What IsWhat IsAggression?Aggression?

““Any form of behavior directed Any form of behavior directed toward the goal of harming or toward the goal of harming or injuring another living being injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such who is motivated to avoid such treatment.” treatment.” (Baron and Richardson, 1994)(Baron and Richardson, 1994)

Criteria for Criteria for Aggression (Violence)Aggression (Violence)

Aggression is a behavior.Aggression is a behavior.Aggression involves harm or injury.Aggression involves harm or injury.Aggression is directed toward another Aggression is directed toward another living organism living organism (who doesn’t want pain). (who doesn’t want pain).

Aggression involves intent to harm.Aggression involves intent to harm.Aggression usually involves norm violationAggression usually involves norm violation

* “assertiveness” vs. violence* “assertiveness” vs. violence

Types of AggressionTypes of Aggression

The primary goal is to inflict injury or The primary goal is to inflict injury or psychological harm to another.psychological harm to another.

Hostile or reactive aggression

Aggression occurring in the quest of Aggression occurring in the quest of some competitive goal.some competitive goal.

Instrumental aggression

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SpectatorSpectator Aggression Aggression

associated with:associated with:

– – small-scale, on-the-field small-scale, on-the-field aggressive acts;aggressive acts;

– – aroused conditions;aroused conditions;– – alcohol use; andalcohol use; and– – younger, disadvantaged male spectators (e.g., soccer younger, disadvantaged male spectators (e.g., soccer

gangs).gangs).

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A special case of spectator aggression

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Aggression in SportAggression in Sport

Game reasoning and aggressionGame reasoning and aggressionMany athletes view aggression as inappropriate in general but Many athletes view aggression as inappropriate in general but appropriate in the sport environment. This is called appropriate in the sport environment. This is called “bracketed morality“bracketed morality.”.”

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Aggression in SportAggression in Sport

Athletic performance and aggressionAthletic performance and aggressionNo clear pattern has been found, No clear pattern has been found, but professionals must decide if but professionals must decide if they value “winning at all costs” at they value “winning at all costs” at the cost of increased aggression.the cost of increased aggression.

Causes of AggressionCauses of Aggression

Instinct TheoryInstinct TheoryIndividuals have an innate instinct to be Individuals have an innate instinct to be aggressive, which builds up until it must aggressive, which builds up until it must be expressed (directly or via catharsis).be expressed (directly or via catharsis).[no support in sport][no support in sport]

variant: “athletes have too much variant: “athletes have too much testosterone”testosterone”

Causes of AggressionCauses of Aggression

Frustration–Frustration–Aggression TheoryAggression Theory

Frustration causes aggression.Frustration causes aggression.[no support][no support]

Causes of AggressionCauses of Aggression

Social Learning Social Learning TheoryTheory

Aggression is learned through observing Aggression is learned through observing others (modeling) and then having others (modeling) and then having similar behavior reinforced.similar behavior reinforced.[supported][supported]

rivalry and retaliation…rivalry and retaliation…

Causes of AggressionCauses of Aggression

Revised Frustration–Revised Frustration–Aggression TheoryAggression Theory

Combines elements of the frustration-Combines elements of the frustration-aggression theory with the social aggression theory with the social learning theory.learning theory.[supported][supported]

Causes of AggressionCauses of Aggression

Implications for PracticeImplications for PracticeRecognize when aggression is Recognize when aggression is most likely to occur—when individuals are frustrated and aroused, often because theymost likely to occur—when individuals are frustrated and aroused, often because they

– – are losing,are losing,– – perceive unfair officiating,perceive unfair officiating,– – are embarrassed,are embarrassed,– – are physically in pain, orare physically in pain, or– – are playing below capabilities.are playing below capabilities.

Implications for PracticeImplications for PracticeControl aggression via stress or emotional-Control aggression via stress or emotional-management trainingmanagement training (logs; ABCs etc..)(logs; ABCs etc..)

Keep winning in perspective.Keep winning in perspective.Distinguish between aggression (VIOLENCE) and assertive or Distinguish between aggression (VIOLENCE) and assertive or intense play.intense play.

Teach nonviolent conflict Teach nonviolent conflict resolution skills.resolution skills.

Teach appropriate behavior.Teach appropriate behavior.

(continued)

Implications for PracticeImplications for PracticeControl spectator aggression.Control spectator aggression.

Develop strict alcohol-control Develop strict alcohol-control policies.policies.

1.Immediately penalize spectators for Immediately penalize spectators for aggressive acts…legal charges?aggressive acts…legal charges?

2.

Hire officials who don’t tolerate aggression.Hire officials who don’t tolerate aggression.3.

Inform coaches that aggression Inform coaches that aggression won’t be tolerated.won’t be tolerated.4.

Work with media not to glorify aggressive acts. Work with media not to glorify aggressive acts. (no coverage)(no coverage)5.