What is second language acquisition (SLA)?

SLA is the way in which people learn a language other than their mother tongue inside or outside the classroom.

What is the reason for the emergence of the systematic study of how people acquire a second language?

Is the emergence of the systematic study of how people acquire L2 haphazard/accidental ? Elucidate /illuminate /illustrate.

No, this has been a time of the global village and the world wide web when learning a language became as a means of obtaining an education or securing employment .At such a

time there is an obvious need to discover about how second languages are learned .

What are the goals of studying SLA?

1-The description of L2 acquisition i.e.to describe how L2 acquisition proceeds and explain this process and why some learners seem to be better at it than others.

2-The description and identification of the external and the internal factors that account for why learners acquire an L2 in the way they do.

What are the external and internal factors that account for why learners acquire an L2 in the way they do?

Factors

External factors Internal factors

1-social milieu in which the leaning takes place 1- cognitive mechanisms 2-The input (simplified or natural) which enable the learner to extract information about L2 from the input. L2 learner bring enormous amount of knowledge to the task of learning an L2 because A-They have learnt a language L1 and we expect them to draw on them when learning L2. B-They possess general knowledge about the world which they can draw on to help them understand L2 input C-Possess communication strategies that can help them to make effective use of their

1

L2 knowledge. D-Learners are equipped with knowledge of how language in general work. This help them to learn a particular lang.,for example, There are inbuilt constraints on what is grammatically possible). E-There are a set of inherent factors that explain the individual differences in the rate of learning(aptitude ,n

atural disposition).

Second-language acquisition (W)

Second-language acquisition, second-language learning, or L2 (language 2) acquisition, is the scientific discipline devoted to studying the process by which people learn a second language. It is often abbreviated to SLA..

It refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second-language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subsequent languages. The field of second-language acquisition is a sub-discipline of applied linguistics, but also receives research attention from a variety of other disciplines, such as psychology and education.

A central theme in SLA research is that of interlanguage, the idea that the language that learners use is not simply the result of differences between the languages that they already know and the language that they are learning, but that it is a complete language system in its own right, with its own systematic rules. This interlanguage gradually develops as learners are exposed to the targeted language. The order in which learners acquire features of their new language stays remarkably constant (persistent/ perpetual/ endless), even for learners with different native languages, and regardless of whether they have had language instruction. However, languages that learners already know can have a significant influence on the process of learning a new one. This influence is known as language transfer.

The primary factor driving (motivating / energizing: give vitality and enthusiasm to) SLA appears to be the language input that learners receive. Learners become more advanced the longer they are immersed ( engrossed/ absorbed ) in the language they are learning, and the more time they spend doing free voluntary reading. Interestingly, the Monitor Model, developed by Stephen Krashen, a linguist, makes a distinction between language acquisition and language learning (acquisition-learning distinction), claiming that acquisition is a subconscious process, where learning is a conscious one. According to this hypothesis, the acquisition process in L2 is the same as L1

2

(Language 1) acquisition. The learning process is consciously learning and inputting the language being learned. [1] However, this goes as far as to state that input is all that is required for acquisition. Subsequent work, such as the interaction hypothesis and the comprehensible output hypothesis, has suggested that opportunities for output and for interaction may also be necessary for learners to reach more advanced levels.

Research on how exactly learners acquire a new language spans (extents , exceeds, overruns, transcends, surpasses) a number of different areas. Cognitive approaches to SLA research deal with the processes in the brain that underpin ( reinforce, support,strengthen) language acquisition, for example how paying attention to language affects the ability to learn it, or how language acquisition is related to short-term and long-term memory. Sociocultural approaches reject the notion that SLA is a purely psychological phenomenon, and attempt to explain it in a social context. Some key social factors that influence SLA are the level of immersion, connection to the L2 community, and gender. Linguistic approaches consider language separately from other kinds of knowledge, and attempt to use findings from the wider study of linguistics to explain SLA. There is also a considerable body of research about how SLA can be affected by individual factors such as age, learning strategies, and affective factors. A commonly discussed topic regarding age in SLA is the critical period hypothesis, which suggests that individuals lose the ability to fully learn a language after a particular age in childhood. Another topic of interest in SLA is the differences between adult and child learners. Learning strategies are commonly categorized as learning or communicative strategies, and are developed to improve their respective acquisition skills. Affective factors are emotional factors that influence an individual's ability to learn a new language. Common affective factors that influence acquisition are anxiety, personality, social attitudes, and motivation.

Individuals may also lose a language through a process called second-language attrition. This is often caused by lack of use or exposure to a language over time. The severity of attrition depends on a variety of factors including level of proficiency, age, social factors, and motivation at the time of acquisition. Finally, classroom research deals with the effect that language instruction has on acquisition.

Contents

1Definitions 2Research background 3Stages 4Comparisons with first-language acquisition 5Learner language

o 5.1Interlanguageo 5.2Sequences of acquisitiono 5.3Variability

6Language transfer 7Input and interaction 8Cognitive factors 9Sociocultural factors

o 9.1Sociocultural approaches 10Linguistic factors 11Individual variation

3

o 11.1Ageo 11.2Strategieso 11.3Affective factors

12Attrition 13Classroom second-language acquisition 14See also 15Notes 16References 17Bibliography

1- Definitions: X

Second language refers to any language learned in addition to a person's first language; although the concept is named second-language acquisition, it can also incorporate the learning of third, fourth, or subsequent languages.[2] Second-language acquisition refers to what learners do; it does not refer to practices in language teaching, although teaching can affect acquisition. The term acquisition was originally used to emphasize the non-conscious nature of the learning process, [note 1] but in recent years  learning and acquisition have become largely synonymous.

SLA can incorporate heritage language learning, but it does not usually incorporate bilingualism. Most SLA researchers see bilingualism as being the end result of learning a language, not the process itself, and see the term as referring to native-like fluency. Writers in fields such as education and psychology, however, often use bilingualism loosely to refer to all forms of multilingualism.[4] SLA is also not to be contrasted with the acquisition of a foreign language; rather, the learning of second languages and the learning of foreign languages involve the same fundamental processes in different situations.[5]

2-Research background:

The academic discipline of second-language acquisition is a subdiscipline of applied linguistics. It is broad-based and relatively new. As well as the various branches of linguistics, second-language acquisition is also closely related to psychology, cognitive psychology, and education. To separate the academic discipline from the learning process itself, the terms second-language acquisition research, second-language studies, and second-language acquisition studies are also used.

SLA research began as an interdisciplinary field, and because of this it is difficult to identify a precise starting date.[6] However, two papers in particular are seen as instrumental (contributive) to the development of the modern study of SLA: Pit Corder's 1967 essay "The Significance of Learners' Errors", and Larry Selinker's 1972 article "Interlanguage".[7] The field saw a great deal of development in the following decades.[6] Since the 1980s, SLA has been studied from a variety of disciplinary perspectives, and theoretical perspectives. In the early 2000s, some research suggested an equivalence between the acquisition of human languages and that of computer languages (e.g. Java) by children in the 5 to 11 year age window, though this has not been widely accepted among educators.[8] Significant approaches in the field today are: systemic functional linguistics, sociocultural theory, cognitive

4

linguistics, Noam Chomsky's  universalgrammar, skillacquisition theory and connectionism.[

There has been much debate about exactly how language is learned, and many issues are still unresolved. There are many theories of second-language acquisition, but none are accepted as a complete explanation by all SLA researchers. Due to the interdisciplinary nature of the field of SLA, this is not expected to happen in the foreseeable (predictable/probable/likely anticipated)future.

3-Stages:

Haynes divided the process of second-language acquisition into five stages:

1-preproduction, 2-early production, 3-speech emergence,4- intermediate fluency, and 5-advanced fluency.[9] The first stage, preproduction, is also known as the silent period. Learners at this stage have a receptive vocabulary of up to 500 words, but they do not yet speak their second language.[9] Not all learners go through a silent period. Some learners start speaking straight away, although their output may consist of imitation rather than creative language use. Others may be required to speak from the start as part of a language course. For learners that do go through a silent period, it may last around three to six months.[10]

The second of Hayne's stages of acquisition is early production, during which learners are able to speak in short phrases of one or two words. They can also memorize chunks of language, although they may make mistakes when using them. Learners typically have both an active and receptive vocabulary of around 1000 words. This stage normally lasts for around six months.[9]

The third stage is speech emergence. Learners' vocabularies increase to around 3000 words during this stage, and they can communicate using simple questions and phrases. They may often make grammatical errors.

The fourth stage is intermediate fluency. At this stage, learners have a vocabulary of around 6000 words, and can use more complicated sentence structures. They are also able to share their thoughts and opinions. Learners may make frequent errors with more complicated sentence structures.

The final stage is advanced fluency, which is typically reached somewhere between five and ten years of learning the language. Learners at this stage can function at a level close to native speakers.[9]

The time taken to reach a high level of proficiency can vary depending on the language learned. In the case of native English speakers, some estimates were provided by the Foreign Service Institute (FSI) of the U.S. Department of State, which compiled approximate learning expectations for a number of languages for their professional staff (native English speakers who generally already know other languages). Of the 63 languages analyzed, the five most difficult languages to reach proficiency in speaking and reading, requiring 88 weeks (2200 class hours), are Arabic, Cantonese, Mandarin, Japanese, and Korean. The Foreign Service

5

Institute and the National Virtual Translation Center both note that Japanese is typically more difficult to learn than other languages in this group.[11]

4-Comparisons with first-language acquisition:

Adults who learn a second language differ from children learning their first language in at least three ways: children are still developing their brains whereas adults have conscious minds, and adults have at least a first language that orients their thinking and speaking. Although some adult second-language learners reach very high levels of proficiency, pronunciation tends to be non-native. This lack of native pronunciation in adult learners is explained by the critical period hypothesis. When a learner's speech plateaus, it is known as fossilization.

Some errors that second-language learners make in their speech originate in their first language. For example, Spanish speakers learning English may say "Is raining" rather than "It is raining", leaving out the subject of the sentence. This kind of influence of the first language on the second is known as negative language transfer. French speakers learning English, however, do not usually make the same mistake of leaving out "it" in "It is raining." This is because pronominal and impersonal sentence subjects can be omitted (or as in this case, are not used in the first place) in Spanish but not in French.[12] The French speaker knowing to use a pronominal sentence subject when speaking English is an example of positive language transfer.

Also, when people learn a second language, the way they speak their first language changes in subtle ways. These changes can be with any aspect of language, from pronunciation and syntax to gestures the learner makes and the language features they tend to notice.[13] For example, French speakers who spoke English as a second language pronounced the /t/ sound in French differently from monolingual French speakers.[14] This kind of change in pronunciation has been found even at the onset(commencement) of second-language acquisition; for example, English speakers pronounced the English /p t k/ sounds, as well as English vowels, differently after they began to learn Korean.[15] These effects of the second language on the first led Vivian Cook to propose the idea of multi-competence, which sees the different languages a person speaks not as separate systems, but as related systems in their mind.[16]

5-Learner language:

Learner language is the written or spoken language produced by a learner. It is also the main type of data used in second-language acquisition research.[17] Much research in second-language acquisition is concerned with the internal representations of a language in the mind of the learner, and in how those representations change over time. It is not yet possible to inspect(examine/scrutinize/check) these representations directly with brain scans or similar techniques, so SLA researchers are forced to make inferences about these rules from learners' speech or writing.[18]

5-1 Interlanguage Final

6

Originally, attempts to describe learner language were based on comparing different languages and on analyzing learners' errors. However, these approaches weren't able to predict all the errors that learners made when in the process of learning a second language. For example, Serbo-Croat speakers learning English may say "What does Pat doing now?", although this is not a valid sentence in either language.[19]

To explain this kind of systematic error, the idea of the interlanguage was developed.[20] An interlanguage is an emerging language system in the mind of a second-language learner. A learner's interlanguage is not a deficient version of the language being learned filled with random errors, nor is it a language purely based on errors introduced from the learner's first language. Rather, it is a language in its own right, with its own systematic rules.[21] It is possible to view most aspects of language from an interlanguage perspective, including grammar,phonology, lexicon, and pragmatics.

There are three different processes that influence the creation of interlanguage:[19]

Language transfer . Learners fall back on their mother tongue to help create their language system. Transfer can be positive, i.e. promote learning, or negative, i.e. lead to mistakes. In the latter case, linguists also use the term interference error.

Overgeneralization. Learners use rules from the second language in roughly the same way that children overgeneralise in their first language. For example, a learner may say "I goed home", overgeneralizing the English rule of adding -ed to create past tense verb for

ms. English children also produce forms like goed, sticked, bringed. German children equally overextend regular past tense forms to irregular forms.

Simplification. Learners use a highly simplified form of language, similar to speech by children or in pidgins. This may be related to linguistic universals.

The concept of interlanguage has become very widespread in SLA research, and is often a basic assumption made by researchers.[21]

5-2 Sequences of acquisition:

1. Plural -s Girls go.2. Progressive -ing Girls going.3. Copula forms of be Girls are here.4. Auxiliary forms of be Girls are going.

5. Definite and indefinitearticles the and a The girls go.

6. Irregular past tense The girls went.7. Third person -s The girl goes.8. Possessive 's The girl's book.A typical order of acquisition for English, according to Vivian Cook's 2008 book Second Language Learning and Language Teaching.[22]

Order of acquisition

7

In the 1970s, several studies investigated the order in which learners acquired different grammatical structures.[note 2] These studies showed that there was little change in this order among learners with different first languages. Furthermore, it showed that the order was the same for adults and children, and that it did not even change if the learner had language lessons. This supported the idea that there were factors other than language transfer involved in learning second languages, and was a strong confirmation of the concept of interlanguage.

However, the studies did not find that the orders were exactly the same. Although there were remarkable similarities in the order in which all learners learned second-language grammar, there were still some differences among individuals and among learners with different first languages. It is also difficult to tell when exactly a grammatical structure has been learned, as learners may use structures correctly in some situations but not in others. Thus it is more accurate to speak of sequences of acquisition, in which specific grammatical features in a language are acquired before or after certain others but the overall order of acquisition is less rigid. For example, if neither feature B nor feature D can be acquired until feature A has been acquired and if feature C cannot be acquired until feature B has been acquired but if the acquisition of feature D does not require the possession of feature B (or, therefore, of feature C), then both acquisition order (A, B, C, D) and acquisition order (A, D, B, C) are possible.

5-3 Variability

Although second-language acquisition proceeds in discrete sequences, it does not progress from one step of a sequence to the next in an orderly fashion. There can be considerable variability in features of learners' interlanguage while progressing from one stage to the next.[23] For example, in one study by Rod Ellis a learner used both "No look my card" and "Don't look my card" while playing a game of bingo.[24] A small fraction of variation in interlanguage is free variation, when the learner uses two forms interchangeably. However, most variation is systemic variation, variation which depends on the context of utterances the learner makes.[23] Forms can vary depending on linguistic context, such as whether the subject of a sentence is a pronoun or a noun; they can vary depending on social context, such as using formal expressions with superiors and informal expressions with friends; and also, they can vary depending on psycholinguistic context, or in other words, on whether learners have the chance to plan what they are going to say.[23] The causes of variability are a matter of great debate among SLA researchers.[24]

6-Language transfer:

One important difference between first-language acquisition and second-language acquisition is that the process of second-language acquisition is influenced by languages that the learner already knows. This influence is known as language transfer.[note 3] Language transfer is a complex phenomenon resulting from interaction between learners’ prior linguistic knowledge, the target-language input they encounter, and their cognitive processes.[25] Language transfer is not always from the learner’s native language; it can also be from a second language, or a third.[25] Neither is it limited to any particular domain of language; language transfer can occur in grammar, pronunciation, vocabulary, discourse, and reading.[26]

8

One situation in which language transfer often occurs is when learners sense a similarity between a feature of a language that they already know and a corresponding feature of the interlanguage they have developed. If this happens, the acquisition of more complicated language forms may be delayed in favor of simpler language forms that resemble those of the language the learner is familiar with.[25] Learners may also decline to use some language forms at all if they are perceived as being too distant from their first language.[25]

Language transfer has been the subject of several studies, and many aspects of it remain unexplained.[25] Various hypotheses have been proposed to explain language transfer, but there is no single widely accepted explanation of why it occurs.[27]

7-Input and interaction:

The primary factor affecting language acquisition appears to be the input that the learner receives. Stephen Krashen took a very strong position on the importance of input, asserting that comprehensible input is all that is necessary for second-language acquisition.[28][29] Krashen pointed to studies showing that the length of time a person stays in a foreign country is closely linked with his level of language acquisition. Further evidence for input comes from studies on reading: large amounts of free voluntary reading have a significant positive effect on learners' vocabulary, grammar, and writing.[30][31] Input is also the mechanism by which people learn languages according to the universal grammar model.[32]

The type of input may also be important. One tenet (precept/view) of Krashen's theory is that input should not be grammatically sequenced. He claims that such sequencing, as found in language classrooms where lessons involve practicing a "structure of the day", is not necessary, and may even be harmful.[33]

While input is of vital importance, Krashen's assertion that only input matters in second-language acquisition has been contradicted by more recent research. For example, students enrolled in French-language immersion programs in Canada still produced non-native-like grammar when they spoke, even though they had years of meaning-focused lessons and their listening skills were statistically native-level.[34] Output appears to play an important role, and among other things, can help provide learners with feedback, make them concentrate on the form of what they are saying, and help them to automatize their language knowledge.[35] These processes have been codified in the theory of comprehensible output.[36]

Researchers have also pointed to interaction in the second language as being important for acquisition. According to Long's interaction hypothesis the conditions for acquisition are especially good when interacting in the second language; specifically, conditions are good when a breakdown in communication occurs and learners must negotiate for meaning. The modifications to speech arising from interactions like this help make input more comprehensible, provide feedback to the learner, and push learners to modify their speech.[37]

8-Cognitive factors:

9

Much modern research in second-language acquisition has taken a cognitive approach.[38] Cognitive research is concerned with the mental processes involved in language acquisition, and how they can explain the nature of learners' language knowledge. This area of research is based in the more general area of cognitive science, and uses many concepts and models used in more general cognitive theories of learning. As such, cognitive theories view second-language acquisition as a special case of more general learning mechanisms in the brain. This puts them in direct contrast with linguistic theories, which posit (postulate/suggest) that language acquisition uses a unique process different from other types of learning.[39][40]

The dominant model in cognitive approaches to second-language acquisition, and indeed in all second-language acquisition research, is the computational model.[40] The computational model involves three stages. In the first stage, learners retain certain features of the language input in short-term memory. (This retained input is known as intake.) Then, learners convert some of this intake into second-language knowledge, which is stored in long-term memory. Finally0.[41] Cognitive theories attempt to codify (organize, control, regulate, arrange, order, codify ) both the nature of the mental representations of intake and language knowledge, and the mental processes which underlie these stages.

In the early days of second-language acquisition research on interlanguage was seen as the basic representation of second-language knowledge; however, more recent research has taken a number of different approaches in characterizing the mental representation of language knowledge.[42] There are theories that hypothesize that learner language is inherently variable,[43]and there is the functionalist perspective that sees acquisition of language as intimately tied to the function it provides.[44] Some researchers make the distinction between implicit and explicit language knowledge, and some between declarative and procedural language knowledge.[45] There have also been approaches that argue for a dual-mode system in which some language knowledge is stored as rules, and other language knowledge as items.[46]

The mental processes that underlie second-language acquisition can be broken down into micro-processes and macro-processes. Micro-processes include attention;[47] working memory;[48]integration and restructuring. Restructuring is the process by which learners change their interlanguage systems;[49] and monitoring is the conscious attending of learners to their own language output.[50] Macro-processes include the distinction between intentional learning and incidental learning; and also the distinction between explicit and implicit learning.[51] Some of the notable cognitive theories of second-language acquisition include the nativization model, the multidimensional model and processability theory, emergentist models, the competition model, and skill-acquisition theories.[52]

Other cognitive approaches have looked at learners' speech production, particularly learners' speech planning and communication strategies. Speech planning can have an effect on learners' spoken output, and research in this area has focused on how planning affects three aspects of speech: complexity, accuracy, and fluency. Of these three, planning effects on fluency has had the most research attention.[53] Communication strategies are conscious strategies that learners employ to get around any instances of communication breakdown they may experience. Their effect

10

on second-language acquisition is unclear, with some researchers claiming they help it, and others claiming the opposite.

9-Sociocultural factors: Final

From the early days of the discipline researchers have also acknowledged that social aspects play an important role. There have been many different approaches to sociolinguistic study of second-language acquisition, and indeed, according to Rod Ellis, this plurality has meant that "sociolinguistic SLA is replete with a bewildering set of terms referring to the social aspects of L2 acquisition". Common to each of these approaches, however, is a rejection of language as a purely psychological phenomenon; instead, sociolinguistic research views the social context in which language is learned as essential for a proper understanding of the acquisition process.

Ellis identifies three types of social structure which can affect the acquisition of second languages: sociolinguistic setting, specific social factors, and situational factors. Sociolinguistic setting refers to the role of the second language in society, such as whether it is spoken by a majority or a minority of the population, whether its use is widespread or restricted to a few functional roles, or whether the society is predominantly bilingual or monolingual. Ellis also includes the distinction of whether the second language is learned in a natural or an educational setting.[  Specific social factors that can affect second-language acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic identity, with ethnic identity being the one that has received most research attention. Situational factors are those which vary between each social interaction. For example, a learner may use more polite language when talking to someone of higher social status, but more informal language when talking with friends.

Immersion programs provide a sociolinguistic setting that facilitates second-language acquisition. Immersion programs are educational programs where children are instructed in an L2 language. Although the language of instruction is the L2 language, the curriculum parallels that of non-immersion programs and clear support exists in the L1 language, as the teachers are all bilingual. The goal of these programs is to develop a high level of proficiency in both the L1 and L2 languages. Students in immersion programs have been shown to have greater levels of proficiency in their second language than students who receive second language education only as a subject in school. This is especially true in terms of their receptive skills. Also, students who join immersion programs earlier generally have greater second-language proficiency than their peers who join later. However, students who join later have been shown to gain native-like proficiency. Although immersion students' receptive skills are especially strong, their productive skills may suffer if they spend the majority of their time listening to instruction only. Grammatical skills and the ability to have precise vocabulary are particular areas of struggle. It is argued that immersion is necessary, but not sufficient for the development of native-like proficiency in a second language. Opportunities to engage in sustained conversation, and assignments that encourage syntactical, as well as semantic development will help develop the productive skills necessary for bilingual proficiency.

A learner's sense of connection to their in-group, as well as to the community of the target language emphasize the influence of the sociolinguistic setting, as well as social

11

factors within the second-language acquisition process. Social Identity Theory argues that an important factor for second language acquisition is the learner's perceived identity in relation to the community of the language being learned, as well as how the community of the target language perceives the learner. ]64[حفض  Whether or not a learner feels a sense of connection to the community or culture of the target language helps determine their social distance from the target culture. A smaller social distance is likely to encourage learners to acquire the second language, as their investment in the learning process is greater. Conversely, a greater social distance will discourage attempts to acquire the target language. However, negative views not only come from the learner, but the community of the target language might feel greater social distance to the learner, limiting the learner's ability to learn the language.[64] Whether or not bilingualism is valued by the culture or community of the learner is an important indicator for the motivation to learn a language.[65]

Gender, as a social factor, also influences SLA. Females have been found to have higher motivation and more positive attitudes than males for second-language acquisition. However, females are also more likely to present higher levels of anxiety, which may inhibit their ability to efficiently learn a new language.[66]

There have been several models developed to explain social effects on language acquisition. Schumann's Acculturation Model proposes that learners' rate of development and ultimate level of language achievement is a function of the "social distance" and the "psychological distance" between learners and the second-language community. In Schumann's model the social factors are most important, but the degree to which learners are comfortable with learning the second language also plays a role.[67] Another sociolinguistic model is Gardner's socio-educational model, which was designed to explain classroom language acquisition. Gardner's model focuses on the emotional aspects of SLA, arguing that positive motivation contributes to an individuals willingness to learn L2; furthermore, the goal of an individual to learn a L2 is based on the idea that the individual has a desire to be part of a culture, in other words, part of a (the targeted language) mono-linguistic community. Factors, such as integrativenss and attitudes towards the learning situation drive motivation. The outcome of positive motivation is not only linguistic, but non-linguistic, such that the learner has met the desired goal. Although there are many critics of Gardner's model, nonetheless many of these critics have been influenced by the merits that his model holds.[68] [69] The inter-group model proposes "ethnolinguistic vitality" as a key construct for second-language acquisition.[70] Language socialization is an approach with the premise that "linguistic and cultural knowledge are constructed through each other",[71] and saw increased attention after the year 2000.[72] Finally, Norton's theory ofsocial identity is an attempt to codify the relationship between power, identity, and language acquisition.[73]

Summary: Sociocultural factors

Many different approaches to sociolinguistic study of second-language acquisition rejects language as a purely psychological phenomenon; instead, sociolinguistic research views the social context in which language is learned as essential for a proper understanding of the acquisition process. three types of social structure which can affect the acquisition of second languages: sociolinguistic setting, specific social

12

factors, and situational factors. (1)Sociolinguistic setting refers to the role of the second language in society, such as whether it is spoken by a majority or a minority of the population, whether its use is widespread or restricted to a few functional roles, or whether the society is predominantly bilingual or monolingual. Ellis also includes the distinction of whether the second language is learned in a natural or an educational setting.(2)  Specific social factors that can affect second-language acquisition include age, gender, social class, and ethnic identity, with ethnic identity being the one that has received most research attention. (3) Situational factors are those which vary between each social interaction. For example, a learner may use more polite language when talking to someone of higher social status, but more informal language when talking with friends.

9-1 Sociocultural approaches: Final

A unique approach to SLA is Sociocultural theory. It was originally developed by Lev Vygotsky and his followers. Sociocultural theory has a fundamentally different set of assumptions to approaches to second-language acquisition based on the computational model. Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of mind and not of general social explanations of language acquisition. According to Ellis, "It is important to recognize... that this paradigm, despite the label 'sociocultural' does not seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how knowledge of an L2 is internalized through experiences of a sociocultural nature."

Summary:

Sociocultural theory/App. Is a unique approach to SLA. It has a fundamentally different set of assumptions to approaches to second-language acquisition based on the computational model. Furthermore, although it is closely affiliated with other social approaches, it is a theory of mind and not of general social explanations of language acquisition. According to Ellis, "It is important to recognize... that this paradigm, despite the label 'sociocultural' does not seek to explain how learners acquire the cultural values of the L2 but rather how knowledge of an L2 is internalized through experiences of a sociocultural nature."

10-Linguistic factors: Final

Linguistic approaches to explaining second-language acquisition spring from the wider study of linguistics. They differ from cognitive approaches and sociocultural approaches in that they consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other type of knowledge. The linguistic research tradition in second-language acquisition has developed in relative isolation from the cognitive and sociocultural research traditions, and as of 2010 the influence from the wider field of linguistics was still strong. Two main strands of research can be identified in the linguistic tradition: approaches informed by universal grammar, and typological approaches.

13

Typological universals are principles that hold for all the world's languages. They are found empirically, by surveying different languages and deducing/ construing which aspects of them could be universal; these aspects are then checked against other languages to verify the findings. The interlanguage of second-language learners have been shown to obey typological universals, and some researchers have suggested that typological universals may constrain interlanguage development.

The theory of universal grammar was proposed by Noam Chomsky in the 1950s, and has enjoyed considerable popularity in the field of linguistics. It focuses on describing the linguistic competence of an individual. He believed that children not only acquire language by learning descriptive rules of grammar; he claimed that children creatively play and form words as they learn language, creating meaning of these words, as opposed to the mechanism of memorizing language. It consists of a set of principles, which are universal and constant, and a set of parameters, which can be set differently for different languages. The "universals" in universal grammar differ from typological universals in that they are a mental construct derived by researchers, whereas typological universals are readily verifiable by data from world languages. It is widely accepted among researchers in the universal grammar framework that all first-language learners have access to universal grammar; this is not the case for second-language learners, however, and much research in the context of second-language acquisition has focused on what level of access learners may have.

Universal grammar theory can account for some of the observations made in SLA research. For example, L2-users often display knowledge about their L2 that they have not been exposed to.  L2-users will often be aware of ambiguous or ungrammatical L2 units that they have not learned from any external source, nor from their pre-existing L1 knowledge. This unsourced knowledge suggests the existence of a universal grammar.

Summary

Linguistic approaches differ from cognitive approaches and sociocultural approaches in that they consider language knowledge to be unique and distinct from any other type of knowledge. They developed in isolation from the cognitive and sociocultural research traditions.

Two main strands of research can be identified in the linguistic tradition: approaches informed by universal grammar, and typological approaches.

The former deals with the common features of all world languages. The later deals with linguistic competence of individuals.

The concept of universality is part of both the theories. However, The "universals" in universal grammar differ from typological universals in that they are a mental construct derived by researchers, whereas typological universals are readily verifiable by data from world languages. 

11-Individualvariation: Individual variation in second-language acquisition.Final

14

There is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach. Some learners learn quickly and reach a near-native level of competence, but others learn slowly and get stuck at relatively early stages of acquisition, despite living in the country where the language is spoken for several years. The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language learning aptitude in the 1950s, and later with the good language learner studies in the 1970s. More recently research has focused on a number of different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.

Summary

Individual variation:

There is considerable variation in the rate at which people learn second languages, and in the language level that they ultimately reach.

The reason for this disparity was first addressed with the study of language learning aptitude and style of learning.

Other different factors that affect individuals' language learning, in particular strategy, use, social and societal influences, personality, motivation, and anxiety. The relationship between age and the ability to learn languages has also been a subject of long-standing debate.

11-1 Age

The issue of age was first addressed with the critical period hypothesis. The strict version of this hypothesis states that there is a cut-off age at about 12, after which learners lose the ability to fully learn a language. However, the exact age marking the end of the critical period is debated, and ranges from age 6 to 13, with many arguing that it is around the onset of puberty/adolescence.[64] This strict version has since been rejected for second-language acquisition, as some adult learners have been observed who reach native-like levels of pronunciation and general fluency. However, in general, adult learners of a second-language rarely achieve the native-like fluency that children display, despite often progressing faster in the initial stages. This has led to speculation that age is indirectly related to other, more central factors that affect language learning.

Children who acquire two languages from birth are called simultaneous bilinguals. In these cases, both languages are spoken to the children by their parents or caregivers and they grow up knowing the two languages. These children generally reach linguistic milestones at the same time as their monolingual peers.[81] Children who do not learn two languages from infancy, but learn one language from birth, and another at some point during childhood, are referred to as sequential bilinguals. It is often assumed that a sequential bilingual's first language will be his or her most proficient language. However, this is not always the case. Over time and experience, a child's second language may become his or her strongest.[81] This is especially

15

likely to happen if a child's first language is a minority language spoken at home, and the child's second language is the majority language learned at school or in the community before the age of five. Proficiency for both simultaneous and sequential bilinguals is dependent upon the child's opportunities to engage in meaningful conversations in a variety of contexts. بحث → موضوع

Often simultaneous bilinguals are more proficient in their languages than sequential bilinguals. One argument for this is that simultaneous bilinguals develop more distinct representations of their languages, especially with regards to phonological and semantic levels of processing.[82] This would cause learners to have more differentiation between the languages, leading them to be able to recognize the subtle differences between the languages that less proficient learners would struggle to recognize. Learning a language earlier in life would help develop these distinct representations of language, as the learner's first language would be less established. Conversely, learning a language later in life would lead to more similar semantic representations.

Although child learners more often acquire native-like proficiency, older child and adult learners often progress faster in the initial stages of learning.[83] Older child and adult learners are quicker at acquiring the initial grammar knowledge than child learners, however, with enough time and exposure to the language, children surpass their older peers. Once surpassed, older learners often display clear language deficiencies compared to child learners. This has been attributed to having a solid grasp on the first language or mother tongue they were first immersed into. Having this cognitive ability already developed can aid the process of learning a second language since there is a better understanding of how language works. [84] For this same reason interaction with family and further development of the first language is encouraged along with positive reinforcement. The exact language deficiencies that occur past a certain age are not unanimously agreed upon. Some believe that only pronunciation is affected, while others believe other abilities are affected as well. However, some differences that are generally agreed upon include older learners having a noticeable accent, a smaller vocabulary, and making several linguistic errors.

Biological and non-biological explanation for age difference in proficiency : Final

(State Universal Grammar Biological and non-biological explanation for difference in proficiency between older learners and younger learners for age difference.)

One explanation for this difference in proficiency between older learners and younger learners involves Universal Grammar. Universal Grammar is a debated theory that suggests that people have innate knowledge of universal linguistic principles that is present from birth.[83] These principles guide children as they learn a language, but its parameters vary from language to language.[85] The theory assumes that, while Universal Grammar remains into adulthood, the ability to reset the parameters set for each language is lost, making it more difficult to learn a new language proficiently.[83] Since adults have an already established native language, the language acquisition process is much different for them, than young learners. The rules and principles that guide the use of the learners' native language plays a role in the way the second language is developed.[85]

16

Some non-biological explanations for second-language acquisition age differences include variations in social and psychological factors, such as motivation; the learner's linguistic environment; and the level of exposure. Even with less advantageous nonbiological influences, many child learners will attain a greater level of proficiency than adult learners with more advantageous nonbiological influences.[83]

11-2 Strategies 2nd Mid-Semester Ex.

There has been considerable attention paid to the strategies which learners use when learning a second language. Strategies have been found to be of critical importance, so much so that strategic competence has been suggested as a major component of communicative competence . Strategies are commonly divided into learning strategies and communicative strategies, although there are other ways of categorizing them. Learning strategies are techniques used to improve learning, such as mnemonics or using a dictionary. المستخدمة و التعلم استراتيجيات التقنيات

التعلم اإلستذكار مثل، لتحسين القاموس باستخدام أو فن Communicative strategies are strategies a learner uses to convey meaning even when she doesn't have access to the correct form, such as using pro-forms like thing, or using non-verbal means such as gestures. If learning strategies and communicative strategies are used properly language acquisition will be successful. Some points to keep in mind while learning and additional language are: providing information that is of interest to the student, offering opportunities for the student to share their knowledge and teaching appropriate techniques for the uses of the learning resources available.

11-3 Affective factors → بحث موضوع

The learner's attitude to the learning process has also been identified as being critically important to second-language acquisition. Anxiety in language-learning situations has been almost unanimously shown to be detrimental to successful learning. Anxiety interferes with the mental processing of language because the demands of anxiety-related thoughts create competition for mental resources. This results in less available storage and energy for tasks required for language processing. Not only this, but anxiety is also usually accompanied by self-deprecating thoughts and fear of failure, which can be detrimental for an individual's ability to learn a new language. Learning a new language provides a unique situation which may even produce a specific type of anxiety, called language anxiety, that affects the quality of acquisition. Also, anxiety may be detrimental for SLA because it can influence a learner's ability to attend to, concentrate on, and encode language information.[ It may affect speed and accuracy of learning. Further, the apprehension/ fear created as a result of anxiety inhibits the learner's ability to retrieve and produce the correct information.

A related factor, personality, has also received attention. There has been discussion about the effects of extravert and introver t  personalities. Extraverted qualities may help learners seek out opportunities and people to assist with L2 learning, whereas introverts may find it more difficult to seek out such opportunities for interaction.[64] However, it has also been suggested that, while extraverts might experience greater fluency, introverts are likely to make fewer linguistic errors. Further, while extraversion might be beneficial through its encouragement of learning autonomously,

17

it may also present challenges as learners may find reflective and time-management skills to be difficult.[90] However, one study has found that there were no significant differences between extraverts and introverts on the way they achieve success in a second language.[91]

Other personality factors, such as conscientiousness, agreeableness, and openness influence self-regulation, which helps L2 learners engage, process meaning, and adapt their thoughts, feelings, and actions to benefit the acquisition process.[90] SLA research has shown conscientiousness to be associated with time-management skills, metacognition, analytic learning, and persistence; agreeableness to effort; and openness to elaborative learning, intelligence, and metacognition. Both genetics and the learner's environment impact the personality of the learner, either facilitating or hindering an individual's ability to learn.

Social attitudes such as gender roles and community views toward language learning have also proven critical. Language learning can be severely hampered by cultural attitudes, with a frequently cited example being the difficulty of Navajo children in learning English.

Also, the motivation of the individual learner is of vital importance to the success of language learning. Motivation is influenced by goal salience, valence, and self-efficacy.[92] In this context, goal salience is the importance of the L2 learner's goal, as well as how often the goal is pursued; valence is the value the L2 learner places on SLA, determined by desire to learn and attitudes about learning the L2; and self-efficacy is the learner's own belief that he or she is capable of achieving the linguistic goal.[92] Studies have consistently shown that intrinsic motivation, or a genuine interest in the language itself, is more effective over the long term than extrinsic motivation, as in learning a language for a reward such as high grades or praise. However, motivation is dynamic and, as a L2 learner's fluency develops, their extrinsic motivation may evolve to become more intrinsic.[92] Learner motivation can develop through contact with the L2 community and culture, as learners often desire to communicate and identify with individuals in the L2 community. Further, a supportive learning environment facilitates motivation through the increase in self-confidence and autonomy.[92] Learners in a supportive environment are more often willing to take on challenging tasks, thus encouraging L2 development.

Affective factors: Anxiety →intro,extro→personality

12-Attrition:(the action or process of gradually reducing the strength or effectiveness of someone or something through sustained attack or pressure.)

Main article: Second-language attrition

Attrition is the loss of proficiency in a language caused by a lack of exposure to or use of a language.[64] It is a natural part of the language experience as it exists within a dynamic environment.[93] As the environment changes, the language adapts. One way in which it does this is by using L1 as a tool to navigate the periods of change associated with acquisition and attrition. A learner's L2 is not suddenly lost with disuse, but its communicative functions are slowly replaced by those of the L1.[93]

18

Similar to second-language acquisition, second-language attrition occurs in stages. However, according to the regression hypothesis, the stages of attrition occur in reverse order of acquisition. With acquisition, receptive skills develop first, and then productive skills, and with attrition, productive skills are lost first, and then receptive skills.[93]

Age, proficiency level, and social factors play a role in the way attrition occurs.[93] Most often younger children are quicker than adults to lose their L2 when it is left unused. However, if a child has established a high level of proficiency, it may take him or her several years to lose the language. Proficiency level seems to play the largest role in the extent of attrition. For very proficient individuals, there is a period of time where very little, if any, attrition is observed. For some, residual learning might even occur, which is the apparent improvement within the L2.[93]Within the first five years of language disuse, the total percentage of language knowledge lost will be less for a proficient individual than for someone less proficient. A cognitive psychological explanation for this suggests that a higher level of proficiency involves the use of schemas, or mental representations for linguistic structures. Schemas involve deeper mental processes for mental retrieval that are resistant to attrition. As a result, information that is tied to this system is less likely to experience less extreme attrition than information that is not.[93] Finally, social factors may play an indirect role in attrition. In particular, motivation and attitude influence the process. Higher levels of motivation, and a positive attitude toward the language and the corresponding community may lessen attrition. This is likely due to the higher level of competence achieved in L2 when the learner is motivated and has a positive attitude.[93]

13-Classroom second-language acquisition 2nd Mid-Term Ex

While considerable SLA research has been devoted to language learning in a natural setting, there have also been efforts made to investigate second-language acquisition in the classroom. This kind of research has a significant overlap with language education, and it is mainly concerned with the effect that instruction has on the learner. It also explores what teachers do, the classroom context, the dynamics of classroom communication. It is both qualitative and quantitative research.

The research has been wide-ranging. There have been attempts made to systematically measure the effectiveness of language teaching practices for every level of language, from phonetics to pragmatics, and for almost every current teaching methodology. This research has indicated that many traditional language-teaching techniques are extremely inefficient.[94]cited in Ellis 1994 It is generally agreed that pedagogy restricted to teaching grammar rules and vocabulary lists does not give students the ability to use the L2 with accuracy and fluency. Rather, to become proficient in the second language, the learner must be given opportunities to use it for communicative purposes.[95][96]

Another area of research has been on the effects of corrective feedback in assisting learners.Thist has been shown to vary depending on the technique used to make the correction, and the overall focus of the classroom, whether on formal accuracy or on communication of meaningful content. There is also considerable interest in supplementing published research with approaches that engage language teachers in

19

action research on learner language in their own classrooms. As teachers become aware of the features of learner language produced by their students, they can refine their pedagogical intervention to maximize interlanguage development

How does a researcher know how learners acquire an L2?Final

لل يمكن كيفية باحث كيف الثانية المتعلمين اكتساب معرفة للغة1-Asking a successful learner how he did it.

2-A better approach might be to find out what the learners actually do when they try to learn an L2 by collecting samples of learner language over a period of time and analyze them carefully. These samples provide evidence of what the learners know about the language they are trying to learn.

What is the difference between collecting the learner's sample of performance at different point in time and at specific time?

If samples are collected at different points in time it may also be possible to find how learners' knowledge gradually develops and accordingly the learner language will be described to know how gradually the learner's language changed over time.

Case study: Define Case study: It is a detailed study of learners acquisition of an L2 .It is typically longitudinal , involving the collection of samples of the learners ' speech or writing over a period of time. Final Thomas offers the following definition of case study: "Case studies are analyses of persons, events, decisions, periods, projects, policies, institutions, or other systems that are studied holistically by one or more method. The case that is the subject of the inquiry will be an instance of a class of phenomena that provides an analytical frame — an object — within which the study is conducted and which the case illuminates and explicates." According to J.

Creswell, data collection in a case study occurs over a "sustained period of time".

What is the purpose of a case study in language teaching?

In the social sciences and life sciences, a case study (or case report) is a descriptive, exploratory or explanatory analysis of a person, group or event. An explanatory case study is used to explore causation in order to find underlying principles. Case studies may be prospective (in which criteria are established and cases fitting the criteria are included as they become available) or retrospective (in which criteria are established for selecting cases from historical records for inclusion in the study).

what are learning styles?

learning styles are simply different approaches or ways of learning.

what are the types of learning styles?

visual learners: learn through seeing...                    .

these learners need to see the teacher's body language and facial expression to fully understand the content of a lesson. they tend to prefer sitting at the front of the classroom to avoid visual obstructions (e.g. people's heads). they may think in pictures and learn best from visual displays including: diagrams, illustrated text

20

books, overhead transparencies, videos, flipcharts and hand-outs.  during a lecture or classroom discussion, visual learners often prefer to take detailed notes to absorb the information.

auditory learners: learn through listening...

they learn best through verbal lectures, discussions, talking things through and listening to what others have to say. auditory learners interpret the underlying meanings of speech through listening to tone of voice, pitch, speed and other nuances. written information may have little meaning until it is heard. these learners often benefit from reading text aloud and using a tape recorder.

tactile/kinesthetic learners: learn through , moving, doing and touching...   

Tactile/kinesthetic persons learn best through a hands-on approach, actively exploring the physical world around them. they may find it hard to sit still for long periods and may become distracted by their need for activity and exploration.

Define Naturalistic learner: Final

He Is someone who learns the language at the same time as learning to communicate in it.

What is Methodology? It is concerned with how a learner develop the ability to communicate in L2.

Two case studies: A comparison .

Both longitudinal

Adult learner Child learners

Had a little formal instruction in English Beginners

Naturalistic learner (natural surrounding) Classroom context

How Wes developed the ability to communicate in an L2 How J &R acquired the ability to perform a single language function

Examining his grammatical development X

His ability to use English in a situational appropriate X

Ways and how he hold conversation

Methodological issues

The methodological issues we learn from the two case studies.

What is that needs to be described of the holistic repertoire of a target language?

21

Which part of the holistic repertoire of a target language that needs to be described/description .

إلى يحتاج الذي الجزء المستهدفة وصف ما اللغة ؟من

This depends on the goal of a researcher. A researcher cannot describe everything a learner acquires in the L2 at one and the same time. Different researchers focus on different languages features at one time . For example, Schmidt , in the case study ,focused on how Wes developed the ability to communicate in the L2, examining his grammatical development his ability to use English in a situational appropriate ways, and how he learned to hold successful conversation .However, Ellis's goal was concerned with how J. and R. acquired the ability to perform a single language function (e.g. request) .So, that needs to be

described is the unit under investigation at the time of the ongoing research .

What it means to say that a learner has acquired a feature of the target Language?

Some researchers define language acquisition in terms of whether the learners manifest patterns of language use that are more or less the same as the native speakers of the target language ; however, it might be argued that this conflates/mix/blend/fuse what a learner knows with what he can do. It is observed that learners most of the time do not perform

according to knowledge they process .

There is another problem in determining whether learners have acquired a particular feature .Learner may manifest target-like use of a feature in a formula without having acquired the ability to use the feature productively.

Another problem is the dichotomy between the form and function of learner 's output. For example, a learner may correlate a certain linguistic form for an unsuitable function. Hence, I believe that there is a need to investigate the split between the competence and

performance of the L2 learners .

Issues in the description of learners language-Description of findings

What are the inferred issues in the description of learners language ?

What are the benefitted facts from describing learners' language?

. اإلجابة نفس السؤلين لهاذين اإلجابة

1-Bothe the two studies set out that the knowledge of learners continuously changes over time.

2-Errors of different nature are made, e.g. errors of omission, over use ,sociolinguistic errors.

3-Large numbers of formulaic expressions/chunks are made .

Some sequence of acquisition is observed in the case study i.e. Learners acquire aspects of an L2 systematically and follow particular development routes with some feature being acquired before other.

22

The same sequence of development in different learners acquisition was observed in two case studies; however ,can these finding be generalized universally? I think it is necessary to be verified by repeating the case study in different situational contexts specially in places of

various socio-cultural differences .

Issues in the explanation of L2 acquisition

What can account for this descriptive findings?

What are the different kinds of learning involved in L2 acquisition?

L2 acquisition involves different kinds of learning, such as :

1-Learners must engage in both item learning, internalizing chunks of language structure (i.e. formulas , e.g. Can I have a …….? and acquire rules, system learning, linguistic competence Can + variety of verbs like have ,run help that express ability, possibility ,permission e t c . An explanation of L2 must account for both item learning and system learning and how the two interrelated.

An explanation of L2 acquisition must account for both item learning and system learning and how they interrelated .

They learn some kind of rule for 'can .'

The systematic nature of L2also needs explanation .Why did Wes seems to use some grammatical items before others? Why did J and R learn the different ways of making a requests in the particular sequence they did.

2-Learners follow a particular development pattern. This systematic nature of L2 acquisition (i.e. learning some grammatical item before others ) also requires explanation. One of the possible explanations is that learner follow a particular developmental pattern because their mental faculties are structured in such a way that this is the way they have to learn. It is argued that these facult ies regulate what learners take from the

input and how they store the information in their memories .

3-None of the three learners in the two case studies reached native speaker level of performance.

Why do learners follow a particular developmental patterns ?

learners follow a particular developmental patterns because their mental faculties are structured in such a way that this is the way they have to learn .These faculties regulate

what learners take from the input and how they store the information in their memories.

What is the main way of investigating L2 acquisition?

The main way of investigating L2 acquisition is by(1) collecting and describing samples of learner language. The description may focus on

1-the kind of errors learners make and

23

2-how these errors change over time, or

3-it may identify developmental patterns by describing the stages in the acquisition of a particular grammatical features such as past tense, or

4 -it may examine the variability found in learner language .

What is the main way of investigating L2A ?

The nature of learner language :Error and Error Analysis

Why do pedagogists focus on what learners get wrong (errors)rather than on what they get right?

This is because

1-errors are highly conspicuous of learner language?

2-It is useful for a teacher to know what errors a learner makes.

3-Making errors may actually help learners to learn themself-correct the errors they make.

Identifying errors : What do you know about the identification of learner errors?

Logically, Identification of learner errors is before analyzing them .This is a difficult process .

How to identify learner errors?

We have to compare the sentences learners produce with what seem to be normal or correct sentences in the target language which corresponds with them.

How can we be sure that when a learner produces a deviant form of language it is not just an accidental slip of the tongue? Final

One way to check is the consistency of learners' performance if they consistently substitute for example "contain" instead of "contained" i.e. the wrong element instead of the correct one then this will indicate a lack of knowledge –an error .However ,if they sometimes use the wrong one and another time use the right one then this would suggest that they possess knowledge of the correct form and are just slipping up –a mistake.

Another way might be to ask learners to try to correct their own deviant utterances where they are unable to, the deviations are errors ;where they are successful ,they are mistakes .

What is the difference between errors and mistakes ? Final

Errors reflect a gab in a learner's knowledge ;they occur because the learner does not know what is correct ,whereas mistakes reflect occasional lapses in performance; they occur because in particular instances ,the learner is unable to perform what he or she knows. One way of distinguishing error and mistake is checking consistency of learners' performance. If they constantly substitute incorrect for correct then this lack of knowledge indicates an

24

error. However, if they sometimes use the correct form and another times use the incorrect one then this suggest that they possess knowledge of the correct form and just they are

slipping up .

How to describe errors ?

There are several ways to describe and classify errors .One way is to classify errors into grammatical categories .For example ,we could gather all errors relating to verb and then identify the different kinds of verb errors in our sample.

Final

Another way is to try to identify general ways in which the learners' utterances differ from the reconstructed target-language utterances .This includes:

1-Omission (leaving out an item that is required for an utterance to be considered grammatical.

2-Misinformation i.e. using one grammatical form in place of another grammatical form.

3-Misordering (i.e. putting the words in an utterance in the wrong order.

what is the benefit from classifying errors in a certain way? Final

Classifying errors in certain ways can help us to diagnose learners' learning problems at any one stage of their development , and also plot how changes in errors patterns occur over time.

Explain the learner errors and state whether they are haphazardly done. Final

Errors to a large extent systematic and to a certain extent predictable .Evidences were found of systematic regular errors .This indicates that learner constructed some kind of rules that are different from the target language. Errors are not only systematic but also many of them are universal such as making the task of learning and using the L2 simpler , Errors .All errors

of omission , overgeneralization and transfer are in the language of L2 learners .

What are the different sources of errors?

1-Universal : Some errors are universal reflecting learners' attempts to make the task of learning and using the L2 simpler.

e.g. learners commit errors of omission leaving out "a", "the", " and the plural form.

2-Errors of over generalization ,e.g. eated

3-Eroors of transfer i.e. the use of L1 rules in the L2 learning.

Errors Evaluation

Why do language teachers evaluate errors

25

Errors analysis is important for helping learners learn L2.Some errors are more serious than others because they are more likely to interfere in the intelligibility of what someone says.

Teachers should focus on errors such as global errors.

What are global errors ?Final

Global errors occur because the learners violate the overall structure of a sentence . Consequently ,it is difficult to understand the message as the learner violates the basic structure of the sentence.

What are local errors ? Final

Local errors affect only a single constituent in the sentence .These do not create any processing problems.

What is the developmental pattern learners follow in the early stages of L2 acquisition ?

In learning L2 learners undergo silent period .That is they make no attempt to say anything . They may be learning a lot about language through listening to or reading .The silent period may serve as a preparation for subsequent production. Then their speech characterized by the formulaic chunks such as "how do you do ", Can I have …?, My name is …? In the early L2

learning.

The second characteristic of early L2 speech is propositional simplification .For example, the teacher wanted the teacher to give him a blue crayon but said only, "me no blue", i.e. I do not have a blue crayon.

How do researchers investigate the order of acquisition?

Researchers choose a number of grammatical structures to study; for example –ing progressive ,auxiliary be, and plurals. They, then, collect samples of learner language and identify how accurately each feature is used by different learners .This enables them to arrive at an accuracy order .That is ,they rank the features according to how accurately each

feature is used by the learners .

Is accuracy order the same as the order of acquisition?

Yes, some researchers argue that the accuracy order must be the same as the order of acquisition.

On what pretext do researchers argue that the accuracy order must be the same as the order of acquisition?

On the ground that the more accurately learners are able to use particular feature the more likely they are to have acquired that feature early.

What is the justification for a definite accuracy order of acquisition of grammatical structures irrespective of the differences of learners' mother tongue ,their age and

whether they have received formal instruction or not?

26

Because it was observed that all the learners that were examined perform progressive –ing, auxiliary be and plural –s most accurately suggesting that they have acquired these features first .Articles and irregular past come next .The most difficult structure are regular pas and third person –s .On the basis of these findings, it was suggested that there must be

structural order of acquisition that all learners follow .

Is there any similarity between L1 and L2 learners in their acquisition of a language?

Yes, the reduced speech is a very common characteristic for both L2 learners and first language acquisition children learners who produce in the early stages of learning their mother tongue reduced speech. The occurrence of this kind of basic language appears to be universal of both first and second language acquisition.

Do learners acquire the grammatical structures of an L2 in a definite order?

Researchers have shown that there is a definite accuracy order and this remain the same irrespective of learner's mother tongue ,their age and whether they have received formal language instruction or not.

Is L2A the result of environmental factors that govern the input to which learners are exposed, or of internal mental factors which somehow dictate how learners acquire

grammatical structure?

Is there a general consensus among researchers on the universal nature of acquisition order? Explain .

كالتالي : واحده اجابتهما السؤلين هذين

Not all researchers are convinced that there is a universal natural order .Some have based their rejection on the ground that it is wrong to assume that the order of accuracy is the same as the order of acquisition .They have produced evidences to that sometimes learners begin using structure accurately early on only to start making errors with it later. So, it cannot be concluded that learners have acquired structure simply because they can use it accurately. Other researchers have shown that the order of acquisition vary somewhat

according to the learner first language .

Another problem is that researchers treat acquisition as if it is accumulating linguistic structures. Acquisition is seen as analogous to building a wall, with one brick set in place before another is placed on top. Such view is seriously mistaken, as studies of individuals grammatical structure have made clear.Even a simplest grammatical structure is subjected to a process of a gradual development manifesting a clear stages.

Do learners learn a particular grammatical structure such as past tense in a single step or do they proceed through a number of interim stages before they master the target

structure?

When learners acquire grammatical structure the do so gradually moving through series of stages en route to acquire the native speaker rule. The acquisition of a particular grammatical structure, therefore, must be seen as a process involving transitional

grammatical constructions. The following example will suffice the illustration of the idea .

27

Stage description examples 1 learners fail to make verb for past time …………………………………………..……eat 2 learners begin to produce irregular past tense …………………………………………ate 3 learners overgeneralize the regular past tense form ……………………………..eated 4 sometimes learner produce hybrid forms ated 5 learners produce correct irregular past tense form ate These sequence are instructive. They reveal that the correct structural form (ate)does not necessarily mean that this form has been acquired .Indeed ,in this sequence ,learners producing "eated " are ,in fact, more advanced than learners at stage 2 who produce" ate" .Acquisition follow U-shaped of development; that is initially learners may display high level of accuracy only to apparently regress later before finally performing in accordance with the target language forms. This kind of reorganization which is believed to be prevalent

in L2 acquisition is referred to as restructuring .

As learners appear to restructure their grammatical systems ,they may appear to regress whereas in fact they are advancing.

Acquisition is a highly complex affair. Not only are there stages but stages within stages. For example, learners find it easier to use verbs that refer to events such as "arrive" than to use verbs that refer to activities such as "sleep" and most difficult to use verbs that refer to verbs of state such as" want". Learners passes through a highly complex stages which are not sharply defined .Learners are blurred as they oscillate between stages.

What are the implications of discovering of common patterns in the way in which learner language changes over time?

على ما المترتبة اآلثار في األنماط اكتشاف هي التي شائعة المتعلم تتغير الطريقة لغة على بهاالزمن ؟ مر

What is the implication of discovering a of common patterns for sequence of acquisition of the S2L

على ما المترتبة اآلثار ل أنماط اكتشاف هي الثانية اكتسابتسلسل مشتركة ؟اللغة

The implications of discovering of common patterns in the way in which learner language changes over time is one of the most important findings of SLA .

It suggests that some linguistic features (particularly grammatical ones)are inherently easier to learn than others.

Why is the discovery of common patterns in the way in which learner language changes over time is one of the most important findings of SLA?

Because (1) it provides a further support for the conclusions reached from the study of learner errors ,namely that L2 acquisition is systematic and to a large extent is a universal ,reflecting ways in which internal cognitive mechanisms control acquisition irrespective of the personal background of learners or the settings in which they learn.

(2)It suggests that some linguistic features (particularly grammatical ones )are inherently easier to learn than others

28

Variability in learner language

What is meant by learner language is a systematic?

That is at a particular stage of development ,learners consistently use the same grammatical form ,although this is often different from that employed by native speakers. It is also observed that learner language is variable. At any given stage of development learner sometimes employ one form and sometimes another.

How do we explain the apparent clashes between using a specific grammatical category correctly at one time and erroneously at another?

It was observed in the study case that a learner conflates (يخلط)and fluctuates(يتأرجح ) between correct and erroneous linguistic form. This observation does not invalidate(يبطل) the clam that learner language is systematic science it is possible that variability is also systematic. It was seen that evidence of systematic variability. Learners' choice of past tense marker (i.e. Zero ,progressive form or correct past tense form) depends ,in part, on whether the verb refer to an event, an activity, or state. Thus, it appears that learners varying their use of L2 according to linguistic context( refer to P.26 SLA, Rod Ellis),situational context(talking to a friend or stranger), and psycholinguistic contexts( whether a learner has opportunity to plan or not etc.).

What is free variation?

Learners at different stages of development in the acquisition of grammatical structure use single form for a variety of functions. For example, they initially acquire the simple form of the verb "paint "and use it to refer to present, past and future .They keep on oscillating until they approximate with the native speaker.

The aim of this lecture is to address some questions:

1-We have learnt learner's language is systematic, i.e. They constantly use the same grammatical form ,although this is often different from that employed native speaker.

2-Learners language is variable: learners sometime employ one form and sometime another.

Yesterday the thief steal the suitcase.

Yesterday the thief stealing the suitcase.

Or an error may alternate with correct target language form:

Yesterday the thief steal the suitcase.

Yesterday the thief stole the suitcase.

Learners performance displayed the use of both correct and erroneous form.

Does the variability in learner language invalidate the claim that learner language is systematic?

29

No, variability in learner language does not invalidate the claim that learner language is systematic since it is possible that the variability is also systematic. That is we may be able to explain ,and even predict when learner use one form and when another.

What is the nature and reason for the variability of learner's language?

Research on variability has sought to show that ,although allowance should be made for some free variation ,variability in learner language is systematic. That is, learners use their linguistic sources.in predictable ways. The use of specific grammatical forms has been shown to vary according to linguistic context. For example, "be" is used with pronoun subject and omitted entirely with N.Subject. The situational context(for example who the learner addressing)and psycholinguistic context( for example, whether the learner has opportunity to plan).Furthermore, variability plays an integrative part in the overall pattern of development, with learners moving through a series of stages that reflect different kinds of variability.

Do all learners approximate with/reach the level of accuracy of /reach the completion stage of / the native speaker?

Not all the learners approximate with the native speaker. Many learners will continue to show non-target language variability. For this reason we talk of fossilization; many learner stop developing while still short of the target language.

Discuss the form function mapping of learner language.

The phenomena of form-function mappings is one characteristic of learners' variable language .That is learners assign two different erroneous linguistic forms for realizing a single grammatical structure as in :

Ahmed no coming today.

Don't sit in that one chair.

Here, "no +verb" was used to make negative statement while "don't + verb "was used in negative request.

Here, learners mapping one meaning on to one form. The resulting system is very different from target language system.

Discuss the relationship between systematic development of learner language and the mental system of L2 knowledge?

Some researchers consider that the systematic development of learner language( التطويرالمتعلم للغة المنهجي ) reflects a mental system of L2 knowledge( العقلية المعرفة نظام

الثانية The system is often referred to as inter language .The concept of .( للغةinterlanguage constitutes one of the first attempt to explain L2 acquisition by answering question such as :

1-What is the nature of the linguistic representation of the L2 that the learner form? لل التمثيل طبيعةما المتعلم؟ اللغوي يشكلها التي الثانية غه

30

2-How do these representations change over time? ( اللغوي يتغير كيف التمثيل مرور هذا مع(الوقت

What is behaviorist learning theory?

The dominant psychological learning theory of the 1950s and 1960s was the behaviorist learning theory .According to this theory ,language learning like many other kind of learning in that it involve habit formation .Habits are formed when learner respond to stimuli/ exciter منبه, المثير ) ) in the environment and subsequently have their responses reinforced so that they are remembered .Thus, a habit is a stimulus –response connection. It was believed that all behavior ,including the link of complex behavior found in language acquisition ,could be explained in terms of habits. Learning takes place when learner has the opportunity to practice making a correct response to a given stimulus. Learners imitated models of correct language (stimuli) and received a positive reinforcement if they were correct and negative reinforcement if they were incorrect .For example, learners might hear the sentence :"Give me a pencil "", use it themselves, and thereby be rewarded by achieving their communicative goal (i.e. by being given a pencil when they wanted one).It should be clear that behaviorists' accounts of L2 acquisition emphasized what can be directly observed.(i.e. the input to the learner and the learner's own output and ignore what goes on in the black box of the learner's mind. Behaviorists cannot adequately account for L2 acquisition. This is readily apparent from the descriptive work on learners' LANGUAGE. Learner frequently do not reproduce output that is corresponds to the input. Furthermore, the systematic nature of their errors demonstrates that they actively involved in constructing their own rules which sometime bear little resemblance to the patterns of target language modeled in the input. In short learning is not just a response to external stimuli.

What is mentalist theory of language learning?

The obvious inadequacies ( الواضح القصور )of behaviorist explanation of L2 acquisition led researchers to look towards an alternative theoretical frame work. Concurrently and coincidently( مصادفةبالتزامن و ) ,1960s witnessed a major shift in thinking ,in psychology and linguistics from the preoccupation with the role of "nurture"( i.e. how environmental factors shape learning)researchers switched their attention to "nature " (i.e. how innate property shape learning).This new paradigm was mentalist/nativists in orientation .In the 1960s and the 1970s a mentalist theory of first language (L1) acquisition emerged .According to the tenets/principle/beliefs of this theory :

1-Only human being is capable of learning a language .

2-The human mind is equipped with a faculty for learning a language referred to as a language acquisition device LAD. This is separate from the faculties responsible for other kind of cognitive activities( for example, logical reasoning).

3-This faculty is the primary determinant of language acquisition.

4-Input is needed only to trigger the operation of language acquisition device.

Inter-language drew directly on these mentalist view of L1 acquisition.

What is interlanguage?

31

In recognition of the fact that L2 learner construct a linguistic system that draw partly on learner's L1 but also different from it and from the target language, Silinker coined the term interlanguage. A learner's interlanguage is a unique linguistic system

The concept of interlanguage involves the following premises( منطقية about (مقدماتL2 acquisition:

1-The learner constructs a system of abstract linguistic rules which underlies comprehension and production of L2.This system of rules is viewed as a " mental grammar "and is referred to as an "interlanguage".

2-The learner's grammar is permeable. That is, the grammar is open to influence from the outside (i.e. through the input).It is also influenced from inside. For example, the omission, overgeneralization, and transfer error constitute evidence of internal processing.

3-The learner's grammar is transitional(انتقالي ). Learner change their grammar from one time to another by adding rues , deleting rules, and restructuring the whole system .This results in an interlanguage continuum .That is ,learners construct a series of mental grammar or interlanguage as they gradually increase their L2 knowledge. For example, initially learners may begin with very simple grammar where only one form of the verb presented( for example' paint') but over time they add other forms (for example, 'painting' and 'painted'), gradually storing out the functions that these verbs can be used to perform. The transitional nature of interlanguage is also reflected in the sequences of acquisition .

4-Some researchers have claimed that the systems learners construct contain variable rules. That is they argue that learners are likely to have competing rules at any one stage of development. However, other researchers argue that inter-language systems are homogeneous and that variability reflects the mistakes learner makes when they try to use their knowledge to communicate. These researchers see variability as an aspect of performance rather than competence. The premise that inter-language systems are themselves variables is, therefore, a disputed one.

5- Learners employ various learning strategies to develop their inter-language. The different kind of errors the learners produce reflect different learning strategies. For example, errors suggest that learners are in some way simplifying the learning task by ignoring the grammatical features that they are not yet ready to process. Overgeneralization and transfer errors can also be seen as evidence of leaning strategies.

6-The learner's grammar is likely to fossilize. Selinker suggested that only about five percent of learners go on to develop the same mental grammar as the native speaker. The majority stop some way short .The prevalence of backsliding ( i.e. the production of errors representing an early stage of development) is typical of fossilized learners. Fossilization does not occur in L1 acquisition and thus unique to L2 grammar.

32

………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………………..

Discuss the significance of interlanguage and point out its limitations.

The concept of interlanguage offers a general account of how L2 acquisition takes place. It incorporates elements from mentalists theories of linguistics(for example, the notion of a 'language acquisition device') and elements from cognitive psychology (for example,' learning strategies').It also somewhat indeterminate in that it does not offer a very precise explanation of what takes place. In facts it is ,perhaps ,useful for the questions it raises than the answer it provides .

1-When does input work for acquisition and when does it not?

2-Why do learners sometimes employ an L1 transfer strategies and sometimes overgeneralization strategies?

3-What makes learner language so variable?

4-What causes learners to restructure their mental language?

5-Why does this restructuring result in clearly identifiable sequences of acquisition?

6-Why do most learners fossilize?

Clearly, the concept of interlanguage needs to be elaborated to address such questions.

Explain the computational model/metaphor of L2 acquisition.

The concept of interlanguage can be viewed as a metaphor of how L2 acquisition takes place. It implies that the human mind functions like a computer. Input→ intake→ Knowledge .This model represents the basic computational metaphor that has grown out of 'interlanguage' and that informs much of the SLA. The learner is exposed to input which is processed in two stages. Firstly, parts of it are attended to and taken into short-term memory. These are referred to as intake . Second, some of the intake is stored in the long- term memory as L2 knowledge. The process responsible for creating intake and L2 knowledge occur within the 'black box' of the learner's mind where the interlanguage constructed.Finally,L2 knowledge is used by the learner to produce spoken and written output (i.e. what is called learner knowledge).

What are the different possible ways in which the basic model of L2 acquisition can be elaborated ?

The basic model of L2 acquisition can be elaborated in a number of possible ways . For example, a component labeled :

33

1-Social context component might be added to explain how the nature of the input varies from one setting to another.

2-L2 knowledge component can be broken up into two or more components to reflect the different kinds of knowledge learners construct (for example, explicit knowledge about language and implicit knowledge of language).A relationship between the input and output indicates that what the learner says or writes is also serves as samples of language from which intake can be derived.

This computational model will be explored by examining a number of perspectives (نظر derived from different components of the model. In the process of ( وجهات

doing so , a number of other metaphors that seek to provide an explanation of L2 acquisition will also be introduced.

Social aspects of interlanguage

The prevailing perspective on interlanguage is psycholinguistic, as reflected in the metaphor of the computer. That is, researchers have been primarily concerned with identifying the internal mechanisms that are responsible for interlanguage development(brain).However, from the beginning LAA has acknowledged the importance of social factors.

Three different approaches to incorporating a social angle on the study of second language acquisition can be identified ( تحديد مناهج ويمكن ل ثالثة ال مختلفة زاويةدمج

دراسة االجتماعية الثانية على اللغة اكتساب ):

1-The first views interlanguage as consisting of different "styles" which learner call upon under different conditions of language use.( األول أنها ... يرى المنهج على

من التي األساليب" " تتكون المتعلم المختلفة اليها/ يستدعيها ظروف يلجأ ظل من في مختلفةاللغة استخدام . )

2-The second concerns how social factors determine the input that learners use to construct their interlanguage.( ت المنهج بكيف يهتم المدخالت َحددُالثاني االجتماعية العوامل

تُستَخدم لمتعلمينل التي ) interlanguage لِبناءأل

3-The third considers how the social identities that learners negotiate in their interactions with native speakers shape their opportunities to speak and, thereby, to learn an L2.( بكيف المنهج يهتم في الهويات الثالث المتعلمين يتداولونها التي االجتماعية،

الثانية، الناطقين مع تفاعالتهم الكالم فرصهم تشكلباللغة الثانية في اللغة لتعلم وبالتالي ، . )

Interlanguage as stylistic continuum

34

The acculturation model of L2 acquisition

Social Identity and investment in L2 learning

Ages and Stages Summary - Language Development 0-5 years

Cite this article as:Bowen, C. (1998). Ages and Stages Summary: Language Development 0-5 years. Retrieved from http://www.speech-language-therapy.com/ on[insert the date that you retrieved the file here].

Receptive Language: Learning to Listen, and to Understand Language

Birth

Language learning starts at birth. Even new babies are aware of the sounds in the environment.

They listen to the speech of those close to them, and startle or cry if there is an unexpected noise. Loud noises wake them, and they become "still" in response to new sounds.

0-3 months

Astoundingly, between 0-3 months babies learn to turn to you when you speak, and smile when they hear your voice. In fact, they seem to recognise your familiar voice, and will quieten at the sound of it if they are crying. Tiny babies under three months will also stop their activity and attend closely to the sound of an unfamiliar voice. They will often respond to comforting tones whether the voice is familiar or not.

 4-6 months

Then, some time between 4 to 6 months babies respond to the word "no". They are also responsive to changes in your tone of voice, and to sounds other than speech. For example, they can be fascinated by toys and other objects that make sounds, enjoy music and rhythm, and look in an interested or apprehensive way for the source of all sorts of new sounds such as the toaster, birdsong, the clip-clop of horses' hooves or the whirr of machines.

7-12 months

The 7 to 12 months timeframe is exciting and fun as the baby now obviously listens when spoken to, turns and looks at your face when called by name, and discovers the fun of games like: "round and round the garden", "peep-oh", "I see" and "pat-a-cake" (These simple games and finger plays have regional names and variants). 

It is in this period that you realise that he or she recognises the names of familiar objects ("Daddy", "car", "eyes", "phone", "key") and begins to respond to requests ("Give it to Granny") and questions ("More juice?").

 1-2 years

Now your child points to pictures in a book when you name them, and can point to a few body parts when asked (nose, eyes, tummy).

35

He or she can also follow simple commands ("Push the bus!", "Don't touch; it's hot!") and understand simple questions ("Where's the bunny?", "Who likes Miffy?", "What's in your purse?").

Your toddler now likes listening to simple stories and enjoys it when you sing songs or say rhymes. This is a stage in which he or she will want the same story, rhyme or game repeated many times.

2-3 years

By now your toddler will understand two stage commands ("Get your socks and put them in the basket") and understand contrasting concepts or meanings like hot / cold, stop / go, in / on and nice / yuccy. He or she notices sounds like the telephone or doorbell ringing and may point or become excited, get you to answer, or attempt to answer themselves.

3-4 years

Your three or four year old understands simple "Who?", "What?" and "Where?" questions, and can hear you when you call from another room. This is an age where hearing difficulties may become evident. If you are in doubt about your child's hearing, see a clinical audiologist.

4-5 years

Children in this age range enjoy stories and can answer simple questions about them. He or she hears and understands nearly everything that is said (within reason) at home or at pre-school or day care.

Your child's ability to hear properly all the time should not be in doubt. If you are in doubt about your child's hearing, see a clinical audiologist. If you are in doubt about language comprehension, see a speech-language pathologist / speech and language therapist.

 Expressive Language: Learning to Speak and Use Language

Birth

Newborn babies make sounds that let others know that they are experiencing pleasure or pain.

0-3 months

Your baby smiles at you when you come into view. He or she repeats the same sound a lot and "coos and goos" when content. Cries "differentiate". That means, the baby uses a different cry for different situations. For example, one cry says "I'm hungry" and another says "I have a pain".

4-6 months

Gurgling sounds or "vocal play" occur while you are playing with your baby or when they are occupying themselves happily.

Babbling really gets going in this age range, and your baby will sometimes sound as though he or she is "talking".

36

This "speech-like" babbling includes many sounds including the bilabial (two lip) sounds "p", "b", "w" and "m".

Your baby can tell you, using sounds or gestures that they want something, or want you to do something. He or she can make very "urgent" noises to spur you into action.

7-12 months

The sound of your baby's babbling changes. This is because it now includes more consonants, as well as long and short vowels. He or she uses speech or other sounds (i.e., other than crying) in order to get your attention and hold on to it. And your baby's first words (probably not spoken very clearly) have appeared! ("MaMa", "Doggie", "Night Night", "Bye Bye", "No")

1-2 years

Now your baby is accumulating more words as each month passes. He or she will even ask 2-word questions like "Where ball?" "What's that?" "More chippies?" "What that?", and combine two words in other ways to make the Stage 1 Sentence Types ("Birdie go", "No doggie", "More push"). Words are becoming clearer as more initial consonants are used.

2-3 years

Your two or three year old's vocabulary is exploding!

He or she seems to have a word for almost everything. Utterances are usually one, two or three words long and family members can usually understand them.

Your toddler may ask for, or draw your attention to something by naming it ("Elephant") or one of its attributes ("Big!") or by commenting ("Wow!").

 3 Years

Sentences are becoming longer as your child can combine four or more words. He or she talks about things that have happened away from home, and is interested in talking about pre-school, friends, outings and interesting experiences. Speech is usually fluent and clear and "other people" can understand what your child is saying most of the time. In fact, sometimes "other people" hear things you wish they had not!

Overheard on a London bus on April 6, 2011 (the variety of English was RP):

Little Sister (3): It’s not fair mummy, my nose won’t blow.Big Brother (4): Why won’t Fissy’s nose blow, mummy? My nose is a snot factory.

Stutterng and hoarseness

If stuttering (as opposed to normal non-fluency) occurs, see a speech-language pathologist. Stuttering is not a normal part of learning to talk, and neither is persistent hoarseness.

37

4-5 years

Your child speaks clearly and fluently in an easy-to-listen-to voice.

He or she can construct long and detailed sentences ("We went to the zoo but we had to come home early because Sally wasn't feeling well"; "I want to have a horse of my own like Evan, and Daddy says when he wins the lottery he'll buy me one.").

He or she can tell a long, involved imaginative story sticking to the topic, and using "adult-like" grammar.

Most sounds are pronounced correctly, though he or she may be lisping as a four year old, or, at five, still have difficulty with "r", "v" and "th".

Your child can communicate easily with familiar adults and with other children.

Your child may tell fantastic, dramatic, inventive, "tall stories" (sometimes even scaring themselves!) and engage strangers in conversation when you are out together.

 

 

 

 

Related pages

Brown's Stages of Syntactic and Morphonological Development

Speech and Language Development Index

Structural Analysis of a Language Sample

Twins - Development and Language

Typical Speech and Language Acquisition in Infants and Young Children

Stage I Sentence Types

38

 

Brown's Stage I

Between 15 and 30 months, children are expected to have MLUm's (mean length of utterance measured in morphemes) of about 1.75 morphemes. Their MLUm’s gradually increase as they acquire more language.

In Stage I, just after they have built up a 50 to 60 word vocabulary, children acquire the ability to produce the Stage I sentence types, outlined in the table above. The column headed 'communicative intent' includes examples of what the child might have said if they were mature enough to talk in full sentences.

Brown's Stages ("Brown's Morphemes") I to IV

39

Operations of ReferenceExamplesCommunicative IntentNominationThat carThat is a car.RecurrenceMore juiceThere is more juice.Negation - denialNo wee weeI did not do a wee wee.Negation - rejectionNo moreI don't want more.Negation - non-existenceBirdie goThe bird has gone.Semantic RelationsExamplesCommunicative IntentAction + AgentDaddy kissDaddy is kissing.Action + ObjectPush truckPushing the truck.Agent + ObjectMan hatThe man (wears) a hat.Action + LocativeIn bathI am in the bath.Entity + LocativeDolly bedThe dolly is on the bed.Possessor + Possession (object)Kim carKim's car.Entity + AttributiveWater hotThe water is hot.Demonstrative + EntityThis trainTHIS train (not THAT train).

As children's MLUm increases their capacity to learn and use grammatical structures of greater complexity increases. They move from Stage I into Stage II, where they learn to use "-ing" endings on verbs, "in", "on", and "-s" plurals. They then proceed to Stages III and IV.

Brown's Stage

Age in Months

Mean MLUm

MLUm Range

MorphologicalStructure

Examples______________________________

Stage I15-301.751.5-2.0Stage I Sentence Typessee above

Stage II28-362.252.00-2.5

1Present progressive (-ing)it going2inin box3onon box4s-plurals (regular plurals)my carsStage III36-422.752.5-3.05Irregular past tenseme fell down6's possessiveman's book7Uncontractible copula

(the full form of the verb to be when it is the only verb in a sentence)

Is it Alison?Yes, it is.Was it Alison?

Yes, it was.Stage IV40-463.53.0-3.78ArticlesA ball on the book.9Regular past tenseShe jumped.10Third person regular,

present tenseThe puppy chews it.Jason likes you.

Stage V42-52+4.03.7-4.511Third person irregularShe does. He has.

12Uncontractible auxiliary (the full form of the verb 'to be' when it is an auxiliary verb in a sentence)

Are they swimming?Were you hungry?

I'm not laughing; she is.She was laughing; not me.

13Contractible copula (the shortened form of the verb 'to be' when it is the only verb in a sentence)

She's ready.They're here.Daddy's got tomatoes.My dog's lost his collar.

14Contractible auxiliary (the shortened form of the verb 'to be' when it is an auxiliary verb in a sentence)

They're coming.He's going.I'm opening it up.We're hiding.It's freezing.

40

 An excerpt from Kim's language sample

The resultant language sample looks something like the following 30-utterance excerpt from Kim's 230-utterance language sample. The numbers in parentheses represent the number of units of meaning, or morphemes in each of Kim's utterances. Kim was aged 3;8 (44 months) when the sample was taken as part of his initial speech and language assessment.

# Utterance (morpheme count) Comment

1 me get (2) pronoun me2 get (1)3 that (1)4 get (1)6 ball (1)7 me get ball (3)8 ball me (2)9 10 ball...ball... (1) (1)11 Mummy please me has ball? (5)12 no (1) negation13 No me not (3)14 no (1)15 yes (1)16 it not you ball (4) pronoun you17 ball (1)18 not go (2)19 not in it (3) in20 Two balls (3) -s plural21 up on truck (3) on22 truck going (3) -ing23 go (1)24 yeah (1)25 more truck? (2) recurrence26 Please (1)27 cool (1)28 where you hide truck (4) wh-question29 more truck (2)30 more (1)

The context of Kim's sample

41

What was the linguistic context? Kim was having a conversation with his mother in my room while I looked on (audio-taping and transcribing the conversation). They were finding things in a toy box.

#Kim:Me get. (2)1

Get. (1)2Mothe

r:You get what?

Kim:That. (1)3Get. (1)4Ball. (1)6Me get ball. (3)7Ball me. (2)8

Mother:You want me to get the ball for you?

Kim:[Shouting ]BALL...BALL... (1) (1)9, 10

Mother:Stop that.

That's not the way to ask.What do you say?Kim?

Kim:[sticks his chin out at her]Mothe

r:What's the magic word?

Kim:[Silence]Mothe

r:May I please have the ball Mummy.

Kim:[More silence]Mothe

r:You're not getting it Kim.

May I PLEASE have the ball?Kim:[Sweetly ]Mummy please me has ball? (5)11

Mother:That's better.

]Hands him the ball[You asked so nicely.You're not a cheeky boy are you Kimmy?

Kim:No (1)12Mothe

r:]Overplaying her hand[!

You're a nice boy.Kim:No me NOT! (3)13

No! (1)14Mothe

r:Oh boy.

]To me[Are they always like this?

Kim:[Thinking the question was addressed to him]Yes. (1)15

42

Mother:Can I play too?

Kim:It not you ball. (4)16Ball. (1)17Not go. (2)18

[He tries unsuccessfully to stuff the ball into the cabin of a toy truck]

Not in it. (3)19Mothe

r:Here...

]She hands him a smaller ball and Kim puts both on the truck[Kim:Two balls. (3)20

Up on truck. (3)21Truck going. (3)22Go. (1)23

Mother:That's better! That's better!

Kim:Yeah. (1)24[Politely ]More truck? (2)25

Please (1)26Mothe

r:Hey! How about this one Kimmy!

]She offers him an "antique" bread truck he had not noticed before[KimCool! (1)27

[To me ]Where you hide truck? (4)28More truck? (2)29More? (1)30

 AnalysisThe child's written-down (transcribed) utterances are checked for accuracy against the audio recording. The speech-language pathologist then adds up the number of utterances, and the number of morphemes in each utterance. To determine the mean length of utterance in morphemes (MLUm) the number of morphemes is divided by the number of utterances.

Calculating MLUmIn Kim's mini-sample there were 30 utterances, and a total of 56 morphemes. So his MLUm was: 56 ÷ 30 = 1.86 morphemes.

When the same calculation was done with Kim's full sample of 230 utterances and 573 morphemes his MLUm was 2.49 morphemes (which just goes to show that too small a language sample can be, and usually is, misleading).

Interpreting the MLUm

An MLUm of 2.49 is appropriate for a child in Brown's Stage 2 of language development. Stage II language structures are usually being used by children in the 28 to 36 months age range. As Kim was aged 44 months when the sample was taken, his MLUm was below age-expectations (SLP-speak for "low for his age"!).

Structural analysis ("Brown's Stages")

43

Looking in detail at Kim's mini-sample it can be seen that all the language structures that emerge in Stage II ("-ing", "in", "on" and "-s plurals") are present. None of the Stage III or Stage IV structures expected at his age can be seen. This was reflected in the full sample also.

Result

Kim's MLUm, and his structural analysis, both placed him in Brown's Stage II (28 to 36 months level) at 44 months of age.

Milestones related to speech and language

Birth to 5 months

Reacts to loud soundsTurns head toward a sound sourceWatches your face when you speakVocalizes pleasure and displeasure sounds (laughs, giggles, cries, or fusses)Makes noise when talked to

6 - 11 months

Understands "no-no"Babbles (says "ba-ba-ba" or "ma-ma-ma")Tries to communicate by actions or gesturesTries to repeat your sounds

12 - 17 months

Attends to a book or toy for about two minutes Follows simple directions accompanied by gestures Answers simple questions nonverbally Points to objects, pictures, and family members Says two to three words to label a person or object (pronunciation may

not be clear) Tries to imitate simple words

18 - 23 months

Enjoys being read to Follows simple commands without gestures Points to simple body parts such as "nose" Understands simple verbs such as "eat," "sleep" Correctly pronounces most vowels and n, m, p, h, especially in the

beginning of syllables and short words. Also begins to use other speech sounds

Says 8 to 10 words (pronunciation may still be unclear) Asks for common foods by name Makes animal sounds such as "moo" Starting to combine words such as "more milk" Begins to use pronouns such as "mine"

2 - 3 years Knows about 50 words at 24 months Knows some spatial concepts such as "in," "on" Knows pronouns such as "you," "me," "her" Knows descriptive words such as "big," "happy" Says around 40 words at 24 months Speech is becoming more accurate but may still leave off ending sounds Strangers may not be able to understand much of what is said Answers simple questions Begins to use more pronouns such as "you," "I" Speaks in two to three word phrases

44

Uses question inflection to ask for something (e.g., "My ball?") Begins to use plurals such as "shoes" or "socks" and regular past tense

verbs such as "jumped"

3 - 4 years

Groups objects such as foods, clothes, etc. Identifies colors Uses most speech sounds but may distort some of the more difficult

sounds such as l, r, s, sh,ch, y, v, z, th. These sounds may not be fully mastered until age 7 or 8

Uses consonants in the beginning, middle, and ends of words. Some of the more difficult consonants may be distorted, but attempts to say them.

Strangers are able to understand much of what is said Able to describe the use of objects such as "fork," "car," etc. Has fun with language. Enjoys poems and recognizes language

absurdities such as, "Is that an elephant on your head?" Expresses ideas and feelings rather than just talking about the world

around him or her Uses verbs that end in "ing," such as "walking," "talking" Answers simple questions such as "What do you do when you are

hungry?" Repeats sentences

4 - 5 years

Understands spatial concepts such as "behind," "next to" Understands complex questions Speech is understandable but makes mistakes pronouncing long,

difficult, or complex words such as "hippopotamus" Says about 200 - 300 different words Uses some irregular past tense verbs such as "ran," "fell" Describes how to do things such as painting a picture Defines words Lists items that belong in a category such as animals, vehicles, etc. Answers "why" questions

5 years

Understands more than 2,000 words Understands time sequences (what happened first, second, third, etc.) Carries out a series of three directions Understands rhyming Engages in conversation Sentences can be 8 or more words in length Uses compound and complex sentences Describes objects Uses imagination to create stories

How do speech and language normally develop?The most intensive period of speech and language development for humans is during the first three years of life, a period when the brain is developing and maturing. These skills appear to develop best in a world that is rich with sounds, sights, and consistent exposure to the speech and language of others.

45

There is increasing evidence suggesting that there are "critical periods" for speech and language development in infants and young children. This means that the developing brain is best able to absorb a language, any language, during this period. The ability to learn a language will be more difficult, and perhaps less efficient or effective, if these critical periods are allowed to pass without early exposure to a language. The beginning signs of communication occur during the first few days of life when an infant learns that a cry will bring food, comfort, and companionship. The newborn also begins to recognize important sounds in his or her environment. The sound of a parent or voice can be one important sound. As they grow, infants begin to sort out the speech sounds (phonemes) or building blocks that compose the words of their language. Research has shown that by six months of age, most children recognize the basic sounds of their native language.

As the speech mechanism (jaw, lips, and tongue) and voice mature, an infant is able to make controlled sound. This begins in the first few months of life with "cooing," a quiet, pleasant, repetitive vocalization. By six months of age, an infant usually babbles or produces repetitive syllables such as "ba, ba, ba" or "da, da, da." Babbling soon turns into a type of nonsense speech (jargon) that often has the tone and cadence of human speech but does not contain real words. By the end of their first year, most children have mastered the ability to say a few simple words. Children are most likely unaware of the meaning of their first words, but soon learn the power of those words as others respond to them.

By eighteen months of age, most children can say eight to ten words. By age two, most are putting words together in crude sentences such as "more milk." During this period, children rapidly learn that words symbolize or represent objects, actions, and thoughts. At this age they also engage in representational or pretend play. At ages three, four, and five, a child's vocabulary rapidly increases, and he or she begins to master the rules of language.

 Reference

Brown, R. (1973). A first language: The early stages. London: George Allen & Unwin.

Links

Computerized Profiling

Introduction to Language 25 - 36 Months || from Handbook of Language & Literacy Development 0-60 months

Language Analysis Lab

Citation

Cite this article as:Bowen, C. (1998). Brown’s Stages of Syntactic and Morphological Development. Retrieved from www.speech-language-therapy.com/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=33 on [insert the date that you accessed the file here].

46

Question

-( )1-Both of the studies in the case study revealed that the learner's performance and knowledge about the Target language continuously and progressively changes over time.

-( )2-One finding in the case study is that learners make errors of different kinds such as failing to use some grammatical features at all and use others incorrectly.

-( )3-Errors made are errors of omission and over use.

-( )4-It was found out in the case study that learners acquire aspects of an L2 systematically and follow particular developmental routes ,with some features being

acquired before others .

-( )5-L2 acquisition involve different kind of learning.

-( )6-Learners internalize chunks of language structure(formulaic) and simultaneously rues, i.e. item learning and system learning.

Heritage language learning Heritage language learning or heritage language acquisition is the act of learning a language by someone from an ethno linguistic group that traditionally speaks the language, or whose family historically spoke the language. According to a generally accepted definition by Valdés (2000), heritage language is the language someone learns at home as a child which is a minority language in society, but because of growing up in a dominant language, the speaker seems to be more competent in the latter and feels more comfortable to communicate in that language. Polinsky & Kagan (2007) label it as a continuum that ranges from fluent speakers to barely speaking individuals of the home language. In some countries or cultures where they determine one's mother tongue by the ethnic group, a heritage language would be linked to native language

Universal Grammar (UG) is a theory in linguistics, usually credited to Noam Chomsky, proposing that the ability to learn grammar is hard-wired into the brain.[1] It is sometimes known as 'mental grammar', and as opposed to other 'grammars', e.g. prescriptive, descriptive and pedagogical. The theory suggests that linguistic ability manifests itself without being taught (see the poverty of the stimulus argument), and that there are properties that all natural human languages share. It is a matter of observation and

47

experimentation to determine precisely what abilities are innate and what properties are shared by all language.

The critical period hypothesis is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.

The critical period hypothesis states that the first few years of life is the crucial time in which an individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli. If language input does not occur until after this time, the individual will never achieve a full command of language—especially grammatical systems.

The evidence for such a period is limited, and support stems largely from theoretical arguments and analogies to other critical periods in biology such as visual development, but nonetheless is widely accepted. The nature of such a critical period, however, has been one of the most fiercely debated issues in psycholinguistics and cognitive science in general for decades. Some writers have suggested a "sensitive" or "optimal" /best /ideal period rather than a critical one; others dispute the causes (physical maturation, cognitive factors). The duration of the period also varies greatly in different accounts.

In second-language acquisition, the strongest evidence for the critical period hypothesis is in the study of accent, where most older learners do not reach a native-like level. However, under certain conditions, native-like accent has been observed, suggesting that accent is affected by multiple factors, such as identity and motivation, rather than a critical period biological constraint.

Applied linguistics is an interdisciplinary field of linguistics that identifies, investigates, and offers solutions to language-related real-life problems. Some of the academic fields related to applied linguistics are education, psychology, computer science, communication research, anthropology, and sociology. Computational Contrastive, Evolutionary, Forensic, Internet, Language acquisition, Second-language acquisition, Language assessment, Language development, Language education, Linguistic anthropology, Neurolinguistics, Psycholinguistics

Language transfer (also known as L1 interference, linguistic interference, and cross-linguistic influence) refers to speakers or writers applying knowledge from one language to another language.[1] It is the transfer of linguistic features between languages in the speech repertoire of a bilingual or multilingual individual, whether from first to second, second to first or many other relationships.[2] It is most commonly discussed in the context of English language learning and teaching, but it can occur in any situation when someone does not have a native-level command of a language, as when translating into a second language.

The input hypothesis, also known as the monitor model, is a group of five hypotheses of second-language acquisition developed by the linguist Stephen Krashen in the 1970s and 1980s. Krashen originally formulated the input hypothesis as just one of the five hypotheses,

48

but over time the term has come to refer to the five hypotheses as a group. The hypotheses are the input hypothesis, the acquisition–learning hypothesis, the monitor hypothesis, the

natural order hypothesis and the affective filter hypothesis .

The input hypothesis was first published in 1977.The hypotheses put primary importance on the comprehensible input (CI) that language learners are exposed to. Understanding spoken and written language input is seen as the only mechanism that results in the increase of underlying linguistic competence, and language output is not seen as having any effect on learners' ability. Furthermore, Krashen claimed that linguistic competence is only advanced when language is subconsciously acquired, and that conscious learning cannot be used as a source of spontaneous language production. Finally, learning is seen to be heavily dependent on the mood of the learner, with learning being impaired if the learner is under stress or does not want to learn the language.

Krashen's hypotheses have been influential in language education, particularly in the United States, but have received criticism from some academics. Two of the main criticisms are that the hypotheses are untestable, and that they assume a degree of separation between acquisition and learning that has not been proven to exist.

Interaction hypothesis

The Interaction hypothesis is a theory of second-language acquisition which states that the development of language proficiency is promoted by face-to-face interaction and communication. The idea existed in the 1980s, but is usually credited to Michael Long for his 1996 paper The role of the linguistic environment in second language acquisition.[4][5]There are two forms of the Interaction Hypothesis: the "strong" form and the "weak" form. The "strong" form is the position that the interaction itself contributes to language development. The "weak" form is the position that interaction is simply the way that learners find learning opportunities, whether or not they make productive use of them.[1]

Comprehensible output

In the field of Second Language Acquisition, there are many theories about the most effective way for language learners to acquire new language forms. One theory of language acquisition is the Comprehensible Output Hypothesis.

Developed by Merrill Swain, the comprehensible output (CO) hypothesis states that learning takes place when a learner encounters a gap in his or her linguistic knowledge of the second language (L2). By noticing this gap, the learner becomes aware of it and may be able to modify his output so that he learns something new about the language [1] Although Swain does not claim that comprehensible output is solely responsible for all or even most language acquisition, she does claim that, under some conditions, CO facilitates second language learning in ways that differ from and enhance input due to the mental processes connected with the production of language.[2] This hypothesis is closely related to the Noticing hypothesis. Swain defines three functions of output: 1. Noticing function: Learners encounter gaps between what they want to say and what they are able to say, and so they notice what they do not know or only know partially in this language. 2. Hypothesis-testing

49

function: When a learner says something, there is always an at least tacit hypothesis underlying his or her utterance, e.g. about grammar. By uttering something, the learner tests this hypothesis and receives feedback from an interlocutor. This feedback enables reprocessing of the hypothesis if necessary. 3.Metalinguistic function: Learners reflect on the language they learn, and thereby the output enables them to control and internalize linguistic knowledge.[3] In addition to second language acquisition context, comprehensible output has been found to be effective in elicitation of modified output in foreign language acquisition. Production of language for communication in a meaningful way is hypothesized to help its acquisition. [4]

Social interactionist theory is an explanation of language development emphasizing the role of social interaction between the developing child and linguistically knowledgeable adults. It is based largely on the socio-cultural theories of Soviet psychologist, Lev Vygotsky. ccording to Vygotsky, social interaction plays an important role in the learning process and proposed the zone of proximal development (ZPD) where learners construct the new language through socially mediated interaction. Vygotsky's social-development theory was adopted and made prominent in the Western world though by Jerome Bruner [2] who laid the foundations of a model of language development in the context of adult-child interaction.

The critical period hypothesis is the subject of a long-standing debate in linguistics and language acquisition over the extent to which the ability to acquire language is biologically linked to age. The hypothesis claims that there is an ideal time window to acquire language in a linguistically rich environment, after which further language acquisition becomes much more difficult and effortful.

The critical period hypothesis states that the first few years of life is the crucial time in which an individual can acquire a first language if presented with adequate stimuli. If language input does not occur until after this time, the individual will never achieve a full command of language—especially grammatical systems.

The evidence for such a period is limited, and support stems largely from theoretical arguments and analogies to other critical periods in biology such as visual development, but nonetheless is widely accepted. The nature of such a critical period, however, has been one of the most fiercely debated issues in psycholinguistics and cognitive science in general for decades. Some writers have suggested a "sensitive" or "optimal" period rather than a critical one; others dispute the causes (physical maturation, cognitive factors). The duration of the period also varies greatly in different accounts.

In second-language acquisition, the strongest evidence for the critical period hypothesis is in the study of accent, where most older learners do not reach a native-like level. However, under certain conditions, native-like accent has been observed, suggesting that accent is affected by multiple factors, such as identity and motivation, rather than a critical period biological constraint.

Cognitive psychology is the study of mental processes such as "attention, language use, memory, perception, problem solving, creativity, and thinking."[1] Much of the work derived from cognitive psychology has been integrated into various other modern disciplines of

50

psychological study, including educational psychology, social psychology, personality psychology, abnormal psychology, developmental psychology, and economics.

systemic functional linguistics (SFL)

The study of the relationship between language and its functions in social settings.

In systemic functional linguistics (SFL), three strata make up the linguistic system: meaning (semantics), sound (phonology), and wording or lexico-grammar (syntax, morphology, and lexis).

Systemic functional linguistics treats grammar as a meaning-making resource and insists on the interrelation of form and meaning.

Origins:

Systemic functional linguistics was developed in the 1960s by British linguist M.A.K. Halliday (b. 1925), who had been influenced by the work of the Prague School and British linguist J.R.

Firth (1890-1960) .

Examples and Observations:

•"SL [systemic linguistics] is an avowedly functionalist approach to language, and it is arguably the functionalist approach which has been most highly developed. In contrast to most other approaches, SL explicitly attempts to combine purely structural information with overtly social factors in a single integrated description. Like other functionalist frameworks, SL is deeply concerned with the purposes of language use. Systemicists constantly ask the following questions: What is this writer (or speaker) trying to do? What linguistic devices are

available to help them do it, and on what basis do they make their choices"?

)Robert Lawrence Trask and Peter Stockwell, Language and Linguistics: The Key Concepts. Routledge, 2007(

Skill-based theories of second-language acquisition

Skill-based theories of second-language acquisition are theories of second-language acquisition based on models of skill acquisition in cognitive psychology. These theories conceive of second-language acquisition as being learned in the same way as any other skill, such as learning to drive a car or play the piano. That is, they see practice as the key ingredient of language acquisition. The most well-known of these theories is based on John Anderson's adaptive control of thought model.[1]

Adaptive control of thought[edit]

The adaptive control of thought model assumes a distinction between declarative knowledge, knowledge that is conscious and consists of facts,[2] and procedural knowledge, knowledge of how an activity is done.[3][4] In this model, skill acquisition is seen as a progression from declarative to procedural knowledge.[4] Adaptive control of thought is a

51

general model of cognition, and second-language acquisition is just one application of a wide area of research in cognitive psychology.[5] Second-language acquisition is seen as a progression through three stages, declarative, procedural, and autonomous.[5]

The sociocultural perspective is a theory used in various fields such as psychology and is used to describe awareness of circumstances surrounding individuals and how their behaviors are affected specifically by their surrounding, social and cultural factors. According to Catherine A. Sanderson (2010) “Sociocultural perspective: A perspective describing people’s behavior and mental processes as shaped in part by their social and/or cultural contact, including race, gender, and nationality.” Sociocultural perspective theory is a broad yet significant aspect in our being. It applies to every sector of our daily lives. How we communicate, understand, relate and cope with one another is partially based on this theory. Our spiritual, mental, physical, emotional, physiological being are all influenced by sociocultural perspective theory.

Connectionism is a set of approaches in the fields of artificial intelligence, cognitive psychology, cognitive science, neuroscience, and philosophy of mind, that models mental or behavioralphenomena as the emergent processes of interconnected networks of simple units. The term was introduced by Donald Hebb in 1940s.[1] There are many forms of connectionism, but the most common forms use neural network models.

Artificial intelligence (AI) is the intelligence exhibited by machines or software. It is also the name of the academic field of study which studies how to create computers and computersoftware that are capable of intelligent behavior. Major AI researchers and textbooks define this field as "the study and design of intelligent agents",[1] in which an intelligent agent is a system that perceives its environment and takes actions that maximize its chances of success.[2] John McCarthy, who coined the term in 1955,[3] defines it as "the science and engineering of making intelligent machines".[4

Instructor: Jessica McCallister

The following lesson explains how individuals and groups experience acculturation by discussing four main factors associated with acculturation: language, immersion, assimilation, and integration. A quiz is provided to assess your understanding of the topic.

Definition of AcculturationThe base word of acculturation is 'culture'. What is culture? Simply stated, culture means a way of living and a way of life. Culture means that there are certain ways and reasons in which individuals and group of people speak, conduct themselves, celebrate holidays, and express their belief systems. As you can imagine, there is a tremendous diversity of cultures around the world.

Some of these cultures include American, Hispanic, Asian, and European cultures. When discussing cultures, we can break down the larger geographic areas into smaller regions. For example, if you were asked to discuss the American culture, you might explain that there is a difference between those living on the West Coast versus those living on the

52

East Coast. Perhaps a difference might be in the food that people eat, the clothes that people wear, or the customs and activities that they participate in.

Perhaps you are asked to discuss the Hispanic or South American culture. In doing so, there are many subcultures such as Mexican, Brazilian, Chilean, Honduran, and so on. There are as many cultures in the world as there are countries, states, and regions!

Understanding the term 'culture' can lead us to more fully understand the terms associated with the theory of acculturation. So what does acculturation mean? When individuals or groups of people transition from living a lifestyle of their own culture to moving into a lifestyle of another culture, they must acculturate, or come to adapt the new culture's behaviors, values, customs, and language. The word 'acculturation' is the act of that transition.

Theories of AcculturationThe theory of acculturation can be broken down to include a few different topics; these include learning a new language, immersion, assimilation, and integration. Let's take a look at each of these terms more closely.

Language and immersion can be some of the most important parts of the acculturation process. In fact, social theorist John Schumann proposed that language is the largest factor in successfully acculturating. For example, if you are a Hispanic or South American native and you move to the United States, you would have to learn to speak English in order to fully understand and even feel comfortable living and communicating in the American culture.

As you can imagine, transitioning into a new culture might often require learning a new language. While you can learn a new language by using audio CDs or taking lessons from an instructor, one of the most effective ways to learn a new language is through immersion, or surrounding yourself entirely in a new culture.

A great way to acculturate is to move from your native country into the new country, and live with and learn directly from the natives. When you immerse yourself, you learn first-hand what that new culture is all about. Immersion doesn't only include practicing the language directly with native speakers, but also includes coming to understand the customs, traditions, acceptable behaviors, and so on.

The immersion phase of acculturation can be very challenging and stressful. Why? As you can imagine, growing up and living your own culture is easy; you don't know any different from what you have learned your entire life! However, being open and willing to set aside your own cultural background and beliefs, as well as learn a new language, can come with hesitation, confusion, and can often be time-consuming.

Sometimes the process of acculturation doesn't necessarily include learning a new language, but instead includes learning the meaning of certain words or adjusting to the local dialect. For example, if you were an American native moving to British Columbia, Canada, you could continue to speak English, but would also want to learn the different meanings of words that are associated with the Canadian culture.

In the United States, the term 'bathroom' is used as opposed to the term 'washroom', which is used in British Columbia. The language and word choices spoken by the native people are referred to as the vernacular. Even though Canadians speak English, some of the word choices they use have to be learned by a non-native as part of the acculturation process.

In Great Britain, the bathroom is referred to as the loo. In Australia, a friend or acquaintance is referred to as a mate. As you can see, not only does acculturation include learning a new language or immersing yourself into the culture, it also includes learning the meanings and associations of new words and phrases.

53

Assimilation involves the accumulation of information about a new culture and resulting adaptations to match the new culture. Generating new knowledge about a culture might include learning how food is prepared, understanding types of acceptable clothing worn in the new culture, or picking up new habits. A person who fully assimilates has picked up all the habits and traits of their non-native culture.

Similarly, integration is often used in acculturation theory and includes participating socially in an environment to be considered an equal among the society. You do not have to fully assimilate in order to integrate into a new culture. To integrate into society, you might want to participate in social events, community events, and perhaps engage in local clubs or groups. The processes of assimilation and integration take time and are often experienced as part of the entire acculturation process.

Motivation in second-language learningFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Second language (L2) refers to a language an individual learns that is not his/her mother tongue, but is of use in the area of the individual. It is not the same as a foreign language, which is a language learned that is not generally spoken in the individual’s area. In research on motivation, it is considered to be an internal process that gives behavior energy, direction and persistence in research (in other words, it gives behavior strength, purpose, and sustainability).[1] Learning a new language takes time and dedication. Once you do, being fluent in a second language offers numerous benefits and opportunities. Learning a second language is exciting and beneficial at all ages. It offers practical, intellectual and many aspirational benefits In learning a language, there can be one or more goals – such as mastery of the language or communicative competence – that vary person to person. There are a number of language learner motivation models that were developed and postulated in fields such as linguistics and sociolinguistics, with relations to second-language acquisition in a classroom setting. The different perspectives on L2 motivation can be divided into three distinct phases: the social psychological period, the cognitive-situated period and the process-oriented period.[2]

Contents  [hide] 

1The social psychological periodo 1.1The socio-educational modelo 1.2Revisions of the socio-educational model

1.2.1Attitude Motivation Test Battery 1.2.1.1Integrativeness[6]

1.2.1.2Attitude toward learning situation[6]

1.2.1.3Motivation[6]

1.2.1.4Language anxiety[6]

o 1.3Linguistic self-confidence 2The cognitive-situated period

o 2.1Self-determination theoryo 2.2Attribution theoryo 2.3Social constructivist model

2.3.1Framework of motivation in L2 learning 3The process-oriented period

o 3.1Process modelo 3.2Motivational self system

4See also

54

5References

The social psychological period[edit]

Social psychological perspectives on L2 learning motivation emphasize the role of the individuals’ social context and social interactions. The social psychological period in L2 motivation research flourished in the bilingual context of Canada from 1959 through 1990 (Dörnyei, 2005; Ushioda, 2012).[2][3] During this period, Gardner developed the socio-educational model while Clément and colleagues explored the theory of linguistic self-confidence.

The socio-educational model[edit]R.C. Gardner formulated the socio-educational model suggesting that learning an L2 cannot be solely explained by people’s aptitude or their competency to acquire as many languages.[4]He asserted that individual differences were key factors affecting L2 acquisition such that in understanding how the L2 learning process and outcomes work, it is important to consider the cultural contexts, which influence people’s attitude and motivation in learning another culturally distinct language.[5] By simply regarding aptitude as the only factor, researchers dismiss the social, contextual and pragmatic reasons that drive people to learn other languages.[4]

The original socio-educational model (1979) proposed that there are two main factors that influence L2 performance: aptitude, and motivation in learning.[4] The model, however, placed more emphasis on the motivation factor because Gardner was interested in how people succeeded in acquiring L2 even when it seemed that their competency/aptitude is below average. This meant that motivation played a bigger role in driving those people to learn an L2.[4] The model then attempted to explain that these motivational factors took place in the sites where L2 learning occurs: the formal site (i.e. the educational context), and the informal site (i.e. the cultural context). Gardner argued that these two contexts play distinct roles in boosting the learner’s L2 performance in that the educational context became a place where explicit instruction and correction occurs, whereas the cultural context was an area allowing the learners to become immersed in the other culture without placing any specific rules or instructions.[6] Both ways, the learners become increasingly knowledgeable and more confident with the social and cultural settings behind the L2, and these motivate them to learn L2 even more. Upon this transition, linguistic and non-linguistic outcomes emerge. In the linguistic component, learners tend to develop L2 proficiency and fluency, whereas in the non-linguistic outcomes, they undergo changes in attitudes towards the culture where the L2 came from.[7]

The process of L2 acquisition starts from the social milieu where learners have initial attitudes towards the culture behind the L2; these preset beliefs were acquired from their own cultures.[5]The social milieu, in turn, influences the strategies, which individuals use in acquiring the L2. After knowing the individual differences in L2 acquisition, it is important to consider the context of learning (i.e. educational or cultural) because they improve L2 performance through direct (i.e. explicit instruction) and indirect (i.e. cultural immersion) means.[6] Finally, when the learners have already acquired experience and knowledge of the L2, they gain varying positive outcomes such as fluency and appreciation of the other culture.[4]

Revisions of the socio-educational model[edit]The model has undergone numerous revisions to capture the sub-processes underlying in each of the individual factors. In 1985, Gardner introduced three sub-measures namely the intensity, the desire to learn and the attitude towards learning to explain the motivation factor.[8] Gardner argued that if these three criteria work together, the learner could effectively use motivation as a tool for L2 acquisition.[8] Dornyei and other researchers, however, assert that this is not the case; they contend that one can have a ‘strong’ desire to learn, but have a different attitude towards the learning process itself.

55

[8] Nevertheless, some researches still claim the attitude towards learning has a high predictive capacity because attitude has a strong association with direct behavior (i.e. learning).[8] From 1993 to 2010, the model’s schema was rigorously changed to encompass the variability in the external factors affecting L2 learning; the term “social milieu” became “the external factors”.[9] More characteristics were added to describe the variables affecting each of the individual factors; these were compiled in the Attitude Motivation Test Battery developed by Gardner.

Attitude Motivation Test Battery[edit]Gardner also created the Attitude Motivation Test Battery (AMTB) to quantitatively measure the four main factors and their sub-units, and to predict L2 performance/outcome of the learning.[6] The test generally instructs participants to rate a set of statements on a scale of 1 to 7 (i.e. least likely to most likely), and on a 6-level Likert Scale (i.e. strongly disagree to strongly agree).[10] Different statements correspond to a certain variable (or main factor), and scores from those sets are added up to determine how much of that variable is influencing the language learning of the participants.[10] Like the model, however, the test has also been revised over the years. In Gardner’s review of the Socio-educational Model, he named the four overarching variables which are measured in the AMTB: (1) integrativeness, (2) attitude toward learning situation, (3) motivation and (4) language anxiety.[6] Other variables such as the instrumental orientation and parental encouragement in the AMTB are used in different settings or as needed.

Integrativeness[6][edit]The integrativeness variable (also known as the integrative motive) reflect the cultural context of L2 learning as it attempts to measure how open a learner is to the other culture that primarily uses L2. The AMTB assesses this variable by accounting for the extent to which the learner is generally interested in foreign languages, as well as his/her preset attitudes towards the community where the L2 comes from. It also accounts for the integrative orientation of the individual or the social and cultural reasons why the individual learns the L2.

Attitude toward learning situation[6][edit]Contrary to integrativeness, the attitude towards learning situation accounts for the education context of L2 acquisition and the affective facts that correspond with it. The AMTB measures this variable by asking the individual to evaluate the teacher and the course in the educational context. This determines how much the educational context aids in improving L2 performance.

Motivation[6][edit]Motivation, in the AMTB, is assessed through the combination of the desire to learn, attitude towards learning, and motivational intensity. While integrativeness and attitude toward the learning situation target each site of learning, motivation accounts for both contexts as well as the affective variables (i.e. individual differences) that influence the two contexts.

Language anxiety[6][edit]In the AMTB, language anxiety is an affective variable, which corresponds to what the individuals feel when ‘performing’ the L2. In the AMTB, it is measured by determining how anxious the learner feels when in the classroom or when using the language in general.

Linguistic self-confidence[edit]Clément and his associates investigated the importance of social contextual factors on L2 acquisition.[2] Of these social contextual factors, Dörnyei (2005)[2] argues linguistic self-confidence plays the most important role in motivation in learning a second language.

56

Linguistic self-confidence refers to a person’s perceptions of their own competence and ability to accomplish tasks successfully.[11] This linguistic self-confidence is established through the interaction between the language learner and members of the language community, and strengthened based on the quality and quantity of these interactions. [11] In multi-linguistic communities, self-confidence fosters language learners’ identification with the language community and increases their willingness to pursue learning that language.[11]

The cognitive-situated period[edit]

Cognitive perspectives focus on how the learners’ mental processes influence their motivation. During the late 1980s and 1990s, emphasis in the language learning motivation field shifted towards cognitive models, reflecting the “cognitive revolution” taking place in psychology at the time.[2] Cognitive psychologists argued that how one thinks about one’s abilities, possibilities, potentials, limitations, and past performances has major influences on motivation.[2] Thus, L2 motivation models shifted away from the broad social psychological perspectives, while more narrow-viewed microperspectives emerged.[2] During this time, note-worthy contributions were made by Noels and colleagues through a self-determination theory-based model of language learning motivation, Ushioda through attribution theory, as well as Williams and Burden with their social constructivist model.[2]

Self-determination theory[edit]The self-determination theory focuses on the intrinsic and extrinsic aspects of motivation.[2] Noels and colleagues explored this theory in the language learning context and developed the Language Learning Orientations Scale which categorizes a person’s motivational orientation as either intrinsic, extrinsic, or amotivated based on a continuum of self-determination.[2] In this line of research it was found that in the language learning classroom, teachers that were autonomy supportive and non-controlling promoted intrinsic and self-determined orientations of motivation in students.[2]

Attribution theory[edit]Attribution theory contends that the causal reasons we attribute to our past successes or failures plays a critical role in our motivation in future endeavors in that area. [2] Consistent with this theory, Ushioda identified two attributional patterns associated with positive motivational outcomes in language learning.[2] The first involves attributing one’s successes in learning the language to personal factors, while the second involves attributing one’s failures to temporary forces which may be overcome.[2]

Social constructivist model[edit]This cognitive perspective arose from a supposed “constructivist movement” that stemmed mostly from the work of Jean Piaget and that also encompassed personal construct psychology (developed by George Kelly (psychologist)).[12] This model suggests a constructive nature of the learning process as emphasized by Piaget, this assumes that people are actively involved in constructing personal meaning right from birth.[12] This brings the learner into central focus in learning theory as everyone is constructing their own sense of the world, which is key to the constructivist perspective.[12]

The learner is in control of his/her learning as a result of his/her cognitive processing and organizing, and the context in which he/she is learning.[12] This means that the individual who is learning is in control of what he/she learns based on the way he/she think, and the immediate environment he/she is in as well as any internal factors (mood, preoccupation, motivation, etc…). Four key elements (the learner(s), the teacher, the task, and the context) are outlined by this model as affecting the teaching-learning process as they interact with and act on each other.[12]

Framework of motivation in L2 learning[edit]

57

Using the social constructivist model, Marion Williams and Robert L. Burden developed a framework of motivation in language learning as an attempt to summarize motivational factors relevant to L2 learning in the classroom setting. This framework placed an emphasis on contextual influences, and it categorized motivational factors in terms of learner-internal and external factors.[13] The framework is shown below:

Internal Factors External Factors

Intrinsic interest of activity:

arousal of curiosity optimal degree of challenge

Significant others:

parents teachers peers

Perceived value of activity:

personal relevance anticipated value of outcomes intrinsic value attributed to the activity

The nature of interaction with significant others:

mediated learning experiences the nature and amount of

feedback rewards the nature and amount of

appropriate praise punishments, sanctions

Sense of agency:

locus of causality locus of control RE process and outcomes ability to set appropriate goals

The learning environment:

comfort resources time of day, week, year size of class and school class and school ethos

Mastery

feelings of competence awareness of developing skills and mastery in a

chosen area self-efficacy

The broader context

wider family networks the local education system conflicting interest cultural norms societal expectations and

attitudes

Self-concept

realistic awareness of personal strengths and weaknesses in skills required

personal definitions and judgments of success and failure

self-worth concern learned helplessness

Attitudes

to language learning in general to the target language

58

to the target language community and culture

Other affective states

confidence anxiety, fear

Developmental age and stage

Gender

The process-oriented period[edit]

With the rise of cognitive approaches to L2 learning motivation, researchers began to focus on the dynamic character of motivation. The models of the process-oriented period explore the short-term and long-term changes in the individuals’ motivation as they learn L2.[2] This approach views motivation as a dynamic factor which fluctuates within a class period, a year, and a lifetime.[2] Models from this period include the process model and the motivational self system.

Process model[edit]Dörnyei and Ottό developed a process model of L2 learning marked by three distinct, chronological stages: the preactional stage, the actional stage, and the postactional stage.[2] The preactional stage involves the initial choice to begin learning a second language and creating goals for oneself.[2] This stage is associated with setting goals, forming intentions, and launching action.[2] During the preactional phase, the major motivational influences are the values associated with L2 learning, attitudes towards the L2-speaking community, learners’ expectations and beliefs, and environmental support.[2] The actional stage includes sustaining one’s level of motivation throughout the language-learning process.[2] This stage involves generating and carrying out subtasks, appraising one’s achievement, and self-regulation.[2] During the actional stage the major motivational influences are the quality of the L2 learning experience, sense of autonomy as an L2 learner, teachers’ and parents’ influence, and usage of self-regulatory strategies. Lastly, the postactional stage involves retrospection and self-reflection on the language learning experience and outcomes.[2] This stage entails forming causal attributions, elaborating standards and strategies, and dismissing the intention and further planning.[2] During the postactional stage the major motivational influences are the learners’ attributional styles and biases, self-concept beliefs, and received feedback during the L2 learning process.[2]

Motivational self system[edit]After developing the process model, Dörnyei (2005)[2] designed the motivational self system of L2 learning. The L2 motivational self system forms links with conceptualizations of L2 motivation by Noels (2003)[14] and Ushioda (2001).[15] This motivational self system has three components: the ideal L2 self, ought-to L2 self, and L2 learning experience.[16] The ideal L2 self is a person’s imagined ideal future self as a second language speaker.[3] This ideal L2 self promotes motivation by inspiring the present self to strive to become the ideal self, which promotes integrative and internalized instrumental motivation in language learning.[16] The ought-to L2 self includes the attributions a person believes they should have in order to meet expectations or avoid negative outcomes, which is associated with extrinsic motivational orientations. [16] The L2 learning experience component includes the situational and environmental aspects of the language learning process as well as one’s subjective learning experience. [16]

See also[edit]

Language exchange

59

Language learning

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ Reeve, Johnmarshall (2013). Understanding motivation and emotion (6 ed.). Hoboken, NJ: Wiley.

2. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h i j k l m n o p q r s t u v w x y z Dörnyei, Z. (2005). The psychology of the language learner: Individual differences in second language acquisition. Mahwah, NJ: Lawrence Erlbaum.

3. ^ Jump up to:a b Ushioda, E. (2012) Motivation: L2 learning as a special case? In S. Mercer, S. Ryan, & M. Williams (Eds.), Psychology for language learning (pp. 58-73). Basingstoke, HA: Palgrave Macmillan.

4. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Gardner, R. C. (1985). Social psychology and second language learning: The role of attitudes and motivation. London: Edward Arnold.

5. ^ Jump up to:a b Gardner, R. C.; Lambert, W. E. (1959). "Motivational variables in second-language acquisition". Canadian Journal of Psychology 13: 266–272.

6. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e f g h Gardner, R. C. (2011). "The socio-educational model of second language acquisition". Canadian Issues/Thèmes Canadiens: 24–27.

7. Jump up^ Sajid-us-Salam, M. (2008). "Gardner’s Early Socio-Educational Model (Powerpoint Slides)".

8. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Dörnyei, Z. (1998). Motivation in second and foreign language learning. Language Teaching, 31 (3), 117-135.

9. Jump up^ Gardner, R. C. & Macintyre, P. D. (1993). On the measurement of affective variables in second language learning. Language Learning, 43,157-94.

10. ^ Jump up to:a b Gardner, R. C. (2004). Attitude/motivation test battery: International AMTB research project. Canada: The University of Western Ontario.

11. ^ Jump up to:a b c Clement, R. (1980). Ethnicity, contact and communicative competence in a second language. In H. Giles, W. P. Robinson & P. M Smith (Eds.), Language: Social psychological perspectives (pp. 147-154). Oxford: Pergamon

12. ^ Jump up to:a b c d e Williams, M., & Burden, R. L. (1997). Psychology for teachers. Cambridge University Press.

13. Jump up^ Dörnyei, Z., & Ushioda, E. (2013). Teaching and researching: Motivation. (2nd ed.). Routledge.

14. Jump up^ Noels, K. A. (2003). Learning Spanish as a second language: Learners' orientations and perceptions of their teachers' communication style. In Z. Dörnyei (Ed.), Attitudes, orientations, and motivations in language learning (pp. 97-136). Oxford: Blackwell.

15. Jump up^ Ushioda, E. (2001). Language learning at university: Exploring the role of motivational thinking. In Z. Dörnyei & R. Schmidt (Eds.), Motivation and second language acquisition (pp. 91-124). Honolulu, HI: University of Hawaii Press.

16. ^ Jump up to:a b c d Dörnyei, Z. (2009) The psychology of second language acquisition. Oxford: Oxford University Press.

EthnolinguisticsFrom Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia

Anthropology

Disciplines[show]

Discipline subfields[show]

Research framework[show]

60

Key theories[show]

Key concepts[show]

Lists[show]

 Anthropology portal

v

t

e

Linguistics

Theoretical linguistics [show]

Descriptive linguistics [show]

Applied and experimental

[show]

Related articles[show]

Linguistics portal

v

t

e

Ethnolinguistics (sometimes called cultural linguistics)[1] is a field of linguistics which studies the relationship between language and culture, and the way different ethnic groups perceive the world. It is the combination between ethnology and linguistics. The former refers to the way of life of an entire community, i.e., all the characteristics which distinguish one community from the other. Those characteristics make the cultural aspects of a community or a society.

Ethnolinguists study the way perception and conceptualization influences language, and show how this is linked to different cultures and societies. An example is the way spatial orientation is expressed in various cultures.[2][3] In many societies, words for the cardinal directions eastand west are derived from terms for sunrise/sunset. The nomenclature for cardinal directions of Inuit speakers of Greenland, however, is based on geographical landmarks such as the river system and one's position on the coast. Similarly, the Yurok lack the idea of cardinal directions; they orient themselves with respect to their principal geographic feature, the Klamath River.

61

Cultural Linguistics (capitalized) refers to a related branch of linguistics that explores the relationship between language, culture, andconceptualisation.[4] Cultural Linguistics draws on, but is not limited to, the theoretical notions and analytical tools of cognitive linguistics andcognitive anthropology. Central to the approach of Cultural Linguistics are notions of "cultural schema" and "cultural model". It examines how various features of language encode cultural schemas and cultural models.[5] In Cultural Linguistics, language is viewed as deeply entrenched in the group-level, cultural cognition of communities of speakers. Thus far, the approach of Cultural Linguistics has been adopted in several areas of applied linguisticresearch, including intercultural communication, second language learning, and World Englishes.[6]

See also[edit]

Culture portal

Linguistics portal

Anthropological linguistics Evolutionary psychology of language Linguistic anthropology Wilhelm von Humboldt

References[edit]

1. Jump up^ Ferraro, Gary (2006). Cultural Anthropology: An Applied Perspective. Cengage Learning. ISBN 0-495-10008-0.

2. Jump up^ Heine, Bernd (1997) Cognitive Foundations of Grammar. Oxford/New York: Oxford University Press.

3. Jump up^ Tuan, Yi-Fu (1974) Topophilia: A study of environmental perception, attitudes, and values. Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.

4. Jump up^ Palmer, Gary B. (1996). Toward a Theory of Cultural Linguistics. Texas: Texas University Press.

5. Jump up^ Sharifian, Farzad (2011). Cultural Conceptualisations and Language: Theoretical Framework and Applications. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

6. Jump up^ Sharifian, Farzad & Palmer, Gary B. (eds.) (2007) Applied cultural linguistics: Implications for second language learning and intercultural communication. Amsterdam/Philadelphia: John Benjamins.

External links[edit]

Cultural Linguistics Toward a Theory of Cultural Linguistic Applied Cultural Linguistics Cultural Linguistics: Farzad Sharifian's Inaugural Professorial Lecture The Jurgen Trabant Wilhelm von Humboldt Lectures (7hrs)

Further reading[edit]

Wierzbicka, Anna  (1992) Semantics, Culture, and Cognition: Universal human concepts in culture-specific configuration. New York: Oxford University Press.

Bartmiński, Jerzy. Aspects of Cognitive Ethnolinguistics. Sheffield and Oakville, CT: Equinox, 2009/2012.

(en) Madeleine Mathiot (dir.), Ethnolinguistics : Boas, Sapir and Whorf revisited, Mouton, La Haye, 1979, 323 p. (ISBN 978-90-279-7597-3)

62

(fr) Luc Bouquiaux, Linguistique et ethnolinguistique : anthologie d'articles parus entre 1961 et 2003, Peeters, Louvain, Dudley, MA, 2004, 466 p.

(fr) Christine Jourdan et Claire Lefebvre (dir.), « L'ethnolinguistique », in Anthropologie et sociétés, vol. 23, no 3, 1999, p. 5-173

(fr) Bernard Pottier, L'ethnolinguistique (numéro spécial de la revue Langages), Didier, 1970, 130 p.

Trabant, Jürgen, Humboldt ou le sens du langage, Liège: Madarga, 1992. Trabant, Jürgen, Traditions de Humboldt, (German edition 1990), French edition,

Paris: Maison des sciences de l’homme, 1999. Trabant, Jürgen, Mithridates im Paradies: Kleine Geschichte des Sprachdenkens,

München: Beck, 2003. Trabant, Jürgen, ‘L’antinomie linguistique: quelques enjeux politiques’, Politiques &

Usages de la Langue en Europe, ed. Michael Werner, Condé-sur-Noireau: Collection du Ciera, Dialogiques, Éditions de la Maison des sciences de l’homme, 2007.

Trabant, Jürgen, Was ist Sprache?, München: Beck, 2008. Underhill, James W., ‘ “Making” love and “having” sex: an analysis of metaphoric

paradigms in English, French and Czech’, Slovo a smysl: Word and Sense, Karlova univerzita, Akademie, 2007.

Underhill, James W., Humboldt, Worldview and Language, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2009.

Underhill, James W. Creating Worldviews, Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2011.

Underhill, James W. Ethnolinguistics and Cultural Concepts: love, truth, hate & war, Cambridge University Press, 2012.

Vocabulaire européen des philosophes, Dictionnaires des intraduisibles, ed. Barbara Cassin, Paris: Robert, 2004.

Whorf, Benjamin Lee, Language, Thought and Reality: Selected Writings (1956), ed. John B. Caroll, Cambridge, Mass.: M.I.T. Press, 1984.

Wierzbicka, Anna, Semantics, Culture and Cognition: Universal Human Concepts in Culture-Specific Configurations, New York, Oxford University Press, 1992.

Wierzbicka, Anna, Understanding Cultures through their Key Words, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1997.

Wierzbicka, Anna, Emotions across Languages and Cultures, Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999.

Wierzbicka, Anna, Semantics: Primes and Universals (1996), Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2004.

Wierzbicka, Anna, Experience, Evidence & Sense: The Hidden Cultural Legacy of English, Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010.

[hide]

v

t

e

Ethnicity

Related concepts Clan

Ethnic group

Ethno-linguistic group

Ethno-religious group

Indigenous peoples

63

Ingroups and outgroups

Meta-ethnicity

Metroethnicity

Minority group

Monoethnicity

Nation

Nationality

Panethnicity

Polyethnicity

Population

Race

Symbolic ethnicity

Tribe

Ethnology Anthropology

Ethnic studies

Ethnoarchaeology

Ethnobiology

Ethnobotany

Ethnozoology

Ethnoecology

Ethnogeology

Ethnography

Autoethnography

Clinical

Critical

Cyber-ethnography

Netnography

Person-centered

Salvage

Transidioethnography

Ethnohistory

Ethnolinguistics

Ethnology

Ethnomathematics

Ethnomethodology

Ethnomuseology

Ethnomusicology

64

Ethnophilosophy

Ethnopoetics

Ethnoscience

Ethnosemiotics

Ethnotaxonomy

Groups by region

Africa

Europe

Oceania

Arab League

Europe

Australian

indigenous

Indigenous Oceanian

Europeans in Oceania

Americas

Indigenous

Canada

Mexico

United States

Central America

South America

Asia

Central

East

Northern

South

Southeast

West

Identity andethnogenesis

Cross-race effect

Cultural assimilation

Cultural identity

Demonym

Development

Endonym

Ethnic flag

Ethnic option

Ethnic origin

Ethnic religion

Ethnofiction

Ethnonym

Folk religion

65

Imagined community

Kinship

Legendary progenitor

Lineage-bonded society

Mores

Nation-building

Nation state

National language

National myth

Origin myth

Pantribal sodalities

Tribal name

Tribalism

Multiethnic society

Consociationalism

Diaspora politics

Dominant minority

Ethnic democracy

Ethnic enclave

Ethnic interest group

Ethnic joke

Ethnic majority

Ethnic media

Ethnic pornography

Ethnic theme park

Ethnoburb

Ethnocracy

Ethnopluralism

Indigenous rights

Middleman minority

Minority rights

Model minority

Multinational state

Ideology andethnic conflict

Ethnic bioweapon

Ethnic cleansing

Ethnic hatred

Ethnic nationalism

Ethnic nepotism

66

Ethnic penalty

Ethnic slur

Ethnic stereotype

Ethnic violence

Ethnocentrism

Ethnocide

Indigenism

Separatist movements

Xenophobia

Authority control GND : 4153097-4

efining Language Socialization"The editors of this volume (Schieffelin and Ochs) consider socialization to be an interactional display (covert or overt) to a novice of expected ways of thinking, feeling, and acting...through their participation in social interactions, children come to internalize and gain performance competence in these sociocultural defined contexts" (Ochs, 1986, p. 2).

"Language socialization is a concept the editors take to mean both socialization through language and socialization to use language. In the perspective taken in this volume, children and other novices in society acquire tacit knowledge of principles of social order and systems of belief (ethnotheories) through exposure to and participation in language-mediated interaction. We take for granted the noncontroversial and obvious sense of this statement, that the development of intelligence and knowledge is facilitated (to an extent) by children's communication with others. Instead we pursue the nontrivial dimensions of this statement. Our approach is to examine closely the verbal interactions of infants and small children with others (older children, adults) for their sociocultural structure. Our perspective is that sociocultural information is generally encoded in the organization of conversational discourse and that discourse with children is no exception. Many formal and functional features of discourse carry sociocultural information, including phonological and morphosyntactic constructions, the lexicon, speech-act types, conversational sequencing, genres, interruptions, overlaps, gaps, and turn length. In other words, part of the meaning of grammatical and conversational structures is sociocultural. These structures are socially organized and hence carry information concerning social order (as has been demonstrated by Labov 1966, 1973). They are

67

also culturally organized and as such expressive of local conceptions and theories about the world. Language use is then a major if not the major tool for conveying sociocultural knowledge and a powerful medium of socialization. In this sense, we invoke Sapir (Mandelbaum 1949) and Whorf (1941) and suggest that children acquire a world view as they acquire a language." (Ochs, 1986, pp. 2-3)

68