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Work Overload Stress of Russian Working Adults: Do Age,
Gender, Education, Religion, Management Experience and
Government Work Experience Make a Difference?
Dr. Lam D. Nguyen (Corresponding Author) College of Business
Bloomsburg University
400 East Second Street, Bloomsburg, PA 17815, U.S.A.
Email: [email protected]
Dr. Natalia Ermasova
College of Business and Public Administration
Governors State University
1 University Parkway, University Park, IL 60484, U.S.A.
Email: [email protected]
Dr. Alexander Demin
South-Ural State University
(National Research University, Russia)
76, Chelyabinsk, Chelyabinsk Oblast, Russia, 454080
Email: [email protected]
Dr. Nicholas Koumbiadis
Robert B. Willumstad School of Business
Adelphi University
1 South Avenue, P.O. Box 701, Garden City, NY 11530, U.S.A.
Email: [email protected] ---------------------------
Submitted on August 5, 2014 for publication consideration in
Academy of Business Disciplines Journal
Dr. Irma Hunt
Editor-in-Chief
ISSN: 2150-1033
---------------------------
Abstract
Work overload stress has become a common workforce issue in today’s workplace. This type of
stress can lead to changes in the employee’s psychology and physiology, which has great impact
on their performance productivity. This paper examines the work overload perceptions of
Russian working adults based on various demographic factors. As a result of the analysis of 519
responses, this study finds that Russian respondents fell into the moderate stress range. It appears
that Russian respondents have similar work overload stress regardless of the differences in their
age, gender, level of education, work experience and management experience. However, this
paper finds significant differences in the work overload stress scores among difference religion
groups. People with Muslim religion have higher stress scores than that of Christian and non-
practicing believers. In this paper, Russian history, culture and leadership are presented along
with practical implications and suggestions for managers, practitioners and future studies.
Keywords: Russia, stress management, work overload stress, working adults
Introduction
Stress is a part of life and so is work-related stress in work environment. Stress can be
both good and bad. The impact of stress can be seen in many aspects of a human being’s life. It
is evident in the feelings and perceptions of people when they don’t have enough time, skills, or
resources to effectively handle personal or professional demands (Hyde and Allen, 1996;
Nichols, 2008; Selye, 1956; 1974).
According to World Trade Organization (WTO) 2007 Report, work-related stress is an
issue of growing concern in developing countries due globalization and the changing nature of
work. Research has indicated that work-related stress is considered a disease or a cause of
disease (Selye, 1956, 1974; Doublet, 2000; Kinman & Jones, 2005). Stress in the workplace not
only impacts on individual performance but also on the organization’s effectiveness as a whole.
Work-related stress may affect the organization’s effectiveness due to costs associated with
increased absenteeism and staff turnover, replacement of absent workers, increased unsafe
working practices, accident rates, complaints from clients/customers, and reduced productivity,
performance and profitability of organization.
The purpose of this study is to examine the level of work overload stress perception of
Russian working adults based on age, gender, level of education, religion, management
experience, and government experience. More specifically, this paper addresses the following
research questions: (1) What is the level of work overload stress of Russian working adults in
2013? (2) Do age, gender, level of education, religion, management experience, and government
experience make a difference in the level of work overload stress? In this study, we used the
Overload Stress Inventory, adapted from Hyde and Allen’s conceptual analysis of overload
(1996, p.29-30), to assess the work overload stress perception of respondents.
We chose Russia for several reasons. Russia is the eight largest economy in the world by
nominal value with an estimated GDP of $2,117.8 billion in 2013 (Australian Government-
Department of Foreign Affairs and Trade, 2014). According to Russian Federation Federal State
Statistical Service (Goskomstat Russia, 2014), Russia has a population of about 143.3 million in
2013 and is considered the largest country in the world in terms of geographic territory. Labor
force is 75.24 million workers (52.8% of total population). Unemployment rate was 6.2% in
2012. There are high social disparities in Russia. The population below poverty line is 13.1%
(Central Intelligence Agency, 2013).
Russia has emerged as one of the key players in the world, both politically and
economically. Since the collapse of the Soviet Union, Russia has made remarkable
improvements to become more open in terms of its market and global integration. With its
membership in the WTO in 2012, Russia has strengthened its position in the world economy and
opened more opportunities for its international trade. As a result, there have been a lot of changes
in cultural norms and behaviors, and peoples’ motivation and entrepreneurship. This makes it
important to analyze the current developments in Russia. According to the Russian employment
agency "Unity", about 35% of the managers’ termination of employment at will told that one of
the main reasons for this dismissal is stress at work. In addition, there has been limited number
of research examining the work-related stress in Russia. This paper expands the body of
knowledge of stress management and provides practical implications for managers who work
with this specific population. In addition, by using a widely accepted questionnaire survey
created in the U.S. on a Russian sample, this study further fulfills the need to validate such
instrument for cross-cultural comparison purposes later on.
Literature review Work-Related Stress
According to Ellis (2006), stress is a sequence of events with the presence of a demand.
Concerns about successful performance and fear of negative consequences resulting from
performance failure evoke powerful negative emotions of anxiety, anger and irritation. Nguyen,
Mujtaba and Boehmer (2012, p.13) stated “stress can be all those feelings and perceptions in lack
of time, ability, skill, or resources to effectively deal with personal or professional demands in a
given time”. Aneshensel (1992) wrote that stress research typically is viewed as a subspecialty
within medical sociology, a perspective that obscures commonalities with more traditional
sociological areas of inquiry, especially social stratification. Pearlin (1989) suggested that stress
research tends to be concerned less with the consequences of stressful life experience for
outcomes of illness, especially psychological disorder.
Bolino and Turnley (2005) found that those higher levels of individual initiative are
associated with higher levels of employee role overload, job stress, and work-family conflict.
They found that the relationship between individual initiative and work-family conflict is
moderated by gender. Their findings suggested that the relationship between individual initiative
and work-family conflict is stronger among women than among men.
Some authors analyzed the differences on work overload stress perceptions of working
adults in different countries. In a series of cross-cultural studies, Vietnamese working adults
appeared to experience more work overload stress than their German, Dutch, Russian, and
Japanese counterparts (Nguyen, Mujtaba, & Boehmer, 2012; Nguyen, Lee, Mujtaba, & Ruijs,
2013; Nguyen, Ermasova, Pham, & Mujtaba, 2013; Nguyen, Mujtaba, & Pham, 2013). Nguyen
et al. (2012) found that German working adults appear to experience more work overload stress
than Dutch working adults. However, no significant difference in the stress scores was found
between German and Japanese working adults (Nguyen, Kass, Mujtaba, & Tran, 2014).
Several authors analyzed occupational stress across a large and diverse set of
occupations. Johnson et al. (2005) compared the experience of occupational stress across a large
and diverse set of occupations and found that six occupations (prison officers and police,
ambulance workers, teachers, social services, customer services – call centers) in UK are
reporting worse than average scores on each of the factors – physical health, psychological well-
being and job satisfaction.
Beehr, Walsh, and Taber (1976) analyzed work-related stress of 79 male and 64 female
members of a white-collar union employed in drafting, mechanical, and technical-clerical jobs in
a Midwestern manufacturing company. They found that some effects of role stresses on
individually valued states were incompatible with their effects on 3 organizationally valued
motivational states: involvement, effort toward quantity, and effort toward quality.
Stress can be positive and motivating when it is short, for example, you need more
quickly submit reports: sometimes the work is done more efficiently under pressure of deadline.
Moreover, the work in conditions of constant scarce resources, including time, is mid-level
stressors. A similar tension occurs when a person has (1) difficulty in dealing with employers,
(2) worries about career development, and (3) the tasks contradict each other. Risk of serious and
chronic stress increases when there are sudden changes in working conditions or when a person
is deprived of the support of colleagues, family and leadership. Stress is formed from a
combination of these factors and the inability to relax. The results of constant work-related stress
are complex somatic pathology, reduced adaptive abilities of the organism, and chronic fatigue
syndrome earn. The symptoms of work-related stress are fatigue, weakness in the morning,
frequent headaches, insomnia, conflicts or susceptibility to loneliness.
Economic and social stress in Russia and its Impact on Work-Related Stress
Yiu, Bruton and Lu (2005) argued that the early Russian transition experience provided
uniquely important insights into the historic characteristics of business groups because it
represented a case in which market failures were important, institutional transition was in place,
and business groups were young and newly formed. Since the beginning of Perestroika
(“openness”) in 1987, the business environment in Russia has been turbulent and unpredictable
(Holt, Ralston, & Terpstra, 1994; Puffer, 1996). Ermasova (2013) highlighted high level of
uncertainty in economic, investment, and social aspects of life and business in Russia. In case of
Russia, Carr (2006-2007) showed that the effect of the unstable, uncertain economic
environment in the country had an impact on strategic decisions of Russian people. Alexander
Moskvin, scientific director of the clinic “Infoecology Social Stress Clinic” said in his interview
in Gorelova (2013) that “Negative social factors much more influence on the stress level of
managers in Russia than their foreign counterparts.” He highlighted following reasons of the
high stress level of managers in Russia: (1) the situation in the country; (2) the uncertainty,
which increases negative expectations; (3) distrust of people; (4) lack of uniform rules in
business; and (5) constantly changes in accounting and legislature that does not allow managers
to develop a sequence of actions.
According to Gupta et al. (2013), Russia has been a diverse and socially volatile country.
Although the country is considered politically Russian, 20 percent of its population is ethnically
non-Russian minorities. There are over 100 minority languages in the various regions. A
considerable body of research suggested that ethnic or racial hostility and its behavioral
expressions were likely to be more intense in areas where minorities comprise a smaller segment
of the population relative to other areas (Kleinpenning & Hagendoorn, 1993; Levin & McDevitt,
1993; Dekker, Malová, & Hoogendoorn, 2003; Gudkov, 2003). In our research we suggest that
religion affect the level of work-related stress perceptions in Russia, especially the religious
minorities (Muslims).
WTO 2007 Report (2007, p.1) highlighted the problem of work-related stress in Russia.
Working adults in Russia are “subjected to rapid and drastic economical and social changes,
where there is an increased demand for adaptation of workers, the over-riding of traditional
values, the reorientation of the occupational health system, and generally poor working
conditions.” Psychosocial stress has increased as a result of unprecedented changes in Russia’s
economic condition and the reduction of “safety net” services. During transition times Russian
workers had to deal with: (1) increased demands of learning new skills; (2) the need to adopt
new ways of working; (3) the pressure of the demand for higher productivity and higher
technical and computer skills; (4) demands for increased quality of work and time pressure; (5)
higher job competition; (6) increased job insecurity and less benefits; and (7) less time for co-
workers and socializing. These various global and local changes led to increasing demands on a
growing number of workers. When workers are unable to deal with these demands, work-related
stress may result. When stress persists or occurs repeatedly, it can have various negative effects
on workers and the companies they work for. Psychosocial stress may manifest itself as
depression, anxiety, domestic violence, increase of smoking, work injures, increase of alcohol
consumption, and divorce.
In Russia, managers have to spend a lot of efforts on defending themselves in response to
pressure from top managers. This can cause stress. Another feature of the Russian corporate
stress is the habit of bringing personal problems to work. Russian leaders are traditionally
broadcast their emotions on subordinates (Matveev, 2002).
A specific problem of work-related stress is the presence of two work-forces in many
Russians firms. The first consists of older workers, with a traditional Russian mindset who resist
change. The second workforce is made up of young, aggressive "New Russians" who are
generally eager to adapt. Members of this group are driven by career ambitions and often have
some training in business, English, or a few years’ experience working for a foreign firm in sales
or marketing. It also appears to be a common pattern to place younger workers in charge of older
ones early in their careers, adding to the tension in work place. This indicates that Russians with
different age groups may have different perceptions on work related stress.
Study Methodology and Analysis
The Overload Stress Inventory, adapted from Hyde and Allen’s conceptual analysis of
overload (1996, p.29- 30), was used to assess the stress perception of respondents. It included 10
items with a 5-Likert scale. A rating of 1 indicated “Strongly Disagree” and a rating of 5
indicated “Strongly Agree.” The responses were assessed according to the following general
criteria:
○ Scores in the range of 40–50 tend to mean severe stress from overload.
○ Scores in the range of 30–39 tend to mean high stress from overload.
○ Scores in the range of 20–29 tend to mean moderate stress from overload.
○ Scores in the range of 19 and below tend to mean low stress from overload.
The specific hypotheses for this study are as follows:
H1: Russian respondents who are 26 years old or older will have similar work overload stress
scores than Russian respondents who are 25 years old or younger.
H2: Russian respondents who are 41 years old or older will have similar work overload stress
scores than Russian respondents who are 40 years old or younger.
H3: Russian male respondents will have similar work overload stress scores than Russian
female respondents.
H4: Russian respondents with high school degree or less will have similar work overload
stress scores than those with higher degree.
H5: Russian respondents with no management experience will have similar work overload
stress scores than those with management experience.
H6: Russian respondents with no government experience will have similar work overload
stress scores than those with government experience.
H7: The work overload stress scores of Russian respondents will be similar based on different
religion.
The purpose of this study was to determine the level of work overload stress of Russians
adults. Another aspect of this study was to determine whether there is any difference between the
level of work overload stress of Russian working adults based on, age, gender, education,
religion, work experience and management experience.
A convenient sampling procedure was adopted for selecting the target respondents. The
target respondents were Russian adults who are 17 years of age and above. The English version
of the survey was first translated into Russian then was back-translated into English. Both the
original English and the back-translated versions were compared and checked by three university
professors to insure the validity of the instrument. They concluded that there was no significant
difference.
This study applied the self-administered survey method, which helps eliminate the errors
caused by the subjectivity of interviewers and provides greater anonymity for respondents. This
is really helpful in achieving high response rate because Russian people sometimes feel
uncomfortable to reveal their ideas and thoughts through survey questionnaires.
The questionnaire was made available as a webpage with a direct link that could be
attached to email, as well as a hard copy that could be handed out directly, to respondents by the
authors and their contacts. This helped increase the response rate as Russian people prefer to deal
with surveys that are provided by someone they know such as an instructor, lab assistant…
Informed consent, explanation of study, procedure of maintaining confidentiality, and detailed
instructions on how to complete the questionnaire successfully were included. The authors
assumed that if the respondents read and proceeded to take the surveys (either hard copy or
online), they consented to the survey. For those questionnaires completed through the web link,
the data were automatically saved and converted into a database in excel format file for analysis.
For those questionnaires completed through hard copy format, the data were entered manually.
Majority of respondents were from Moscow, Chelyabinsk, Saratov, and Ulyanovsk. There were
611 questionnaires obtained, of which 519 were fully completed and ready for use.
As seen in Table 1, 167 respondents were from the age of 17 to 25 (32.2%); 132 from
the age of 26 to 30 (25.4%); 174 from the age of 31 to 40 (33.5%); and 46 from the age of 41
and above (8.9%). There were 397 female respondents (76.5%) and 122 male respondents
(23.5%). There were 86 respondents who earned a high school degree or less; 66 respondents
who earned bachelor degree or were working on earning it; 348 respondents who earned master
degree or were working on earning it; and 19 respondents who earned doctorate degree or were
working on earning it. In this sample, 420 respondents had no government experience (80.9%);
57 respondents had 1 to 5 years of government experience; 29 respondents had 6 to 10 years of
government experience (5.6%); and 13 respondents had 11 or more years of government
experience (2.5%).
Table 1. Demographic Variables (N=519)
Variables
Frequency
Percent
Valid
Percent
Cumulative
Percent
Age 17 to 25 167 32.2 32.2 32.2
26 to 30 132 25.4 25.4 57.6
31 to 40 174 33.5 33.5 91.1
41 and above 46 8.9 8.9 100.0
Total 519 100.0 100.0
Gender Female 397 76.5 76.5 76.5
Male 122 23.5 23.5 100.0
Total 519 100.0 100.0
Education Earned a high school degree or less
Bachelors Degree or working on earning it
Masters Degree or working on earning it
86
66
348
16.6
12.7
67.1
16.6
12.7
67.1
16.6
29.3
96.4
Doctorate Degree or working on earning it 19 3.7 3.7 100.0
Total 519 100.0 100.0
Government
Experience
1 to 5 years 57 11.0 11.0 11.0
6 to10 years 29 5.6 5.6 16.6
11 or more years 13 2.5 2.5 19.1
none 420 80.9 80.9 100.0
Total 519 100.0 100.0
Results
As seen in Table 2, Russian respondents in this sample had a moderate level of overload
stress perception as their stress scores fell in the “moderate” range (20-29 points). Also
according to Table 2, no significant difference was found in each of the hypothesis tests
(Hypotheses 1 to 6). These hypotheses, therefore, cannot be rejected.
Age, gender, education level, work experience, and management experience made no
significant difference in the overload stress perception scores of Russian respondents in this
sample. However, it is worth noting that the Levene’s Test for equality of variances showed
significance in hypothesis 2 (17-40 age group against 41 and above age group) as well as
hypothesis 6 (no government experience against with government experience).
Table 2. Hypothesis Testing Results (Stress Scores)
Hypotheses
(Stress Scores)
Group
Size
Group Mean
Levene's
Test for
Equality of
Variances
t-test for Equality of Means
1
2
1
2
F
Sig.
T
df
Sig. (2-
tailed)
Mean
Difference
H1: Age (17-25 vs 26
and above) 167 352 28.10 27.34 .485 .486 .963 517 .336 .764
H2: Age (17-40 vs 41
and above) 473 46 27.61 27.35 5.35 .021 .199 517 .843 .259
H3: Gender (male vs
female) 122 397 28.06 27.44 .089 .765 .709 517 .479 .619
H4: Education (High
School Degree or less vs
Higher degree)
86 433 28.63 27.38 .838 .360 1.257 517 .209 1.25
H5: Management
Experience (No
management experience
vs with management
experience)
266
253
27.08
28.11
1.33
.249
-1.399
517
.162
-1.036
H6: Government
Experience (No
Government Experience
vs With Government
Experience)
420
99
27.31
28.75
5.34
.021
-1.527
517
.127
-1.438
p<.05
As seen in Table 3, One-way ANOVA test among different religious groups showed a
significant difference in the mean stress scores among these group (F=3.276, p=.039<.05).
Therefore, hypothesis 7 is rejected. There is a significant difference in the overload stress scores
among different religious groups in this sample. More specifically, post hoc tests indicated a
significant difference in the mean scores of Christian and Muslim believers, which Muslim
believers had a higher stress scores than Christian believers (-2,72207, p=.046<.05). Also the
difference in the mean scores between Christian and non-practicing believers were partially
supported at .10 level (-2.15584, p=.074<.10). Non-practicing believers had a higher stress
scores than Christian believers.
Table 3. Hypothesis Testing Results of Religion Variable (Stress Scores) Descriptives
N Mean Std. Deviation Std. Error
Stress_Scores Christian 422 27.1351 8.37218 .40755
Muslim 42 29.8571 7.65274 1.18084
Non-practicing believers 55 29.2909 9.12805 1.23083
Total 519 27.5838 8.43692 .37034
ANOVA
Sum of
Squares df
Mean
Square F Sig.
Stress_Scores Between Groups 462.315 2 231.157 3.276 .039
Within Groups 36409.789 516 70.562
Total 36872.104 518
Post Hoc Tests
Multiple Comparisons
LSD
Dependent
Variable
(I)
Religion (J) Religion
Mean
Difference
(I-J)
Std.
Error Sig.
95% Confidence
Interval
Lower
Bound
Upper
Bound
Stress
Scores
Christian Muslim -2.72207* 1.35913 .046 -5.3922 -.0520
Non-practicing believers -2.15584 1.20422 .074 -4.5216 .2099
Muslim Christian 2.72207* 1.35913 .046 .0520 5.3922
Non-practicing believers .56623 1.72133 .742 -2.8154 3.9479
Non-
practicing
believers
Christian 2.15584 1.20422 .074 -.2099 4.5216
Muslim -.56623 1.72133 .742 -3.9479 2.8154
*. The mean difference is significant at the 0.05 level.
Discussion and Managerial Implications
First of all, this study found that Russian working adults in this sample perceived a
moderate work overload stress. Second, it did not find any significant difference in the overload
stress scores of Russian working adults based on age, gender, level of education, work
experience and management experience. Finally, this study found a significant difference in the
overload stress scores of Russian working adults based on religion. Muslim believers had the
highest scores compared to Christian and non-practicing believers. Thus, they perceived more
overload stress than the other two groups. This somehow reflects the reality of Russia that
religious minorities may feel more stressful because of how they feel about the ethnic or racial
hostility and its behavioral expressions. Managers and business owners who deal with this group
need to create and support an effective stress management program to help minorities feel more
relaxed and comfortable when working with other dominant ethnic and religious groups. They
should assign an adequate amount of work that matches their skills and qualifications to make
them feel capable of performing their jobs and not too overwhelmed. They should also create and
foster a collaborative and supportive work environment to improve the communication as well as
relationships among peers, leaders and subordinates, and other work units.
Limitations and Recommendations
There are several limitations that need to be addressed in this study. First of all, this study
was conducted on an adult population available and receptive to our survey. These adults were
from several cities in Russia including Moscow, Chelyabinsk, Saratov, and Ulyanovsk. Future
studies should include adults from other cities and regions in the country. Second, because of the
small sample size, the results cannot be generalized to the larger population. Future studies
should extend to larger sample size with similar population. Third, this study only examined a
few demographics factors and the work overload stress. Future studies can include other non-
demographic factors such as organizational and departmental factors and they should look into
other type of work-related stress in addition to overload stress. Finally, this study only focused
on Russian respondents. Future studies should examine the stress perception of people from
different countries for comparison purposes since the workforce has become more globalized and
diverse than ever.
Conclusion
We can say for certain that Russian working adults in this study perceived a moderate
level of work overload stress and religion made a difference in how they perceived about work
overload stress. This study has shed light on the differences in work overload stress perception in
Russia. Researchers and scholars can benefit from this study as it provides more empirical results
regarding the work overload stress perception in Russia. Managers and practitioners can also
benefit from the study as it provides real-world implications in managing these working adults
more effectively.
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Biography
Dr. Lam D. Nguyen is an Associate Professor of Management at the AACSB-accredited
College of Business at Bloomsburg University of Pennsylvania. He is currently the Book Review
Editor for the International Journal of Business and Emerging Markets as well as the Journal of
Applied Management and Entrepreneurship. He has served as a Visiting Professor at Webster
University Thailand and at the University of Economics, Ho Chi Minh City. Lam possesses a
solid practitioner experience including various managerial and leadership positions he held in
Vietnam and in the U.S. Dr. Nguyen has presented his research at many prestigious conferences
and published in leading peer-reviewed journals. His areas of research are job satisfaction,
leadership, strategic management, ethics, entrepreneurship, and cross cultural differences. He can
be reached at: [email protected].
Dr. Natalia Ermasova is a PhD of Public Affairs (Indiana University, USA), PhD of
Economics (Russia) Assistant Professor of College of Business and Public Administration at
Governors State University, IL. Her primary research interests is risk-management, innovation
management, and the state capital budgeting. Before starting her work in the USA, she worked as
a Professor of Finance in the Volga Region Academy for Civil Services in Russia for 12 years
and as Professor of Saratov State University for 2 years. She was Visiting Professor in Germany
(Ludwigsburg Academy for Civil Services) and Fulbright Visiting Professor (SPEA, Indiana
University). More than 45 books and articles were published in Russia. Her articles were
published in State and Local Government Review, Public Administration Research. She can be
reach at: [email protected].
Dr. Alexander Demin is a Head of the Department of Management and Law at South-
Ural State University (National Research University, Russia). He is the director of Institute of
Open and Distance Education of South Urals State University. His research interests are strategic
management, the problems of government’s contracting out. He is the author of seven articles in
Russia. Demin can be reached at: [email protected].
Dr. Nicholas Koumbiadis is a Professor of Accounting in The Robert B. Willumstad
School of Business at Adelphi University. His core research interests focus on the accounting
profession, specifically in the area of ethics, international financial reporting, and poverty
alleviation in third world countries. He is a Certified Fraud Examiner in New York State. He has
published articles in leading academic journals such as The Journal of Accounting and
Organizational Change, Corporate Social Responsibility in Management Education,
Encyclopedia of Business & Finance, Journal of Finance and Accountancy, Journal of
International Business and Cultural Studies, World Journal of Management, Journal of Business
and Policy Research, and International Review of Business Research Papers. He was program
coordinator for the International Conference of Business and Applied Sciences Academy of
North America (BAASANA) and a reviewer for several lead journals in the field of Accounting
and Ethics. He can be reached at: [email protected].