CHAPTER 10 SECOND LANGUAGE ACQUISITION

What is SLA (second language acquisition)?

new

SLA is a new branch (1970s).

acquired vs. learned

Most second language is achieved by learning.

SLA & LAD

LAD (language acquisition device)

exposure ( an L2 environment) acquisition (acquire the second language)

SLA (second language acquisition)

It refers to any language acquired not as a mother tongue.

e.g. Taiwanese students

L1: Southern Min /Hakka /one of the Formosa

languages

L2: Mandarin (most literature on English learning in

Taiwan refers to English as a second language)

L3: English

SLA ≈ LA (the early stage)

At the early stage, the main methods of SLA essentially follow those on L1 studies: observations & experiments.

new term: interlanguage (Selinker, 1972)

focus:

SLA model ( L1 ) interlanguage ( L2 )

main issues:

(a) internal device

(b) input, process & output

(c) individual difference in cognition

(d) personalities

(e) the difference between L1 & L2 acquisition

(f) teaching environments & pedagogical theories

OUTLINE

1. universal grammar and SLA

2. the role of mother tone

3. input and output

4. individual difference

5. personalities and strategies

6. a comparison between L1 and L2 acquisition

7. types of teaching

8. teaching approaches

9. summary

1. UNIVERSAL GRAMMAR & SLA

SLA lies in the LAD & UG in the brain.

1.1 Language Acquisition Device (LAD)

1.2 Universal Grammar (UG)

1.3 LA (L1) &SLA (L2)

1.1 LAD (Language Acquisition Device)

LAD

innate in the brain like other biological organs

grow get matured fade away

UG in the LAD

LAD & LA / SLA

LAD (language acquisition device)

exposure ( an L1 / L2 environment) acquisition (acquire the language)

1.2 Universal Grammar (UG)

There is Universal Grammar composed of

universal principles & parameter settings

in LAD.

(1) universal principles

the grammar unit of internal structure

(2) parameter settings

different parameter settings different grammatical configurations

(1) universal principles

the grammar unit of internal structure

English: NP (noun phrase) + VP (verb phrase)

Japanese: NP (noun phrase) + VP (verb phrase)

(2) parameter setting basis

Different parameter settings give rise to different tree

configurations.

different parameter settings different tree configurations

English: an SVO (subject + verb + object) language

Japanese: an SOV (subject + object + verb) language

1. 3 LA (L1) & SLA (L2)

L1: need not to learn (no grammar)

UG fluently (V)

the universal grammar would help generate all the

possible grammatical structure of that language in

accordance with the parameter setting

L2: need to learn (L1 grammar)

L1 grammar fluently (X) accent

most SLA learners fail to speak the target language

fluently

foreign accents: transfer of the first language

SLA studies

If two grammars (L1 & L2) are put in a language acquisition device (LAD), what would happen?

L1 grammar

L2grammar

?LAD

2. THE ROLE OF MOTHER TONE

Three theories in SLA

Learners got a grammar of mother tongue

interference of L1 grammar

2.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)

2.2 Marked Differential Hypothesis (MDH)

2.3 Speech Learning Model (SLM)

2.1 Contrastive Analysis (CA)

compare L1 & L2

It emphasizes the importance in comparing the first

language (L1) with the second language (L2) and the

knowledge of which structure appears in the target

language but absent from the mother tongue.

core idea

A structure present in the target language (L2) but

absent from the first language (L1) will be difficult

for SLA learners.

language L1 L2

structure X V

SLA: difficult to acquire

a support in phonetic contrast :[, , , t, ,d, r, v]

CAH prediction: Chinese students acquire English consonants [, , , t, ,d, r, v] with more difficulties.

languages

consonantsChinese

(L1)English

(L2)

[, , , t, ,d, r, v]

X V

CAH prediction

these consonants are problematic for learners

a support in phonology

diphthong formation of five vowels [, , a, , ]

AC (Assimilatory Constraint)

Only vowels sharing with the same backness can

constitute a diphthong.

DC (Dissimilatory Constraint )

Vowels sharing the same backness are prohibited

from forming a diphthong.

language Mandarin Southern Min Englishconstraint assimilation dissimilation assimilationprediction (V) easy (X) difficult (V)

Mandarin diphthongsThe four Mandarin diphthongs are either [+ back] or [- back].

Southern Min diphthongVowels with different value in backness are allowed for a Southern Min diphthong, which is different from the constraint of Mandarin diphthong structure.

CAH predictionSouthern Min speakers vs. English a problem with diphthongs [ou] & [ei] (violate the DC) a deletion (deleting the less sonorant vowel)

Southern Min speakers vs. boat [bout] & bought [bt] (X)

Can CAH explain all errors or difficulties? (X)

e.g. *He teaches students must be patient.

(by a Taiwanese student, a direct translation

from Chinese: 他教學生必須有耐心 )

In structure:

a. He who teaches students must be patient.

b. He teaches students to be patient.

Error Analysis (EA)

Corder (1964)

Corder proposed that we had to collect and examine student’s errors before CA was applied to account for the possible errors.

CA predictions (V & X)

CA cannot always make correct predictions

The tenet of EA

It is to collect and sort out the error data that SLA students have made in the production of the target language.

EA & CA

EA (to collect & examine the errors) CA (to account for the possible errors)

the procedure

The procedure of error data collection

(1) finding out the errors

(2) pointing out why such errors emerge

(3) sorting out the error data

(4) trying to explain what causes errors to happen

(5) evaluating the impact on SLA

EA (V) Errors are of patterns (the DC).

e.g. Taiwanese students’ difficulties:

diphthongs [ou] (boat), [ei] (day), [ie] (yes)

contribution:

preventing students from fossilizing the errors

EA (X) Errors can hardly be sorted.

e.g. (X) *John taked Mary to the park yesterday.

the error: taked

the short knowledge of past tense (?)

the spelling of take suffixed with -ed (?)

CA & EA (two sides of a coin)

From the perspective of speech production (V)

have contributions in SLA (V)

always make correct predictions (V & X)

e.g. the consonants [, , , t, ,d, r, v]

(X, absent from Chinese inventories)

In CA, they are treated equally difficult,

but which one is the most difficult to acquire?

In EA, how many errors can constitute a pattern?

How can teachers help prevent errors from

happening in the class?

To what extent can an error be?

2.2 Markedness Differential Hypothesis (MDH) Any component of a grammar can be divided into

two types: marked & unmarked.

(1) marked:

It refers to those sounds or syntactic structures

appearing in fewer languages.

(2) unmarked:

It is the part shared with most languages.

marked appear in fewer languages rare ones

unmarked shared with most languages common ones

MDH rule:

Between A and B, A is marked if A occurs then B occurs, while not vice versa.

a linguistic data: [b, d, g] & [p, t, k]

stopslanguage

[b, d, g] marked

[p, t, k] unmarked

English[b, d, g]

(bate, date, gate)

[p, t, k] (spy, stick, sky)

Mandarin X[p, t, k]

(pai ‘to beat’, tai ‘to lead’, kai ‘to

cover’)

MDH tenet: the unmarked components can be acquired with ease the marked components are acquired with difficulty

[]: this consonant is highly marked

(it does not appear in most languages)

MDH: [] > [, , , t, d, r, v]

([] is the most difficult one)

CAH: [, , , t, ,d, r, v]

(equally difficult)

components marked(rare )

unmarked(common)

SLA difficult easy

[]: the lax front vowel [] of English is also marked.

(It is not one of the Cardinal vowels.

It is not phonemic in most languages.)

MDH: For English learners in Taiwan,

[] is usually substituted with [e],

resulting in the confusion between [] & [e]

(get vs. gate).

(unmarked ones easy to be acquired)

(the more marked the more difficult to be acquired)

2.3 Speech Learning Model (SLM)

perspective

perception: SLM

production: CA & EA

2 types

(1) new sounds (X in L1)

entirely absent from the inventories of the mother

tongue (those ones absent from L1)

(2) old sounds (= or ≈ in L1)

identical with or similar to the sounds of the mother

tongue (those ones similar or identical with L1)

a new sound:

unfamiliar

judged new

put in a new category

an old sound:

familiar

pass the L1 filter

(equivalence classification)

categorized into one of the mother tongue inventories

The Primary Idea of SLM

The new sounds are difficult to acquire at first but can mastered at last, on the contrary, the old sounds, especially similar ones, are easy to be acquired at first but difficult to be mastered at last (Chung, 2006).

new: difficult to be acquired in the beginning,

but can be learned eventually

old: easy to be acquired in the beginning,

but difficult to be mastered eventually

sounds in the beginning at last

new X V

old V X

acquisitiontheory CAH MDH SLM

difficult to be acquirednew

soundsmarked sounds

old sounds

easy to be acquiredold

soundsunmarked

soundsnew

sounds

Predictions:learning difficulties of CAH, MDH & SLM

, , , , , , ,

three predictions of a study on Taiwanese students’ acquisition of English fricatives & affricatives

CAH: All the sounds of , , , , , , , are

equally difficult because they are absent from

Mandarin.

MDH: is the most difficult, because it is marked.

SLM: , , can be mastered, while , , ,

cannot, because , , , are similar (old)

sounds.

The Findings

(1) most students are able to produce , , , well to

such an extent that there is no significant difference

between Taiwanese students and American natives

(2) there is no significant difference between junior and

senior high school students in terms of English

fricative and affricate production

The findings fall in the prediction of SLM.

3. INPUT AND OUTPUT

SLA processing works in the model of

( Input ) interlanguage ( Output)

3.1 Input Hypothesis

3.2 Output Hypothesis

3.3 Interaction Hypothesis

3.1 Input Hypothesis

Interlanguage (autonomous, independent)

(1) A language system which is neither the first language

nor of the second (target) language, but might share the

specific properties of the first and the second language

(the target language is not entirely captured or acquired).

L1 ≠ interlanguage ≠ L2

(2) a stage children’s language is not clear enough to be

comprehensible

children’s language ???

(3) an analogy

L1 (orange juice) + L2 (grape juice) = ?

Input Hypothesis

(1) mother tongue & input

Any LA is in need of input.

Children acquire L1, mother tongue works as input.

Parents usually provide children with simplified input.

(2) one single manner for SLA

The input should be comprehensible to the learners.

incomprehensible input = unintelligible input helpless

(3) i + 1 (Krashen): SLA works

i : the starting point of comprehensible input

+ 1: every class helps improve a little bit

(i) (+ 1): be comprehensible to learners

3.2 Output Hypothesis

(1) background

LA works in two ways: inputs & outputs.

an input (comprehensible) ≠ an output (comprehensible)

(2) the process

The act of producing language (speaking or writing)

constitutes, under certain circumstances, part of the

process of second language.

(3) the output (speak out)

The output is one of the important factors for a

successful SLA.

open the mouth & speak it out SLA (V)

3.3 Interaction Hypothesis

(1) Input + output

Both input & output interact with each other in the

whole process of SLA.

(2) Negotiation (achieve the goal of i+1 )

comprehensible input (not necessarily)

one may get the information by negotiation / discussion

repetition + confirmation + clarification

a successful negotiation

(3) input + output + input-output

Each of inputs, output, and input-output interaction

plays a certain role in SLA.

4. INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCE

Individual difference plays a role in SLA.

In terms of personality individuals are of two types:

(1) Field Independence

(2) Field Dependence

4.1 Field Independence

(1) characteristics

sensible & calm

good at logical reasoning

pictures / reading materials smaller components

reading: fully devoted, ignoring what happens around

(2) acquiring a second language (as mathematics)

realize sentences can be constructed on the basic

constituents vocabulary, categories & syntactic

structure in no time.

(3) In different environments

in traditional teaching & learning environment (V)

good at grammar analysis & sentence structure

in communicative approach environment (V)

never discouraged

happy with different activities in teaching

devote themselves to the comprehension of the

contexts

4.2 Field Dependence

(1) characteristics (opposite to field independence)

inclined to be distracted by activities around

good at fast reading

able to capture what is revealed in the text

emphasize comprehension

focus on the whole meaning of sentences / passage

(2) acquiring a second language

It seems that students of field independence are

superior to those of field dependence in almost

every respect save in SLA.

(3) in different learning environments

field of independence (V) & field of dependence (V)

In the SLA literature, both types have their own merits.

proper environments

Students of either type should be provided with proper

teaching or learning environments.

all learners SLA (V)

All the students are potentially able to acquire a good

second language.

5. PERSONALITIES & STRATEGIES

Language acquisition is subject to individual differences. There are other personalities, each of which has much to do with SLA.

5.1 Personalities

5.2 Learning Strategies

5.1 Personalities

unique

Personalities are just like faces, every

individual is unique.

4 categories

in SLA studies, four have been categorized:

(1) aptitude

(2) attitude

(3) motivation

(4) empathy

(1) aptitude (age, talents & out-spoken)

age

the earlier of exposure, the better

talent

some are inclined for languages, some mathematics

being out-spoken

(V) energetic & open-minded

like to practice speaking /

inclined to speak out whatever occurs to them

successful SLA (speaking, the first step)

(X) uncomfortable to speak

spend a lot of time reading superior in memorizing good essays improve SLA

(2) Attitude

positive attitude

students with positive attitudes find ways out to solve possible difficulties

better achievers in SLA

relation of attitudes & SLA achievements

The more positive attitude a learner has,

the more chances for him to be successful in SLA.

(3) Motivation (integrative & instrumental)

motivation in SLA environmentintegrative (V) immigrated to the US

(participate in the activities in the community)

instrument (X) English teachers in Taiwan (put into use what they learn)

high motivation successful learners

Whatever type of motivation it may be, students with high motivation are on a way to a successful learner of a second language.

(4) Empathy

participate

Empathy refers to the intention to participate.

e.g.

In an English conversation class, do you usually

participate in the discussion?

How many chances have you ever created yourself

to practice in English?

participate more, success more

The more chances you get to participate, the more

chances for you to become a successful learner.

5.2 Learning Strategies

strategy

Strategies refer to ways or approaches adopted in

enhancing the ability of the second language.

e. g. listening to the radio, watching TV programs,

studying on language websites, reading books,

newspapers, magazines & reading aloud

production strategy

imitate a certain person’s accent or way of speaking

avoidance strategy

we try to avoid using a structure foreign to us

e.g. students avoid the use of relative clauses in writing

6. A COMPARISON BETWEEN L1 & L2 ACQUISITION

There are similarities and differences between L1 and L2 acquisition.

6.1 Similarities of L1 & L2 Acquisition

6.2 Differences of L1 & L2 Acquisition

6.1 Similarities of L1 & L2 Acquisition

morphology, phonology & syntax

There is no great difference between L1 & L2

acquisition in terms of morphology,

phonology & syntax.

e.g. developmental errors

like went, goed & wented

occur in both L1 & L2 acquisition

6.2 Differences in L1 & L2 Acquisition

internal structure, environments, ways of acquisition

(1) internal structure

L1 (no grammar)

there is no concrete grammar for L1 learners

L2 (1 grammar)

there is at least one grammar in their brains

(interference with the L2 acquisition)

CA EA

SLA studies began with contrastive analysis between

L1 & L2. Then errors have been collected & sorted.

(2) environment

L1(enough exposure)

In L1 acquisition there is exposure enough for

children to acquire that language.

L2 (limited exposure)

In the L2 environments, L2 are scarce & limited.

e.g. in our acquisition of English

It is found hard to expose ourselves to English

speaking environments.

(3) way of acquisition

L1 acquisition (no one fails)

it emerges naturally

(X) pay any attention to learning strategies

(X) memorize vocabulary, grammatical structure, etc.

L2 acquisition(only a few success)

it takes a long time

(V) a classroom, a teacher, a formal schedule & the like

(V) pressure anxiety & motivation

where there is a goal of achieving, there is pressure.

the pressure brings about anxiety, deters motivation

7. TYPES OF TEACHING

In terms of exposure, there are two

types of teaching environments:

(1) total immersion &

(2) partial immersion.

7.1 Total Immersion

7.2 Partial Immersion

7.3 Three Possibilities

7.1 total immersion

all courses in L2

It refers to putting the learners into an environment

in which all the courses are taught in the second

language.

e.g.

some schools in Canada

L2: English (36 hours per week).

L1: French (the remaining school hours)

7.2 partial immersion

part in L2

It refers to only in part of the classes the second

language is spoken.

two sub-types

in Taiwan

L1: Mandarin is the main language

L2: English is taught as a foreign language

(3-4 hours in English class class language)

morning L2 in the morning, L1 in other timeafternoon L2 in the afternoon , L1 in the other time

7.3 three possibilities

(1) All in English (rare)

English teachers speak English from the beginning

to the ending of the class. This kind of teaching is

rare in actuality.

(2) Mandarin-main & English-sub (85 %)

Mandarin is the main language. But the teacher would

sometimes ask students in simple English. This type

accounts for more than 85% of all the English teachers.

(3) English-textbooks

English is only used when reading the textbooks.

8. TEACHING APPROACHES

There have been different approaches or teaching techniques developed in the literature.

8.1 Grammar Translation Method

8.2 Audio-lingual Approach

8.3 Communicative Approach

8.1 Grammar Translation Method(GTM)

the base

contrastive analysis (translating L2 L1)

the emphasis

differences of L1 & L2 grammar

the main target

grammatical analysis

(memorize vocabulary & sentence patterns)

(pay attention to reading & writing)

characteristics

teacher-centered

In class it is teachers that teach all the time, leaving

little space for students to practice what is taught.

a lot of grammar

a lot of grammatical knowledge instead of L2 itself

(used to be popular, still adopted in some schools)

a lot of work after class

A lot of assignments or exercises are left to students.

8.2 Audio-lingual Approach

the base

(1) Linguistic structuralism &

(2) psychological behaviorism

(1) linguistic structuralism (a house & a language)

building a house

bricks bricks combined together

walls 4 pieces of walls & a cover

a house

acquiring a language

phonemes (consonants / vowels )

syllables (e.g., tea [ti], see [si] )

words words + syntactic structure

a sentence

(2) psychological behaviorism

behaviorism: stimulus & response

(no substantial meaning) learners first encounter

sounds or phonetic symbols like [b]

(look & read) instructors ask the students to read [b]

sound whenever they look at the symbol [b]

(built the relation) the stimulus (the symbol [b]) &

the response (the reading of [b] sound)

(recognize) recognize that [b] is read [b] sound

the tenet (drill & practice / stimuli & responses)

In Taiwan (in Audio-lingual Approach)

(memorize K.K.) memorize the phonetic alphabet

(vocabulary) begin with vocabulary

(structure) basic sentence structure of English

(sentence) suitable words to suitable positions of a sentence

the weak point

(1) grammar & practice (???)

grammatical terminologies put them into practice

(2) authentic (???)

memorize a lot of sentence patterns put into use

8.3 Communicative Approach (a concept , a philosophy)

an approach of teaching (X)

the main idea (linguistic competence)

Learners are trained to get the linguistic competence.

SLA should be put in the same environments as L1.

e.g. L2: English

learners : exposed to authentic English environments

the purpose (communication)

The target language is for the purpose of communication.

to keep away from grammatical errors (X)

(native speakers run into slip tongues, mistakes or errors)

taught pattern by pattern (X) (not authentic.)

characteristics

(1) contents > forms

pay attention to contents but not forms

emphasizing the ability to communicate

start with mutual understanding by speaking & listening

(2) learners based

It is the learners that are concerned in the learning &

teaching process.

(learner’s personalities & attitudes begin to attract

intention in the field of SLA)

(teacher centered: GTM & Audio-lingual Approach)

Traditional teaching approaches

grammar, vocabulary & pronunciation rules

(the topmost important)

clear & concrete learning goals for each class

Communicative Approach

grammatical structures, vocabulary & pragmatics

(mixed & expressed in practical communication)

teachers:

good at organizing or creating authentic environments

students:

feel free in class & get encouragement by way of

successful communication

a comparison

9. SUMMARY

9.1 universal grammar and SLA

9.2 the role of mother tone

9.3 input and output

9.4 individual difference

9.5 personalities and strategies

9.6 a comparison between L1 & L2 acquisition

9.7 types of teaching

9.8 teaching approaches

9.1 universal grammar and SLA

LAD( Language Acquisition Device)

innate & biological (grow matured fade away)

UG(Universal Grammar)

universal principles & parameter settings in LAD

SLA model

( L1 ) interlanguage ( L2 )

LA & SLA

LA: acquire (grammar – X)

SLA: learn (grammar – L1)

9.2 the role of mother tone (L1 interference)

EA (Corder, 1964): collect & sort out error data

CA & EA: two sides of a coin

theory presenter types idea

CAH Lado (1957)

similar L1 = L2 / L1 ≈ L2different L1 ≠ L2

MDH Eckman(1997)

marked rareunmarked common

SLM Flege (1981)

new X in L1old = to L1 / ≈ to L1

theorySLA difficult easy

CAH new sounds old soundsMDH marked sounds unmarked soundsSLM old sounds new sounds

different predictions of learning difficulties

SLM: a foreign accent

New sounds are easy to get but they are hard to be mastered.

Old sounds make a second language sound with a foreign accent.

9.3 input and output

SLA model

Input interlanguge Output

three hypotheses

(1) Input Hypothesis

the input: be comprehensible to the learners

the acquisition process : i + 1

i : the beginning point

+1: a little improvement in acquisition

(2) Output Hypothesis

the output:

an input (comprehensible) ≠ an output (comprehensible)

the process:

act of producing language (speaking or writing)

SLA (V) e.g. open the mouth & speak out

(3) The Input-Output Interaction Hypothesis

the interaction: input + output + input-output

negotiation: repetition + confirmation + clarification

communication: problems & questions OK

(no worry about the comprehensibility of input)

9.4 individual difference

individual personalities are of two types

(1) field independence

good at logical reasoning

language as mathematics

sentences: vocabulary, categories, syntactic structure

(2) field dependence

good at fast reading

emphasize comprehension

focus on the whole meaning of sentences / passage

9.5 personalities and strategies

unique

Personalities are like faces.

4 factors for a successful SLA

(1) aptitude

age, talents & out-spoken

(2) attitude

more positive more successful SLA

(3) motivation

integrative & instrument

(4) empathy

participate more success more in SLA

9.6 a comparison between L1 and L2 acquisition

(1) L1 acquisition ≈ L2 acquisition

no great difference in morphology, phonology & syntax

(2) L1 acquisition ≠ L2 acquisition

internal structure

L1 (no grammar) vs. L2 (L1 grammar)

environments

L1 (enough exposure) vs. L2 (limited exposure)

ways of acquisition

L1 (emerges naturally) vs. L2 (takes a long time)

L1 (no one fails) vs. L2 (few learners success)

9.7 types of teaching

In terms of exposure, there are two types of teaching

environments.

(1) total immersion

all the courses are taught in L2

(2) partial immersion

only part of the classes in L2

3 possibilities In Taiwan

in English

Mandarin-main & English-sub

inMandarin

rare 85 % textbooks ( English)

9.8 teaching approaches

There have been different approaches or teaching techniques

developed in the literature, e.g. Grammar Translation method,

Audio-lingual Approach & Communicative Approach.

approach the base the focus the core idea

GT

Method

contrastive analysis

translating L2 L1

differences of

L1 & L2 grammargrammatical analysis

Audio-lingual

Approach

linguistic structuralism &

psychological behaviorism

drill & practice

stimuli & responses

drill

part of habits

Communicative

Approachcommunication authentic language

authentic environment

linguistic competence

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