from Trithemius he learned

chemistry and metallurgy in the smelting houses at Schwaz (Tyrol), and he visited

the principal universities of Italy and France. In 1526 he became town physician of

Basle, and could as such give lectures. His first appearance is characteristic of him.

He publicly burned the works of Avicenna and Galen and showed respect only to

the "Aphorisms" of Hippocrates. He was the first to give lectures in the German

language. But as early as 1528, he was compelled, on account of the hostility he

evoked, to leave Basle secretly. After this he travelled through various countries

working constantly at his numerous writings, until death overtook him at Salzburg

in 1541.

He considered illnesses were abnormity of organism, i.e. simple chemical

violation of balance, and chemical remedies and means could help to restore the

balance. Human is created from earth and he consists from incombustible and

refractory substances: sulfur, mercury, and salt (chemical theory of Paracelsus).

Main task of chemistry was making drugs, he thought. He used many chemical

drugs for treatment. His popular expressions were: “All is poison and all is

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medicine. Only one doze makes substance either poison or medicine”, “Theory of

doctor is experiment. Nobody can be doctor without science and experiment”.

Andreas Vesalius (1514 – 1564), studied at Louvain, Montpellier and Paris,

then became imperial field-surgeon. His eagerness to learn went so far that he stole

corpses from the gallows to work on at night in his room. He soon became

convinced of the weakness and falsity of the anatomy of Galen. His anatomical

demonstrations on the cadaver, which he performed in several cities and which

attracted attention, soon earned him a call to Padua where he had recently

graduated and where, with some interruptions, he taught from 1539 to 1546. His

chief work, “On the Workings of the Human Body” or "De corporis humani fabrica

libri vii", which appeared at Basle in 1543, brought him great fame. Vesalius is the

founder of scientific anatomy and of the technique of modern dissection. The work

emphasized the priority of dissection and what has come to be called the

"anatomical" view of the body — seeing human internal functioning as an

essentially corporeal structure filled with organs arranged in three-dimensional

space. It contained accurate diagrams of a human body. Unfortunately, he himself

destroyed a part of his manuscripts on learning that his enemies intended to submit

his work to ecclesiastical censure. While engaged on a pilgrimage, he received

word in Jerusalem of his reappointment as professor in Padua, but he was

shipwrecked in Zant and died there in great need on 15 October, 1564.

In the XVIc. – the beginning of XVII c. there were many doctors-

anatomists: Fallopii, Eustacchi, Bottalo, Fabricio, etc. Their names introduced in

anatomical terms.

Galen's theory, according to which the left heart and the arteries contained

air, the blood being generated in the liver, had long been regarded as improbable,

but in spite of every effort no one had as yet discovered the truth about circulation.

The solution of this problem, which brought about complete fall of Galen's system

and a revolution in physiology, came from the English physician William Harvey

of Folkstone (1578-1657). His work is “Anatomical research about heart and blood

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in animals”. Harvey's discovery published in 1628, that the heart is the centre of

the circulation of the blood must return to the heart, at first received scant notice

and was even directly opposed by Galen's adherents; but further investigation soon

made truth victorious.

A new field of investigation was opened by the invention of the microscope

(the end of the XVIc.), by which Marcello Malpighi (1628-1694) discovered the

smaller blood-vessels and the blood corpuscles. From Harvey's time starts a series

of important anatomists and physiologist. In 1658 Jan Swammerdan first observed

red blood corpuscles. Then in 1665 Robert Hooke was the first person to describe

cells in his book “Micrographia”.

Finally in 1683 Antoine van Leeuwenhock (1632-1723) observed

microorganisms. He made more than 200 microscopes, which increased to 270

times. However he did not realize microorganisms caused disease.

Girolamo Fracastoro (1478- 1553) was an Italian physician, scholar (in

mathematics, geography and astronomy), poet and atomist.

In 1546 he proposed that epidemic diseases are caused by transferable tiny

particles or "spores" that could transmit infection by direct or indirect contact or

even without contact over long distances. In his writing, the "spores" of disease

may refer to chemicals rather than to any living entities. His book (De contagione

- "On Contagion") also gave the first description for typhus. The name for syphilis

is derived from Fracastoro's 1530 epic poem in three books, Syphilis sive morbus

gallicus ("Syphilis or The French Disease"), about a shepherd named Syphilus. The

poem suggests using mercury and "guaiaco" as a cure. The collected works of

Fracastoro appeared for the first time in 1555.

Doctor Montano (1489 – 1552) resumed clinical study in Padua University.

The activity of the physician was mainly to assist "nature". Hermann

Boerhave (1668-1738), the most famous practitioner of his time, who in 1720

became clinical professor at Leyden. He tried to explain most physiological

processes as purely mechanical.

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The French field-surgeon Ambroise Paré (1510 -1590) was famous for a

marked change in the treatment of gunshot wounds and arterial hemorrhage. He

abandoned the Arabic method of work with a red-hot knife, declared that

supposedly poisoned gunshot wounds were simple contused wounds, and

proceeded to bandage them without using hot oil. He was the first to employ the

ligature in the case of arterial hemorrhage. He improved technology of amputation,

herniotomy and tracheotomy. Pare also designed artificial limbs.

European doctors contributed in the field of stomatology. Italian doctor

Chigovanni Archoli propagandized ten rules on teeth care after meal. Since XVc.

in England the barber-surgeon cut hair and pulled teeth. The Chinese invented the

toothbrush. (It was first mentioned in 1498). Toothbrushes arrived in Europe in the

XVII c. In the late XVII c. they became popular with the wealthy in England.

The Middle Ages made great contribution into cultural history of mankind.

It was not only earlier bourgeois culture of Italian Renaissance and humanistic

world outlook in Western Europe of XVI c., but also Byzantine music and icon

painting, Hellenistic novel, Arabian medicine and many other heritages. Cultural

horizon became extend. World unity was more notable.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Абдуллаев К. Этюды о казахской традиционной медицине /К. Абдуллаев //

Казахстанский фармацевтический вестник. - 2002. - N 7. - С.8.

2. Аль - Фараби. Естественно - научные трактаты: Пер. с арабского. - Алма -

Ата: Наука, 1987. - 496с.

3. Арнольд из Виллановы. Салернский кодекс здоровья: Пер. с латин. - М.:

Медицина, 1964. - 136с.

4. Воскобойников В.М. Великий врачеватель. Авиценна: жизнеописание /

В.М. Воскобойников. - 2-е изд. - М.: Мол.гвардия, 1980. - 206с.

5. История медицины / П.Е. Заблудовский, Г.Р. Крючок, М.К. Кузьмин,

М.М. Левит. - М.: Медицина, 1987. - 352 с.

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6. Кубесов А. Педагогическое наследие Аль – Фараби / А. Кубесов. - Алма -

Ата: Мектеп, 1989. - 152с.

7. Лисицын Ю.П.История медицины / Ю.П. Лисицын. - М.: ГЭОТАР-МЕД,

2004. -393 с.

8. Ошанин Л.И. Талисман Авиценны: Роман в балладах / Л.И. Ошанин. -

Ташкент: Литература и искусство, 1980.- 112с.

9. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины: Учебник для студ. высш. мед. учеб.

заведений / Т.С. Сорокина. – 4-е изд., стер.- М.: «Академия», 2005.-560с.

10. Ястребицкая А.Л. Западная Европа XI-XIII веков / А.Л. Ястребицкая. -М.:

Искусство, 1987.-176с.

5. MEDICINE DEVELOPMENT IN CAPITALISM EPOCH IN WESTERN

EUROPE. MEDICINE DEVELOPMENT IN RUSSIA

5.1. Medicine development in Western Europe

Epoch’s characteristics

Historically in comparison with previous formations capitalist mode

of production developed earlier in the countries of Western Europe, there were first

bourgeois revolutions: the Netherlands (1566 - 1609), England (1640-1649), and

France (1789 - 1794). Revolutions in England and France were revolutions of

European scale and proclaimed victory of new social order. On level with

precapitalist relations there was other: feudal, slave-owning and yet kin-tribal.

Decomposition of feudal and development of capitalistic relations first of all

began in towns of Northern Italy, because of process of manufacturing origin and

increase. They became to speak about diseases of workers in industry. This new

question in medicine reflected in work of doctor from Padua B.Ramaccini (1633 -

1714) “About diseases of artisans”. Origin of industrial pathology marked the end

of feudal medicine. From XVII – XVIIIc. culture, science and medicine had

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features reflecting social-economic formation. Feudal medicine and prevalence of

religion stemmed the tide of natural science and medicine. But medical practice

and natural scientific thought promoted medicine development in capitalistic

society, in particular activity of scientist Hermann Boerhave (1668-1738), –

teaching of student and observing of patients near their beds.

French materialism of XVIII c. and its role

in dissemination of materialistic conception of disease

Capitalistic production felt necessity in development of mechanics, physics

and chemistry. Great influence upon their making had French materialism of

XVIIIc. which played role in ideological preparation for Great French bourgeois

revolution . Activities of doctors-materialists had big significance in medicine: A.

Lerua (1598-1679), J. LaMetree (1709-1751) and P. Cabanisue (1757-1808). C.

Marx wrote in his “Holy family” that doctor Lerua began this school, doctor

Cabanisue – is climax, doctor La Metreue –is a centre of this school.

A. Lerua understood progressive discovery of Harvey and defended study

about blood circulation. He published the book “Physics’ founding” in the

Netherlands.

J. La Metreue was one of an instigator of French materialism. His main work

was “Human being - machine” (1747), there he proclaimed study’s program of

living processes by experimental ways. He fought for materialism and criticized

idealistic systems of XVIII c.

P. Cabanisue was eminent figure of French bourgeois revolution, participant

for reforming of hospital business and medical education in France. He paid

attention on process’ study of human thinking. He considered that brain is special

organ for thought’s production.

Great natural-scientific discoveries of

the second half of the ХVIII and the first half of the ХIХ centuries

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Big significance for development of dialectic views on nature and medicine

development had great natural-scientific discoveries of the second half of the

ХVIII and the first half of the ХIХ c., among them F. Engels marked out 3 main

discoveries: theory of cellular texture of living organisms, conservation of energy

and doctrine of evolution.

Scientists of the first half of the ХIХ c. investigated microscopically texture

of living organisms that promoted origin of teaching about cell.

Y. Purkyje (1787-1869) was founder of modern histology. He concluded

about commonness of primitive component elements of animals and plants.

M. Shleiden and T. Shwann made generalization of research about texture of

plant and animals and completion of new stage in development of cellular

teaching. They were discoverers of the cell as the fundamental element of the body

of plants and animals. They considered that cells of plant and animal descend from

living, microscopically anhistous mass.

T. Shwann’s introduction of definition of cell as elementary particle,

common for plant and animal organisms, was one from natural-scientific proofs of

unity of living nature. But if all multicellular organisms – plants, animals, human

grow from one cell according to the law of cell division, then whence are endless

varieties of these organisms? Answer on this question gave third great discovery –

theory of development, which was organically based by Ch. Darwin.

Second discovery was conservation of energy. Priority of discoveries of

these nature laws belong to M.V. Lomonosov (1711-1765). He formulated the laws

of conservation of matter and power. French chemist La Vuazeue (1743-1794),

knew about Lomonosov’s work, and gave the same results in 1773 as M.V.

Lomonosov. German scientist R. Mayer pointed out on connection between

mechanical work and heat. Englishman Joule confirmed experimentally and

determined mechanical heat equivalent. Thus, they discovered law of energy

change. Laws of conservation of matter, conservation of energy promoted

development of biology and medicine.

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Question about origin of organic world interested human thought.

Ch. Darwin (1809-1882) opened the reasons of variety and unity of organic

world, its adaptation to existing conditions in the XIX c. He created scientific,

materialistic theory of volatility species and succession among them. Main

regulations he said in book “About origin of species by natural selection, or

preservation of species in struggle for life” (1859). Darwin‘s theory was a powerful

incentive to progressive development of natural scientific thought.

Medicine development

The ХIХ c. was the period of consolidation and prosperity of capitalism for

European countries.

The ХIХ c. was rich for medicine: it was created new methods, discoveries.

Medicine was connected with natural science and techniques.

As the scientific founder of pathological anatomy was Giovanni Battista

Morgagni (1682-1771).

He became a medicine doctor in 19 years old, 24 years old he was a head of

anatomy department of Bologna University. From 1711 year he was head of

practical medicine in Padua.

He published in 1761 six-volume research "De sedibus et causis morborum

per anatomen indagatis" (“About location and causes of diseases, opening by

dissection”), usually contains, besides the results of post-mortem examinations, a

corresponding history of the diseases. He described in detail organ’s changes under

the influence of diseases. Brining anatomy and clinical medicine he started

clinical-anatomical principles and created first scientifically significance nosology.

Hi was conferred on diploma of science academy in Berlin, Paris, London and

Petersburg.

Important role in development of methods of physical research belong to

Vienna doctor L. Auenbrugger (1722-1809).

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In 1754, Leopold Auenbrugger developed a new technique of physical

examination, which he called percussion. He tapped on the chest with the

fingertips with the hand drawn closed, and noted of the sounds that were conveyed

to identify a site of abnormality. He referred to these "percussed" sounds as either

high pitched, muted or dull. Auenbrugger attributed his discovery to his boyhood

experience watching his father tapping to define the level of fluid in kegs. He

published his new technique and findings in a short monograph in 1761.

In 1761 he published work on Latin “New method: how by means of percussion of

chest to discover latent diseases”. In spite of importance of this discovery,

percussion shared fare of many great discoveries: it met with inimical. Doctors of

Vienna had thought he was mad and he was victimized. L. Auenbrugger spent

latest years of his life in mental hospital; there he died in 1809.

Percussion was not widely recognized until 1808, with the publication of

Jean Nicholas Corvisart's translation of the Auenbrugger treatise. Corvisart

annotated the text and turned a 49 page monograph into a 400 page book. Corvisart

(1755-1821) - was a prominent physician, of Napoleon Bonaparte and the teacher

of Laenneck. He was an adamant supporter of percussion and taught it to his

students. He was an initiator of clinic medicine in France. He could promote to

inculcation percussion as a diagnostic method.

Next important step in development of clinic medicine was opening of

auscultation. This merit belonged to French doctor Rene Teophill Giacint

Laenneck (1782-1826). He was pathologist, clinician and teacher in Medical

school in Paris.

The origin of this idea occurred when Laenneck saw some young children

playing near the Louvre listening to the ends of a long piece of wood that

transmitted the sounds of pin scratches. The next day, he rolled up a piece of paper,

tied it with a string, and listened to his patients' chests with it. Laenneck was a

carpenter and then built a 25 cm by 2.5 cm hollow wooden cylinder which he also

used to listen to the chest sounds of his patients. He later modified this cylinder to

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have detachable parts. He noted the various sounds that he heard and then

correlated them to the anatomical findings at their autopsies. He also used a solid

piece of wood to 'listen' to heart sounds. In February of 1818, he presented his

findings in a talk at the Academy de Medicine, later publishing his findings in his

work “About mediate auscultation”, 1819. Six years after he died from

tuberculosis.

Quick development of natural science was on boundaries of ХVIII-ХIХc.

French doctor K. Bish (1771-1802) developed Morgagni‘s position and he

promoted to development of pathological anatomy in the first half of XIX c.

Physiologists experimented on central nervous system during the XVII- XVIIIc.

Check scientist I. Prohaska published his work “About structure of nerves”,

(1799) there he raised a question about functional significance of morphological

distinction between ventral and dorsal roots of spinal nerve. Later English surgeon

and physiologist Ch. Bell (1774-1842) started experimental study of distribution of

sensory nerve fibers and motor fiber between ventral and dorsal roots of spinal

nerve.

Further development of experimental line of investigation in physiology

gave Fr. Majandi (1783-1855); he considered sole source of knowledge was

experiment. He proved that ventral roots of spinal nerve were motor and dorsal

roots of spinal nerve were sensory, receptor.

German scientist I. Muller (1801-1858) studied structure and functions of

organs of vision, hearing, sound and speech in human and animals. He traced

development of nervous system in different animals, studied blood, lymph

compositions and glands structure.

C. Bernard (1813-1873) in the middle of XIX c. posed a problem to create

experimental medicine connecting physiology, pathology and therapy. His works

about sugar exchange in organism and liver functions got maximum fame.

German naturalist, doctor, physiologist and physician G. Gelmgholcz (1821-

1894) first gave mathematic interpretation of conservation of energy in 1847.

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Idealistic views of I. Muller, C. Bernard and their many followers

conditioned Western Europe physiology limitation in a number of main cases and

hampered the development of biology, physiology, experimental pathology and

clinical medicine.

The important discoveries in microbiology connected with name of French

scientist, chemist and microbiologist l. Pasteur (1822-1895).

All history of microbiology divides into 2 periods: before Pasteur (empiric)

and after Pasteur (experimental). In the early XIX c. many scientists believed in

spontaneous generation i.e. that some living things spontaneously grew from non-

living matter, before discovery of Pasteur. Nevertheless, as said R. Boil in XVIIc.

who comprehends the nature of contagious diseases who can explain the nature of

fermentation.

This scientist became L. Pasteur. Pasteur proved that microscopic organisms

caused disease. His main discoveries are enzymatic nature of lactic (acid)

fermentation (1857), alcoholic fermentation(1860) and butyric fermentation

(1861); study diseases of vine and beer (from 1857), disproof of hypothesis of

spontaneous origin (1860), research of diseases of silkworms(1865), bases of

concepts of artificial immunity (1880), anthrax vaccine (1881). Then, in 1885,

Pasteur successfully used the vaccine on a boy who had been bitten by a rabid dog.

Pasteur also invented a way of sterilising liquids by heating them (called

pasteurisation). It was first used for wine (in 1864) and later for milk.

Significance of those discoveries was great for French economics, but L.

Pasteur was generally recognized only to the end of his life. His discoveries were

bases for microbiology development and struggle with infectious diseases. He

organized first antirabic station in Paris in 1885.

Big significance for microbiology development had discoveries of German

doctor, the Nobel Prize laureate of 1905y. R. Koch (1843-1910). He determined

etiology of anthrax (1876), opened pathogens of tuberculosis (1882) and cholera

(1883).

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Microbiology got wide development in many countries, from the end of 70-

beginning of 90 years of XIXc. were opened pathogens of many infectious

diseases. This period has name of bacteriological epoch.

In 1865 Joseph Lister (1827-1912) discovered antiseptic surgery, which

enabled surgeons to perform many more complicated operations. He had

precursors: N.I. Pirogov used spirit and tincture of iodine for disinfection,

Hungarian obstetrician I.F. Semmelweiss used chloral water for hand disinfection.

Lister atomized grout of carbolic acid in the air before and during the

operation. His method reduced postoperative complications and mortality in

several times. German surgeons developed a better method.

Method of antiseptic was added method of asepsis in the end of XIXc.

Founders of asepsis were German surgeons E. Bergmann (1836-1907) and his

follower K. Shimmelbush. The surgeons’ hands and clothes were sterilized before

the operation and surgical instruments were sterilized with super heated steam.

They first reported about method of asepsis in 1890 on International doctors’

congress in Berlin. Rubber gloves were first used in surgery in 1890.

A new epoch of progress begins in 1846 with the introduction of narcosis.

The discoverer of the narcotic effect of ether is the American physician and

chemist, Charles Jackson (1805-80), who together with dentist William Morton

(1819-1868), made experiments upon his own person. The first narcosis was

undertaken in 1846 by Warren, and in the same year in London by Robert Liston.

G. Warren eliminated neck tumor under ether anesthetic.

N.I.Pirogov for the first time used ether anesthetic in field conditions in

summer of 1847. T.Billroth (1829 - 1894) first carried out successful partial

gastrectomy in 1881, 1892- esophagectomy, 1893- larynx resection.

T. Cokher (1841 - 1917) – was a follower of T. Billroth and B. Langenbeck,

he was awarded to Nobel Prize for work in physiology, pathology and surgery of

thyroid gland. He made his contribution to development of abdominal surgery,

traumatology and military-field therapy.

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Era of antiseptic and aseptic became wide perspectives for emergency

surgery. There were first operations on appendectomy in German and England in

1884. Narcosis and antiseptics now make possible a series of daring operations,

before impossible, with essentially better chances of success. There were used

instrumental methods for checkup and treatment in surgical clinics.

Founder of experimental hygiene was German doctor M. Petencoffer (1818 -

1901). He opened department of experimental hygiene in Munchen University in

1865. He contrived method in the field of home hygiene, which one called by his

name.

On the whole, medicine in the beginning of XX c. was enriched by natural

science progresses. V.K. Roentgen opened radiation in 1895; it enlarged ability of

sick person examination and started new medical discipline – radiology.

Scientific substantiation of theory of evolution was opening law heredity by

Czech naturalist G. Mendel. His role was recognized in 1900, then C. de Fries

(Holland), C. Corrence (Germany) and A. Chermack (Austria) almost reopened

simultaneously laws of Mendel and experimentally proved his conclusions. From

this time experimental genetics had begun, it is science about heredity and mobility

of organisms. Important stage in genetics development was creation of

chromosome theory of heredity in 1911 (G. Morgan, C. Bridges, Ck. Muller).

From that moment fundamental genetic theory became materialistic conception of

gene. The XX c. became the period of rapid development of genetics and on its

base - molecular genetics and molecular biology.

The Nobel Prize laureates in medicine were R. Ross for study malaria (1902)

and A. Lavern for malaria pathogen (1907), R. Koch - for tuberculosis pathogen

(1905), I.I. Mechnicov and P. Erlikh for working up immunity theory (1908); G.

Dogmack substantiated the use of sulfanilamide’s for treatment of bacteritic

infections in 1939; A. Fleming got penicillin and used it in doctor’s practice in

1945.

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5.2. Medicine development in Russia

Epoch’s characteristics

Russia was feudal –serf country in the end of XVII – the beginning of XVIII

c. capitalistic relations just began to engender. Thanks to efforts of Peter I the

Great (1672-1725) Russia became powerful land and sea country.

Genius Russian scientists – M.V. Lomonosov was the head of struggle for

independent development of native science. His views were philosophic and

natural-scientific base for development of natural science and medicine.

The period from the end of XVIII - to the middle of XIX c. was

decomposition of serfdom and accelerated forming of capitalistic relations.

Tsarist government climbed to save and secure serfdom, it carried out a

reactionary internal and foreign policy, but scientific ideas was developed and

achieved big successes in Russia of the first half of XIX c.

Russian medical doctors with university degrees appeared only in the XVIII

c. after the politics of westernization by Peter I.

Russian doctors and medical students took part in the liberation movement

of 60-70 years. Social medicine was origin and developed in that period under the

influence of revolutionary enthusiasm. The process of differentiation of medical

disciplines considerably precipitated.

Reorganization of public health authority

Betterment of medical business management in Russia began from 1716, and

when Pharmaceutical Board was subordinated to archiyatr. At the suggestion of

archiyatr I.L. Blumentrost Pharmaceutical Board and chancellery were reorganized

to Medical chancellery. In 1763 it was transformed to Medical Board. In 1804

medicine management was passed to the Ministry of Internal Affairs there Medical

Council had questions on medical science. Military-medical institutions were

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under the jurisdiction of Military and Sea Ministry. Public medicine in Russia of

XVIII c. had bureaucratic features.

Medicine development of Russia in the XVIII century

First hospital school was opened in 1707 under the jurisdiction of land

hospital. Holland doctor N.L. Bidloo was the head of this school. Later hospital

schools were opened in Petersburg, Cronshdatd, Kiev and other towns. In 1786

Hospital schools were reorganized to medical-surgical schools (colleges). In 1725

Medical-surgical academy of science was opened in Petersburg. In 1755 was

opened Moscow University and under its jurisdiction the medical faculty in 1764.

There were medical institutions in Russia among them: monastic, public,

military (land and sea) hospitals, founding hospital with obstetric institutions,

variolous houses, and chemist’s shops. It was begun accounting of birth rate and

mortality, decrees about improvement of Moscow, cleansing of settlements,

foodstuffs were under surveillance in markets.

Russian doctors began to use new methods of examinations: percussion,

auscultation.

Prominent scientists- doctors in Russia of XVIII c.:

P.Z. Condoidi (1710 -1760) was a prominent manager in Russian medical

business. His name was connected with first medical library (1756).

A.P. Protasov (1724-1796) was a first Russian professor – anatomist,

physiologist, and academician of Petersburg academy of science, one of the first

initiator of Russian anatomic terminology.

C.I. Schepin (1728-1770) - first Russian teacher in Moscow hospital school.

S.G. Zybelin (1735-1802) - first student of Moscow University and first

professor of medical faculty of this University. First clinician, first hygienist, first

pediatrician.

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D.S. Samoilovich (1744-1805) - founder of domestic epidemiology. He paid

attention on teaching of medical personnel.

N.M. Maximovich –Ambodic (1744-1812). He was one of first initiator of

Russian obstetrics, pediatrics and pharmacognosy. He published first original

Russian manual “Art of midwife’s business or science about womanish business”.

A.M. Shumlyansky (1748-1795) had great place in histology. In his work

“About kidneys” (Strasburgh, 1782) he described peculiarities of kidneys structure.

Medicine development of Russia in the XIX century

The time from the end of XVIIIc. to the middle of XIXc. – was time of

serfdom’s decomposition and accelerated forming of capitalistic relations. Russian

czarism played role of “zhandarm of Europe” on international arena.

Philosophical views of V.G. Belinskii, A.I. Gerczen, decembrists and

materialistic views of Radischev A.N. (1749-1802) had influence on medicine

development. Radischev A.N. was a writer, revolutionist.

Raise of Russian patriotic and medicine development were during the

patriotic war of 1812.

Basic features of medicine development of the first half of XIX c. :

- opening of new universities with medial faculties in Derpt (Yuriev, 1802),

Vilna (1803), Kazan (1804), Charckov (1805), Kiev (1833);

- formation of two main centers of medical science- medical surgical

academy and medical faculty in Moscow University, preparation of native

text-books and manuals, origin of first science medical school;

- first Russian anatomical school, its founder Zagorsky (1764-1846). His

work “Short anatomy”(1802) – was a top of pedagogical activity in

anatomy;

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- first surgical school of I.F. Bush (1771-1843), his work “Manual for

teaching surgery” (1807) in 3 volumes, was the original Russian text book

on surgery.

Prominent scientists- doctors:

E.O. Mukhin (1766-1850) was anatomist and physiologist, hygienist and

judicial doctor. He contributed to Russian anatomical nomenclature. His works:

“The beginning of science of bonesetter” (1806), “Description of surgical

operations” (1807), Manual on anatomy in 8 volumes (1818).

I. V. Buyalsky (1789-1866) was world known great anatomist and

surgeon. He developed many new surgical operations and created new surgical

tools. First in Russia he made bandage of nameless arteries.

M.Y. Mudrov (1776-1831) was a founder of native clinical teaching and

clinical therapy. He followed the Hippocratic credo "to treat not a disease but a

patient". His working out of inquire methods of sick person, schemes of writing of

case records. He contributed into medical hygiene.

I.E. Dyadkovskii (1784-1841) was a prominent therapeutics – clinicist,

pathologist – thinker. Main method of cognition was experience, observation and

common sense.

N.I. Pirogov (1810-1881) – founder of topographical and surgical

anatomy, military-field surgery, anatomical- physiological approach in surgery. He

reformed in organization of surgical departments (division into “clean” and

“purulent” departments), consummation of antiseptics, working out of teaching

about prophylaxis of surgical infections. He in fact created a new medical science,

field surgery, and suggested new, rational principles for the grouping, distribution

and evacuation of the wounded. His, work, "Fundamentals of Field Surgery"

(1864), had soon become a reference book for field surgeons in all countries. He

paid attention on hygiene as a science which can help to save humanity from

diseases. He considered that future belong to preventive medicine.

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It was founded society of Russian doctors in 1892 in memory of Pirogov.

Russian doctor’s society met on conference by the name of Pirogov till 1918. And

only in 1995 this tradition reactivates.

Prominent representatives of clinical medicine in Russia of second half of

XIXc.: S.P. Botckin (1832-1889), G. A. Zakharian (1829-1897), А. А. Ostroumov

(1844-1908) – founders of clinical schools .

S.P. Botckin (1832-1889), was a founder of the biggest scientific

therapeutic school in Russia. He developed clinical experimental direction in

medicine. He opened first laboratory of experimental medicine in Russia, and first

discovered nature of catarrhal jaundice (co-called “Botckin’s disease”, 1866) he

was great teacher, during his 28 professor’s activity he had 106 residents among

them 87 persons became doctors and 45 – professors of high school.

G.A. Zakharian (1829-1897) was a founder of big clinical school. He

developed original method of anamnesis – questions to patient. He described zones

of perception disorders at the internal diseases; these zones had got name “zones of

Zakcharian - Ged”. He got fame of the best doctor; his “Clinical lectures” became

classical and was republished many times.

A.A. Ostroumov (1845-1908) – representative of Russian clinical medicine

of second half of XIXc. In his lectures he spoke about synthesis of treatment and

prophylactic medicine.

Independent direction of medicine became pediatrics in second half of XIX

– beginning of XX c. First lecturer was S.F. Khotoviscky (1796-1885), he wrote

“Pediatrics” in 1847. He gave prove to existence of pediatrics as independent

discipline, he described anatomical-physiological peculiarities of children

organisms, diseases of any ages, etc.

First department on pediatrics was opened in Petersburg medical-surgical

academy in 1870-1876. Its founder N.I. Bystrov (1841-1906) developed first

program of teaching pediatrics, such as questions on hygiene, physical culture and

treatment management.

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In 1897 professor of department was N.P. Gundobin (1860-1908). His

works “General and particular therapy of childhood” (1896) and “Peculiarities of

childhood” (1906) became standard in world and native medicine.

In 1888 pediatrics department was opened in Moscow University. Since

1891 head of department was N.F. Filatov (1847-1902). He described chickenpox

(1872), rubeola scarlatinosa (1885), early symptom of measles.

Development of native physiology is connected with activities of I.M.

Sechenov (1829-1905), his researches: physiology of higher nervous activity and

labor physiology. He was known as the Father of Russian physiology. He

introduced electrophysiology into laboratories and also into teaching. His life work

was always concentrated on neurophysiology. He wrote a major classic “The

Reflexes of the Brain” (1863). He also maintained that physiochemical factors in

the environment of the cell are of equal if not greater importance. He will also be

remembered for his intellect and his knowledge, as well as for his scientific

achievements. He founded physiological school of Russia; his successor was N.I.

Wedensky (1852-1922). Wedensky introduced notion about lability and created

study of parabiosis in his work “Excitation, slowdown, narcosis” (1907).

Ideas of Sechenov were continued by Great Russian scientist I. P. Pavlov.

I. P. Pavlov (1849-1936) – founder of first-rate physiological school and

opening of method of conditioned reflex.

Pavlov's main area of research throughout his scientific career was on the

digestive process, which brought on a series of experiments exploring the

correlation between the nervous system and the autonomic functions of the body. 

Pavlov experimented with dogs, studying the relationship between salivation and

digestion. By applying stimuli to the animals in a variety of ways, using sound,

visual, and tactile stimulation, he was able to make the animals salivate whether

they were in the presence of food or not; a phenomenon he called the conditioned

reflex (1901).

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Pavlov was elected a corresponding member of the Russian Academy of

Sciences in 1901. His famous work “Lecture about work of main digestive

glands“(1897), for this work he was awarded by Nobel Prize in 1904. He was also

elected Academician of the Russian Academy of Sciences in 1907, given an

honorary doctorate at Cambridge University in 1912, and awarded the Order of the

Legion of Honour in 1915, the recommendation of the Medical Academy of

Paris. Pavlov‘s works on study high nervous activity showed that conditioned

reflex produced in cortex of big cerebral hemispheres – the great achievement of

XX c.

He wrote “Letter to youth” (1935) as testament to young people who

devoted themselves to science.

Second half of XIX c. was marked by development of new branch –

bacteriology (latest it became microbiology). Prominent scientists I. I. Mechnicov

(1845-1916) - biologist, pathologist, immunologist and bacteriologist, founder

phagocytes theory, he was awarded Nobel Prize in 1908y.; Gabrichevsky (1860-

1907) – founder of first course on microbiology in Moscow University (1892),

organizer of antidiphtheric serum ‘s production in Moscow;; D. K. Zabolotny

(1866-1929) – initiator of epidemiology(1922), he organized Institute of

epidemiology and microbiology in Ukraine N.F.; Gamaleya (1859-1949) – founder

of bacteriological station (Odessa, 1896), initiator of prophylaxis hydrophobia,

cholera, smallpox, plague and typhus.

Many great scientists made their contribution into development of native and

world science. Important meaning had works of scientists in study of infectious

pathogen, etc.

Economical and social progresses made for separation and development

hygiene as independent science. First hygienic schools were schools of А. P.

Dobroslavin, F.F. Erisman.

First professor on hygiene was А. P. Dobroslavin (1842-1889). He was the

author of first text books on hygiene: “Hygiene. Course of public health” (1882-

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1884) and “Military hygiene” (1885-1887). By his initiative it was founded

“Russian society of public health protection” and popular magazine “Health” in

1878.

F.F.Erisman (1842-1915) was an outstanding Russian hygienist, one of the

founders of scientific hygiene in Russia, an active figure of public medicine. He

paid great attention on school hygiene and hygiene of living premises, fought for

improvement of sewerage system and for “proper organization of sanitary

conditions in Russia”.

In 1881 F.F.Erisman was elected professor of Moscow University, and in

1882 headed department of hygiene – the first in Moscow and the second in

Russia. His lectures and research papers and books exhibited a wide social

approach to solution of medical problems.

Second half of XIXc. was marked by great achievements of Russian

medicine. Sanitary development in physiology, microbiology, experimental

hygiene and practical medicine determined the perspectives of improvement

medical – sanitary legislation in Russia.

Table # 1

Prominent natural scientificdiscoveries of XVIII-XIXc., incidental with medicine

Year Author Essence of his discovery

1756 Lomonosov M.V. (1711-1765)- Russian

scientist, academician of Petersburg academy of

science (1745)

Law of conservation of mass

in chemical changes

1774 La Vuasie Antaean Loran (1743-1794)- French

chemists

Regardless of Lomonosov

M.V. opened the same law

1838 Shleiden Matthias Jacob (1804-1881) – German

botanist

Theory of cellular texture of

plants

1839 Shwann Theodore (1810-1882) – German Theory of cellular texture of

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zoologist and physiologist animals and plants

1841 Mayer Julius Robert (1814-1878) – German

doctor and naturalist

Law of conservation of

energy and determination of

mechanical heat equivalent

1843

1847

Ghoul James Prescott (1818-1889) – English

physician

Gelmgholtz German Ludwig Ferdinand (1821-

1894) – German physician, physiologist,

naturalist, member correspondent of Petersburg

academy of science (1868)

Regardless of Mayer opened

the same law

1859 Darwin Charles (1809-1882) – English

biologist, member correspondent of Petersburg

academy of science (1867)

Doctrine of evolution «Origin

of species by natural

selection, or preservation of

selected species in struggle

for existence»

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1.Блинкин С.А. Героические будни медиков /С.А. Блинкин. - М.: Медицина,

1980. - 190с.

2.Глязер Г. О мышлении в медицине / Г.О. Глязер. - М.: Медицина, 1969. -

268с.

3.Вам жить в XXI веке: Сборник / Сост. Г.А. Юркина. - М.: Мол.гвардия,

1986. - 206 с.

4.История медицины / П.Е. Заблудовский, Г.Р. Крючок, М.К. Кузьмин,

М.М. Левит. - М.: Медицина, 1987. - 352 с.

5. Лисицын Ю.П. История медицины / Ю.П. Лисицын.- М., ГЭОТАР-

МЕД, 2004. -393 с.

6. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины. Краткий курс лекций /Т.С. Сорокина.-

М.: УДН., 1988.-72с.

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7. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины / Т.С. Сорокина. - М.: Медицина, 1994.

- 384с.

8. Сорокина Т.С. История медицины: Учебник для студ. высш. мед. учеб.

заведений / Т.С. Сорокина. – 4-е изд., стер.- М.: «Академия», 2005.-560с.

9. Стоун И. Происхождение: Роман - биография Чарлза Дарвина: Пер. с

англ. / И. Стоун. - 2-е изд. - М.: Политиздат, 1985. - 447с.

10. Петров Б.Д. От Гиппократа до Семашко: преемственность идей [Очерки

и портреты] / Б.Д. Петров. - М.: Медицина, 1990. - 168с.

6. MEDICINE DEVELOPMENT IN KAZAKHSTAN

Medicine of Ancient Kazakhstan. Development of medicine in the Middle

Ages

Two thousand years ago in territory of Kazakhstan there lived various tribes

- usuni, alany, kangly. Basically they were engaged in cattle breeding and

consequently often changed places of parking - wandered. They grew up horses.

Inhabitants of river valleys of Syr-Dariya, Chu, Irtysh except for cattle breeding,

were engaged also in agriculture.

There, where the river Arys runs into Syr-Dariya, was a green oasis. Above

it the big hill towers. Local residents speak, that on a place of this hill there was a

city of Otrar with magnificent palaces, minarets, with beautiful streets. During that

far time for territories of Kazakhstan there were also other cities similar to Otrar. It

were Sauries, Sauran, Taraz, Kulan.

On the grounds of Kazakhstan from the east hordes Mongols - Tatars have

rushed in the beginning of XIII c., in 1218. People of Kazakhstan courageously

battled against conquerors, but they could not stop an army of aggressors. Only in

XVI c. the Mongolian yoke was overthrow on a greater part of territory of

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Kazakhstan. With falling the Mongolian yoke in Kazakhstan uniform language and

a uniform facilities began to be formed.

In the beginning of XVII c. Kazakhs shared on three zhuz - the Senior,

Middle, Younger. The Kazakh society at that time consisted of two social groups.

They differed to political and legal attributes. They were ak suiek (white bone),

concerned chingizids (descendants of Chingiz - khan and hajji - descendants of

associates of prophet Mohamed. Other groups concerned to kara suiek (black

bone). The Supreme authority concentrated in hands of khan. Attempts of khans to

create the uniform centralized state, having united all Kazakh zhuz, did not give

due results.

In XVIII c. on territory of Kazakhstan there was no uniform state, and

separate khanstvo which were in constant enmity. Heavy was externally - political

position. The main danger proceeded from the east, from Jungar khanstvo.

Abulhair - khan has collected notable people, has told about heavy position,

about enemies. Long spoke gathered and have decided to pass under the Russian

citizenship. Empress has accepted ambassadors of Kazakhstan on October, 30th,

1730. In 1731 Abulhair - khan and his citizens have sworn about voluntary

connection to Russia.

In the history of Kazakh people voluntary connection to Russia was of great

importance. More advanced Russian economy and culture have rendered

progressive influence on economic and cultural development of Kazakhstan. Also

it was necessary to consider the period of connection by the beginning of

occurrence of medical aid in territory of Kazakhstan. Before connection in

Kazakhstan there were no neither doctors, nor medical institutions.

Roots of the Kazakh national medicine leave in an extreme antiquity.

Studying of the written sources which have reached us testifies, that people had

various knowledge and skills on doctoring, in one cases benefited people, in others

- obvious harm, in the third, appeared indifferent collected and cultivated.

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People occupied territories of Central Asia and Kazakhstan had three large

religions of the East influence: zoroastrism, Buddhism, Islam. On the large

territory the final victory was gained with Islam, and it became officially

recognized religion.

Thus, the national medicine has arisen on the basis of practical experience of

many generations. Anatomic knowledge at Kazakhs were deep, it was promoted by

knowledge of anatomy of animals. They considered as principal organs of the

person brain, heart, liver. The big attention was given influence of mentality on

health that follows from the legend. Great wise men have asked how long he lives.

He has answered: "1000". Every joyful, cheerful and useful day he equated with

one year.

Pregnancy and delivery at people of Kazakhstan have been surrounded by an

aura of mystery and superstition. Delivery accepted by women whom Kazakhs

named kindik sheshe, translated as mother who tie up umbilical cord. They could

make turning, Caesarian section. The first 40 days of baby’s life were considered

very dangerous. In conditions of nomadic way of life care of newborns had great

value the cradle of a special design – besik.

For treatment of the population widely used medicinal grasses: as

expectorant applied inula, for treatment gastric - intestinal diseases - grass

("kumuzdyk"), for increase it is intimate - a vascular tone - grass ("kyzylsha").

According to separate authors, doctors of Kazakhstan knew 247 medicinal grasses.

The important place in treatment had horse and camel milk of various

preparations (koumiss and shubat). Koumiss used for treatment of tuberculosis,

scurvy, anemia, illnesses of heart and a stomach.

Healers rendered the surgical help. Skilled dargers (healers) could make

laparotomy, herniotomy, remove a cataract.

One of the greatest disasters among people was smallpox. The local

population did not know the reasons of occurrence of this illness and measures of

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struggle with it. They wandered from the places amazed by smallpox, also did not

come back. They spent artificial infection - vaccination by natural smallpox.

The magic medicine was showed widely in Kazakhstan in ways of

diagnostics, treatment, and the prevention of diseases.

To protect from illnesses Kazakhs hang on a neck the fish teeth, the wolf

legs, feathers and legs of an owl. During pregnancy the woman should not eat

camel meat. It was considered, that differently she would pregnant 12 months as

the camel.

Magic "diagnostics" was based on various ways of a guessing. Globule

divination was widely spread on the territory of Kazakhstan.

But the leading role in magic ways of diagnostics and treatment belonged to

baxes. Baxes before the beginning of a session got acquainted with patients.

Historically compounded social – economic culture of Kazakhstan promoted

to origin of great scientists.

Al-Farabi (870 - 950), the native from Otrar, has created immortal works on

philosophy, mathematics, music, history, medicine. In the published works medical

views were presented by separate fragments in philosophical treatises, in the

medical treatise "About objection to Galen in occasion of its disagreements with

Aristotle concerning bodies of a human body ". The ideas stated in this treatise

quite correspond to modern representations about medicine as sciences, about the

reasons of occurrence, treatment and the prevention of illnesses.

In Karahanid state existing at X-XIc. on the territory of Kazakhstan the

outstanding poet and thinker was Zhusup Balasuguni (b.1020) . His work

“Kutadgu bilik” (“Beneficial Knowledge”) became known in many countries. He

described healers, doctors, etc.

Healer O. Tleukabyl uly (1397-1492) was born in Semirechie. By order of

khan he began to write his medical work “Shipagerlic bayan” (“Healer’s

confession”) in 1470 till 1480. The book consisted from three parts; he described

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organism and environment relations, questions of diagnostics and treatment. He

gave 10 medical directions which still actual nowadays.

Works of great Al-Farabi, poet – philosopher Z. Balasuguni, scientist- healer

O. Tleukabyl uly big influenced on development of Kazakh and world medicine.

Medicine during the period of connection of Kazakhstan to Russia and

the bourgeois reforms in the XIX century

In 1731 after connection of Younger zhuz to Russia doctors of the Boundary

commissions appeared on territory of Kazakhstan.

The primary goal of these doctors was epidemiological supervision: not to

admit penetration of epidemic illnesses into the central provinces of Russia.

Rendering of medical aid to the population was not included into duties of doctors

of the Boundary commissions.

After 101 year’s connection to Russia, on March, 15th, 1832 Asian

committee has been established the position of doctor for health services of the

population in Younger zhuz. The first doctor was A.A.Sergachev who has finished

in 1824 medical faculty of the Kazan University. In 1840 under the petition of

khan of horde it was authorized to have the midwife in horde. But Only on April,

24th, 1868 the medical department of the Ministry of Internal Affairs had been

directed the midwife Nadezhda Lebedeva for work in the Internal horde

In 1845 the Regulations about “Internal Kirghiz horde”: “the public hospital

with 15 beds in which all Kirghiz will be free of charge “.

Preventive measures against drift and distributions of epidemic illnesses

were carried out by medical workers of the Boundary commissions. In 1844

boundary commission consisted from one doctor, one medical assistant and 10

pupils - medical assistants from Kazakhs. Training of medical assistants was spent

at the Orenburg military hospital.

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One of the greatest disasters among Kazakhs was smallpox which was

characterized by high death rate. The first convincing data about vaccination

among Kazakhs concern to 1863 when it has been imparted against smallpox 221

people. Epidemics of natural smallpox, malaria, tuberculosis, syphilis were in 1874

in the Internal horde.

The next stage of development of medicine in Kazakhstan was connected

with zemstvo medicine in Russia which was engaged in rendering of medical aid,

mainly, to rural population. The zemstvo reform was a continuation of the 1861

reform which abolished serfdom in Russia. The zemstvo reform started in 1864; it

was introduced zemstvos - new self-administration organs in the rural localities.

The districts zemstvos started inviting doctors, tried to organize medical sanitary

service.

Zemskaya medicine could not bring basic changes on surburbs of zhuz.

After some times government was forced on improvement of medical service of

rural population of Kazakhstan.

On May 29th, 1897 the opinion of State Council “About reform of medical

sector in the districts of Akmolinsk, Semipalatinsk and Semirechensk areas”.

According to this document the health services to rural population should be lead

by local principle for what districts shared on sectors with head - doctor.

Doctors repeatedly, but unsuccessfully brought an attention to the question

on expansion and strengthening of medical institutions, however their offers, as a

rule, deviated under various pretexts.

Doctors-Kazakhs got high medical education, and studied in Kazan,

Moscow, Kiev, Tomsk, Saratov universities with support of the Kazakh societies.

A.D. Aitbakin (1859 - 1919) finished in 1894 medical faculty of Tomsk

University. He organized the first medical ambulance station, the drugstore in

village Katen-Karagay. He printed in the newspaper on Kazakh language with the

purpose of propagation of medical knowledge. Last 2 years of his life he worked in

Ust Kamenogorsk.

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D.U. Kusyabgaliev (1870-1914) received a degree of the doctor with

distinction. Since 1900 till 1928 he worked in the Ural area as manager of medical

sector. In the thirtieth years he worked on different medical posts in Alma-Aty and

Chimkent areas, rendered medical aid to the population, spent sanitary-epidemical

actions.

N. Zhakupbayev (1890-1032) finished medical faculty of Kiev University

with distinction in 1916. He worked in Semirechensk and Semipalatinsk areas, he

took active participation in foundation of red medical jurt. He spent active work on

training of the medical staff, participated in work of the First All-Russia congress

of doctors in Moscow.

In 1902-1905 in Kazakhstan in connection with resettlement of Russian

peasants there was origin migratory medical organization which was under central

administrative board of land management and agriculture. Zemskaya medicine was

in charge of the Ministry of Internal Affairs. Such dissociation led to inconsistency

of actions of medical workers that affected rendering of medical aid to the

population.

The system of medical service was spent as dispersal; medical aid was on an

outpatient basis. Thus, zemskaya medicine was introduced in Kazakhstan later than

in other Russian provinces.

Development of medicine and public health in Kazakhstan

in the XX - XXI centuries

The decree from August, 26th, 1920 had been organized Independent Kirghiz

Socialist Soviet republic, this decree alongside with others narcoms (national

commissariat) had been created national commissariat of public health. The first

national commissar of public health was M.S.Shamov, his deputy was M.M.

Chumbalov.

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M.S. Shamov was born in Sevastopol in worker’s family. He finished

medical faculty of Kharcov University in 1914, then he worked in Soviet army as a

doctor till 1917. Since 1920 till 1928 he was commissar of public health services in

Kazakhstan. He made greater work on teaching of the medical staff, especially

from Kazakhs. Under his management in 1925 the first regional sanitary-

bacteriological institute in Kazakhstan, medical assistant's schools in Orenburg and

Uralsk have been created, short-term courses on teaching of medical nurses were

organized.

M.M. Chumbalov (1873-1940) was born in Kaztolov district of Ural oblast.

He finished medical faculty in Kazan in 1899. In the 1929-1938 he headed

republican board of drug-stores and then he was head of anti plague station in

Uralsk.

In an initial stage of public health becoming the greater help was rendered

by the national commissariat of public health services of Russian federation to

Kazakhstan. On struggle with infectious illnesses there were directed

epidemiological groups and medical workers. In 1922 number of doctors was 247.

The important role in struggle with dangerous infections has played mobile

medical and antiepidemical laboratories.

Alongside with development of a network of treatment-and-prophylactic

institutions there were opened medical colleges in many towns of Kazakhstan.

There were opened republics scientific research institutes, dermato-

venereologic scientific research institute in 1931, institute of protection of

motherhood and childhood in 1932, Kazakh Scientific Research Institute (SRI) on

tuberculosis, Scientific Research Institute (SRI) of public health services and

hygiene.

In the beginning of the 30th years of XXc. it was created conditions for

teaching of the national medical staff. Medical institute was opened in Alma-Ata in

1931. The first rector became S.D. Asfendiyarov.

86

S.D. Asfendiyarov (1889-1937) finished Petersburg military- medical

academy in 1912. From 1928 he worked as a rector of Kazakh State University till

1937. He was illegally victimized in 1937 and 23 of February he was sentence to

be shot. He had been rehabilitated in the 26 of May, 1937.

The next years: Karaganda state medical institute (1950), Semipalatinsk

state medical institute (1953), Actubinsk state medical institute (1957),

Tcelinograd state medical institute (1958), Chimkent state medical institute (1979)

were organized for teaching of medical staff.

The public health service of Kazakhstan before Great Patriotic War has

reached successes in health services of the population, in struggle with infectious

diseases. On rates of growth bed networks in 1938 Kazakh SSR won the first place

among union republics. The public health service of Kazakhstan has got stronger.

In 1940 the sanitary-bacteriological institute has been transformed to institute of

epidemiology and bacteriology.

Within Great Patriotic War (1941-1945), despite of greater difficulties which

were tested with the country, the public health services and medical science

continued to develop. Academy of sciences of Kazakh SSR has been created in the

end of war. The institutes of medical structure - physiology, clinical and

experimental surgery, regional pathology were attached to the Academy of

sciences. Kazakh SRI on oncology and radiology was opened in 1960, Kazakh SRI

on pediatrics in 1972, Institute of nourishment in 1974, Republic scientific

research center of childhood and motherhood protection in 1975, SPI on

cardiology in 1977.

Fundamental works of the Kazakhstan scientists are widely known not only

in our country, but also abroad. These are researches on physiology and

pathologies lymph and blood circulations (A.P.Polosuhin), epidemiology of

cancer, endemic craw (A.N.Syzganov), epidemiology of brucellosis

(I.K.Karakulov), infectious allergology (N.D.Beklemishev), functional

morphology of vegetative nervous system (A.R.Rahishev), neurosisand its

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treatment (A.M.Svyadosch), diabetes, pulmonary edema (J.A.Lazaris, and

I.A.Serebrovskaya), questions on abdominal and urgent surgery, angiosurgery

(S.V.Lokhvitsky), hygiene of nourishments (T.Sh. Sharmanov) etc.

T.Sh. Sharmanov - graduator of Karaganda state medical institute (1955)

became a minister of public health of Kazakh SSR (1971-1982). He is a doctor of

medical science, professor, academician of Russian academy of medical science

and national academy of science of the Republic of Kazakhstan. He is a president

of Kazakh academy of nourishment. T.Sh. Sharmanov is a laureate of many prizes:

State Prize of the Republic of Kazakhstan, independent prize “Platinum Tarlan” in

science field, prize of WHO for contribution to world public health (2005).

The Republic of Kazakhstan in structure of the USSR adhered to principles

of the Soviet model of public health services: state character, free, preventive

direction, general availability, planned character, connection of science and

practice. The country has achieved successes in decrease of many infectious

diseases, prophylactic medical examination, training of experts, in the decision of

problems of rural public health services.

Crisis of the Soviet system of public health services is consequence of crisis

of the Soviet system of statehood. Developed command-administrative system

suffered from bureaucratism, suppressed the initiative and creativity, activity was

under construction without taking into account economic feasibility. Financing of

the Soviet public health services was under construction by a residual principle.

Sovereign republics of USSR, including Kazakhstan had the deformed parameters

of health and public health services. So, number of doctors and sick-lists beds was

the highest in the world, 143 doctors and 131 hospitals on 10.000 populations, but

it was not accompanied by improvement of parameters of health of the population.

The 25th of October, 1990 Supreme Soviet of Kazakh SSR signed the

declaration about state sovereignty. In 1991, the 10th of December the Kazakh SSR

was renamed into Republic of Kazakhstan.

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In 1992 Kazakhstan became independent and full member of World health

organization and accepted state liability for appeal to all people “Health for all in

XXI c.”(1998).

The modern period of development of the country is characterized by

transformation of all sectors of public life and an economic mechanism of

Kazakhstan; there were new requirements of perfection of system of public health

services, public health care. Successful promotion in achievement of the purpose -

"Health for all in XXI century" is directly depends on heads of the state that make

political decisions on public health services in partnership with other public forces

of the country and are guided by recommendations of WHO. For development and

improvement of public health services the government, the international

organizations should find not ordinary approaches with reorientation to a modern

situation in the world, having directed the efforts to development of medicine and

improvement of health in Kazakhstan.

Development of medicine in the Central Kazakhstan

The territory of modern Karaganda area was a part of Bayanaul, Akmolinsk

and Karkaralinsk districts before revolution. Along border of districts there were

first settlements - villages - Karkaralinsk (1824), Ulytau (1941), etc., populated

mainly the Siberian Kazaks. In 1833 A. Baizhanov discovered Karaganda coals, in

1834 Russian merchant S.Popov discovered in Berkara (Karkaralinsk) - the first

copper and silver - lead.

Malaria, returnable typhus, skin diseases, cholera, trachoma were wide

spread in the Central Kazakhstan.

All medical aid was provided by the one medical sector with staff - the

doctor, the medical assistant, the midwife. Medical aid was rendered by medical

assistants, who finished Omsk College, in 1880 then have entered posts of volost

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medical assistant. They made simple surgical operations, accepted deliveries,

treated teeth. They concerned to execution of their duties honesty.

One of the first doctors in territory of modern Karaganda area was

G.Niyazbekov, he finished Omsk medical institute in 1900. He rendered the

therapeutic and surgical aid, he was engaged in health protection of women and

children, and distributed patients the medicines. The significant role belongs to the

professional revolutionary and medical assistant I.V.Deyev - graduator of the Chita

medical assistant's school. He was banished to Kazakhstan. He made prophylaxis

of treatment tuberculosis, infectious disease and syphilis.

On May, 20th, 1930 in the composition of explorer expedition generated in

Moscow by K.O.Gorbachev (in the subsequent the first head of trust

Karagandaugol) the first doctors G.N.Alalykin, Y.F.Alalykina, L.G.Livas arrived

to Karaganda. The unique brick one-storied house of 6 rooms was a first-aid post.

“The red hospital” – such it was called by people.

In the first day of opening of an ambulance station there were only 4 persons

on reception, but soon there were greater turns. The ambulance station with three

doctors existed almost year till April, 14th, 1931, before arrival of new doctors.

Karaganda got the status of city in 1934; there were 62 doctors, 338 middle

medical workers, 8 hospitals with 652 beds, the polyclinic, 12 ambulance stations,

and 8 health centers.

G.N.Alalykin played the great role in becoming of surgical service in

Karaganda; within the Second World War he was the adviser of all evacuation

hospitals of Karaganda. Y.F.Alalykina rendered the therapeutic help, accepted

deliveries, and took sanitary-educational work.

In 1934 A.V.Timofeyevich and T.A.Kolomenskaja arrived from Russia to

Karaganda. The traumatologist and the surgeon - they made a lot of for

development of public health services in city. Miners tenderly named

A.V.Timofeyevich as “Our miner's doctor”.

90

By the direction of narcomm (national commissariat) of public health of

USSR the graduator of Kuban medical institute - P.M.Pospelov arrived to

Karaganda in 1933.

Pospelov Peter Moiseyevich (1903 – 1985) was born in stanitsa Rasshevatka

in Stavropol. He finished Kuban medical institute in 1929. He was manager of

doctor sector in stanitsa Georgievskaya (1929 -1931). P.M. Pospelov was manager

of therapeutic and infectious department in city hospital of Georgievsk.

Since 1933 more than 6 years he was the head physician and manager of

hospital’s department of the second mine in Karaganda. In September, 1939 he has

been appointed by manager of regional public health department.

He had dream about opening of high school in Karaganda, he could prove

the necessity of institute’s opening and his dream became true in 1950. The first

rector of Karaganda state medical institute was P.M. Pospelov.

He was given rank “Honored doctor of Republic” in 1943.

Being the rector of KSMI from 1950 till 1974, his life was devoted to the

development of institute, the opening of faculties: medical, sanitary-hygienic,

pediatrics, the construction of new buildings for study, rest and hostels. The

institute had got first category in 1961.

He defended the thesis on theme “Industrial traumatism on Karaganda mines

and its analysis for period of 1941-1950”. He was founder and head of department

of social medicine since 1953 till 1984.

All his life he many researched on study of natural and healing resources of

Central Kazakhstan. He developed sanitary-hygienic and balneotherapeutic

characteristics of Karakaralinsk, it was opened recreation zones in Karakarlinsk,

Topar, sanatoriums in Shalgie and Zhosaly.

He was awarded by Lenin’s orders, “Red Star”, “Honour sign”, and medals.

In his memory and respect P.M.Pospelov became freeman (honourable

citizen) of Karaganda in 1973.

91

Since 1947 graduator of Alma-Ata state medical institute - H.D.Makazhanov

(1915-1987) worked in Karaganda, within 25 years he was the main surgeon of

oblast health department, since 1958 he was head of traumatology and orthopedics

department of KSMI, he was the founder of school of traumatologists. One of city

clinics has name by the professor H.D.Makazhanov.

Doctor of medical sciences, professor S.V.Lokhvitsky arrived in Karaganda

in 1975. He had based large surgical school and created modern surgical clinic,

there prepared 25 doctors and more than 100 candidates of medical sciences.

Favorable conditions of independent Kazakhstan gave possibilities to

effective cooperation with foreign countries in the medicine and education.

Preparatory department for foreign citizens was founded in Karaganda State

Medical Institute (1991). First students were 36 Syrians; they studied Russian and

Kazakh language, chemistry, biology, mathematics, history of the Republic of

Kazakhstan for further education in KSMI.

1993 was a year of opening of dean’s office on work with foreign citizens.

Students were from Syria, Lebanon, Turkey, India, Pakistan and Saudi Arabia.

Contingent of foreign students was extended; it was decided to open on base of

dean’s office the department of international cooperation in 1998. Many students

wanted to get knowledge in English and first English groups were organized in

2001. Nowadays foreign citizens can get higher education in three languages:

Kazakh, Russian and English in Karaganda State Medical Academy.

The best traditions and creative atmosphere which was based by the founder

of KSMI - P.M.Pospelov, are kept teachers of all generations and they impart it to

their students. Government regulation of RK reorganized Karaganda State Medical

Institute into Karaganda State Medical Academy in 1997.

People who betrayed to medicine, to their country play great role in

development of public health services of Central Kazakhstan. They create history

every day working in new modern clinics, the diagnostic center, in medical

academy.

92

BIBLIOGRAPHY

1. Абдуллаев К. Этюды о казахской традиционной медицине /К. Абдуллаев

// Казахстанский фармацевтический вестник.- 2002.- N7. - С.8.

2. Байпаков К.М. По следам древних городов Казахстана: [Отрарский оазис]

/ К.М. Байпаков. - Алма-Ата: Наука, 1990. - 208с.

3. Здравоохранение Казахстана / Под ред. Т.Ш.Шарманова.- Алма-Ата:

Казахстан, 1978. -135 с.

4. Камалиев М.А. История народной медицины и общественного

здравоохранения Казахстана / М.А. Камалиев, Р.К. Бигалиева, Т.Х. Хабиева.-

Алматы, 2004.- 174 с.

5. Карагандинская государственная медицинская академия: страницы

истории / Гл. ред И.Р.Кулмагамбетов, К.А.Алиханова (отв. ред.).- Караганда,

2005.- 644 с.

6. Люди, события, факты. Здравоохранение Карагандинской области

/ К.К. Ермекбаев, В.Б. Аликов, Е.Т. Токбергенов и др. - Караганда, 2003. -

104с.

7. Очерки по истории народной медицины в Казахстане. / Под ред.

Т.Ш.Шарманова, Б.А.Атчабарова.- Алма-Ата, 1978.- 209с.

8. Поспелов П.М. Карагандинский государственный медицинский

институт /П.М. Поспелов, В.А. Брейдо.- Алма-Ата: Казахстан, 1973.-84с.

9. Самарин Р.И. Очерки истории здравоохранения Казахстана /Р.И. Самарин.

- Алма-Ата: Казгосиздат, 1958. - 163с.

10. Чокин А.Р. Очерки развития санитарно-эпидемиологической службы в

Казахстане /А.Р. Чокин.- Алма-Ата: Казгосиздат, 1975. -176с.

11. Чокин А.Р. Санжар Джафарович Асфендияров [к 100-летию со дня

рождения] / А.Р. Чокин, А.С. Саятова, М.А. Арыкова. - // Здравоохранение

Казахстана.- 1989.- N10. - С. 69-71.

12. Шарманов Т.Ш. Долгое восхождение к праву на здоровье / Т.Ш.

Шарманов. - Алматы: Атамура, 1998. - 232с.

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Test for the control of knowledge

1. Primitive history had duration:

А) more than 99 % of all history of mankind

В) 50 % of all history of mankind

С) 30 % of all history of mankind

D) 70 % of all history of mankind

Е) 60 % of all history of mankind

2. What scientist offered a hypothesis about an origin of the human from the

monkeys?

А) A.N. Beketov

В) Ch. Darwin

С) K. Ber

D) K. Rulje

Е) L. Boyanus

3. What is oikumena?

А) the articulation of speech

В) the first burial

С) territory of the man dwelling

D) abstract thinking

Е) rudiments of languages

4. I. P. Pavlov considered, that medical activity is

А) coeval of religions

В) began since the written period

С) appeared during the Paleolithic epoch

D) coeval of the first man

Е) appeared during the matriarchy epoch

5. Where was made the first trepanation of scull?

94

А) Central Kazakhstan

В) Australia

С) Latin America

D) Africa

Е) Southern Kazakhstan

6. What was the basis of doctoring in the slaveholding states of the Ancient

East?

А) national medicine

В) priestly medicine

С) temple medicine

D) magic medicine

Е) monastic medicine

7. With the advent of writing who wrote down national experience in the field of

doctoring in the Ancient East?

А) slaveholders

В) priests

С) farmers

D) sumerians

Е) handicraftsmen

8. Name the monument of the Babylon legislation which is kept to our time

А) law code of Ashurbannipal

В) law code of Mannu

С) Aurveda

D) laws of tsar Hammurabi

Е) poem of Homer "Iliad" 9. How many first elements of the material substance contains from the point of

view of the Chinese philosophers?

А) two

В) three

95

С) four

D) five

Е) six

10. The first needles for acupuncture in Ancient China were from …

А) gold

В) silver

С) stone

D) platinum

Е) bone

11. What papyrus described the medicines which promoted improvement of oral

cavity and strengthening of teeth?

А) Smith's papyrus

В) Brugsh’s papyrus

С) Ebers’s papyrus

D) Cakhun papyrus

Е) papyrus from Ramesseum

12. What was«The Indian method» in medicine history?

А) rhino plastics

В) reposition of dislocation

С) removals of the grown turbid crystalline lens

D) turning on a leg

Е) preparations 13. What was in the base of the world by the doctrine of Democritus?

А) God

В) mind

С) matter

D) soul

Е) atom

96

14. Name the doctor living in the Northern Greece deified and was included in the

world literature as the god of medical art?

А) Hippocrates

В) Machaon

С) Asklepius

D) Erazistratus

Е) Podalirius

15. Name the work of Hippocrates, where he condemned the doctors starting

patient’s visit from the requirement of payment and an establishment of its size?

А) "Epidemics"

В) "Prognostics"

С) " About wounds of a head "

D) " About fractures»

Е) " Oath of the doctor "

16. Name the post of the main doctor who observed others doctors, in imperial

Rome?

А) periodeut

В) brachman

С) daca

D) ckshatri

Е) archiyatr

17. Name the doctor who entered into medicine the principle “To treat safely,

quickly and pleasantly”?

А) Celsus

В) Asclepiad

С) Soran from Efesses

D) Galen

Е) Epicurus

97

18. Who from scientists of Ancient Rome brought in a regulation the preparation

of medicines from plants, established the certain weight and solid ratio at

preparation of tinctures and concoctions?

А) Dioskirid

В) Asklepiad

С) Soran

D) Celsus

Е) Galen

19. Who was the author of work «About smallpox and measles»?

А) Ar-Razi

В) Al-Farabi

С) Al-Birhuni

D) Ibn Cina

Е) Ibn Nafis

20. How East philosophers named Al-Farabi?

А) The wisest

В) The greatest

С) The philosopher

D) The second Teacher

Е) The professor

21. Name the main medical work of Al- Farabi?

А) «About organs of a human body»

В) «About soul »

С) «Word about diseases of gastrointestinal tract and other»

D) «About objection to Galen because of his disagreements with Aristotle

concerning organs of a human body»

Е) « Aphorisms of the statesman»

22. What medical work brought world glory to Ibn Cina?

А) «Book of healing »

98

В) «Book of knowledge »

С) «Canon of medical science »

D) «Book of rescue »

Е) «Book of instructions»

23. Who was the author of work «One doctor cannot treat all diseases»?

А) Al Birhuni

В) Al- Horezmi

С) Ar-Razi

D) Al-Farabi

Е) Ibn Cina

24. How K. Linney in XVIII century named an evergreen tropical plant in honour

of Ibn Cina?

А) harcinia

В) avicenia

С) ibncinia

D) rudbekia

Е) aphshania 25. Who was the author of work «About structure of human body» (1543)?

А) A. Vesalius

В) W. Harvey

С) D. Frakastoro

D) G. Montano

Е) A. Pare

26. Name the doctor from Padua, the author of work «About diseases of artisans»

(1700)?

А) G. Boerhave

В) G. Montano

С) B. Ramaccini

D) A. Pare

99

Е) N. Bidlow

27. Name the work of Harvey which has been published in 1628 after long-term

supervisions, experiences on animals and checking on men?

А) " Anatomic research about movement of heart and blood at animals "

В) " About structure of a human body "

С) "Epitome"

D) "Treatise about medicine”

Е) "Treatise on anatomy "

28. Name G. Fracastoro‘s work which played big role in clarification of nature of

infectious diseases and its systematization?

А) " About syphilis or Gallic diseases "

В) " About contagious and infectious diseases and its treatment "

С) " About contagion and its treatment "

D) " About infectious diseases"

Е) " About contagion, contagious diseases and its treatment "

29. What has been developed the best in the Kazakh national medicine?

А) obstetrics

В) work of bonesetter

С) herniotomy

D) laparotomy

Е) trepanation

30. What played the big role at baby-minding in conditions of Kazakh’s nomadic

mode of life?

А)carriage

В) besic

С) cot

D) khodunki

Е) manezh

31. What was great importance by the opinion of national doctors of Kazakhstan?

100

А) prognosis

В) diagnosis

С) pathogenesis

D) etiology

Е) clinic

32. Name the main ritual tool of baxes?

А) tambourine

В) kobyz

С) dombra

D) guitar

Е) drum

33. Who was the first head of national commissariat of public health in

Kazakhstan?

А) M. S. Shamov

В) N. P. Lebedeva

С) P. M. Pospelov

D) M. M. Chumbalov

Е) A. A. Sergachev

34. Name the prominent statesman, scientist, teacher, large organizer of

Kazakhstan public health, knew many foreign languages?

А) N. D. Zhakupbaev

В) A. D. Aitbakin

С) H. D. Dosmuhametov

D) S. D. Asfendiyarov

Е) A.B . Aldiyarov

35. Name the first rector of Karaganda state medical academy?

А) N. A. Hlopov

В) P. M. Pospelov

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С) I. R. Kulmagambetov

D) A. P. Filin

Е) M. T. Aliakparov

KEYS:

1- A 8- D 15- E 22- C 29 - B2- B 9- D 16- E 23- C 30- B3- C 10- C 17- B 24- B 31- A4- D 11- C 18- E 25- A 32- B5- C 12- A 19- A 26- C 33- A6- A 13- C 20- D 27- A 34- D7- B 14- C 21- D 28- E 35- B

102

103

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