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Hume and Derrida on Language and MeaningFred Wilson Hume Studies Volume XII, Number 2 (November, 1986) 99 -121.Your use of the HUME STUDIES archive indicates your acceptance of HUME STUDIES Terms andConditions of Use, available athttp://www.humesociety.org/hs/about/terms.html.

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HUME AND DERRI DA ON LANGUAGE AND MEANI NG' . . . Language i t sel f i s menaced i n i t s ver y

l i f e, hel pl es s, adr i f t i n t he t hr eat of l i m t -l essness , br ought back t o i t s own f i ni t ude at t hever y moment when i t s l i m t s seem t o di sappear , wheni t ceases t o be sel f - assur ed, cont ai ned, andguar ant eed by t he i nf i ni t e s i gni f i ed whi ch seemed t oexceed i t . " I s t hi s true? What does i t mean?

Der r i da i s maki ng a cont r ast bet ween t wovi ews of l anguage. On t he vi ew t hat Der r i da bel i evescor r ec t , t he l i ngui s t i c s i gn, whet her spoken orwr i t t en, ac qui r es i t s meani ng, i t s s i gni f i c anc e, f r omconvent i ons. On t hi s vi ew, meani ng i s a mat t er ofnomos or i ns t i t ut i on r at her t han phys i s or nat ur e.Si nce meani ng i s a mat t er of convent i on r at her t hannat ur e, t he s i gn on t hi s vi ew i s ar bi t r ar y. And i nt hi s r espec t , t her e i s no di s t i nc t i on bet ween t hel i ngui s t i c or phoni c s i gn and t he wr i t t en or gr aphi cs i gn.

The ot her vi ew of l anguage deni es t hat al ls i gni f i cance i s a mat t er of nomos. Ther e ar e,r at her , at l eas t some s i gns t he s i gni f i cat i on ofwhi ch i s nat ur al . Thi s vi ew of l anguage i s one t hatDer r i da, qui t e cor r ect l y, l ocat es i n Pl at o. I t i st her e al r eady, per haps espec i al l y, i n t hee.opi ni ons:

2

Soc r at es di s t i ngui shes knowl edge f r om t r ue... r ue opi ni ons , as l ong as t heyr emai n, ar e a f i ne t hi ng and al l t heydo i s good, but t hey ar e not wi l l i ngt o r emai n l ong, and t hey escape f r oma man' s m nd, so t hat t hey ar e notwor t h much unt i l one t i es t hem downby ( gi v i ng) an account of t he r easonwhy. And t hat , Meno my f r i end, i sr ecol l ec t i on, a s we pr evi ous l yagr eed. Af t er t hey ar e t i ed down,i n t he f i r s t pl ace t hey become

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knowl edge, and t hen t hey r emai n i npl ace. That i s why knowl edge i spr i zed hi gher t hgn cor r ect opi ni on i nbei ng t i ed down.Knowl edge i s t hus cer t ai n, or i ncor r i gi bl e. Ther e i sno knowl edge t hat l acks a guar ant ee of i t s t r ut h.Thi s knowl edge i s obt ai ned t hr ough a f or m of knowi ngt hat Socr at es ar gues i s aki n t o ' r ecol l ect i on. " Thedet ai l s of what r ecol l ec t i on i s need not det ai n us;what i s i mpor t ant i s what r ecol l ec t i on i s a knowl edgeof . Ther e ar e i n f act t wo cases wi t h whi ch t he Menodeal s. The f i r s t i s t he case of geomet r i cal

I n t he cour se of Socr at es 'r opos i t i ons .i nt er r ogat i on, Meno' s s l ave boy di scover s t hat acer t ai n geomet r i cal pr opos i t i on i s t r ue. Recol l ec -t i on i s, t hus , i n t he f i r s t pl ace a di scover y off act s t hat makes pr opos i t i ons t r ue. -hat a pr op-os i t i on i s t r ue i s , i n gener al , not a mat t er ofconvent i on: t r ut h depends upon t he f act s t hat t hepr oposi t i on i s about , and whet her t hose f act s do ordo not obt ai n wi l l i n gener al not be dependent uponany soc i al i ns t i t ut i ons or convent i ons . On t he ot herhand, i t i s compat i bl e wi t h t hi s t o hol d t hat what apr oposi t i on means is a mat t er of convent i on. That' Hume 1st t ot ' means i n Ger nan t hat Hume i s dead i s amat t er of convent i on, j ust as i t i s a mat t er ofconvent i on t hat ' Hume i s not dead' means i n Engl i sht hat Hume i s not dead; but i t i s not a mat t er ofconvent i on, but of non- l i ngui s t i c f ac t , t hat t hef or mer i s t r ue and t he l at t er f al se. I mpor t ant l y,Socr at es f i r s t obt ai ns f r om Meno an af f i r mat i veanswer t o t he ques t i on ' Does he speak Gr eek?' bef or ehe begi ns hi s exam nat i on of t he s l ave boy. The boycan t hus be t aken t o under st and t he convent i ons t hatdet er m ne t he meani ng of t he pr oposi t i on t he t r ut h of

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whi ch he di scover s. Gr aspi ng meani ng may i n t hi s waybe a mat t er of gr aspi ng convent i ons; but t o gr asp t het r u t h i s not a mat t er of convent i on.

However , t hi s i s not Pl at o' s vi ew, as i s madecl ear by t he second exampl e of the sort of t hi ng ofwhi ch r ecol l ec t i on i s supposed t o yi el d knowl edge.what Socr at es seeks i s a def i ni t i on of ' vi r t ue; ' heeven gi ves Meno a br i ef cour se on how t o gi ve gooddef i ni t i ons . And t hi s sear ch i s , f or Socr at es ,anal ogous t o t he sear ch f or t he t r ut h of t he s l aveboy' s geomet r i cal pr oposi t i on. As t he s l ave boysear ches f or t he t r ut h wi t h r espect t o a geomet r i calpr opos i t i on, so Socr at es s ear ches f or t he t r ut h wi t hr espect t o t he def i ni t i on of ' vi r t ue. ' I n each caset he sear ch t er m nat es i n t he same sor t of t hi ng, t owi t , t he knowl edge of a form ( ei dos ) . A s t her ecol l ect i on of a f or m pr ovi des a non- convent i onalanswer t o t he sl ave boy' s quest , so t he r ecol l ect i onof a f or m wi l l pr ovi de a non- convent i onal answer t oSocr at es ' ques t . The f or m of vi r t ue t hus t el l s usnon- convent i onal l y what i s t he real def i ni t i on of' vi r t ue, ' what i s i t s t r ue meani ng. For Socr at es,t hen, meani ng i s nat ur al r at her t han convent i onal .Mor eover , t hi s nat ur al meani ng i s gr asped t hr oughr ecol l ec t i on, whi ch i s a f or m of knowl edge. Thi sknowl edge, once acqui r ed, i s i ncor r i gi bl e. Not onl yt r u t h but t he ver y i nt el l i gi bi l i t y of al l di s cour s eder i ves f r om t he f or ms: and genui ne under st andi ngr equi r es t he m nd t o penet r at e beyond t he convent i ons-f l anguage t o t hat sour ce of i nt el l i gi bi l i t y whi ch,and i ncor r i gi bi l i t y.

But of cour s e, t hi s i nt el l i gi bi l i t y i si ns i ght i nt o t he ver y bei ng of t hi ngs . For , as t hePhaedo put s i t , ' i f t her e i s anyt hi ng beaut i f ul

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bes i des t he Beaut i f ul i t s el f , i t i s beaut i f ul f or noot her r eason t han t hat i t shar es i n t hat Bea~t i f u l , ~'and, mor e gener al l y , as t he speaker s agr eed, ' each oft he For ms exi st ed, and ... ot her t hi ngs acqui r edt hei r name by havi ng a s har e i n t hem . . . Ther el at i on bet ween t he s i gn I,' and an obj ect 5 t owhi ch i t appl i es i s t hat of nam ng; i t i sconvent i onal . For t hat convent i on may or may not beco r rec t . I t i s cor r ect j us t i n cas e t hat i ts i gni f i es t he f or m and 5 s har es i n t hat f or mThus, Z'S bei ng, what i s c or r ec t l y s ai d t o be, i sconst i t ut ed by i t s par t i c i pat i on i n t he f or ms . I t i sevi dent t hat , when t he m nd penet r at es beyondl i ngui s t i c c onvent i ons t o t he f or ms t hat c ons t i t ut et he s t andar ds of t r ue meani ng, t he m nd has t her ebypenet r at ed t o t hat whi ch const i t ut es t he bei ng oft hi ngs. The f or ms ar e t hus at once t he gr ound of t hebei ng of t hi ngs and t he sour ce of al l i nt el l i gi bi l i t yof di scour se about t hose t hi ngs.

I t i s t hi s Pl at oni c vi ew of l anguage t hatDer r i da r ej ec t s . On t hi s vi ew, r eadi ng and wr i t i ngas pat t er ns of s i gns ar e ' pr eceded by a t r ut hl or ameani ng al r eady const i t ut ed by and wi t hi n t he el ementof t he l ogos. ' 9 A s t he Phaedr us i nsi sts, ' * one mustc ont r as t t he wr i t i ng of t r ut h i n t he sou l by t hef or ms wi t h or di nar y wr i t i ng. Th e l at t er i s 'a s i gns i gni f yi ng a s i gni f i er i t s el f s i gni f yi ng an et er nalver i t y, et er nal l y t hought and spoken i n t he pr oxi m t yof a pr esent l ogos. ' 11 The nat ur al , et er nal anduni ver s al wr i t i ng i s c ont r as t ed t o wr i t i ng i n t hel i t er al sense whi ch i s ' thus t hought on t he s i de ofcul t ur e, t echni que, and ar t i f i c el nl 2 -. e . ,convent i onal . But Der r i da r ej ec t s such nat ur almeani ngs: al l meani ng i s convent i onal . Si nce al ll i ngui s t i c s i gns ar e equal l y c onvent i onal , equal l y

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ar bi t r ar y, a r adi c al di s t i nc t i on bet ween t hel i ngui s t i c and t he gr aphi c i s f or bi dden. '' I n t er msof t he di s t i nct i on of t he Phaedr us , al l l i ngui s t i cs i gns ar e t o be r eckoned on t he s i de of wr i t i ng i nt he l i t er al s ens e, t hat i s, t he convent i onal ;" wr i t i ng t hus compr ehends l anguage. '14 Thi s put s i ta bi t par adoxi cal l y, but t he poi nt i s cl ear enough.

The Pl at oni c t r adi t i on t hat Der r i da di s put eshas , of cour se, a l ong hi s t or y, t hough i t i s one wi t hi t s var i at i ons . One of t hese var i at i ons i s Locke,whose ' concept ual i sm i s , i n a sense , Pl at oni sm wi t ht he f or ms f al l en i nt o t he m nd. For Locke, obj ec t sknown by sense ar e obj ect i vel y s i m l ar or di ss i m l ari n cer t ai n r espec t s . The m nd f or ms i deas f r om t hes eby s epar at i ng var i ous as pec t s f r om obj ec t s anduni t i ng t hese i nt o abs t r ac t i deas . l5 Wor ds ar e usedby men t o ' st and ... f or t he r eal i t y of thi ngs. ' 16But t hi s convent i onal connect i on i n whi ch we appl yt he same t er m t o sever al t hi ngs may be cor r ect ori ncor r ect ; i t i s cor r ec t j us t i n case t hat t he usagei n whi ch t he wor ds col l ec t obj ec t s i nt o c l assescor r esponds t o t he way i n whi ch one' s i deas col l ectobj ec t s i nt o cl as s es . I n t hi s s ens e, t he c or r ec tobj ect i ve s i gni f i cat i on of wor ds i s det er m ned byone' s i deas; wor ds ought t o expr ess our i deas. Or ,as Locke put s i t , ' . . . i t i s a per ver t i ng t he use ofwor ds, and br i ngs unavoi dabl e obscur i t y and conf usi oni nt o t hei r s i gni f i cat i on, whenever we make t hem st andf or any t hi ng, but t hose i deas we have i n our ownm nds. '17 Al t hough Locke does not hol d t hat t heobj ec t i ve bei ng of t hi ngs i s gr ounded i n our abst r acti deas ; nonet hel ess , what t hi ngs can cor r ec t l y be saidt o be i s gr ounded i n our abst r act i deas . Thus,al t hough Locke i s a concept ual i s t wher e Pl at o i s ar eal i s t , t he t wo as r ee t hat t he i nt el l i gi bi l i t y of

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104al l di s cour s e der i ves f r om non- l i ngui s t i c ent i t i es ,and t hat genui ne under st andi ng r equi r es t he m nd t ogr asp t hese pr e- l i ngui s t i c and non- convent i onalsour ces of t r ue meani ng.

Men i nt r oduce l anguage i n or der t o ser ve asoc i al pur pose: " The com or t and advant age of soc i et ynot bei ng t o be had wi t hout communi cat i on oft hought s, i t was necess ar y t hat man shoul d f i nd someext er nal s ens i bl e s i gns , wher eof t hos e i nvi s i bl ei deas, whi ch hi s t hought s ar e made up f or , m ght beknown t o ot her s . " l a I f t hi s pur pose i s t o beachi eved, set t l ed and shar ed convent i ons ar er equi r ed : " Thi s i s so necess ar y i n t he use ofl anguage, t hat i n t hi s r espect t he knowi ng and t hei gnor ant , t he l ear ned and t he unl ear ned, use t hewor ds t hey s peak ( wi t h any meani ng) al l al i ke. ""Puf endor f was t o pur sue t hi s l i ne of t hought , andconnec t i t t o t he not i on of a soc i al cont r ac t .2 0Dut i es , f or Puf endor f , ar e abs ol ut e or c ondi t i onal ;t he f or mer der i ve di r ec t l y f r om nat ur al l aw, 21 whi l et he l at t er ' pr esuppose an expr ess or t ac i tagr eement . " 22 I t i s a gener al and absol ut e dut y ofnat ur al l aw t hat one keep t hese agr eement ; ^ menent er i nt o t hese agr eement s when advant age makes i tr easonabl e t o do so. 2 4 Ther e ar e t hr ee basi ccompact s upon whi ch a l l ot her s ar e condi t i onal : " Ther est pr esuppose ei t her some human i nst i t ut i on, basedupon a uni ver sal convent i on, and i nt r oduced amongmen, or el se upon s ome par t i cul ar f or m of gover nment .Of such i ns t i t ut i ons we obser ve i n par t i cul ar t hr ee:l anguage, owner s hi p and val ue , and humangover ni nent . 2 5 I t i s t he f i r s t of t hese t hat concer nsus her e. . . . hat t he use of l anguage be not i nvai n, i f each wer e to cal l a t hi ng byany name he pl eased, t her e must be

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among t he user s of t he same l anguagea t ac i t convent i on, t o des i gnat e acer t ai n t hi ng by a cer t ai n wor d andno ot her . For unl ess t her e has beenagr eement upon a uni f or m appl i cat i onof wor ds , i t i s i mposs i bl e t o gat herf r om anot her ' s speech t he t hought s ofhi s m nd. Ther ef or e by vi r t ue oft hat compact ever y man i s bound i ncommon speech t o empl oy wor dsaccor di ng as t he est abl i s9t d usage oft hat l anguage pr escr i bes .The convent i ons of l anguage ar e not j ust

descr i pt i ons of t he use of wor ds : t hey ar e al sobi ndi ng, i n t he sense of bei ng r ul es t hat havei mper at i val and, i ndeed, mor al f or ce. I n t hi s sensePuf endor f i s cor r ec t : i n t hi s r espect , he goes beyondLocke i n at t empt i ng t o l ocat e a sour ce f or t hatobl i gat i on. But Puf endor f ' s account of t he sour ce oft hat obl i gat i on, namel y, i n a pr i or compac t , i f onl ya compac t t hat i s t ac i t and t her ef or e not l ogi cal l ypr i or , i s an account t hat c l ear l y pr esupposes t hatt her e i s t hought t hat i s pr i or t o l i ngui s t i c conven-t i on. For , i f Puf endor f i s Cor r ec t , t her e mus t be as or t of t hought t hat i s pr i or to l anguage i n whi chr eason can move, can r ecogni ze t he ut i l i t y of t hel i ngui s t i c convent i ons and of t he compact t o enf or cet hose convent i ons and can t aci t l y agr ee t o such accmpact by conf or m ng one' s l anguage t o t hoseconvent i ons and t o t her eby enj oy t he goods suchconf or m t y gener at es . Thus , f or Puf endor f as f orPl at o, t hought pr ecedes l anguage, and, i ndeed, al ls oci al convent i ons , al l s oci al i ns t i t ut i ons .Rat i onal i t y i s pr i or t o ( al l human) di scour se, mant he r at i onal ani mal pr i or t o man t he pol i t i calani mal .

For Der r i da, of cour s e, al l t hi s i sbackwar ds. But i n maki ng such a c l ai m Der r i da hasbeen pr eceded by Hume.

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Hume obj ect s t o Locke' s t heor y of i deas on2 7gr ounds t hat ar e essent i al l y t hose of Ber kel ey,t hat t he c l ai m t hat t hey can be f or med by separ at i ngi n t hought aspect s or pr oper t i es of t hi ngs pr esent edi n sense exper i ence, i s a c l ai m t hat i s i ncons i s t entwi t h t wo ot her Lockean c l ai ms , namel y , f i r s t , t heant i - Pl at oni st t hes i s t hat t he gr ounds whi ch make t heappl i cat i on of gener al t er ms t r ue of t hi ngs , G.,obs er vabl e pr oper t i es , ar e ont ol ogi c al l y not separ at ef r om t hi ngs, and second t he t hes i s common t o al lphi l osopher s of t he age, t hat t he t hi nkabl e i spos s b e. 8 For , i f an abs t r ac t i dea i s f or med byt hought separ at i ng an aspect , and what i s t hi nkabl ei s poss i bl e, t hen t he aspect t hought separ at es t ur nsout t o be separ abl e i n r eal i t y, whi ch i s cont rary tot he ant i - Pl at oni s t t hes i s t hat pr oper t i es ar e nots epar abl e f r om t hi ngs .

However , Ber kel ey' s ar gument i s negat i ve; i tr ej ect s one account of how i t i s t hat we acqui r e t hec apac i t y t o use gener al t er ms, but i t does notpr ovi de a pos i t i ve al t er nat i ve account . 2 9 Humer emedi es t hi s gap i n Ber kel ey' s pos i t i on.

We ar e awar e i n sense exper i ence of ent i t i est hat have var i ous sens i bl e pr oper t i es . Theseent i t i es , whi ch ar e not s ubj ect i ver 3* and whi ch Bumec al l s " i mpr es si ons , ' ar e t hus obj ec t i vel y s i ni l ar anddi s s i m l ar . Awar enes s of t hes e s ens i bl e ent i t i escauses31 i deas t o f or m t hese i deas ar e t heKsel vessensor y cont ent s , and t hey ar e copi es , gener al l y32f ai nt er , of t he i mpr ess i ons t hat ar e t hei r cal ; ses.I deas ar e t her ef or e al s o obj ec t i vel y s i ni l ar ar , ddi s s i m l ar t o t he t hi ngs t hat ar e t hei r causes and t ot he ot her s ens i bl e ent i t i es t hat ar e s i m l ar anddi ss i m l ar t o t he l at t er . Let us say t nat sens i bl eent i t i es , i mpr es s i ons and i deas , t hat ar e obj ec t i vel y

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s i m l ar i n a cer t ai n r espec t f or m a r esembl ance c l assof t hi ngs. The quest i on, how do we acqui r e t hecapac i t y t o use gener al t er ms? i s t her ef or e t hequest i on, how do we acqui r e t he capac i t y to appl y at er m t o al l t he member s of a r esembl ance cl ass ofent i t i es 1

Hume answer s t hi s quest i on i n t er ms of as ci ent i f i c ps yc hol ogi cal t heor y of l ear ni ng. Thebas i c pr i nc i pl e of t hi s t heor y i s t hat i f x's ar er egul ar l y pr esent i n exper i ence wi t h g ' s , t hen t hei dea ( i mage) of an 5 comes t o be ass oci at ed wi t h 2 ' si n one' s m nd. To say t hat such an assoc i at i onobt ai ns i s t o say t hat whenever an 2 i s pr esent ed,ei t her an g i mpr ess i on or t he i dea of an g , t hen t hei dea of an 5 i s evoked. Not e t hat t o say t hat t hei dea of an 11 i s assoc i at ed wi t h t he i dea of an g i st o as ser t a r egul ar i t y, but i t i s a condi t i onedr egul ar i t y, one t hat comes t o hol d of an i ndi vi dualonl y consequent upon t he obt ai ni ng of cer t ai ncondi t i ons , namel y, t hose of l ear ni ng, and i npar t i cul ar , r egul ar connect i on i n exper i ence. Hume' st heor y of l ear ni ng al s o has a pr i nc i pl e ofgener al i z at i on, i f an i dea of an 2 i s assoc i at ed wi t h-' s and 2 ' s ( and i deas of a ' s ) r esembl e b's t hen t hei dea of an 5 comes t o be ass oci at ed wi t h 1 2 ' s . Nowl et x be a s i gn, ei t her or al or wr i t t en. I f i t i sassoc i at ed i n exper i ence wi t h an obj ect of a cer t ai nsor t (e.g., ot her s so use i t i n one' s exper i ence)t hen i t ( t he i dea of i t ) wi l l come t o be assoc i at edi n t hought wi t h t hat obj ect and wi l l f ur t her come tobe associ at ed i n t hought wi t h r esembl i ng obj ect s andi deas. 3 3 I n t hi s way one acqui r es t he capac i t y t oappl y a wor d t o al l t he member s of a r esembl ancec l ass of ent i t i es . Or , i n ot her wor ds , wor ds become

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gener al t hr ough t he oper at i on of t he assoc i at i vemechani sms.

Hume has t hus s ucceeded i n expl ai ni ng, or atl east sket chi ng an expl anat i on of how we acqui r e t hecapaci t y t o use gener al t er ms wi t hout i nvoki ng anymyst er i ous abst r act i deas. I ndeed, on Hume' s accountan abst r act i dea s i mpl y & t he acqui r ed capaci t y t oappl y a gener al t er m t o r esembl i ng t hi ngs . I t i s notan ent i t y but a d i s p ~s i t i o n , ~~nd as such sol vesmany of t he pr obl ems t hat conf r ont Locke' s posi t i on,e.g., how t he abst r act i dea of a t r i angl e can i nc l udeal l t he s peci f i c f or ms of t r i angl e wi t hi n i t ,s cal ene, equi l at er al , et c. , and t he i nf i ni t y ofpar t i cul ar s ens i bl e t r i angl es .

The phi l osophi cal t r adi t i on f r om whi ch Humeemer ged had a set t l ed doct r i ne i n whi ch t houghtpr oceeded by means of abst r act i deas . A j udgmentcons i s t ed i n t he conj oi ni ng af f i r mat i vel y o rnegat i vel y of abst r act i deas: r easoni ng cons i s t ed ofar r angi ng j udgment s i nt o sy l l ogi sms. Lockechal l enged t he vi ew t hat t he pr i mar y pr em ss es ofsyl l ogi sms wer e known a p~i or i ; ~' Hume cont i nued t hatcr i t i que. 37 A gener al pr opos i t i on cons i s t s i nabst r act i deas j oi ned r egul ar l y i n t hought . Such ar egul ar connect i on i s t he r esul t of pr ocess es ofassoc i at i on. 38 The j udgment i s j us t i f i ed j us t i ncase t hat t he associ at i on has t aken pl ace i nconf or m t y t o t he " r ul es by whi ch t o j udge of causes

Thesend ef f ect s ; " 39 or so Hume ar gues .sc i ent i f i c j udgment s i nc l ude, of cour se, t hose ofpsychol ogy, t hat i s , t he sc i ence t he pr i nc i pl es ofwhi ch ar e used t o expl ai n t he f or m ng of suchj udgment s . 41 But t hi s asi de, Hume' s vi ew ofr easoni ng, t hat i t cons i s t s i n t he depl oyment ofi deas , i s f ai r l y t r adi t i onal . The r adi cal move i s

35

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t he const r ual of t he i deas as t he abst r act i deas ofhi s own account . Thus, t he conj oi ni ng of i deasbecomes t he conj oi ni ng of capaci t i es t o use wor ds:and t he j udgment wi l l be occur r ent r at her t handi spos i t i onal j us t i n case t hat t he di spos i t i ons t hatt he abst r act i deas are, ar e act ual i z ed, t hat i s , j usti n case t hat s i gns one i s di sposed t o empl oy act ual l yar e i maged or t okened. Thus, f or Hume, as f or

what happens i n l ear ni ng, of cour se, i s t hatpeopl e come t o conf or m t o t he set t l ed convent i on f ort he use of a s i gn. Thr ough l ear ni ng, t he convent i oni s pas sed on f r om ol der t o newer member s of al i ngui s t i c communi t y. Thi s set t l ed convent i on i spr ec i sel y what Der r i da r ef er s t o as t he ' i ns t i t ut edtrace. ' 4 3 Thi s t r ace i s , as Hume says, an acqui r edcapac i t y; i t i s a di s pos i t i on. For Hume, and f orDer r i da, i n c ont r as t t o Pl at 0 or Locke, an i dea i snot a t hi ng, not an ent i t y, but a di spos i t i on orcapac i t y. These di spos i t i ons our abst r act i deas.They not onl y make t hought possi bl e: t hought consi st s-n t he or der i ng of t hese di spos i t i ons . Theacqui s i t i on of t hes e di s pos i t i ons i s a cont i ngentmat t er ; i t i s t hey whi ch make i t poss i bl e to say whatt hi ngs are, t hat i s , t o make pr edi cat i ons , cor r ec t ori ncor r ect , of t hi ngs, and whi ch make i t pos s i bl e t oask t he quest i ons f or whi ch t hese j udgment s ar eanswer s, such quest i ons as, Ar e A ' S al s o B's? and,What sor t s of t hi ngs ar e t hese? or , mor e br i ef l y,What i s ? Al l t hi s i s cl ear enough, and sober enough,but Der r i da char act er i st i cal l y makes i t sound mor epar adoxi cal t han i t i s: ' t he t r ace i s not hi ng, i t i snot an ent i t y, i t exceeds t he quest i on What i s? andcont i ngent l y makes i t poss i bl e. 4 4

Der r i da much l at er , ' we t hi nk onl y i n s i gns . 4 2

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I n or der t o devel op f ul l y Hume' s account ofl anguage, one woul d have t o go on t o say much mor et han can be sai d her e about t he st at us of convent i onsi n Hume' s phi l osophy, or r at her , hi s sci ent i f i caccount of man. One woul d need t o spel l out how t hel anguage of i mper at i ves wor ks , and spec i f i cal l y i t sconnect i on wi t h mot i vat i ons. An i mper at i ve, t hr oughi t s connect i on t o mot i vat i ons , br i ngs about , &,causes, t he behavi our i t descr i bes. Thi s account ofi mper at i ves woul d t hen have t o be gener al i zed t o t hecase of gener al i mper at i ves or r ul es. These r ul es,consi der ed descr i pt i vel y, descr i be convent i onalbehavi our pat t er ns, and consi der ed i mper at i vel y or asnor ms br i ng about , e.,ause conf or m t y t o t hosepatterns . 5 Hume di scuss es such convent i ons i ndet ai l when he di scusses t he convent i ons of pr oper t yand pr om s i ng. The di scuss i on t her e, whi l e spec i f i ct o t he convent i ons of c i v i l soci et y, shows how suchnor ms ar e i nsepar abl e f r om t he l anguage ofi mper at i ves, 46 and can be ext ended t o cover t heconvent i ons of l anguage t hemsel ves. 4 7 They can al sobe ext ended t o cover t he convent i ons of r at i onalt hought , t hat i s , t he convent i onal t hought pat t er nst hat ar e t he ' r ul es by whi ch t o j udge of causes ande f fec t s . '

I n each case, t he convent i ons ar e f i r stl ear ned by t r i al and er r or , but ar e mai nt ai ned i n t hef i r s t i nst ance because of i nt er est : each di scover st hat i t i s i n t he i nt er es t of hi msel f t o mai nt ai n t heconvent i ons , t o conf or m to t hem hi msel f and t omai nt ai n t he conf or m t y of ot her s t o t hem B u t henot onl y di scover s t hat i t i s i n hi s own i nt er est buti n t he i nt er es t of al l . So t he mechani sm of sympat hycomes i nt o pl ay, and t he r ul es t her eby acqui r e amor al f or ce whi ch i s at once mot i vat i ng and di s-

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i nt er es t ed. Thi s mor al f or ce not onl y mot i vat esonesel f , s t r engt hens one' s r esol ve t o conf or m t o t hec onvent i ons , but , s i nc e i t i s di s i nt er es t ed, moves ust o i ns t i t ut e means t o secur e t he conf or m t y of ot her st o t he c onvent i onal pat t er n. Spec i f i c al l y, i t woul di nc l ude, one, br i ngi ng i t about , e.g., y t eachi ngbut by many ot her means t oo, t hat newcomer s t o t hes oci et y ac qui r e t he appr opr i at e habi t s , c onf or m t ot he r el evant convent i ons . And i t woul d i nc l ude, =,br i ngi ng i t about , u., y sel f - di s ci pl i ne, t hatonesel f mor e cons i s t ent l y and r egul ar l y conf or ms t o48t he convent i onal pat t er ns .

I n t hi s way t he convent i ons of l anguage andof r at i onal i t y ac qui r e and mai nt ai n a di s i nt er es t edmot i vat i ng and r egul at i ng power . Ther e i s not hi ngmys t er i ous about i t ; i t i s , on t he whol e, and i nout l i ne at l east , eas i l y seen t o be consequences ofHume' s sc i ent i f i c t heor y of l ear ni ng, and hi s t heor yof mot i vat i on, i nc l udi ng i n t he l at t er not onl y t het heor y of t he passi ons but al s o t he mechani sms ofsympat hy. The psychol ogy may be pr i m t i ve, but t her ei s l i t t l e t hat c oul d not , wi t h m nor adj us t ment s , bef i t i nt o cont empor ar y psychol ogi cal t heor i z i ng. Oncewe r ecogni ze al l t hi s , we see t hat Der r i da' s r emar kabout convent i ons , t hat " t he i ns t i t ut ed t r ace i s' unmot i vat ed' but not capr i ci ous ' 49 i s not ent i r el yj us t . They ar e c er t ai nl y not c apr i c i ous , s i nc e t heyar e l ear ned; i t i s no acci dent t hat we conf or m t ot hem nor , i ndeed, t hat we di sc i pl i ne our sel ves andot her s t o conf or m t o t hem And i nsof ar as t her e i sno real meani ng of t he Pl at - oni c or Lockean sor t t odec i de whi ch convent i ons ar e cor r ec t , t hen t hey ar ei ndeed ar bi t r ar y and i n t hat sense unmot i vat ed.Nonet hel ess , gi ven man' s i nt er est i n communi cat i on,i t i s i n one' s i nt er es t t hat t her e be some l i ngui s t i c

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112convent i ons or ot her , and gi ven t hat one i s al waysbor n i nt o a communi t y, i t i s i n one' s own i nt er estand t hat of t he ot her member s of t he communi t y t oconf or m t o t he convent i ons t hat have as a mat t er off ac t - cont i ngent f act - become i nst i t ut ed. As f ort he nor ms of r at i onal i t y, conf or m t y t o t hese ser vesour i nt er es t i n t r ut h - our c ur i os i t y - whi ch i t s el fi s bot h di s i nt er est ed and pr agmat i c . F i nal l y bot ht he convent i ons of l anguage and of r at i onal i t yacqui r e, as we have seen, a cer t ai n mor al f or ce whi chi s anot her mot i vat i ng f ac t or . For t hese r easonsDer r i da' s comment t hat t he convent i ons ar eunmot i vat ed i s m sl eadi ng. Cont r ar y t o t hePl at oni s t , we may i ndeed choose convent i ons as wepl ease, but onl y some of t hose t hat we may chooseact ual l y do pl ease us .

' We t hi nk onl y i n s i gns: " t hi s descr i besHume' s vi ew as wel l as t hat of Der r i da. what t hi smeans i s t hat t hought pr esupposes l i ngui st i cconvent i ons. And i f Hume i s cor r ect , t hen menconf or m t o t hese convent i ons as a mat t er of l ear ni ng,and, s peci f i c al l y, l ear ni ng i n a s oci al cont ext . ForLocke, f or Puf endor f , f or Pl at o, i deas ar e non-l i ngui s t i c , and t hought and r at i onal i t y ar e pr i or t oman' s par t i c i pat i on i n soc i et y. But f or i i une,t hought and r at i onal i t y pr esuppose - t o be sur e, as amat t er of cont i ngent f ac t , t he f ac t s of l ear ni ngtheory - man' s par t i c i pat i on i n soc i et y. For Huxe,t hen, i n t ot al cont r as t t o hi s pr edecessor s , n a n ' ss oci al bei ng i s pr i or t o hi s r at i onal i t y.

Rat i onal i t y under goes a r adi cal r evi s i on :?ont hi s vi ew of man. Man has a cer t ai n i nt er est , c a l l e dc ur i os i t y, i n mat t er of f act t r u t h . Reason i s s i apl yt he s t r at egy t he m nd adopt s t o bes t sat i s f y t hi si nt er es t . 51 Ther e i s no absol ut e st andar d t hat

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j us t i f i es t hi s i nt er es t ; men j us t have i t , as t heyhave ot her , var i ous mot i ves. S o f ar as we candi s cover , t he r ul es of empi r i c al s c i enc e, t he " r ul esby whi ch t o j udge of causes, " pr ovi de t he bests t r at egy f or s at i s f yi ng our c ur i os i t y, so f ar as suchsat i s f ac t i on can be at t ai ned. One can gi ve s i m l arcons i der at i ons , i n t er ms of human i nt er es t s , t opr ef er t he s t r at egi es of t hought of empi r i calsc i ence , t o t hose of t he met aphys i c i an. 5 2 How muchl ess exc i t i ng t han t he Pl at oni c or Car t es i an i deat hat r at i onal i t y cons i s t s i n t he i nt ui t i on of f or msor ess ences t hat t r anscend t he wor l d of space andt i me t hat we know by means of our sense exper i ence.On t he ot her hand, t hough exci t i ng, i t i s i nhuman,pr oposi ng t o man cogni t i ve goal s t hat ar e , so Humear gues, unat t ai nabl e. 53 So, i f t he Humean vi ew ofr eason i s l es s exc i t i ng t han Pl at o' s , i t i s al s o t hemor e human vi ew, t he mor e humani s t i c .

Hume l ays out i n det ai l t he new concept ofr at i onal i t y , and def ends t he nor ms of empi r i calsc i ence as t hose t hat can pr ovi de t he cor r ects t r at egy f or s at i s f yi ng our c ogni t i ve i nt er es t s , sof ar as t hey can be sat i s f i ed. Der r i da, t oo,pr oc l ai ms t he need f or a new ' r at i onal i t y. m 5 4 Forhi m what t hi s means i s t hat one must i nt r oduce ar het or i c t hat al l ows one t o " decons t r uc t " t hePl at oni c vi ew of l anguage t hat has i t t hatconvent i ons ar e and ought t o be gr ounded i n r ealmeani ng. 5 5 Si nce or di nar y account s of l anguage ar eper vaded by t he Pl at oni c vi ew, one must use t he ver yl anguage of l ogos t o ar gue agai ns t i t .

Hume, t oo, r ecogni zes t hi s pr obl em Ther ear e no absol ut es , t her e ar e no guar ant ees , yet t hel anguage of , u.,nowl edge, i s f ul l of c onvent i onst hat i mpl y t hat such a guar ant ee obt ai ns, and Hume at

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t i mes must use such l anguage i n t he ver y act ofdenyi ng t hat t her e ar e such guar ant ees. Al l one cando i s war n one' s r eader s, and t o apol ogi ze f or t hem s l eadi ngness of t heper f or ce, i n t he absence

' Ti s eas i erexam nat i on andcheck our sel vespr opens i t y, and

l anguage t hat one mustof any ot her , at t i mes use.t o f or bear al lenqui r y, t han t oi n so nat ur al aguar d agai nst t hatassur ance, whi ch al ways ar i ses f r oman exact and f ul l sur vey o f anobj ect . On such an occasi on we ar eapt not onl y t o f or get our

scept i c i sm but even our modest y t oo:and make use of such t er ms as t hese,' t i s evi dent , ' t i s cer t ai n, 'tisundeni abl e: whi ch a due def er ence t ot he publ i c ought , per haps , t opr event . I may have f al l en i nt o t hi sf aul t af t er t he exampl e of others ;but I her e ent er a caveat agai nst anyobj ect i ons, whi ch may be of f er ' d ont hat head: and decl ar e t hat suchexpr ess i ons wer e ext or t ' d f r om me byt he pr esent v i ew of t he obj ec t , andi mpl y no dogmat i cal spi r i t , norconcei t ed i dea of my own j udgment ,whi ch ar e sent i ment s t hat I amsens i bl e can become no body, an26as cept i c s t i l l l es s t han any ot her .

But t he gr eat t ask f or Hume i s t o act ual l y devel opone' s ar gument s.

Hume act ual l y ar gues agai nst t he r at i onal i s t ,t he Pl at oni s t . The c l osest Der r i da comes t o anar gument i s t hat t he empi r i c i st vi ew of l anguage i s amat t er of hi s t or i cal neces si t y: i t i s t he di r ect i oni n whi ch hi st or y i s movi ng:

By a s l ow movement whose necess i t y i shar dl y per cept i bl e, ever yt hi ng t hatf or at l east some t went y cent ur i est ended t owar d and f i nal l y succeededi n bei ng gat her ed under t he name ofl anguage i s begi nni ng t o l et i t s el fbe t r ans f er r ed t o, or at l eas tsumr nar i zzq under , t he name ofwr i t i ng. ... Thei r movement was

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115absol ut el y necessar y wi t h a necess i t yt hat c a n w be j udged by any ot hert r i bunal .

But t hi s i s s i mpl y t o make hi s t or y t he l ogos t hatj us t i f i es us age: t he c onvent i on of t r eat i ng al ll anguage as convent i onal i s j us t i f i ed because i t i st he non- convent i onal out come of hi s t or y. But hi s t or ycan no mor e pr ovi de a non- cont i ngent guar ant ee t hananyt hi ng el se. 59 For , as Hume ar gued, as par t of hi sempi r i c i s t pr ogr amme, t her e ar e no obj ect i venecessar y connect i ons, no f or ms or essences t hatcoul d pr ovi de an obj ec t i ve gr ound of ei t her cer t ai nt yof val ue. The nor m t hat di r ec t s one t o pr oceed as i fa l l l anguage i s convent i onal i s j us t i f i ed, not by anyni et aphys i cal necess i t y , but by t he f ac t t hat one sar gument s make i t r easonabl e - but not absol ut el ycer t ai n i n t he way P l at o r equi r ed6 - tha t there a reno f or ms or essences or what not t o pr ovi de obj ect i venecess i t i es and r eal meani ngs.

Mor eover , havi ng devel oped hi s ar gument sagai nst t he P l at oni s t , Hume pr oceeds t o t r y t o def enda s pec i f i c r at i onal i t y, namel y, t hat of empi r i c alsc i ence, t he r ul es by whi ch t o j udge of causes . And s t i l l f ur t her , he empl oys t hat r at i onal i t y t odevel op a s c i ent i f i c t heor y, hi s ps yc hol ogi c al t heor yof l ear ni ng, t hat wi l l s at i s f y our human c ur i os i t yabout how l i ngui st i c convent i ons c ome t o be conf or medt o, and passed f r om gener at i on t o gener at i on, and,i ndeed, changed, i nc l udi ng t he convent i ons ofempi r i cal s ci ent i f i c r at i onal i t y. I n f ac t , hepr oposes a t heor y t hat enabl es us t o under st and,empi r i cal l y , not onl y how t he convent i ons ofempi r i cal sc i ence come t o be conf or med t o, but a l so,how t he Pl at oni s t i l l us i ons ar i s e.

For t he Humean, as f or Der r i da, of cour se,Pl at oni s m cont r ar y t o i t s own i nt ent i ons , i s j us t

6 2

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116one set of convent i ons among ot her s , and wher e f ort he Pl at oni s t t he phys i s / nomos di s t i nc t i on i s one ofa k i nd, f or t he Humean t he t wo s i des of t hi sdi chot omy ar e equal l y convent i onal . The convent i on-al i t y of phys i s i s di s gui s ed f r om t he Pl at oni s t byt he i l l us i ons of phi l osophy. One can put t hi spar adoxi c al l y -- t he non- convent i onal i s r eal l ymer el y a convent i on - - i n a way t hat i s bel oved byDer r i da. One must al so say i n a way bel oved byDer r i da t hat f or t he Humean t he t r adi t i onal di chot omydi sappear s , and t hat t he r het or i cal ' mer el y' i n' mer el y c onvent i onal , ' f or al l i t s per s uas i veut i l i t y , i n f act l oses al l f or ce i t m ght have i ndi r ec t i ng our at t ent i on t o an obj ec t i ve c ont r as t ; i t spoi nt , r at her , i s t o punc t ur e t he i l l us i ons of t hePl at oni st t hr ough an el ement of shock. But f or Hume,unl i ke Der r i da, t he c r uc i al poi nt i s not t hepar adoxi cal f or mul at i on nor t he shocki ng r e-f or mul at i on i n empi r i c i s t t er ms of t he t r adi t i onaldi s cour s e of t he Pl at oni s t ; i t i s r at her t hat at heor y can be devel oped by t he empi r i ci st t o enaDl eus t o under s t and, empi r i c al l y and s c i ent i f i c al l y,bot h man at hi s best , as a r at i onal ani mal , and manat hi s l ess - t han- bes t , as an ani mal t hat t hi nks b u ti s gr i pped by t he i l l us i ons of r el i gi on or ofPl at oni s t phi l os ophy.

Ther e i s none of t hi s at t empt atunder s t andi ng i n Der r i da. I n t hi s r espec t t her e i s ar eal l ack of humani t y and of concer n t o under st andone' s f el l ows i n Der r i da as compar ed t o Hume. E s , ei s a genui ne humani st , i nt ent upon devel opi ng anaccount of r at i onal i t y and of human Under st andi ngwhi ch wi l l enabl e one t o conf or m t o t he i nj unc t i cn oft he or ac l e t o ' Know t hysel f . ' Der r i da, i n shar pcont r as t , i s cont ent t o be f asc i nat ed by t he shal l ow

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117quest i on of how t o devel op a new r het or i c - shal l ow,because i f Hume i s cor r ect t hen one coul d devel op anew and adequat e r het or i c onl y i f one has acqui r ed anempi r i cal psychol ogi cal t heor y t hat coul d pr ovi de t heunder st andi ng necessar y f or assessi ng t he appr o-pr i at eness of var i ous l i ngui s t i c means f or achi evi ngone' s communi cat i ve ends.

Wher e Der r i da asser t s t he er r or s of Pl at o,Hume ar gues t hat t hey ar e er r or s. Wher e Der r i dapr ocl ai ms a new r at i onal i t y t hat i s no mor e t han ar het or i c, Hume devel ops an account of r eason, asst r at egy and as empi r i cal sc i ence, t hat can penet r at ebel ow r het or i c t o t r ut hs t hat c an s at i s f y ourr easonabl e cogni t i ve i nt er est s. Wher e Der r i dadel i ght s i n t he par adox of deconst r uct i on, Humepr oceeds t o t r y t o devel op an empi r i cal l y adequat et heor y of human nat ur e.Hume i s al so ser i ous.

Der r i da can be f un. So, tooI can Hume. But

Fr ed W l s onUni ver s i t y of Tor ont o

1. J . Der r i da, Of Gr ammat ol ogy, t r ans. , F. P.Spi vak, ( Bal t i mor e: J ohns Hopki ns Uni ver s i t yPr ess , 19761, p . 6; hi s i t al i cs .2. w., . 4 4 .3 . Meno, 98a; Gr ube t r ans l at i on.4 . Meno, 82b - 8 5 ~ .5. m, 5b - 76e.

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6. m, 2c.7.8.9.

10.11.12.13.14.1 5 .

16.17.18.19.20.

21.22.23 .24.25 .26.27.

Phaedo, 1OOc: Gr ube t r ansl at i on.- Ihaedo 102b.Der r i da, Of Gr ammat ol ogy, p. 14.Phaedr us, 278a.Der r i da, Of Gr ammat ol ogy, p. 15.I bi d.= . I p. 44.w., . 7; hi s i t al i cs . Cf . p. 5 5 .J ohn Locke, Ess ay concer ni ng Human Under -s t andi ng, A. C. Fr aser , ed. , ( London: Oxf or dUni ver s i t y Pr es s , 18941, 11, x i i , 1 ( =Book I ,Chapt er x i i , Par agr aph 11, vol . 11, p. 11.I bi d. , 111, i i , 5, vol . 11, p. 11.I bi d.m ., 11, i i , 1, vol . 11, p. 8.=., 111, i i , 3 , vol . 11, p . 10.

-S. von Puf endor f , De Of i c i o Horni ni s et Ci v i sj uxt a Legem Nat ur al em Li br i Duo ( The Two Bookson t he Dut y of Man and Ci t i zen accor di ng t o t heNat ur al Law) , t r ans. F. G. Moor e ( New Yor k:Oxf or d Uni ver s i t y Pr ess , 1 9 2 7 1 , I , v , 1 ( = B o o kI, Chapt er V, par agr aph 1) .I bi d.=., I , i x, 1.-bi d. , I , i x, 3 .u. ,, i x, 2.m ., , i x. 22.m ., , x. 2 .Cf . J . Wei nber g, ' Abs t r act i on, ' i n hi s Abst r ac -t i on, Rel at i on, I nduct i on, ( Madi s on: Uni ver s i t yof W s cons i n Press, 1965).

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2 8 . D. Hume, Tr eat i se of Human Nat ur e, ed. L. A.Sel by- Bi gge ( London: Oxf or d Uni ver s i t y Pr ess ,1888j, p . 1 7 and pp. 1 9 - 2 0 .2 9 . Cf . A. Mei nong, ' Hume St udi es I ,' i n K. Bar ber ,Mei nong' s Hume St udi es: Tr ansl at i on andComment ar y ( Ann Ar bor , Mi chi gan: Uni ver si t yMi c r of i l ms , 1 9 6 6 ) .3 0 . Cf . D. Li vi ngst on, Hume' s Phi l osophy of CommonLi f e ( Chi cago: Uni ver s i t y of Chi cago Pr ess ,1 9 8 4 ) . F. W l s on. ' I s Hume a Sc e ~t i cwi t hr egar d t o t he Senses+' J our nal of t he Ki st or y ofPhi l osophy, f or t hcom ng.3 1 . Hume, Tr eat i se, p . 1.3 2 . Cf . F. W l son, ' Hume' s Theor y of Ment alAct i vi t y, ' i n D. F. Nor t on, N. Capal di and WRobi son eds. , McGi l l Hume St udi es ( San Di ego:Aus t i n Hi l l Pr es s , 1 9 7 9 1 , pp. 101-120.3 3 . Hume, Tr eat i se, p . 11.3 4 . w., . 2 2 .3 5 . m., p. 2 0 - 2 1 .3 6 . Cf . F. W l son, ' The Lockean Revol ut i on i n t heTheor y of Sci ence, ' i n a f es t s chr i f t f or R. F.McRae edi t ed by S . Tweyman and G. Moyal .3 7 . Cf . F. W l son, ' Hume' s Def ence of Sci ence, 'Di al ogue, f or t hcom ng.3 8 . Cf . W l son, ' Hume' s Theor y of Ment al Act i vi t y. '3 9 . 3ume, Tr eat i se, I , 111, xv.40. Cf . F. W l son, ' Hume' s Def ence of CausalI nf er ence, ' Di al ogue, 22 ( 1 9 8 3 1 , and ' Hume' sDef ence of Sci ence. '4 1 . Cf . F. W l son, ' Hume' s Theor y of Ment al4 2 . Der r i da, Of Gr ammat ol ogy, p . 50. Der r i da i s , ofcour se, quot i ng Pei r ce when he uses t hi s phr ase.I deal i sm i nt er vened bet ween Hume and Pei r ce. I nBr i t ai n i t was Col er i dge and Si r W l l i amHam l t on, and i n Amer i ca t hese i deas wer epr opagat ed by Emer son and t he New Engl andTr anscendent al i st s . Pei r ce' s v i ew of Hume and

Act i vi t y. "

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1 2 0

4 3 .4 4 .4 5 .

4 6 .

4 7 .

4 8 .4 9 .5 0 .

51.5 2 .5 3 .

5 4 .5 5 .

5 6 .

of empi r i c i sm was al ways di st or t ed by what hehad i nher i t ed f r om t hi s i deal i s t backgr ound. Asa consequence he had t o r e- di scover f or hi msel fmuch of what Hume had al r eady done: but even somuch of what he ar r i ves at i s st i l l obscur ed byt he i deal i st dr oss t hat he was never abl eent i r el y t o escape. Ther e i s a connect i on her et o Der r i da, who al so shar es some of t hi s sor t ofi deal i st backgr ound and who has not been abl e t oabandon some of t he Hegel i an not i ons he l ear nedas a yout h ( see, f or exampl e, t he passage ci t edbel ow by f n. 5 8 ) .-bi d. , p . 46 .m ., . 7 5 .Cf . F. W l son. ' Mar r aS on Sel l ar s on Thouaht andLanguage, ' Phi l osophi cal St udi es, 28 ( 1 9 7 s ) , f ora di scuss i on of t hi s pat t er n.Hume, Tr eat i se, pp. 5 5 1 - 2 . Cf . P. Ar dal ,' Convent i on and Val ue, ' i n G . P . Mor i ce, ed. ,Davi d Hume Bi cent enar y Paper s ( Edi nbur gh:Uni ver s i t y of Edi nbur gh Pr ess , 1 9 7 7 ) .Cf . Li vi ngst on, Hume' s Phi l osophy of CommonLi f e, pp. 65 - 7 2 .Cf . W l son, ' Hume' s Theor y of Ment al Act i vi t y. "Der r i da, Of Gr ammat ol oqy, p . 4 6 .Cf . W l son, ' Hume' s Def ence of Sci ence. 'Cf . F. W l son, " I s Hume a Scept i c wi t h r egar d t oReason?' Phi l osophy Resear ch Ar chi ves, 10( 1 9 8 4 ) .cf . W l son, ' Hume' s Def ence of Sci ence. 'Cf . F. W l son, " Hume' s Cogni t i ve St oi ci sm .St udi es , 10t h Anni ver sar y I ssue, 1985, pp. 5 2 -68.Der r i da, Of Gr ammat ol ogy, p . 10.Cf . J . Cul l er , On Deconst r uct i on ( I t haca, N. Y. :Cor nel l Uni ver s i t y Pr ess , 1 9 8 2 ) , pp. 81- 2, p.2 5 9 .Hume, Tr eat i se, pp. 2 7 3 - 4 . Compar e J . Cul l er ,On Deconst r uct i on, p. 2 5 9 :

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Si nce, decons t r uc t i on t r eat s anypos i t i on, t heme, or i gi n, or end as acons t r uc t i on and anal yzes t he di scur s i vef or ces t hat pr oduce i t , decons t r uc t i vewr i t i ngs wi l l t r y t o put i nt o ques t i onanyt hi ng t hat m ght s eem a pos i t i veconcl us i on and wi l l t r y t o make t hei rown s t oppi ng poi nt di s t i nc t i vel ydi vi ded, par adoxi cal , ar bi t r ar y ori ndet er m nat e.

But , f i r s t , one can be pos i t i ve wi t hout ceas i ngt o be pr ovi s i onal , whi c h i s t he cent r al poi nt ofdecons t r uc t i on ( c f . =., p. 2 2 5 ) . Second,somet hi ng can be ar bi t r ar y r el at i ve t o Pl at oni cst andar ds wi t hout bei ng unmot i vat ed orpoi nt l ess , as we have seen. And t hi r d, one candr aw a r eader ' s at t ent i on t o one' s r ej ect i on ofabsol ut es and gi vens and t he f act t hat one' sl anguage, s hot t hr ough wi t h Pl at oni sm may makeone s eem t o be ar bi t r ar y or par adoxi cal ordi vi ded agai ns t onesel f , wi t hout us i ng t her het or i c al p l o y s of par adox, et c. , t o hi ghl i ghtt hi s. These pl oys may be f un, but t hey ar ecer t ai nl y not necessar y ; and t hei r i ndul gence byDer r i da and ot her decons t r uc t i oni s t s t es t i f i esmor e t o an adol escent ai m t o shock t han i t doest o a phi l osophi c concer n f o r the t ru th .

57 . Der r i da, Of Gr ammat ol ogy, p. 6.

130:p. "

9 . Cf . J . Cul l er , On Deconst r uct i on," Hi s t or y i s not a pr i vel eged aut hor i t y ....

6 0 . Cf . W l son, " The Lockean Revol ut i on i n t heTheor y of Sci ence. "6 1 . I t i s not at al l par adoxi cal t hat decons t r uc t i vec r i t i c i sm does not s t and out s i de t he domai n ofl ear ned convent i on. cont r ar v t o what J . Cul l er .On Deconst r uct i on, pp. 87- 8, pp. 183- 4, p. 2 2 5 ,suggest s.6 2 . Cf . W l son, " Hume' s Def ence of Sc i ence. "