what is the meaning of diesel engine

8/6/2019 What is the Meaning of Diesel Engine

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The Questions :

1. What is the meaning of diesel engine?

2. Explain the history timeline of diesel engine?

3. Who is the created diesel engine first time?

4. How many types of diesel engine?

5. What is the meaning of direct injection and indirect

injection?

6. Mention the advantages of engine diesel?

7. How many kind categories of speeds diesel engine?explain!

8. What is the meaning of supercharged and turbocharged?

9. Why most diesel are now turbocharged and some are both

turbo charged and supercharged?

10. Mention the applications of diesel engine in the lifes?


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DIESEL ENGINE

A diesel engine is an internal combustion engine that uses the heat ofcompression to initiate ignition to burn the fuel, which is injected into the

combustion chamberduring the final stage ofcompression. This is in contrast to apetrol engine (known as a gasoline engine in North America) orgas engine,which uses the Otto cycle, in which a fuel/air mixture is ignited by a spark plug.

It operates using the diesel cycle (named afterRudolf Diesel). Dieselengines have the highest thermal efficiency of any internal orexternal combustionengine, because of theircompression ratio. Low-speed diesel engine's thermalefficiency exceeds 50%.

Diesel engines are manufactured in two stroke and four stroke versions.They were originally used as a more efficient replacement for stationary steamengines. Since the 1910s they have been used in submarines and ships. Use in

locomotives, large trucks and electric generating plants followed later. In the1930s, they slowly began to be used in a few automobiles. Since the 1970s, theuse of diesel engines in larger on-road and off-road vehicles in the USA increased.As of 2007, about 50 percent of all new car sales in Europe are diesel.

HISTORY

Rudolf Diesel, of German nationality, was born in 1858 in Pariswhere hisparents were Bavarian immigrants. He was educated atMunich Polytechnic. After

graduation he was employed as a refrigerator engineer but his true love lay inengine design. Diesel designed many heat engines, including a solar-powered airengine. In 1893, he published a paper describing an engine with combustionwithin acylinder, the internal combustion engine. In 1894, he filed for a patent forhis new invention, dubbed the diesel engine. His engine was the first to prove thatfuel could be ignited without a spark. He operated his first successful engine in1897.

In 1898, Diesel was granted U.S. Patent 608,845 for an "internalcombustion engine". Though best known for his invention of the pressure-ignitedheat engine that bears his name, Rudolf Diesel was also a well-respected thermalengineer and a social theorist. Diesel's inventions have three points in common:
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they relate to heat transfer by natural physical processes or laws; they involvemarkedly creative mechanical design; and they were initially motivated by the

inventor's concept of sociological needs. Rudolf Diesel originally conceived thediesel engine to enable independent craftsmen and artisans to compete withindustry.

At Augsburg, on August 10, 1893, Rudolf Diesel's prime model, a single10-foot (3.0 m) iron cylinder with a flywheel at its base, ran on its own power forthe first time. Diesel spent two more years making improvements and in 1896demonstrated another model with a theoretical efficiency of 75 percent, in contrastto the 10 percent efficiency of the steam engine. By 1898, Diesel had become amillionaire. His engines were used to powerpipelines, electric and water plants,

automobiles and trucks, and marine craft. They were soon to be used in mines, oilfields, factories, and transoceanic shipping.

Diesel generator on an oil tanker

A diesel engine built by MAN AG in 1906

HISTORY TIMELINE

1824: French physicist Nicolas Lonard Sadi Carnot established thethermodynamic theory of idealized heat engines. This scientificallyestablished the need for compression to increase the difference betweenthe upper and lower working temperatures.

1890: May, Herbert Akroyd Stuartjointly with Charles Richard Binneyobtain patent No. 7146 entitled: "Improvements in Engines Operated bythe Explosion of Mixtures of Combustible Vapour or Gas and Air". This

patent describes the World's first compression-ignition engine. 1892: Hornsby of Lincoln, England, build the world's first internal

combustion engine to run on purely compression ignition. (experimental) 1892: February 23, Rudolf Diesel obtains a patent (RP 67207) titled

"Arbeitsverfahren und Ausfhrungsart fr Verbrennungsmaschienen".
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1893: Diesel's essay titled Theory and Construction of a Rational Heat-engine to Replace the Steam Engine and Combustion Engines KnownToday

1897: On August 10 Diesel builds his first working prototype in Augsburg 1898 Diesel licences his engine to Branobel, Russian oil company, that is

interested in the engine which can consume non-distilled oil. Branobel'sengineers spent 4 years designing ship-mounted engine.

1899: Diesel licenses his engine to builders Krupp and Sulzer, whoquickly become major manufacturers.

1902: until 1910 MANproduced 82 copies of the stationary diesel engine. 1903: SormovoShipbuilding Yard launches "Vandal" oil-tanker - first ship

propelled by diesel engine. 1904: The French build the first diesel submarine, the Z. 1905: For diesel engines turbochargers and intercoolers were

manufactured by Bchl (CH), as well as a scroll loader from Creux (F)company.

1908: Prosper L'Orange develops with Deutz a precisely controlledinjection pump with a needle injection nozzle.

1909: The prechamber with hemispherical combustion chamber isdeveloped by Prosper L'Orange with Benz.

1910: The Norwegian research shipFram is the first ship of the world witha Diesel drive, afterwards Selandia was the first trading vessel. By 1960the Diesel drive had displacedsteam turbine and coal fired steam engines.

1912: The Danish built first diesel ship MS Selandia. The first locomotivewith a diesel engine.

1913: U.S. Navy submarines use NELSECO units. Rudolf Diesel diedmysteriously when he crossed the English Channel on the SSDresden.

1914: German U-Boats are powered by MAN diesels. 1919: Prosper L'Orange obtains a patent on a prechamber insert and makes

a needle injection nozzle. First diesel engine from Cummins. 1921: Prosper L'Orange builds a continuous variable output injection

pump. 1922: First vehicle with (pre-chamber) diesel engine is theAgricultural

tractortype 6 of Mercedes-Benz agricultural tractor OE Benz Sendling. 1923: first truckwith diesel engine made by MAN, Benz and Daimlerwas

tested. 1924: The introduction on the truck market of the diesel engine by

commercial truck manufacturers in the IAA. Fairbanks-Morse startsbuilding diesel engines.
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1927: First truck injection pump and injection nozzles of Bosch. Firstpassenger car prototype ofStoewer.

1930s: Caterpillarstarts building diesels for their tractors. 1932: Introduction of strongest Diesel truck of the world by MAN with

160 hp (120 kW). 1933: of firstpassenger carswith diesel engine (Citron Rosalie), Citron

uses an engine of the English Diesel pioneer sirHarry Ricardo[1]. The cardoes not go into production due to legal restrictions in the use of Dieselengines.

1934: First turbo Diesel engine forrailway trainby Maybach. 193435: Junkers Motorenwerke in Germany starts production of the

Jumo aviation diesel engine family, the most famous of these being theJumo 205, of which over 900 examples are produced by the outbreak ofWorld War II.

Rudolf Diesel's 1893 patent on his engine design

1936: Mercedes-Benzbuilds the260D diesel car. AT&SF inaugurates thediesel train Super Chief. Airship Hindenburg is powered by diesel engines.First series manufactured passenger cars with diesel engine (Mercedes-

Benz 260 D, Hanomag and Saurer). Daimler Benz airship diesel engine602LOF6 forairshipthe LZ129Hindenburg.

1937: BMW 114 (aircraft engine)|BMW 114 experimental airplane dieselengine development.

1938: First turbo Diesel engine ofSaurer. 1944: Development of Air cooling for diesel engines by Klckner

Humboldt Deutz AG (KHD) for the production stage and later also forMagirus Deutz.

1953: Turbo Diesel truck forMercedes in small series.

1954: Turbo-Diesel truck in mass production ofVolvo. First diesel enginewith an overheadcam shaft ofDaimler Benz 1968: Peugeot introduces the 204, the first small cars with a transversally

mounted diesel engine and front-wheel drive. 1973: DAFproduces an air-cooled diesel engine. 1976 February: Testing of a diesel engine ofVolkswagenfor the passenger

car Volkswagen Golf. The Common Railinjection system was developedby the ETH Zurich from 1976 to 1992.

1977: The production of the first passenger car turbo-Diesels (Mercedes300 SD).
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1983: Grasshopper Mowers introduces the first zero-turn lawn mowerpowered by a diesel engine.

1985: ATI Intercooler diesel engine from DAF. First Common Rail systemwith the IFA truck type W50.

1986: Electronic Diesel Control (EDC) ofBosch with the BMW 524tD. 1987: Most powerful production truck with a 460 hp (340 kW) MAN

diesel engine. 1988: First turbochargers with direct injection in the diesel engine from

Fiat. 1991: European emission standardseuro 1 met with the truck diesel engine

ofScania.

1993: Pump nozzle injection introduced in Volvo truck engines. 1994: Unit injector system by Bosch for diesel engines. 1997: First common railin passenger car,Alfa Romeo 156. 1998: BMW makes history by winning the 24 Hour Nuerburgring race

with the 320d, powered by a two-liter, four-cylinder diesel engine. Thecombination of high-performance with better fuel efficiency allows theteam to make fewer pit stops during the long endurance race.

1999: euro 3 of Scania and first Common Rail truck diesel engine ofRenault.

2002: A street-driven Dodge Dakota pickup with a 735 horsepower dieselengine built atGale banks engineering hauls its own service trailer to theBonneville Salt Flats and sets an FIA land speed record as the world'sfastest pickup truck with a one-way run of 222 mph and a two-wayaverage of 217 mph.

2004: In Western Europe, the ratio of passenger cars with diesel engineexceeds 50%. Selective catalytic reduction (SCR) system in Mercedes,Euro 4 with EGR system and particle filters of MAN. Piezoelectricinjector technology by Bosch.

2006: AUDI R10 TDI wins 12 hours running in Sebring and defeats all

other engine concepts.Euro 5 for all Iveco trucks. 2008: Subaru introduces the first horizontally-opposed diesel engine to be

fitted to a passenger car. This is a Euro 5 compliant engine with an EGRsystem.

2009: Volvo claims the worlds strongest truck with their FH16 700. Aninline 6 cylinder, 16 litre 700 hp (522 kW) diesel engine producing3,150 Nm (Template:Convert/lbft) of torque and fully complying withEuro 5 emission standards.

HOW DIESEL ENGINES WORK
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Diesel Engine Model, Leftside Diesel Engine Model, Rightside

The diesel internal combustion engine differs from the gasoline poweredOtto cycle by using a higher compression of the air to ignite the fuel rather thanusing a spark plug (compression ignition rather thanspark ignition).

In the diesel engine, only air is introduced into the combustion chamber.The air is then compressed with a compression ratio typically between 15 and 22resulting into a 40 bar (about 600 psi) pressure compared to 8 to 14 bar (about 200

psi) in the petrol engine. This high compression heats the air to 550 C (1,022 F).At about this moment (the exact moment is determined by the fuel injection

timing of the fuel system), fuel is injected directly into the compressed air in thecombustion chamber. This may be into a (typically toroidal) void in the top of the

piston or a pre-chamber depending upon the design of the engine. The fuelinjector ensures that the fuel is broken down into small droplets, and that the fuelis distributed as evenly as possible. The more modern the engine, the smaller,more numerous and better distributed are the droplets. The heat of the compressedair vaporizes fuel from the surface of the droplets. The vapour is then ignited bythe heat from the compressed air in the combustion chamber, the dropletscontinue to vaporise from their surfaces and burn, getting smaller, until all the fuel

in the droplets has been burnt. The start of vaporization causes a delay periodduring ignition, and the characteristic diesel knocking sound as the vapor reachesignition temperature and causes an abrupt increase in pressure above the piston.The rapid expansion of combustion gases then drives the piston downward,supplying power to the crankshaft.

As well as the high level of compression allowing combustion to take place without a separate ignition system, a high compression ratio greatlyincreases the engine's efficiency. Increasing the compression ratio in a spark-ignition engine where fuel and air are mixed before entry to the cylinder is limited

by the need to prevent damagingpre-ignition. Since only air is compressed in a

diesel engine, and fuel is not introduced into the cylinder until shortly before topdead center (TDC), premature detonation is not an issue and compression ratiosare much higher.

Early Fuel Injection Systems

Diesel's original engine injected fuel with the assistance of compressed air,which atomized the fuel and forced it into the engine through a nozzle (a similar

principle to an aerosol spray). The nozzle opening was closed by a pin valve lifted

by the camshaft to initiate the fuel injection before top dead center ( TDC). This is
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called an air-blast injection. Driving the three stage compressor used some powerbut the efficiency and net power output was more than any other combustion

engine at that time.Diesel engines in service today raise the fuel to extreme pressures by

mechanical pumps and deliver it to the combustion chamber by pressure-activatedinjectors without compressed air. With direct injected diesels, injectors spray fuelthrough six or more small orifices in its nozzle. The early air injection dieselsalways had a superior combustion without the sharp increase in pressure duringcombustion. Research is now being performed and patents are being taken out toonce again use some form of air injection to reduce the nitrogen oxides and

pollution, reverting to diesel's original implementation with its superior

combustion and possibly quieter operation. In all major aspects, the modern dieselengine holds true to Rudolf Diesel's original design, that of igniting fuel bycompression at an extremely high pressure within the cylinder. With much higher

pressures and high technology injectors present-day diesel engines use the so-called solid injection system applied by Herbert Akroyd Stuart for his hot bulbengine. The indirect injection engine could be considered the latest developmentof these low speed hot bulb ignition engines.

Cold Weather

Starting

In cold weather, high speed diesel engines, which are mostly pre-chambered, could be difficult to start because the mass of the cylinder block andcylinder head absorb the heat of compression, preventing ignition due to thehigher surface to volume ratio. Pre-chambered engines therefore make use ofsmall electric heaters inside the pre-chambers called glowplugs. These enginesalso generally have a higher compression ratio of 19:1 to 21:1. Low speed andcompressed air started larger and intermediate speed diesels do not haveglowplugs and compression ratios are around 16:1. Some engines use resistivegrid heaters in the intake manifold to warm the inlet air until the engine reaches

operating temperature. Engine block heaters (electric resistive heaters in theengine block) connected to the utility grid are often used when an engine is turnedoff for extended periods (more than an hour) in cold weather to reduce startuptime and engine wear. In the past, a wider variety of cold-start methods were used.

Some engines, such as Detroit Diesel engines and Lister-Petter engines,used a system to introduce small amounts of etherinto the inlet manifold to startcombustion. Saab marine engines, Field Marshall tractors (among others) usedslow-burning solid-fuel 'cigarettes' which were fitted into the cylinder head as a

primitive glow plug. Lucas developed the Thermostart, where an electrical

heating element was combined with a small fuel valve in the inlet manifold.
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Diesel fuel slowly dripped from the valve onto the hot element and ignited. Theflame heated the inlet manifold and when the engine was cranked, the flame was

drawn into the cylinders to start combustion. International Harvesterdeveloped atractor in the 1930s that had a 7-liter 4-cylinder engine which started as agasoline/petrol engine then ran on diesel after warming up. The cylinder head hadvalves which opened for a portion of the compression stroke to reduce theeffective compression ratio, and a magneto produced the spark. An automaticratchet system automatically disengaged the ignition system and closed the valvesonce the engine had run for 30 seconds. The operator then switched off the petrolfuel system and opened the throttle on the diesel injection system. Recently direct-injection systems advanced to the extent that pre-chambers systems were not

needed using a common rail fuel system with electronic fuel injection.

Gelling

Diesel fuel is also prone to waxing orgelling in cold weather; both areterms for the solidification of diesel oil into a partially crystalline state. Thecrystals build up in the fuel line (especially in fuel filters), eventually starving theengine of fuel and causing it to stop running. Low-output electric heaters in fueltanks and around fuel lines are used to solve this problem. Also, most engineshave aspill return system, by which any excess fuel from the injector pump andinjectors is returned to the fuel tank. Once the engine has warmed, returning warmfuel prevents waxing in the tank. Due to improvements in fuel technology, withadditives waxing rarely occurs in all but the coldest weather when a mix of dieseland kerosene should be used to run a vehicle.

Fuel Delivery

A vital component of all diesel engines is a mechanical or electronicgovernorwhich regulates the idling speed and maximum speed of the engine by

controlling the rate of fuel delivery. Unlike Otto-cycle engines, incoming air is notthrottled and a diesel engine without a governor can not have a stable idling speedand can easily overspeed, resulting in its destruction. Mechanically governed fuelinjection systems are driven by the engine's gear train. These systems use acombination of springs and weights to control fuel delivery relative to both loadand speed. Modern, electronically controlled diesel engines control fuel delivery

by use of an electronic control module (ECM) or electronic control unit ( ECU).The ECM/ECU receives an engine speed signal, as well as other operating

parameters such as intake manifold pressure and fuel temperature, from a sensorand controls the amount of fuel and start of injection timing through actuators to
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maximize power and efficiency and minimize emissions. Controlling the timingof the start of injection of fuel into the cylinder is a key to minimizing emissions,

and maximizing fuel economy (efficiency), of the engine. The timing is measuredin degrees of crank angle of thepiston before top dead center. For example, if theECM/ECU initiates fuel injection when the piston is 10 degrees before TDC, thestart of injection, or timing, is said to be 10 BTDC. Optimal timing will dependon the engine design as well as its speed and load.

Advancing the start of injection (injecting before the piston reaches TDC)results in higher in-cylinder pressure and temperature, and higher efficiency, butalso results in elevated engine noise and increased oxides of nitrogen (NOx)emissions due to higher combustion temperatures. Delaying start of injection

causes incomplete combustion, reduced fuel efficiency and an increase in exhaustsmoke, containing a considerable amount of particulate matter and unburnedhydrocarbons .

Major Advantages

Diesel engines have several advantages over other internal combustionengines:

They burn less fuel than a petrol engine performing the same work, due tothe engine's higher temperature of combustion and greater expansion ratio.

Gasoline engines are typically 25% efficient while diesel engines canconvert over 30% of the fuel energy into mechanical energy.

They have no high-tension electrical ignition system to attend to, resultingin high reliability and easy adaptation to damp environments. The absenceof coils, spark plug wires, etc., also eliminates a source of radio frequencyemissions which can interfere with navigation and communicationequipment, which is especially important in marine and aircraftapplications.

They can deliver much more of their rated poweron a continuous basis

than a petrol engine. The life of a diesel engine is generally about twice as long as that of a

petrol engine due to the increased strength of parts used, also becausediesel fuel has better lubrication properties than petrol.

Diesel fuel is considered safer than petrol in many applications. Althoughdiesel fuel will burn in open air using a wick, it will not explode and doesnot release a large amount of flammable vapour. The low vapor pressureof diesel is especially advantageous in marine applications, where theaccumulation of explosive fuel-air mixtures is a particular hazard.
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For any given partial load the fuel efficiency (mass burned per energyproduced) of a diesel engine remains nearly constant, as opposed to petrol

and turbine engines which use proportionally more fuel with partial poweroutputs.

They generate less waste heat in cooling and exhaust. With a diesel, boost pressure is limited only by the strength of the engine

components, not predetonation of the fuel charge as in petrol engines. The carbon monoxide content of the exhaust is minimal, therefore diesel

engines are used in underground mines.

Mechanical and electronic injection

Many configurations of fuel injection have been used over the past century(19002000). Most present day (2008) diesel engines make use of a camshaft,rotating at half crankshaft speed, lifted mechanical single plunger high pressurefuel pump driven by the engine crankshaft. For each cylinder, its plungermeasures the amount of fuel and determines the timing of each injection. Theseengines use injectors that are basically very precise spring-loaded valves that openand close at a specific fuel pressure. For each cylinder a plunger pump isconnected with an injector with a high pressure fuel line. Fuel volume for eachsingle combustion is controlled by a slanted groove in the plunger which rotates

only a few degrees releasing the pressure and is controlled by a mechanicalgovernor, consisting of weights rotating at engine speed constrained by springsand a lever. The injectors are held open by the fuel pressure. On high speedengines the plunger pumps are together in one unit. Each fuel line should have thesame length to obtain the same pressure delay.

A cheaper configuration on high speed engines with fewer than sixcylinders is to use an axial-piston distributor pump ,consisting of one rotating

pump plunger delivering fuel to a valve and line for each cylinder (functionallyanalogous to points and distributor cap on an Otto engine). This contrasts with the

more modern method of having a single fuel pump which supplies fuel constantlyat high pressure with a common rail (single fuel line common) to each injector.Each injector has a solenoid operated by an electronic control unit, resulting inmore accurate control of injector opening times that depend on other controlconditions, such as engine speed and loading, and providing better engine

performance and fuel economy. This design is also mechanically simpler than thecombined pump and valve design, making it generally more reliable, and lessnoisy, than its mechanical counterpart. Both mechanical and electronic injectionsystems can be used in either direct orindirect injection configurations. Olderdiesel engines with mechanical injection pumps could be inadvertently run in
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reverse, albeit very inefficiently, as witnessed by massive amounts of soot beingejected from the air intake. This was often a consequence of push starting a

vehicle using the wrong gear. Large ship diesels can run either way.

Indirect Injection

An indirect injection diesel engine delivers fuel into a chamber off thecombustion chamber, called a pre-chamber or ante-chamber, where combustion

begins and then spreads into the main combustion chamber, assisted by turbulencecreated in the chamber. This system allows for a smoother, quieter runningengine, and because combustion is assisted by turbulence, injectorpressures can

be lower, about 100 bar using a single orifice tapered jet injector . Mechanicalinjection systems allowed high-speed running suitable for road vehicles (typicallyup to speeds of around 4,000RPM). The pre-chamber had the disadvantage ofincreasing heat loss to the engine's cooling system, and restricting the combustion

burn, which reduced the efficiency by 5%10%. Indirect injection engines wereused in small-capacity, high-speed diesel engines in automotive, marine andconstruction uses from the 1950s, until direct injection technology advanced in the1980s. Indirect injection engines are cheaper to build and it is easier to producesmooth, quiet-running vehicles with a simple mechanical system. In road-goingvehicles most prefer the greater efficiency and better controlled emission levels of

direct injection.

Direct Injection

Modern diesel engines make use of one of the following direct injectionmethods: Direct injection injectors are mounted in the top of the combustionchamber. The problem with these vehicles was the harsh noise that they made.Fuel consumption was about 15 to 20 percent lower than indirect injection diesels,which for some buyers was enough to compensate for the extra noise.

This type of engine was transformed by electronic control of the injectionpump, pioneered by theVolkswagen Group in 1989. The injection pressure wasstill only around 300 bar (4,400 psi), but the injection timing, fuel quantity, EGRand turbo boost were all electronically controlled. This gave more precise controlof these parameters which made refinement more acceptable and emissions lower.

Unit direct injection

Unit direct injection also injects fuel directly into the cylinder of theengine. In this system the injector and the pump are combined into one unit

positioned over each cylinder controlled by the camshaft. Each cylinder has its
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own unit eliminating the high pressure fuel lines, achieving a more consistentinjection. This type of injection system, also developed by Bosch, is used by

Volkswagen AG in cars (where it is called a Pumpe-Dse-Systemliterally pump-nozzle system) and by Mercedes Benz ("PLD") and most major dieselengine manufacturers in large commercial engines (CAT, Cummins, DetroitDiesel, Volvo). With recent advancements, the pump pressure has been raised to2,400 bar (35,000 psi), allowing injection parameters similar to common railsystems.

Common Rail Direct Injection

In common rail systems, the separate pulsing high pressure fuel line toeach cylinder injector is also eliminated. Instead, a high-pressure pumppressurizes fuel at up to 2,000 bar (29,000 psi), in a "common rail". The commonrail is a tube that supplies each computer-controlled injector containing a

precision-machined nozzle and a plunger driven by a solenoid orpiezoelectricactuator.

TYPES

Early

Rudolf Diesel intended his engine to replace the steam engine as theprimary power source for industry. As such, diesel engines in the late 19th andearly 20th centuries used the same basic layout and form as industrial steamengines, with long-bore cylinders, external valve gear, cross-head bearings and anopen crankshaft connected to a large flywheel. Smaller engines would be builtwith vertical cylinders, while most medium- and large-sized industrial engineswere built with horizontal cylinders, just as steam engines had been. Engines

could be built with more than one cylinder in both cases. The largest early dieselsresembled the triple-expansion reciprocating engine steam engine, being tens offeet high with vertical cylinders arranged in-line. These early engines ran at veryslow speedspartly due to the limitations of their air-blast injector equipment and

partly so they would be compatible with the majority of industrial equipmentdesigned for steam engines; maximum speeds of between 100 and 300 rpm werecommon. Engines were usually started by allowing compressed air into thecylinders to turn the engine, although smaller engines could be started by hand.

In the early decades of the 20th century, when large diesel engines were

first being used, the engines took a form similar to the compound steam engines
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common at the time, with the piston being connected to the connecting rod via acrosshead bearing. Following steam engine practice some manufactures made

double-acting two-stroke and four-stroke diesel engines to increase power output,with combustion taking place on both sides of the piston, with two sets of valvegear and fuel injection. While it produced large amounts of power and was veryefficient, the double-acting diesel engine's main problem was producing a goodseal where the piston rod passed through the bottom of the lower combustionchamber to the crosshead bearing, and no more were built. By the 1930sturbochargers were fitted to some engines. Crosshead bearings are still used toreduce the wear on the cylinders in large long-stroke main marine engines.

Modern

A Yanmar 2GM20 marine diesel engine, installed in a sailboat.

As with petrol engines, there are two classes of diesel engines in currentuse: two-stroke and four-stroke. The four-stroke type is the "classic" version,tracing its lineage back to Rudolf Diesel'sprototype. It is also the most commonlyused form, being the preferred power source for many motor vehicles, especially

buses and trucks. Much larger engines, such as used for railroad locomotion andmarine propulsion, are often two-stroke units, offering a more favorable power-to-weight ratio, as well as better fuel economy. The most powerful engines in theworld are two-stroke diesels of mammoth dimensions. Two-stroke dieseloperation is similar to that of petrol counterparts, except that fuel is not mixedwith air prior to induction, and the crankcase does not take an active role in thecycle. The traditional two-stroke design relies upon a mechanically driven

positive displacement blowerto charge the cylinders with air prior to compressionand ignition. The charging process also assists in expelling (scavenging)combustion gases remaining from the previous power stroke. The archetypeof the
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modern form of the two-stroke Diesel is the Detroit Diesel engine, in which theblower pressurizes a chamber in the engine block that is often referred to as the

"air box". The (much larger) Electromotiveprime moverutilized in EMDDiesel-electric locomotives is built to the same principle.

In a two-stroke diesel engine, as the cylinder's piston approaches thebottom dead center exhaust ports or valves are opened relieving most of theexcess pressure after which a passage between the air box and the cylinder isopened, permitting air flow into the cylinder. The air flow blows the remainingcombustion gases from the cylinderthis is the scavenging process. As the piston

passes through bottom center and starts upward, the passage is closed andcompression commences, culminating in fuel injection and ignition. Refer to two-

stroke Diesel engines for more detailed coverage of aspiration types andsupercharging of two-stroke engine.

Normally, the number of cylinders are used in multiples of two, althoughany number of cylinders can be used as long as the load on the crankshaft iscounterbalanced to prevent excessive vibration. The inline-six cylinder design isthe most prolific in light to medium-duty engines, though small V8 and largerinline-four displacement engines are also common. Small-capacity engines(generally considered to be those below five litres in capacity) are generally fouror six cylinder types, with the four cylinder being the most common type found inautomotive uses. Five cylinder diesel engines have also been produced, being acompromise between the smooth running of the six cylinder and the space-efficient dimensions of the four cylinder. Diesel engines for smaller plantmachinery, boats, tractors, generators and pumps may be four, three or twocylinder types, with the single cylinder diesel engine remaining for light stationarywork. Direct reversible two-stroke marine diesels need at least three cylinders forreliable restarting forwards and reverse. Four-stroke engines need at least sixcylinders, providing repeated power strokes at 120 degrees.

The desire to improve the diesel engine's power-to-weight ratio producedseveral novel cylinder arrangements to extract more power from a given capacity.

The opposed-piston engine uses two pistons in one cylinder with the combustioncavity in the middle and gas in- and outlets at the ends. This makes acomparatively light, powerful, swiftly running and economic engine suitable foruse in aviation. An example is the Junkers Jumo 204/205. The Napier Delticengine, with three cylinders arranged in a triangular formation, each containingtwo opposed-action pistons, the whole engine having three crankshafts, is one ofthe better known. The Commer van company of the United Kingdom used asimilar design for road vehicles, designed by Tillings-Stevens, member of theRootes Group, the TS3. The Commer TS3 engine had 3 horizontal in-line

cylinders, each with two opposed action pistons that worked through rocker arms,
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to connecting rods and had one crankshaft. While both these designs succeeded inproducing greater power for a given capacity, they were complex and expensive

to produce and operate, and when turbocharger technology improved in the 1960s,this was found to be a much more reliable and simple way of extracting more

power.

Gas Generator

As a footnote, prior to 1950,Sulzerstarted experimenting with two-strokeengines with boost pressures as high as 6 atmospheres, in which all of the output

power was taken from an exhaust gas turbine. The two-stroke pistons directlydrove air compressor pistons to make a positive displacement gas generator.

Opposed pistons were connected by linkages instead of crankshafts. Several ofthese units could be connected together to provide power gas to one large outputturbine. The overall thermal efficiency was roughly twice that of a simple gasturbine. This system was derived fromRal Pateras Pescara's work on free-pistonengines in the 1930s.

ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGES VERSUS SPARK-

IGNITION ENGINES

Power and fuel economy

The MAN S80ME-C7 low speed diesel engines use 155 gram fuel per

kWh for an overall energy conversion efficiency of 54.4%, which is the highestconversion of fuel into power by any internal or external combustion engine.[1]

Diesel engines are more efficient than petrol (petrol) engines of the same power,resulting in lower fuel consumption. A common margin is 40% more miles pergallon for an efficient turbodiesel. For example, the current modelkoda Octavia,using Volkswagen Group engines, has a combined Euro rating of 6.2 L/100 km(38 miles per US gallon, 16 km/L) for the 102bhp (76 kW) petrol engine and4.4 L/100 km (54 mpg) for the 105 bhp (78 kW) diesel engine. However, such acomparison doesn't take into account that diesel fuel is denser and contains about

15% more energy by volume. Although thecalorific value of the fuel is slightlylower at 45.3 MJ/kg (megajoulesper kilogram) than petrol at 45.8 MJ/kg, liquiddiesel fuel is significantly denser than liquid petrol. This is important becausevolume of fuel, in addition to mass, is an important consideration in mobileapplications. No vehicle has an unlimited volume available for fuel storage.

Adjusting the numbers to account for the energy density of diesel fuel, theoverall energy efficiency is still about 20% greater for the diesel version.

While higher compression ratio is helpful in raising efficiency, dieselengines are much more efficient than petrol (petrol) engines when at low power

and at engine idle. Unlike the petrol engine, diesels lack a butterfly valve (throttle)
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in the inlet system, which closes at idle. This creates parasitic loss and destructionof availability on the incoming air, reducing the efficiency of petrol engines at

idle. In many applications, such as marine, agriculture, and railways, diesels areleft idling unattended for many hours or sometimes days. These advantages areespecially attractive in locomotives.

Weight can be an issue, since diesel engines are typically heavier thanpetrol engines of similar power output. This is essentially because the diesel mustoperate at lower engine speeds. Diesel fuel is injected just before the powerstroke. As a result of this, the fuel cannot burn completely until it has encounteredthe right amount of oxygen. This results in incomplete combustion with too muchfuel, poor design or failing injectors resulting in black exhaust. In the petrol

engine, air and fuel are mixed for the entire compression stroke, ensuringcomplete mixing even at higher engine speeds.

Diesel engines usually have longer stroke lengths to achieve the necessarycompression ratios. As a result piston and connecting rods are heavier and moreforce must be transmitted through the connecting rods and crankshaft to changethe momentum of the piston. This is another reason that a diesel engine must bestronger for the same power output.

Yet it is this same build quality that has allowed some enthusiasts toacquire significant power increases with turbocharged engines through fairlysimple and inexpensive modifications. A petrol engine of similar size cannot putout a comparable power increase without extensive alterations because the stockcomponents would not be able to withstand the higher stresses placed upon them.Since a diesel engine is already built to withstand higher levels of stress, it makesan ideal candidate forperformance tuning with little expense. However, it should

be said that any modification that raises the amount of fuel and air put through adiesel engine will increase its operating temperature which will reduce its life andincrease service requirements. These are issues with newer, lighter, high

performance diesel engines which are not "overbuilt" to the degree of olderengines and are being pushed to provide greater power in smaller engines. The

addition of a turbocharger or supercharger to the engine greatly assists inincreasing fuel economy and power output, mitigating the fuel-air intake speedlimit mentioned above for a given engine displacement. Boost pressures can behigher on diesels than petrol engines, due to the latter's susceptibility to knock,and the highercompression ratio allows a diesel engine to be more efficient than acomparable spark ignition engine. Because the burned gases are expanded furtherin a diesel engine cylinder, the exhaust gas is cooler, meaning turbochargersrequire less cooling, and can be more reliable, than on spark-ignition engines.

With a diesel, boost pressure is essentially unlimited. It is literally possible

to run as much boost as the engine will physically stand before breaking apart.
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The increased fuel economy of the diesel engine over the petrol enginemeans that the diesel produces less carbon dioxide (CO2) per unit distance.

Recently, advances in production and changes in the political climate haveincreased the availability and awareness ofbiodiesel, an alternative to petroleum-derived diesel fuel with a much lower net-sum emission of CO2, due to theabsorption of CO2 by plants used to produce the fuel. Although concerns are now

being raised as to the negative effect this is having on the world food supply, asthe growing of crops specifically forbiofuels takes up land that could be used forfood crops and uses water that could be used by both humans and animals. Theuse of waste vegetable oil, sawmill waste from managed forests in Finland funded

by Nokia venture capital, and the development of the production of vegetable oil

from algae, demonstrate great promise in providing feed stocks for sustainablebiodiesel, that are not in competition with food production.

Diesel engines have lower power output than equivalent size petrol enginebecause its speed is limited by the time required for combustion. A combinationof improved mechanical technology (such as multi-stage injectors which fire ashort "pilot charges" of fuel into the cylinder to warm the combustion chamber

before delivering the main fuel charge), higher injection pressures that haveimproved the atomisation of fuel into smaller droplets, and electronic control(which can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it forall speeds and temperatures), have mostly mitigated these problems in the latestgeneration of common-rail designs, while greatly improving engine efficiency.Poor power and narrow torque bands have been addressed by the use ofsuperchargers, turbochargers, (especially variable geometry turbochargers),intercoolers, and a large efficiency increase from about 35% for IDI to 45% forthe latest engines in the last 15 years.

Even though diesel engines have a theoretical fuel efficiency of 75%, inpractice it is less. Engines in large diesel trucks, buses, and newer diesel cars canachieve peak efficiencies around 45%, and could reach 55% efficiency in the nearfuture. However, average efficiency over a driving cycle is lower than peak

efficiency. For example, it might be 37% for an engine with a peak efficiency of44%.

Emissions

Diesel engines produce very little carbon monoxide as they burn the fuel inexcess air even at full load, at which point the quantity of fuel injected per cycle isstill about 50% lean ofstoichiometric. However, they can produce blacksoot (ormore specifically diesel particulate matter) from their exhaust, which consists ofunburned carbon compounds. This is caused by local low temperatures where thefuel is not fully atomized. These local low temperatures occur at the cylinder
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walls and at the outside of large droplets of fuel. At these areas where it isrelatively cold, the mixture is rich (contrary to the overall mixture which is lean).

The rich mixture has less air to burn and some of the fuel turns into a carbondeposit. Modern car engines use a diesel particulate filter(DPF) to capture carbon

particles and then intermittently burn them using extra fuel injected into theengine.

The full load limit of a diesel engine in normal service is defined by the"black smoke limit". Beyond which point the fuel cannot be completelycombusted, as the "black smoke limit" is still considerably lean of stoichiometric.It is possible to obtain more power by exceeding it, but the resultant inefficientcombustion means that the extra power comes at the price of reduced combustion

efficiency, high fuel consumption and dense clouds of smoke. This is only done inspecialized applications (such as tractor pulling competitions) where thesedisadvantages are of little concern.

Likewise, when starting from cold, the engine's combustion efficiency isreduced because the cold engine block draws heat out of the cylinder in thecompression stroke. The result is that fuel is not combusted fully, resulting in

blue/white smoke and lower power outputs until the engine has warmed through.This is especially the case with indirect injection engines, which are less thermallyefficient. With electronic injection, the timing and length of the injection sequencecan be altered to compensate for this. Older engines with mechanical injection canhave mechanical and hydraulic governor control to alter the timing, and multi-

phase electrically controlledglow plugs, that stay on for a period after start-up toensure clean combustionthe plugs are automatically switched to a lower powerto prevent them burning out.

Particles of the size normally called PM10 (particles of 10 micrometres orsmaller) have been implicated in health problems, especially in cities. Somemodern diesel engines featurediesel particulate filters, which catch the black sootand when saturated are automatically regenerated by burning the particles. Other

problems associated with the exhaust gases (nitrogen oxides, sulfur oxides) can be

mitigated with further investment and equipment; some diesel cars now havecatalytic converters in the exhaust.

All diesel engine exhaust emissions can be significantly reduced by the useofbiodiesel fuel. Oxides of nitrogen do increase from a vehicle using biodiesel,

but they too can be reduced to levels below that of fossil fuel diesel, by changingfuel injection timing.

Power And Torque

For commercial uses requiring towing, load carrying and other tractivetasks, diesel engines tend to have bettertorque characteristics. Diesel engines tend
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to have their torque peak quite low in their speed range (usually between 16002000rpm for a small-capacity unit, lower for a larger engine used in a truck). This

provides smoother control over heavy loads when starting from rest, and,crucially, allows the diesel engine to be given higher loads at low speeds than a

petrol engine, making them much more economical for these applications. Thischaracteristic is not so desirable in private cars, so most modern diesels used insuch vehicles use electronic control, variable geometry turbochargers and shorter

piston strokes to achieve a wider spread of torque over the engine's speed range,typically peaking at around 25003000 rpm.

Noise

The characteristic noise of a diesel engine is variably called diesel clatter,diesel nailing, or diesel knock. Diesel clatter is caused largely by the dieselcombustion process, the sudden ignition of the diesel fuel when injected into thecombustion chamber causes a pressure wave. Engine designers can reduce dieselclatter through: indirect injection; pilot or pre-injection; injection timing; injectionrate; compression ratio; turbo boost; and exhaust gas recirculation (EGR).Common rail diesel injection systems permit multiple pre-injections as an aid to

noise reduction. Diesel fuels with a higher cetane rating modify the combustionprocess and reduce diesel clatter. CN (Cetane number) can be raised by distillinghigher quality crude oil, or by using a cetane improving additive. Some oilcompanies market high cetane or premium diesel. Biodiesel has a higher cetanenumber than petrodiesel, typically 55CN for 100% biodiesel.

A combination of improved mechanical technology such as multi-stageinjectors which fire a short "pilot charges" of fuel into the cylinder to initiatecombustion before delivering the main fuel charge, higher injection pressures thathave improved the atomisation of fuel into smaller droplets, and electronic control

(which can adjust the timing and length of the injection process to optimise it forall speeds and temperatures), have mostly mitigated these problems in the latestgeneration of common-rail designs, while improving engine efficiency.

Reliability

The lack of an electrical ignition systemgreatly improves the reliability.The high durability of a diesel engine is also due to its overbuilt nature (seeabove), a benefit that is magnified by the lower rotating speeds in diesels. Dieselfuel is a better lubricant than petrol so is less harmful to the oil film on pistonrings and cylinderbores; it is routine for diesel engines to cover 250,000 miles

(400,000 km) or more without a rebuild.
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Due to the greater compression force required and the increased weight ofthe stronger components, starting a diesel engine is harder. More torque is

required to push the engine through compression.Either an electricalstarteror an air start systemis used to start the engine

turning. On large engines, pre-lubrication and slow turning of an engine, as wellas heating, are required to minimize the amount of engine damage during initialstart-up and running. Some smaller military diesels can be started with anexplosive cartridge, called a Coffman starter, which provides the extra powerrequired to get the machine turning. In the past, Caterpillar and John Deere used asmall petrol pony motor in their tractors to start the primary diesel motor. The

pony motor heated the diesel to aid in ignition and utilized a small clutch and

transmission to actually spin up the diesel engine. Even more unusual was anInternational Harvester design in which the diesel motor had its own carburetorand ignition system, and started on petrol. Once warmed up, the operator movedtwo levers to switch the motor to diesel operation, and work could begin. Theseengines had very complex cylinder heads, with their own petrol combustionchambers, and in general were vulnerable to expensive damage if special care wasnot taken (especially in letting the engine cool before turning it off).

As mentioned above, diesel engines tend to have more torque at lowerengine speeds than petrol engines. However, diesel engines tend to have anarrowerpower bandthan petrol engines. Naturally-aspirated diesels tend to lack

power and torque at the top of their speed range. This narrow band is a reasonwhy a vehicle such as a truck may have a gearbox with as many as 18 or moregears, to allow the engine's power to be used effectively at all speeds.Turbochargers tend to improve power at high engine speeds; superchargersimprove power at lower speeds; and variable geometry turbochargers improve theengine's performance equally by flattening the torque curve.

Quality And Variety Of Fuels

Petrol/petrol engines are limited in the variety and quality of the fuels they

can burn. Older petrol engines fitted with a carburetorrequired a volatile fuel thatwould vaporize easily to create the necessary fuel/air mix for combustion.Because both air and fuel are admitted to the cylinder, if the compression ratio ofthe engine is too high or the fuel too volatile (with too low an octane rating), thefuel will ignite under compression, as in a diesel engine, before the piston reachesthe top of its stroke. This pre-ignition causes a power loss and over time majordamage to the piston and cylinder. The need for a fuel that is volatile enough tovaporize but not too volatile (to avoid pre-ignition) means that petrol engines willonly run on a narrow range of fuels. There has been some success at dual-fuelengines that use petrol/ethanol, petrol/propane, and petrol/methane.
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In diesel engines, a mechanical injector system vaporizes the fuel into apre-combustion chamber (as opposed to a Venturi jet in a carburetor, or a Fuel

injector in a fuel injection system vaporizing fuel into the intake manifold orintake runners as in a petrol engine). This forced vaporisation means that less-volatile fuels can be used. More crucially, because only air is inducted into thecylinder in a diesel engine, the compression ratio can be much higher as there isno risk of pre-ignition provided the injection process is accurately timed. Thismeans that cylinder temperatures are much higher in a diesel engine than a petrolengine, allowing less volatile fuels to be used.

Diesel fuel is a form of light fuel oil, very similar to kerosene/paraffin, butdiesel engines, especially older or simple designs that lack precision electronic

injection systems, can run on a wide variety of other fuels. Some of the mostcommon alternatives are Jet A-1 orvegetable oil from a very wide variety of

plants. Some engines can be run on vegetable oil without modification, and mostothers require fairly basic alterations. Biodiesel is a pure diesel-like fuel refinedfrom vegetable oil and can be used in nearly all diesel engines. The only limits onthe fuels used in diesel engines are the ability of the fuel to flow along the fuellines and the ability of the fuel to lubricate the injector pump and injectorsadequately. In general terms, inline mechanical injector pumps tolerate poor-quality or bio-fuels better than distributor-type pumps. Also, indirect injectionengines generally run more satisfactorily on bio-fuels than direct injectionengines. This is partly because an indirect injection engine has a much greater'swirl' effect, improving vaporisation and combustion of fuel, and also because (inthe case of vegetable oil-type fuels) lipid depositions can condense on the cylinderwalls of a direct-injection engine if combustion temperatures are too low (such asstarting the engine from cold).

It is often reported that Diesel designed his engine to run on peanut oil, butthis is not the case. Diesel stated in his published papers, "at the Pairs Exhibitionin 1900 (Exposition Universelle) there was shown by the Otto Company a smallDiesel engine, which, at the request of the French Government ran on Arachide

(earth-nut or pea-nut) oil (seebiodiesel), and worked so smoothly that only a fewpeople were aware of it. The engine was constructed for using mineral oil, andwas then worked on vegatable oil without any alterations being made. The FrenchGovernement at the time thought of testing the applicability to power productionof the Arachide, or earth-nut, which grows in consderable quanities in theirAfrican colonies, and can easily be cultivated there." Diesel himself laterconducted related tests and appeared supportive of the idea.

Most large marine diesels (often called cathedral engines due to their size)run on heavy fuel oil (sometimes called "bunker oil"), which is a thick, viscous

and almost un-flammable fuel which is very safe to store and cheap to buy in bulk
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as it is a waste product from the petroleum refining industry. The fuel must beheated to thin it out (often by the exhaust header) and is often passed through

multiple injection stages to vaporize it.

FUEL AND FLUID CHARACTERISTICS

Diesel engines can operate on a variety of different fuels, depending onconfiguration, though the eponymous diesel fuel derived from crude oil is mostcommon. The engines can work with the full spectrum of crude oil distillates,from natural gas, alcohols, petrol, wood gas to the fuel oils from diesel oil toresidual fuels.

The type of fuel used is a combination of service requirements, and fuelcosts. Good-quality diesel fuel can be synthesised from vegetable oil and alcohol.Diesel fuel can be made from coal or other carbon base using theFischer-Tropsch

process. Biodiesel is growing in popularity since it can frequently be used inunmodified engines, though production remains limited. Recently, biodiesel fromcoconut, which can produce a very promising coco methyl esther (CME), hascharacteristics which enhance lubricity and combustion giving a regular dieselengine without any modification more power, less particulate matter or blacksmoke, and smoother engine performance. The Philippines pioneers in theresearch on Coconut based CME with the help of German and Americanscientists. Petroleum-derived diesel is often called petrodiesel if there is need todistinguish the source of the fuel.

Pure plant oils are increasingly being used as a fuel for cars, trucks andremote combined heat and power generation especially in Germany wherehundreds of decentralised small- and medium-sized oil presses cold press oilseed,mainly rapeseed, for fuel. There is a Deutsches Institut fr Normung fuel standardforrapeseed oil fuel.

Residual fuels are the "dregs" of the distillation process and are a thicker,heavier oil, or oil with higher viscosity, which are so thick that they are not

readily pumpable unless heated. Residual fuel oils are cheaper than clean, refineddiesel oil, although they are dirtier. Their main considerations are for use in shipsand very large generation sets, due to the cost of the large volume of fuelconsumed, frequently amounting to many tonnes per hour. The poorly refined

biofuelsstraight vegetable oil (SVO) and waste vegetable oil (WVO) can fall intothis category, but can be viable fuels on non common rail or TDI PD diesels withthe simple conversion of fuel heating to 80 to 100 degrees Celsius to reduceviscosity, and adequate filtration to OEM standards. Engines using these heavyoils have to start and shut down on standard diesel fuel ,as these fuels will not

flow through fuel lines at low temperatures. Moving beyond that, use of low-
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what is the meaning of diesel engine

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