WORK MOTIVATION

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TOPIC 7

FEM3104

WORK ECOLOGY & HUMAN DEVELOPMENT

Motivation is a physiological process that causes the arousal,

direction, and persistence of voluntary actions that are goal

directed.

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Pinder (1998)

◦“Work motivation refers to a set of energetic forces that originate both within as well as beyond an individual’s being, to initiate work-related behavior, and to determine its form, direction, intensity and duration” (p. 11)

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Defined as the psychological forces within a person that determine:

1) direction of behavior in an organization;2) the effort or how hard people work;3) the persistence displayed in meeting goals.

◦ Intrinsic Motivation: behavior performed for its own sake. Motivation comes from performing the work.

◦ Extrinsic Motivation: behavior performed to acquire rewards. Motivation source is the consequence of an action.

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◦ Regardless of the source of motivation, people seek outcomes. Outcome: anything a person gets from a job.

Examples include pay, autonomy, accomplishment.

◦ Organizations hire workers to obtain inputs: Input: anything a person contributes to their job.

Examples include skills, knowledge, work behavior.

◦ Managers thus use outcomes to motivate workers to provide inputs.

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Inputs fromInputs fromOrganizationalOrganizational

membersmembers

Inputs fromInputs fromOrganizationalOrganizational

membersmembersPerformancePerformancePerformancePerformance

OutcomesOutcomesreceived byreceived bymembersmembers

OutcomesOutcomesreceived byreceived bymembersmembers

TimeTimeEffortEffort

EducationEducationExperienceExperience

SkillsSkillsKnowledgeKnowledge

Work Behav.Work Behav.

TimeTimeEffortEffort

EducationEducationExperienceExperience

SkillsSkillsKnowledgeKnowledge

Work Behav.Work Behav.

Contribute toContribute toorganizationorganization

efficiency,efficiency,effectivenesseffectiveness

and and attain goalsattain goals

Contribute toContribute toorganizationorganization

efficiency,efficiency,effectivenesseffectiveness

and and attain goalsattain goals

PayPayJob SecurityJob Security

BenefitsBenefitsVacationVacation

AutonomyAutonomyResponsibilityResponsibility

PayPayJob SecurityJob Security

BenefitsBenefitsVacationVacation

AutonomyAutonomyResponsibilityResponsibility

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that leads to that result in

Motivation is the

psychological process

Choice of behavior

Some level of job

performance

The Motivation-Behavior-Job Performance Sequence

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Element Definition ExampleDirection ofBehavior

Which behavior does aperson choose to performin an organization?

Do you take the time andeffort to work on a specialtask force for which youwill not receive anyrecognition in yourperformance review?

Level of Effort How hard does a personwork to perform a chosenbehavior?

If you find a flaw in thespecifications for a newproduct design, do youprepare a report detailingthe flaw or just tell youmanager?

Level of persistence When faced withobstacles, how harddoes a person keep tryingto perform a chosenbehavior?

If you believe yourorganization isdiscriminatory in itspromotion policies but aretold to be quiet, do youpersist?

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Direction – the choices of activities we make in expending efforts.

Intensity – we have the potential to exert various levels of efforts, depending on how much we need to expend.

Duration – persistence of motivation over time.

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Motivation arouses people to do something- People are unlikely to change a behavior or do something different unless they are motivated to do so

- Motivation causes people to focus on a desired end-result or goal

- Motivation fuels the persistence needed to exhibit sustained effort on a task

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High Performance Low Performance

High Motivation Is highly motivated;is judged to be agood performer

Is highly motivated,is judged to be a poorperformer

Low Motivation Is not very motivated,is judged to be agood performer

Is not verymotivated; is judgedto be a poorperformer

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Motivation and AttitudesMorale, stable feelings or beliefs directed toward specific persons, groups, ideas etc

Motivation and PersonalityPersonality as predictor of performancePersonality have become more important than attitudes

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Content/Need Theories -- focus on what needs people have; what they are motivated by.◦ Murray Theory of human personality◦ Maslow’s need hierarchy◦ Herzberg’s two-factor theory◦ McClelland’s need theories

Process Theories -- focus on the process of motivation◦ Vroom Expectancy theory◦ Equity theory

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People are motivated to obtain outcomes at work to satisfy their needs. A need is a requirement for survival. To motivate a person:

1)Managers must determine what needs worker wants/satisfied.

2)Ensure that a person receives the outcomes when performing well.

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Need◦Basic to Murray’s Theory◦Hypothetical concept: helps explain

observable differences in behavior◦“Invisible link” between a stimulus and a

person’s reaction to the stimulus.

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Types of needs◦Physical needs Satisfaction of the basic physical

processes Need for food, air, water, sex

◦Psychological needs Focus on emotional and mental

satisfaction Example: the need for social interaction

or to achieve difficult goals

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Some needs in Murray’s Theory◦n Order: organize and systematically

arrange objects; be clean, neat, and tidy◦n Achievement: attain difficult goals;

perform as well as possible◦n Recognition: receive credits for

actions; to seek honors and recognition

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Some needs in Murray’s theory (cont.)◦n Dominance: influence others; affect

the direction of a group◦n Deference: respect autonomy; admire

a person with authority◦n Autonomy: be independent and not

be influenced by others◦n Affiliation: associate with others,

have friends, and join groups

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Characteristics of needs◦ Latent internal characteristics activated by a

stimulus◦ A person tries to behave in a way that satisfies an

activated need

Strong need for affiliation:

Meet someone you like and start talking

to the person19

Characteristics of needs (cont.)◦Opposite needs and behavior Need for Dominance in work place,

especially a manager or supervisor Need for Deference in non-work (family)

role

Non-work

Need for Deference

Work

Need for Dominance

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Characteristics of needs (cont.)◦ Multiple need and behavior

One need is primary; other need serves the primary

Need for Achievement and Need for Affiliation Example: joining student organizations. Such

activities are important for finding a good job

Need for Affiliation → Need for Achievement

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Implications◦Understand own and other’s behavior◦Needs vary in importance among people◦Directs people’s behavior toward or away

from objects◦Such knowledge can help managers

shape a motivation system◦Help us understand behavior we see

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Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs identifies five levels of needs, which are best seen as a hierarchy with the most basic need emerging first and the most sophisticated need last.

Needs as internal pushes or drives More a theory of human development than

a theory of work motivation

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Physiological Needs

Security Needs

Social Needs

Esteem Needs

Self-Actualization

Needs

General Examples

Self-Fulfillment

Status

Friendship

Shelter

Stability

Organizational Examples

Challenging Job

Job Title

Friends at Work

Pension Plan

Salary

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Physiological Needs

Self-Actualization

Self-Actualization

Realize one’s full potential

Realize one’s full potential

Use abilities to the fullest

Use abilities to the fullest

EsteemEsteem Feel good about oneself

Feel good about oneself

Promotions & recognition

Promotions & recognition

BelongingnessBelongingness Social interaction, love

Social interaction, love

Interpersonal relations, parties

Interpersonal relations, parties

SafetySafety Security, stabilitySecurity, stability Job security, health insurance

Job security, health insurance

PhysiologicalPhysiological Food, water, shelter

Food, water, shelter

Basic pay level to buy items

Basic pay level to buy items

Need Level Description Examples

Lower level needs must be satisfied before higher needs are addressed.25

From the need hierarchy based on “prepotency” of needs

Prepotency: need emerges as a motivator after satisfying a lower-order (more prepotence) need

Hierarchy progression: physiological, safety, belongingness, esteem, self-actualization

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• Need hierarchy–Unsatisfied need is a potential motivator of

behavior–Satisfied need is no longer a motivator–Focus on more than one need: promotion leads

to more money (esteem and physiological)–Need satisfaction follows the order but is

flexible.–Weak empirical support–Remains a classic interpretation of behavior

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People move up the hierarchy one level at a time.

Gratified needs lose their strength and the next level of needs is activated.

As basic or lower-level needs are satisfied, higher-level needs become operative.

A satisfied need is not a motivator. The most powerful employee need is the

one that has not been satisfied.

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Level I – Physiological needs are the most basic human needs. They include food, water, and comfort. The organization helps to satisfy employees’ physiological needs by a paycheck.

Level II – Safety needs are the desires for security and stability, to feel safe from harm. The organization helps to satisfy employees’ safety needs by benefits.

Level III – Social needs are the desires for affiliation. They include friendship and belonging. The organization helps to satisfy employees’ social needs through sports teams, parties, and celebrations. The supervisor can help fulfill social needs by showing direct care and concern for employees.

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Level IV – Esteem needs are the desires for self-respect and respect or recognition from others. The organization helps to satisfy employees’ esteem needs by matching the skills and abilities of the employee to the job. The supervisor can help fulfill esteem needs by showing workers that their work is appreciated.

Level V – Self-actualization needs are the desires for self-fulfillment and the realization of the individual’s full potential. The supervisor can help fulfill self-actualization needs by assigning tasks that challenge employees’ minds while drawing on their aptitude and training.

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A variation of Maslow’s hierarchy of needs Three groups of needs

◦ Existence needs: physiological and safety needs◦ Relatedness needs: desires for interpersonal

relationships (social & external esteem)◦ Growth needs: desires to be creative and

productive; to use one’s skills (self-actualization & internal esteem)

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Maslow E.R.GHierarchy Theory

Growth Needs

Relatedness needs

Existence needs

Self-actualization

Esteem

Belongingness and love

Safety

Psychological

Relationship of Maslow’s Hierarchy to E.R.G Theory

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After lower level needs satisfied, person seeks higher needs. Whenunable to satisfy higher needs, lower needs motivation is raised.

GrowthGrowth Self-development,creative work

Self-development,creative work

Worker continuallyimproves skills

Worker continuallyimproves skills

RelatednessRelatedness Interpersonal relations, feelings

Interpersonal relations, feelings

Good relations,feedback

Good relations,feedback

ExistenceExistence Food, water, shelter

Food, water, shelter

Basic pay level to buy items

Basic pay level to buy itemsL

owes

tH

igh

est

Need Level Description Examples

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Similarity: both theories describe needs as a hierarchy.

Existence needs have priority over relatedness needs, which have priority over growth needs.

However, the hierarchical aspect is not rigid.

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1. Allows for different levels of needs to be pursued simultaneously.

2. Allows the order of the needs be different for different people.

3. Acknowledges the frustration-regression principle i.e. if a higher level of needs remain unfulfilled, the person may regress to the lower level needs that appear easier to satisfy.

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McClelland and colleagues studied the behavioral effects of three needs:◦ Need for achievement◦ Need for Power◦ Need for Affiliation

Also known as acquired-needs theory/ three need theory / learned needs theory.

This theory proposed that an individual’s specific needs are acquired over time and are shaped by one’s life experiences.

Emphasized the Need for Achievement.

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Strong need for achievement◦ Take responsibility for results of behavior◦ Willing to take calculated risks ◦ Set moderate achievement goals◦ Prefer non-routine tasks to routine assignments◦ Welcome feedback about how well they are doing

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Strong Need for Power ◦ Focuses on “controlling the means of influencing

the behavior of another person”◦ Having strong effects on other people◦ Means of influence: anything available to the

person to control the behavior of another◦ Actively searches for means of influence◦ Can either be personal power or institutional

power.

Example: use superior-subordinate relationship or external rewards to control the behavior of another

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Two ways of expressing the Need for Power◦ Dominance, physical aggression, exploitation

View situations from win-lose perspective Must win and the other party must lose Did not feel such power behavior resulted in the type of

leadership required by organizations◦ Persuasion and interpersonal influence

Tries to arouse confidence in those he or she wants to influence

Clarifies group’s goals and persuades members to achieve those goals

Emphasizes group members’ ability to reach goals Tries to develop a competence belief in group members McClelland felt this type of power behavior characterized

effective leaders in organizations39

Strong Need for Affiliation people◦ Focuses on “establishing, maintaining, and

restoring positive affective relations with others”◦ Want close, warm interpersonal relationships◦ Seek the approval of others, especially those

about whom they care◦ Like other people, want other people to like them,

and want to be in the company of others

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Need for achievement and behavior◦ Money: important to both high and low achievers,

but different reasons High achiever wants concrete feedback about performance Making a profit, or receiving a bonus, is a statement about

success or failure Symbol of success and feedback about job performance High achiever wants a challenging job and responsibility for

work Want to feel successful at doing something over which they

have control Low achiever views monetary rewards as an end in itself Get increased performance from low Need for Achievement

person by rewarding with money

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Managers and executives usually have a stronger Need for Achievement than people in other occupations

Evidence points to strong Need for Achievement as an entrepreneur characteristic

Nature of Need for Achievement behavior fits well with such demands

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Need for Achievement and Need for Power: some relationships (cont.)◦ Strong Need for Achievement person

Task centered Future oriented Performs to internal standard of excellence

◦ Strong Need for Power person Draws attention Risk taking Present oriented Assesses situations for change potential

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Need for Achievement and Need for Power: some relationships (cont.)◦ Both types of people important for successful

organizations◦ Strong Need for Achievement managers keep an

organization going◦ Strong Need of Power people being dramatic

change and innovation

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People with different needs are motivated differently:

1. High need for achievement – high achievers should be given challenging projects with reachable goals. They should be provided frequent feedback. While money is not an important motivator, it is an effective form of feedback.

2. High need for affiliation – such employees need perform best in a cooperative environment.

3. High need for power – management should provide power seekers the opportunity to manage others.

Douglas McGregor (1960) summarized two possible views of management in worker motivation.

Theory X is the traditional view of direction and control. It states that the worker dislikes work and tries to avoid it.

The function of management, therefore, is to force the employee to work, through coercion and threats of punishment.

The worker prefers in most cases to be directed and wants to avoid responsibility. The main motivator for the worker, therefore, is money.

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Theory Y is the humanistic/self-actualization approach to human motivation.

It states that work is natural and can be a source of satisfaction, and that when it is, the worker can be highly committed and motivated.

Workers often seek responsibility and need to be more fully involved with management to become motivated.

Theory Y is most likely to be used when management utilizes worker participation in organizational decisions.

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Theory X People are lazy. People lack ambition

and dislike responsibility.

People are self-centered.

People resist change. People are gullible

and not very bright.

Theory Y People are energetic. People are ambitious

and seek responsibility. People can be selfless. People want to

contribute to business growth and change.

People are intelligent.

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In their book In Search of Excellence, Peters and Waterman (1982) stated that one of the chief differences between American and Japanese management is that American managers tend to use Theory X and Japanese managers tend to use Theory Y.

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Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory describes needs in terms of satisfaction and dissatisfaction.

Frederick Herzberg examined motivation in the light of job content and contest. (See Work an the Nature of Man, Crowell Publications, 1996)

Motivating employees is a two-step process.

First provide hygienes and then motivators.

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Dissatisfiers: items predominantly found in descriptions of negative events◦ Could lead to high levels of employee

dissatisfaction◦ Improve the dissatisfiers and reduce dissatisfaction◦ Not get higher satisfaction

Satisfiers: items predominantly found in descriptions of positive events◦ Could lead to high levels of employee satisfaction◦ Their absence, or a person’s failure to experience

them, would not produce dissatisfaction.

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Two distinct continua: one for satisfaction and one for dissatisfaction

Not a single continuum with dissatisfaction on one end and satisfaction on the other

Herzberg eventually called the satisfiers motivators, the dissatisfiers hygiene factors

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Hygiene Factors Supervisors Working Conditions Interpersonal

Relations Pay & Security Company Policies &

Administration

Motivation Factors Achievement Recognition The Work Itself Responsibility Advancement &

Growth

Dissatisfaction Satisfaction

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Satisfaction comes from motivators that are intrinsic or job content, such as achievement, recognition, advancement, responsibility, the work itself, and growth possibilities.

Herzberg uses the term motivators for job satisfiers since they involve job content and the satisfaction that results from them.

Motivators are considered job turns-on.

They are necessary for substantial improvements in work performance and move the employee beyond satisfaction to superior performance.

Motivators correspond to Maslow’s higher-level needs of esteem and self-actualization.

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Dissatisfaction occurs when the following hygiene factors, extrinsic or job context, are not present on the job:- pay, status, job security, working conditions, company policy, peer relations, and supervision.

Herzberg uses the term hygiene for these factors because they are preventive in nature.

They will not produce motivation, but they can prevent motivation from disappearing.

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Hygiene factors can be considered job stay-on because they encourage an employee to stay on a job.

Once these factors are provided, they do not necessarily promote motivation; but their absence can create employee dissatisfaction.

Hygiene factors correspond to Maslow’s physiological, safety, and social needs in that they are extrinsic, or peripheral, to the job.

They are present in the work environment of job context.

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Dissatisfiers distracted from the motivators Once the work context is improved, the

manager can try to provide the motivators Use a process called job enrichment Add more responsibility and autonomy to

the job Creates opportunity for employees to

experience the motivators

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Motivation comes from the employee’s feelings of accomplishment or job content rather than from the environment factors or job context.

Motivators encourage an employee to strive to do his or her best.

Job enrichment can be used to meet higher-level needs.

To enrich a job, a supervisor can introduce new or more difficult tasks, assign individuals specialized tasks that enable them to become experts, or grant additional authority to employees.

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NO SATISFACTION◦ Jobs that do not offer

achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.

SATISFACTION◦ Jobs that offer

achievement, recognition, stimulating work, responsibility, and advancement.

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Developed by Victor Vroom and is a very popular theory of work motivation.

Vroom suggests that motivation will be high when workers feel:◦ High levels of effort lead to high performance. ◦ High performance will lead to the attainment of

desired outcomes. Consists of three areas:

◦Expectancy, Instrumentality, & Valence.

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EffortEffortEffortEffort

Expectancy:Expectancy:Person’s Person’s

perception thatperception thattheir effort willtheir effort will

result inresult inperformanceperformance

Expectancy:Expectancy:Person’s Person’s

perception thatperception thattheir effort willtheir effort will

result inresult inperformanceperformance

InstrumentalityInstrumentalityperception that perception that

performanceperformanceresults in results in outcomesoutcomes

InstrumentalityInstrumentalityperception that perception that

performanceperformanceresults in results in outcomesoutcomes

Valence:Valence:How desiredHow desired

are the outcomesare the outcomesfrom a from a

jobjob

Valence:Valence:How desiredHow desired

are the outcomesare the outcomesfrom a from a

jobjob

PerformancePerformancePerformancePerformance OutcomesOutcomesOutcomesOutcomes

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◦ Expectancy is the perception that effort (input) will result in a level of performance.

You will work hard if it leads to high performance. You would be less willing to work hard if you knew that

the best you would get on a paper was a D regardless of how hard you tried.

Instrumentality: Performance leads to outcomes.

Workers are only motivated if they think performance leads to an outcome.

◦ Valence: How desirable each outcome is to a person.

Managers should determine the outcomes workers want most.

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IndividualEffort

Personal Goals

Organizational Rewards

IndividualPerformance

Effort-Performance

Issue

Rewards-Personal

Goals Issue

Performance-Reward

Issue

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Vroom’s Expectancy Model suggests that people choose among alternative behaviors because they anticipate that particular behaviors will lead to one or more desired outcomes and that other behaviors will lead to undesirable outcomes.

Expectancy is the belief that effort will lead to first-order outcomes, any work-related behavior that is the direct result of the effort an employee expends on a job.

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According to the Expectancy Theory, high motivation results from high levels of Expectancy, Instrumentality, & Valence.◦ If just one value is low, motivation will be low.◦ This means that even if desired outcomes are

closely link to performance, the worker must feel the task is possible to achieve for high motivation to result.

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High ExpectancyHigh Expectancy

(Worker knows that(Worker knows thatif they try, they canif they try, they can

perform)perform)

High ExpectancyHigh Expectancy

(Worker knows that(Worker knows thatif they try, they canif they try, they can

perform)perform)

High High InstrumentalityInstrumentality

(Worker perceives that(Worker perceives thathigh performancehigh performanceleads to outcomes)leads to outcomes)

High High InstrumentalityInstrumentality

(Worker perceives that(Worker perceives thathigh performancehigh performanceleads to outcomes)leads to outcomes)

High ValenceHigh Valence

(Worker desires the(Worker desires theoutcomes resultingoutcomes resulting

from highfrom highperformance)performance)

High ValenceHigh Valence

(Worker desires the(Worker desires theoutcomes resultingoutcomes resulting

from highfrom highperformance)performance)

High High MotivationMotivation

High High MotivationMotivation

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◦ Considers worker’s perceptions of the fairness of work outcomes in proportion to their inputs.

It is the relative rather than the absolute level of outcomes a person receives. The Outcome/input ratio is compared by worker with

another person called a referent. The referent is perceived as similar to the worker.

Equity exists when a person perceives their outcome/input ratio to be equal to the referent’s ratio. If the referent receives more outcomes, they should also

give more inputs to achieve equity.

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Employees evaluate their treatment relative to the treatment of others

Inputs: Employee contributions to their jobs

Output: What employees receive in return

The perceived ratio of contribution to return determines perceived equity

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Equity is the perception of fairness involved in rewards given.

A fair or equitable situation is one in which people with similar inputs experience similar outcomes.

Employees will compare their rewards with the rewards received by others for their efforts.

If employees perceive that an inequity exists, they are likely to withhold some of their contributions, either consciously or unconsciously, to bring a situation into better balance.

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Inequity exists when worker’s outcome/input ratio is not equal to referent. Underpayment inequity: ratio is less than the

referent. Worker feels they are not getting the outcomes they should given inputs.

Overpayment inequity: ratio is higher than the referent. Worker feels they are getting more outcomes then they should given inputs.

Restoring Equity: Inequity creates tension in workers to restore equity.In underpayment, workers reduce input levels to correct. Overpayment, worker can change the referent to adjust.

If inequity persists, worker will often leave the firm.

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Employees◦Compare job inputs with outcomes◦Compare their input/outcome ratio with a referent

If employees feel under-rewarded, they will try to restore equity by…◦ reducing inputs◦ trying to increase outcomes◦ changing their perception of the situation◦ changing their referent

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Person-as-intentional approach Modern approaches to work motivation Goal as motivational force Assumed that individuals are intentional in

their behavior The most consistently supported theory in

work psychology

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◦ Focus worker’s inputs in the direction of high performance & achievement of organizational goals. Goal is what a worker tries to accomplish.

Goals must be specific and difficult for high performance results.

Workers put in high effort to achieve such goals.

Workers must accept and be committed to them. Feedback on goal attainment also is important. Goals point out what is important to the firm.

Encourage workers to develop action plans to attain goals.

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Difficult goals lead to higher performance Specific goals lead to higher performance Feedback or knowledge of result is essential Beneficial effects of goal setting depend partly

on a person’s goal commitment and determination

Goal commitment: Defined as unwillingness to abandon or lower the goal◦ Influences a person’s persistence in pursuing his or

her goal

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Factors Determining whether Goal-Factors Determining whether Goal-setting Leads to High Performancesetting Leads to High Performance

Task-Goal Attributes1. Goal specificity2. Goal difficulty3. Participation in goal-setting4. Feedback on goal effort5. Peer competition6. Goal acceptance

Individual Differences1. Need for achievement2. Anxiety3. Education level

Situational Factors1. Reward system2. Past history of goal successes3. Technology4. Nature of product5. Supervisory behavior

Effects of Goal-Setting on

EmployeePerformance

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◦ Pay can help motivate workers.Expectancy: pay is an instrumentality (and outcome),

must be high for motivation to be high.Need Theory: pay is used to satisfy many needs.Equity Theory: pay is given in relation to inputs.Goal Setting Theory: pay linked to goal attainment.Learning Theory: outcomes (pay), is distributed upon

performance of functional behaviors.◦ Pay should be based on performance, many firms

do this with a Merit Pay Plan.

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Reinforcement/behavior modification Management by objectives Participative management and

empowerment Job enrichment and job redesign Modified work schedules

Job Enrichment: Adding one or more motivating factors to job activities

Job Redesign: Designing a better fit between workers and their jobs- Combining tasks- Forming natural work groups- Establishing client relationships

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1. The Mechanistic Approach

2. Motivational Approaches

3. Biological and Perceptual-Motor Approaches

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Work share programs

Flextime programs and alternative workplace strategies

Telecommuting and virtual offices

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Developed by Hackman and Oldham (1976, 1980)

Identified 5 core job characteristics: Skill variety – the extent to which the job

requires a range of skills Task Identity – the extent to which the job

produces a whole, identifiable outcomes

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Task significance – the extent to which the job has an impact on other people, either inside or outside the organization

Autonomy – the extent to which the job allows the job holder to exercise choice and discretion

Feedback from job – the extent to which the job itself provide information on how well the job holder is performing

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