UNIT 1

Topics

t

When you read for thee meaning you should begin by looking for the ropic. This hefpsyou connect what you read to what you already know. In order to find the topic, ask yciurself: :

*What is this about? What is the general idea?'

Example a:

ln the grcup of words below, one of the words is {re topic for all the other nords.Circle thetopic.

Elephants Zpbras African animals Lions Tigers

The topic is African animals. All of the other words are examples of this topic.

b<ample b:

ln the grcup of words below, one of the rvords is tfie topicfor all the other lrords.Circle the topic.

j

t{

Wheels tires brakes steering wheel seats doors

The topic is car. All of the other words are parts of a car.

In these exercises, you should work with another student. By discussing your worlq youwill learn more from the exercises and you may change the way you think abqut reading::'

*erci* Iln each gtoup of words, circle the word which is fhe best topic for all the otherwords. Wo* with another student. Work as fasf as you can. Time limit: twominutes.

l. flippers face mask wet suit surt'board

. water skis goggles water sports air tank

2. referecs scoreboard basketball game

clock lans baskets

3. air bags seat belts

players coaches

stereo speakers car equipmentanti-lock brakes spare tire windshield wipers

4. whales sharks dolphins barracudassea creatures"/ eels octopus skate

5. string quartet double bass viola violin cEllo

6. tulips daffodils flowers hyacinths cnocuses

7. pisachios

8. Maui KauaiOahu Hawaii

Hawaiian Islandstanai Molokai

almonds pecanscashews nuts

9. Biochemisty PhysiologY

10. The Old Man and the Sea

Medical Subjects

Reading for Pleasure

The Chocolate War The Incredible Journey NightThe Pearl

filberts

Stofing the topic

Exqs'* Zln this exercisg the topic is not included in each group of words. write the topicabove the words. Wo* with another studenl Time limfu threp- minutes.

l. Topic:Clinton Ford Nixon Carter Reagan Johnson

2. Topic:frame strings hammers keys cover pins pedals legs front

3. Topic:dulcimer zither guitar banjo ukulele

4. Topic:modern monitor keyboard disk drive floppy

5. Topic:Henry Elizabeth George Victoria Edward

7. Topic:manager produce buyer stock clerk cashier butcher bagger cleaner

8. Topic:German ltalian Basque Flemish Dutch Spanish

9. Topic:pineapple kiwi papaya mango guava

10. Topic:Copernicus Brahe Kepler Galileo Newton

Exercise 4ln the exercise, the topic is nat included in each group of words. Write the topicapove the words. Work with another studenL fime limit: three minuhs.

I. Topic:mercury tin aiuminum copper iron chromium

2. Topic:mountains plateaus plains hilis cliffs valleys

l. Topic:hull sail mast keel tiller rudder borv stern boom

4. Topic:saw drill plane chisel clamp hammer screwdrive

5. Topic:cotton polyester wool silk linen rayon

6. Topic:hair dryer microwave oven egg beater iron blender toaster

7. Topic:McKinley Aconsagua Everest Elbrus Kilimanjaro

UNIT 2

Topics of Paragraphs

Wot is a paragroph?

Herc arc two groups of sentences that look like pralgrarphs. Read both of themcarefully. Arc they both paragraphs?

*amPle a:

ln the Trobriand Islands, people do not celebrate birthdays. When a boy is about 14

or 15, he moves out of his parents'house. Each canoe takes about l8 months to make.Boys and girls may live together for periods of days, weeks, or months. Most islandershave no idea when they were born or how old they are. That way, they have a chanceto find out if they are the right people for each other. When it is finally finished, it isnamed and special cercmonies are held to grve it magic powers. This is also about theage that he begins to work on his own garden.

Is thisa paragraph?

Example b:

In the Trobriand Islands, the yam is both an important food plant and an importantpart of the culture. Every village has a "yam house" with a giant. four-foot yamhanging from the ceiling. It represents wealth and well-being for the village, life andstrength for the people. Villagers take great pride in their gardens, especially their yamplants. The yam harvest is one of the high points of the year and also the focus formany traditions. For example, the harvest is always carried out by women. When theyare bringing the yams in from the garden all together, no man is supposed to ineetthbm. Any man they rneet will be chased, attacked, and treated as a fool.

ls this a paragraph?

What is the difference between Example a and Example b?

A parograp& is a group of sentences that are all about the same thing. That is. theyall havc the same topic. Example a is not a paragraph because the sentences are aboutseveral aspects cl life in the Trobriand Islancis. Togethcr, the sentences make no sense.

Example b is a paragraph because all the sentences are about the same aspect oflife (yams) in the Trobriand Island.

€xcrcise ISome of these groups of sentences are paragraphs and some are not Read themcarcfully and answer the question

Parogroph I

Iceland is not a place for the ordinary tourist. The landscape. first of all, is bare andstrange--thought many coribider it beautiful, too. Then, too, the far northem climate isnot ideal for tourism..The winter weather is extremely severe and the summers ane

short and cool, with constant strong winds. The remote location also means that manyproducts have to be imported and so they are expensive. However, the few touristswho do put up with these difficulties are warmly welcomed by the lcelanders.

Is this a paragraph?

lf yes, what is the topic?

Poragroph 2

' For fewer touristsl lower prices, and more beautiful scenery, head for the SagresPeninsula. The rcgional museum has a rich collection of costumes, weapons, and' handicrafts. Buses will get you to most places, but for long trips, kains are cheaper and

more comfortable.'The Portuguese eronomy has expanded very rapidly in recentyears, but it still has many problems. tn l5th century, Lisbon was a worldwide centerof political power, religion, and culture.

Is this a paragraph? ' '

ffyes, what is the topic?

Paragroph 3 .. .

The two peoples of Belgium--the Flemish and the Walloons---are divided bylanguage, culture, and economics. Hotels in Brussels are expensive, so most youngtravelers stay in youth hostels or student hotels. In Antwerp, the home of Rubens. youcan visit the house where he lived and worked. Throughout the centuries, Belgiurn has

been the scene of many terrible battles between world powers. In many parts of the

world, the Belgians are best known for their chocolate and their beer. Ships to Englandleave either fiom Oostende or from Zeebrugge.

Is this a paragraph?

lf yes, what is the topic?

- PoragraPh I

To an outsideq Istanbul may at first seem like a western city. The Western dress,

the many new buildings, the haffic problems all make the city s€em very modern. Butthere is another side to this great city--its rich past as the capital of the Ottoman

Empire. In the narow back streets, the bazaars, and the mosques, this past seems very

near and real. And the spectacular mosques are evidence of the city's important role inhistory of Islam as well.

Is this a ParagraPh?

If yes, what is the toPic?

Recognizing the topic of a paragroph

When you read a paragraph you should always ask yourself, *What is this about?,,That question will lead you to the topic of the paragraph.

Example a:

!What is this paragraph about?

't

' People have always been interested in beesl This interest may have begun with\ the honey bees make. In fact, archaeologists have found evidence that people havebeen eatihg honey'for many thousands of years. In the more recent past, people wereinterested in the way bees made honey. They admired the way bees seemed to-work sohard. Sor4e languages even developed expressions about people working like bees. InEnglish, for example, we talk about a "busy bee." Now scientists have a new reason tobe intprested in bees- They have discovered that bees are able to-communicate witheach other. Research has revealed some surprising facts about this, but'there are stillmany mysteries.

ULXe a check after the best topic.other topic.

Write "too specific" or "too general,' after the

\\-r

a.

b.

c.

Expressions about bees in the English languageThe story of beesPeople's interest in bees

Explanatioa.' The best topic is c, people's inierest in bees.lt tells best what the paragraphis about. Choice 4 expressions about bees in the English language is too specific. Thisidea ii only a part of the paragraph. Choice b, rlu story of beei is too generai. It inctudesmanlL pgssible ideas that are not in the paragraph.-

. ' "-r:."

Example b:

What is this paragraph about?

Communication is also possible among bees through their sense of smell. A groupof bees, called a colony, uses smell tb protect itself from other bees. This is possiblebecause all the bees in a colony have a common smell. This smell acts like a chemicalsignal. It warns the group of bees when a bee from a different colony is near. This way,bees from outside cannot enter and disturb a hive (the bee colony's home). If anoutsider does try to enter, the bees of that colony will smell it and atack it.

Hake a chek after ttrc best topic. Wfite "to sp*iftc" or uloo genetal, after ttr-other topics.

a. The chemical signals of beesb. How bees livec. How bees communicate through smell

Erylanotion' The best topic is c, how bees communicate through smell. Choice a is toospecific. Choice b is too general.

Exercise 2- ,Read eacli paragraph. Worl<ing with another student, d*ide which topic is thebes|- llake a ch*k after that topic. Write "too sp*ific" or "too general" after.theothertopics

. Etephants

l. Elephans are the largest land animals in the world. Whales are the largest sea

animals. These nvo huge animals may, in fact, be related. Biologist now believe that theancestors of elephants once lived in the sea. There is plenty of evidence to support thisidea. For example, the shape of an elephant's head is similar to a whale's. Al9o, 100miles from shore. Like the whale, the elephant, too, uses sounds to show anger or forother kinds of communication. Finally, in certain ways, female elephants behave rnuchlike female whales. When an elephant or a whale baby is born, a female friend saysnearby to help the mother. a

- a. How elpphants are good swimmerst. The largest animals in the worldc. How elephants and whales are alike

2. The elephant's trunk is not just a large nose or upper lip. It's an essential andunique feature that serves many purposes for this animal. For one, it is used to makemany kinds of sounds. With its trunh the elephant can communicate anger, feaq.*trhappiness. The tnrnk is also used as if it were a kind of hand. At the end of the"trunk.Alb

1b'mu1hs shled

lke fin8ers. These muscles can pick up food and water ana Cffi

them to the elephant's mouth. Elephants use their trunks to take dust baths, ttoo,

, throwing the dust over their backs. If an elephant's trunk is seriously injured, the

f elephant may die. Without its trunk, it has great difficulty getting enough to eat.

a. The elephant's trunkb. The elephant's bodyc. The elephant's dust baths

j. The intelligence of the elephant is widely known. We say, 'the elephant neverforgets," in honor of its excellent memory.'Elephants are also surprisingly good atsolving problems. An Indian farmer who kept elephants discovered this fact, to his

.misfornrne. He had notic€d that his elephants were eating his bananas at night. No fence

could keep out the elephants, of couse, so he decided to tie bells on them. Then he

would hear them when they came to eat the bananas and he could chase them away. Afew morning later, however, the bananas were all gone, though he had heard nothing at

night. When he checked the elephans, he found that they had played a trick on him.They had filled the bells with mud so they would not make any noise!

a. Facts about elephantsb. How elephants get bananas

c. The intelligence of elephants

6

Ercrci* 3Fnrl each pangraph. Working with another studeng d*ide which topic is thebesl Make a ch*k after that topic. write "ta specifrc', or ,,t@ general;' atter theotrertopics.

, ^ The Construction of Houses

l. People usually build their houses out of the materials that are easily available tothem. In some areas, most people build their homes out of wood. This is true in parts ofNorth America and in Scandinavia. These areas have large forests, so wood is easy toget and inexpensive. In many other areas of Europe, there are few forests left. Stone andbrick are cheaper, so most people build their houses of these materials. In tropicalregions, houses are sometimes made from plants that grow there. For example, in parts

, of Africa or Asi4 houses may be made out of bamboo. Finally, in the very coldest areas' near the Arctic, people make their h.omes out of blocks of ice.

Materials used for housesThe wooden houses of ScandinaviaHouses around the world

?. Houses in hot countries have many features that.are different from houses in coldcountries. Houses'in hot countries usually have thick walls and small windows to keep

. out the heat. In colder climates and daiker regions, however, people do not have toworry about too much sun and heat. The houses therefore have larger windows to let inthe sunlight. Another difference is that houses in hot climates usually have an outdoorliving area---a terrace. courtyard, or porch. In colder climates, of course, people spendless time outdoors, so houses often do not have such areas.

a. The architecture of housesb. Houses in hot and cold countriesc. Houses with smallwindows

). One of the most famous houses in the United States is Monticello. It was the hiiineof Thomas Jefferson, the third President of the United States. Located on a hill nrarCharlottesville, Virginia, it has a beautiful view of the surrounding countryside. Thehouses is famous, first of all, because it belonged to a President. It is also a fine exampleof early 19fr century American architecture. Jefferson designed it himself in a style he

had admired in ltaly. Many American buildings of that time, in fact, imitated Europeanstyles. But while most were just imitations, his Monticello is lovely in itself.Furthermore, the design combines a graceful style with a typical American concem forcomfort and function.

a. The view from Monticellob. America architecturec. Reason for Monticello's fame

a.

D.

c.

Stoting the topic of a paragraph

Exampte:

In most industrialized countries, family patterns have changed in recent years.Families used tote large, and most mothers stayed home to takeiare of the children.They were usually entirely responsible for all the housewot, too. Fathers did not oftensee the children, except to play with them on the weekends. Now that families aresmaller anci many women are working, this has changed somewhat. Fathers often helpwith the housework. More importantly, they can be much more involved in the lives oftheir children. They may feed and dress their children and take them to school in themomings.

What is this paragraph about? Think carefully and then write the topic. It should not be toospecific or too general.

Topic:

Explanalioz.' A good topic for this paragraph would be "how Jbmity parkrns havechanged. " If you wrote sornething similar, that is okay, tco. For example,'"re cent bhangesinfdntily patterns" is also a gooci answer. "Families" is too geneml. ,,How

fothers cqrefor their children" is too specific. r i

Exrrttisc 4Read er,ch pangraph. Wo*ing with another student, d*ide on the best tqic. Besure Wur toptc is not ta general or too specific. Write the topic below thepangnph.

The lmportance of Automobile Tires

t. If you ever get a blow-out while you arc driving, you should know what to do. Ablow-out is a sudden flat tire. [t can be a very frightening experience, especially if youare travelling at high speed. If your car gets a blow-out, the first thing to do is to holdvery tightly to the steering wheel. You can easily lose control of the car if you do nothave a good hold on the steering wheel. The next step is to get off the road. You mustnot try to stop or turn too quicklyn however. After you check the traffic should moveover to the side of the road and slow down gradually. Then you should turn on yourflashing tights so other cars will see you.

Topic:

2. Most automobile owners check the gas and oil in their cars regularly. However,they may forget to check something else that is just as important: the tires. About 28%of automobiles in the United States have tires that are in poor condition. Some are tooworn and others have too much or too little air. It is a good idea to check the amount ofair in your tires every week. You should also give a quick look at your tires every timeyou get into your car. This way, you may avoid a flat tire or a blow-out.

Topic:

3. Tires are one part of the car that need a lot of attention. A quick check before youdrive the car may not be enough. You should also bring your car regularly for somespecial measure. First, the mechanic should rotate the tires after a certain frumber ofmiles. This means removing the tires and placing them in different positions. The reartires are usually placed in the front. The front tires are placed on opposite sides in therear. Changing the tires like his will prevent them from becoming too worn on one side.For this same re:ron, the mechanic should also balance the wheels. In balancing thewheel, each wheel is taken offand adjusted to make sure it goes around evenly.

Topic:

/

Finding the topic sentence

frlany pangnphs include a topic seafence that ts;tts the topic of the pangaph.

:o, thts rangraph and underlinettretopic.

The first guitarist to become known worldwide was Andres Segovi4 born in 1893in Spain. Before the 20th century, the guitar was not taken very seriously as a classicalinstmment. Most people thought that the guitar was suitable only for popular music orfolk music. Few classical composers wrote music for the guitar, and it was neverincluded in classical concerts. But Segovia changed all this. He believed in the guiaras classical instrument, and he was a great musician. He used his genius to prove thatthe guitar could produce beautiful classical music.

'The topic is stated in the topic sentence: The first guitarist to become known worldwidewas Andres Segovia, born in 1893 in Spain. The other sentences in the paragraph explainand give details ahrut the topic.

Exerci e 5Read each paragraph and underline the topic sentence. Remember, the topicsenlence is nof always the first sentence in the pangraph. Compare your choiceswith another student. lf your answeni differ, decide whose Ls best and conect yourwo* if nxessary.

Effects of Weather and Climate

l. Violent storms cause damage and deaths all over the world. but sometimes peoplemake the consequences worse. For example, too many people living in dangerous areascan turn a storm into a disaster. In Bangladesh, the flat river valley often floods. In thepast, there were few people in this area and they could escape to higher land. Now.millions of people live there and they cannot escape when there are floods. Sometimes.too, there is more damage than necessary because people do not build homes that aresafe or strong enough. This was the case when a terrible storm hit southern Florida.Many people died or lost their homes because the wind blew away poorly-madebuildings.

2. When summer brings very hot weather, many people suffer more than they need to.There are a number of ways to make life more comfortable in the heat. First of all,-youcan try to keep your home as cool as possible. It is best to close all the windows'andcurtains during the hottest part of the day. Then, when it is cooler in the evening,,youcan open them up again. It is important also to keep yourself cool by wearing loose.tight clothes. Cotton is the best material for clothes in hot weather. And finally, youshould try to stay calm and relaxed. You could even try a nap after lunch. like manypeople who live in hot climates. This way vou are more rested and ready to enjoy thecool evening hours.

3. Scientists believe that the earth's climate may be warming up. This trend probablybegan thousands of years ago. Many areas of the earth used to be covered with ice thathas norv melted. Ho.xever. in recent )-ears. the warming trend has speeded up.Scientists think that part of the reason tor this may be carbon dioxide pollution tiomindustry anci automobiles. The carbon dioxide mixes with other gases. This poilutioncovers the earth like a blanket and keeps it lvarmer. Another reason tbr the warmingmay be the fact that the earth is losing its forests. Forests are an important part of theearth's system for using up carbon dioxide and keeping the air temperature cool.

9

UNIT 3

Main Ideas

Wat is o main ideo?

The main idea of a paragraph is the author's ida about the topic. It is always a completesentence that includes both the topic and the idea that the author wishes to express auoutthe topic.

Example a:

Topic: Cats

Possible main idea about cats:

o Cats are usually very clean animals.o Cats have very expressive faces.o Cats are very adapted animals.

Wrttu three more ideas aboul cats:

Compare your ideas with those of another student. You probably have some differentideas. In fact' for every topic there are many possible main ideas. The choice of a mainidea depends on what the author wants to say about the topic.

Example b:

cfioose one of these topics and write a main idea sentence about it,

. My favorite food

. Growing oldero Travel

compare your main idea sentence with another student who wrote about the sametopic.

Why might they be different?

Finding the main idea in the topic sentence

The topic s€ntence often states the author's main idea about the topic.

Exqri* IRead each pra,graiph and un&dine the topic serr,ence. Then compale your choicewith another student D*ide rfiose is 6est corn*ct Wur wo* if necessary

todem Trcnds in Management

l. The "idea box" is a uspful con,:ept in.granagement. It was first introduced in the

early 20th" century by Kodak in the United Sates and Michelin in France: Themanagers of these companies used idea boxes to collect suggestions from employeesabout improving production. Today the idea box is not used much in the United States

or Europe. However, it is used a lot in Japan. Japanese managers have found it to be avery valuable resource. Employees often know more than managers about the detailsof pnrduction. [n the long run, their suggestions can make a real difference to thecompany. Employees who offer useful ideas may receive extra money in'theirpaychecks.

In a recent study, researchers interviewed 1,500 business managers in the UniledStates. They asked all kinds of questions about the managers' habits and opinionsregarding their work. The researchers learned that only 33o/o of the managers worked4045 hours. The majority of them (57%) worked from 46-60 hours a week and,6%worked over 60 hours. Only 2% of the man€ers said they felt satisfied and hadenough time to do ever,vthing. The rest of the managers felt they did not have enoirghtime for their families or &eir hobbies. The study showed that American manageq8regcnerally not happy with their working schedules. I,i

.+At present some managers spend much of their workine time at home. especiiilly

those rvho work a lot on computers. They can send their work to the company by faxor by direct computer connectrons. There are many advantases to workinq at home,including morc flexible hours and better procluctivity. "Home manager" also save trmeand money they would have spent on transportation. The disadvantages may. hs-thedifiiculty in organizing work and the loss of direct contact with colleagues. [n thefuture, many more managers will be able to work at home, thanks to moderntechnolory and telecommunication.

Finding the muin idea when it is not in the topic sentence

Sometimes the topic sentence does not completely state the author's idea about the topic.

Example: :1: iln gtme industrialized countries. peoole are retirin&from work to an earlv aee.-a*. ;

fnit "t-p""iuffy

tru" in e*op", *t"re many workers .eti.e at age SS. tn lg?O,-"U".ln I

r half the men aged 55 corrtinued to work. Norv, only about 10-30% of that age gfptp I

I continue to work. The reason for this trend is economic. Some European goyernm"nt, I

f t rn,"d people to retirc early so that their jobs could go to younger people. But earlyl' Etirement has created new economic problems. Governments are having trouble

Wyingthe pensions and health costs for all the additional retired people.

ToPic: EarlY retiremen

2.

3.

Underline the topic sentence. Then circle the letter in front of the besf sfatement oftfie author's maln ldea.

a. Early retirement starts at age 55.

b. In some industrialized countries, more people are retiring early.c. The trend to early retirement is creating economic problems in Europe.

The best choice is c, Choice a is too specific. Choice 6 does not include an important partofthe main idea--the economic problems which are the resutt of early retirement.

*erci* 2Read each pangnph to frnd the topic.

'Consequences of an Aging Population

l. The average age of the population of many countries is getting older. That meansthat businesses in those countries must adjust to older customers. In fact, manycompanies are working to respond to the special needs of the elderly. One example ofthis is the medical industry. New medicines and technologies are being developedespecially for the heahh problems of older people. Another business that offers servicesfor the elderly is the tourist industry. Many travel agents offer special trips foi groups ofolder people. An4 finally, there are many different kinds of products made foi theelderly. These include everything from shoes and shampoos to magazines and furniture.

Topic:

tlnderline the topic sentence. Then clrcte the letter in front of the best statementof the author's main idea.

a. The medical industry is developing new medicines for the erderry.b. New products and services are being developed by many companies.c. Many companies are developing products and services for the increasing elderly

population.

2. In industrialized countries today, rnany elderly people suffer from depression. Themain cause of this is loneliness. In the past older people usually lived with othermembers of the family. They usually had some responsibilities around the home. Forexample, older women could help take care of the children or prepare meals. Older mencould help their sons at work or around the house. These days, married children oftenprefer to live on ttieir own, sometimes far away from their parents. Thus, older peoplemav be cut qfffqoqfaryrily tiesJhey may feelcutoflfrqmthe world around them. Lifehas changed so much so quickty that older people sometimes feel that they do notbelong any more.

Topic:

llnderline the topic sentence. Then circle'the letter in front of the best statementof dte author's maln idea-

a. The elderly people in industrialized countries are often deprcssed because ofloneliness.

b. Older people used to live with other family members and helped take care ofthechildren.

c. Some elderly people may feel the world has changed too quickly for them.

Exercise 3Read each pangraph. Then wo*uith another student and decide on the bestmalnidea statemenl i

Automobiles: Problems and Solutions

L The ideas of a small electric car is not new. A number of dif,[erent canmanufacturers alrady sell such cars. But now a French company, Renault, hasdesigned a very special kind of electric car. By pushing a button, you can make it firldup! The back of the car folds into the car body. These qlrs were designed mainly for usein cities. They have several advantages over regular cars. Their small size makes tl&mmuch easier to drive around busy, nhrrow streets. They are also much easier to pa*,incity parking spaces. Like other electric cars, these autos do not pollute the air. This is animportant consideration these days when many cities have serious pollution problems.

a. Electric cars do not pollute the air.

b. The new folding electric car has many advantages over regular cars

c. Small cars are very convenient in narrow streets.

2. Many studies have shown tha( it is better to wear your seat belt when you areffaveling in a car. Seat bels greatly reduce the risk of death or injury in an accident-This fact is widely recognized and many governments have passed laws requiring seatbelt use. However. many people stiil do not wear seat belt. Researchers have fcundseveral reason for this. Some people feel uncomtbrtable with the seat belt. They' areafi'aid of being trapped in the car in an accident. Cthers do not think that the seat beltcan protcct them. They believe that people have no power oi'er their injured or cie.They think that wearing a seat belt or not wiil make no difference.

a. In spite of the risks, some people do not wear seat belt. j..

b. All new cars must now ire equipped with seat belts. ,:iij_Tc. Some people feel uncomfof.able wearing seat hlts. ,. r *i

3. ili;:il:1i?*T,T;:':::Y*"T* :.',,'j]l _rn ree2, rhere were an averaseof l0l.l vehicles (cars, trucks, and buses) per kitomlte|#[.;J;'il;:rilrT;.ff

compared with the vehicles-per-kilometer ratios of ttr" otte. European countries. Theratio varies from 35.8 in France to 74.2 in Great Britain. I;;; united shtes, the ratio is30.6. part of the neason for ltary's higher ratio lies in it, g*guphy. Because much ofthe country is mountainous, there are fewer roads. Thus thJ r.uma is more conc.entratedon those few roads. This fact has caused some seriour:p[br"rr.114*,y;r,;"J"nohighways are often blocked by tenible m$"jamr. Th;J"y *m" has also meant ahigh accident rate for ltary. An$inaily, ail thoJ cars

"dd;ilry,s air population.a- Because of the mountains, there are fewer roads in ltary.b. Crowded roads create tra{fic jams, accidents, and air population.c. [taly's roads are the most crowded in the world-

Ercrci* 4The toplc ls given for €5,ch pangaph. wortclng with anofrrer studenl write a mainidea statemenL Remqnber that it ihoutd be i'r"riti"-Jin"""". ft should coverthe whote para,grarph and not be ta spxtfic

", tcdi"iit.

lnteresting lnventions

l. After several decades, jogging is still a very popular activity in the United States.Many people like to go joggtng early in the morning before work or after work in theevening. However, in the winter months especially, it may be dark during thosc hours.To help these Joggers, a sports shoe manufacturer has invented a new kind ofjoggingshoe. These shoes have li[lg_Ed]i$gon the back of the heels. The lights are verysmall and lightweight. They are run by ttny- ba!!g11es. With these new shoes, the joggercan feel much safer running along the road in the dark. The lights make the jogger muchmore-visible to_C*I= of motor vehicles. This may reduce i66 risk of accidents.

Topic: A new kind ofjogging shoe

Main ldea:

2. If you have too much noise in your life, an American company has a specialproduct for you! This product is a machine that can eliminate sound waves from the air.Machines like this are already in use in some uery norsy factories. Soon there will be

models for use in larqe trucks. Yet another model, the "personal quieting machine." is

designed for use in homes or offices. It will be able to eliminate all kinds of unpleasantbackground noises, inel[difrE:srrEd and airplane traffic. A quieter environment in thehome could mean reduced stress and improved mental and physical health. A quieteroflice cculd allow $eater prouuctivity and job satisfaction.

r Topic: Quieting machines

Main ldea:)3. Have you ever noticed how much of the potato is wasted when you peel it? Then

you are peeling just a few potatoes for your dinner, this does not matter. of course. Butjust imagine what happens when potatoes are peeled in factories. tndustrial potatopeelers, in fact, wastean average of l5Yo of the potato. In the largest factories, billionsof pounds of potato€s are Process€d every yeag. This means a loss of millions of dollarsannually. Now, new technology may bring an end to that loss. A special kind of lasernew peeler is not for everyone. Only the largest manufacturers will be able to afford tobuy the new machine. Each one costs over a million dollars!

Topic: A new laser potato peeler

Main ldea:

Erqcise 5Read each paragnPh: Then, worting with another student, write the topic and a

Panda Bears in China

l. The giant panda bear is a favorite of children and animal-lovers throughout lheworld. For many people, it is also symbolic of the sad situation for many ottrei tindj ofanimals. Though so well known and loved, the panda is slowly dying Lut. At pres€nt,there are only about 1,230 wild pandas left in the world. They all livi in China, intheforests of the Sinchu,an and Shaanxi provinces. Pandas used to be common in otherarcas. However, as the human population increased and the forests shranh pandaterritory gradually disappeared. And so did that pandas. Now the Chinese govemmenthas created a number of "Panda r€serres" to protect the pandas. Within theie reserveqhuman settlement and tree cutting will be limited.

Topic:

Main ldea:

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3. THE PARAGRAPH

A good paragraph contains several retated sentences that support one main idea,which is limited to and focused on one sentence. This sentence helps guide your r*a",though the related sentences in the paragraph. This vital senten@ serues as acommitrnent for the writer to provide an explanation or iltustration of this main idea. Theterm used to identiff this main idea is a topic sentence.

A topic sentence has two essential parts: the topic and the controlting idea. The topicnames the subject, or main ide1, of the paragraph. The controlting ideimake a spe.ificmmment about the topic, which indicates what the rest of the paragraph will say aboutthe topic. It timits or controls the topic to a specific aspect of th6 topic tb be discussed inthe space of a single paragraph.

TOPIC

ience

CONTROLUNG IDEA

are easv to oreoare

In this example, the topic is named: convenience foods. A specific comment is thenmade about the topic They are easy to prepare. From this sentence, the readerimmediately knows that the supporting sentences in the remainder of the paragraph willexplain or prove how quick and easy it is to prepare convenience foods and perhaps givesor.re examples (frozen dinners, canned soups, etc.)

CONTROLUNG TDEA

are reflected in

In this example, the topic is American food. The controlling idea of this topic sentenceis that Americans eat many foods from other countries. Therefore, the reader shouldexpect the paragraph to give examples of popular ethnic foods such as fried rice(chinese), tacos (Mexican), sauerbraten (German), sukiyaki (Japanese), spaghetti(Italian), and so on.

EXERCISE 1Circle the topic and underline the controlling iCea in each of the following sentences.

Example:

on requires skill and alertness.

I Doing well in ollege requires organization.

2. Trying to buy house is sometimes frustrating.

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TOPIC

th frorn a high

ptt things,

Hes.

line.

4. UNITY

All sentences in a good. ryrgOraph retate to the topic sentence (main idea). When any

idea doesn't relate specially to the topic sentence, then that parigraph lack unity or isnot unified. Look at the paragraph below. ThiS draft has one main idea and severalsuppott sentences that help to e"xplain the general word(s) expressed in the topicsentence.

American scientist are working hard to gather facts about sea tuftlescalled leatherbacks. The observers wor( no matter what the weather is like- on clear days or in pouring rain. They count the turtles as they comeashore. When the turtles lay their eggs, the scientists walk up and down thebeaches for many hours at a time. They count the eggs in the sand. Then,later they count the eggs that hatch. These biologists know that they aremllecting information that will someday be important to other scientists.

This paragraph shows the three pafts of a good paragraph - topic sentence,support sentences, and concluding sentence (or conclusion). Now check to see if theparagraph has the important element of unity.

To check for unity, first separate the topic sentence into its two parts.

Topic: American scientistsDirection or general wotd(s): are working hard to gather facts about sea tur{es calledleatherbacks.

Second, check each support sentence against the topic sentence. Each supporting idea isa specific fact or detail that explains what the scientists actualty do to work hard togather information. In this case, all the sentences after the topic sentence must explainhow the scientists are working hard to gather facts about sea turtles. So that you canjudge the supporting sentences better, they are listed below.

Topic SentenceAmerian scbntisb are working had to gather fa& about sea tufttes alted teatherbacks.

Suppoft SentencesThe observers work, no mafter what the weather is like-on clear days or in pouring rain.They count the turtles as they come ashore........ The scientists walk up and down the beaches for many hours at a time.They count the eggs in the sand.Then, later, they count.the eggs that hatch.

Notice that the bold words in each support sentence make reference to the main idea inthe topic sentence.

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5. COHERENCE

We have seen that a paragraph must have a topic and controlling idea, supportingdetails or sentences. It must also have unity. Another element that a paragraph needs iscoherence. A coherent paragraph contains sentences that are logically arranged and thatflow smoothly.

Logical arrangement refers to the order of your sentences and ideas. There arevarious ways to order your sentences, depending on your purpose. For example, if youwant to describe what happens in a movie - that is, the plot - your sentences wouldfollow the sequence or the action in the movig from beginning' to end. If, on the otherhand, you want to describe the most exciting moments in the movie, you would select- afew moments and decide on a logical order for discussion - perhaps presenting the leastexciting moments first and the most exciting last to create suspense.

A paragraph can be incoherent even when the principle for ordering the ideas isIogical. Sometimes, as students are writing they remember something that they wantedto say earlier and include it as they write. Unfortunately, this sentence often ends up outof place. Study the following paragraph, in which one or more sentences are out of order:

Although Grants Pass, Oregon, is a fairly smatl town, it offers much to amuse

sunmer visitors. They can go ratting down the Rogue River. They can go

swimming in the Applegate River Lots of people go hunting for wild berriesthat grow along the roadsides. Campers will find lovely campgrounds that ei'e

clean. There are several nice hotels. :Tourists can browse through a number ofinteresting shops in town such as antique stores, One fun activity is shopping at

the open market where local folks sell vegetables grown in their gardens.

Grants Pass has a lot of places to eat, ranging from a low-calorie dessert placeto lovely restaurants. Some ofthese restaurants offer good food and gorgeotrs

views. One store to visit is the shop that sells items made from Oregon'sbeautiful myrtlewood. Fishing in the area is also a popular activity. Watersports are by far the main attraction. As you can see, Grants Fass offers a lotto do in the summer, If you want to give your family a nice, wholesomevacation, try visiting Grants Pass.

The paragraph seems to have a principle of organization: The first half is devoted toactivities in the areas use outside of the city itself, and the last half discusses activitieswithin the city. However, toward the end of the paragraph the writer seems to throw in a

few sentences as all afterthought. Three sentences-"One store, to visit is the shop thatsells items made from Oregon's beautiful myrtlewoodr" "Fishing the area is also a

popular activity," and "Water sports are by far the main attraction"- are out of place.

This. paragraph could be revised as follows:

Although Grants Pass, Oregon, is a fairly small town. it offers much to amuse

summer visitors. Water sports are by far the main attraction. Visitors can go

rafting down the Rogue River. They can go swimming in the Applegate RiverFishing in the area is a popular activity. Lots of people go hunting for wildbenies that grow along the roadsides. Campers will find lovely campgrounds

that are clean. There are several nice hotels. Tourists can browse throdgh a

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for three short,7 write the kind

?1.

portation.

laence. Include,fure containswte the kind of

6. Writing an Essay

An essay can have many purp0iel, but the basic structure is the same n0 matter whal. Youmay be writing an essay to argue for a particular point of view or to explain the stepsnecessary to complete a task.

Parts of an Essay1. The lntroductory paragraph.2. The Body ofThe Essay3. The Conclusion

The lntroductory Paragraphs

The purpose of an introductory paragraph is to get the reader's attention and to letthe reacJer know what will be coverecj in the essay. Very often, it sets the tone for theentire essay. While reading your introduction, your audience might think, "This paperreally sounds good," or "l can't figure oul what this person is talking about." The firstresponse is what you want from your reader. The introduction gives you a chance to"hook" your audience right away.

Developing lntroductory Paragraphs

A writing an introductory paragraph can be simplified if you follow the following steps.1. Compose the thesis sentence/statement2. Decide on the type of hook that is mosi effective3. Write the hook4. Write the transition5. Draft these three parts into an introductory paragraph

Composing the lhesr:s Senfence

Although the same process does not always work for everyone. the part of the

introductory paragraph that you write first is the thesis sentence. As you recall, the thesissentence consists of either the topic and a clear direction. or a topic, a clear direction, and

a preview of the points to be covered in the paper. Because the thesis sentence keepsyou on track, it is composed first; however. it will be the iasf sentence in the introductoryparagraph.

The thesis sentence/statement

The thesis statement states concisely the main idea of the essay, sets limits on the topic,and indicates the organization of the essay. The thesis works as a road map for the entireessay, showing the readers what you have to say and how you will support your ideas.

THESIS = topic + comment or claim about topic

The thesis sentence/statement is helpful because it. is the main point you express, explain, or try to prove in your paper. makes a specific, precise assertion about your topic. should be specific, pointed, and provocative, promising the reader(s) some new

information about your topic. should always be more than a vague generalization.

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