WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 369

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Booklet

Study of International Fishery Research: Summary Report

WORLD BANK TECHNICAL PAPER NO. 369

Fisheries Series

From Farmers to FishersDeveloping Reservoir Aquaculturefor People Displaced by Dams

Barry Costa-Pierce

The World BankWashington, D.C.

Copyright © 1997The International Bank for Reconstructionand Development/THE WORLD BANK1818 H Street, N.W.Washington, D.C. 20433, U.S.A.

All rights reservedManufactured in the United States of AmericaFirst printing September 1997

Technical Papers are published to communicate the results of the Bank's work to the development community withthe least possible delay. The typescript of this paper therefore has not been prepared in accordance with the proce-dures appropriate to formal printed texts, and the World Bank accepts no responsibility for errors. Some sources citedin this paper may be informal documents that are not readily available.

The findings, interpretations, and conclusions expressed in this paper are entirely those of the author(s) andshould not be attributed in any manner to the World Bank, to its affiliated organizations, or to members of its Board ofExecutive Directors or the countries they represent. The World Bank does not guarantee the accuracy of the data in-cluded in this publication and accepts no responsibility whatsoever for any consequence of their use. The boundaries,colors, denomninations, and other information shown on any map in this volume do not imply on the part of theWorld Bank Group any judgment on the legal status of any territory or the endorsement or acceptance of suchboundaries.

The material in this publication is copyrighted. Requests for permission to reproduce portions of it should be sentto the Office of the Publisher at the address shown in the copyright notice above. The World Bank encourages dissem-ination of its work and will normally give permission promptly and, when the reproduction is for noncommercialpurposes, without asking a fee. Permission to copy portions for classroom use is granted through the CopyrightClearance Center, Inc., Suite 910, 222 Rosewood Drive, Danvers, Massachusetts 01923, U.S.A.

ISSN: 0253-7494

At the time this paper was written, Barry Costa-Pierce was a consultant in the Agriculture and Forestry SystemsDivision in the World Bank's Agriculture and Natural Resources Department.

Cover photo: A raft of floating cages used for bighead carp culture, with guard house, in Durian Tungal Reservoir,Melaka, Malaysia. From "Cage and pen fish farming: Carrying capacity models and environmental impact." Foodand Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1984.

Library of Congress Cataloging-in-Publication Data

Costa-Pierce, Barry A.From farmers to fishers: developing reservior aquaculture for

people displaced by dams / Barry A. Costa-Pierce.p. cm. - (World Bank technical paper ; no. 369. Fisheries

series)Includes bibliographical references.ISBN 0-8213-3995-81. Fishery management-Developing countries. 2. Fish-culture-

Developing countries. 3. Freshwater fishes-Developing countries.4. Forced migration-Economic aspects-Developing countries.5. Dams-Social aspects-Developing countries. 6. Fisherymanagement-Indonesia. 7. Fish-culture-Indonesia. I. Title.II. Series: World Bank technical paper; no. 369. III. Series:World Bank technical paper. Fisheries series.SH322.C67 1997333.95'615'091724-dc2l 97-25585

Contents

Foreword vii

Preface viii

Acknowledgments ix

Abstract x

Executive summary 1

Introduction 4

Engineering issues in reservoir fisheries 7Types of reservoirs 7Dam crest elevation 8Drawdown 9Bottom clearing 10Position of reservoir outlets 10Reservoir turnover events 11

Transition: From tropical river to reservoir 12Siltation 12Aquatic vegetation 13Changes in ecological balance 13Predicting capture fisheries yields in a new reservoir 15

Reservoir capture fisheries 16Sustaining reservoir capture fisheries 16Successful models of reservoir capture fisheries 18

Reservoir culture fisheries 22Aquaculture systems 22Aquaculture production networks 26Carrying capacity 28Site selection for cage aquaculture 29

An ecosystems approach to planning reservoir fisheries 30Organic pollution as a misplaced resource 30Drawdown agriculture, agroforestry, and erosion control 32

v

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUAcULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

Economic and sociological issues of resettlement 33Planning for resettlement fisheries 33Resettlement in Saguling and Cirata through intensification of integrated land-water ecosystems 37Accelerated learning in Cirata 39Equity effects of resettlement fisheries 40Nutritional impacts of resettlement fisheries 42Lessons from Saguling and Cirata 43

Institutional, planning, and management needs in developing

reservoir fisheries ecosystems 45Institutional concerns, constraints, and coordination 45Long-term management concerns 47Demonstration, extension, and training 48Needs in strategic applied research 49Disseminating information 50

Conclusions and recommendations 51Key ingredients for successful reservoir fisheries 51Recommendations 52

Notes and references 53

Boxes1 Factors affecting the fish yield of reservoirs 152 Combined uses of reservoirs 283 World Bank guidelines for resettlement 344 The economics of Saguling and Cirata 39

Figures

1 Dams and reservoirs affect a range of natural systems-including the human system 52 Regulation allows the redistribution of water from the rainy to the dry season 73 The dam crest determines the economics of a dam project 84 Bottom outlets lead to deeper oxygen penetration and higher fish production 105 The ecosystem of a new reservoir undergoes several phases before maturity 146 Zonation has helped sustain capture fisheries in Indonesian reservoirs 207 An aquaculture production network is a dynamic system 278 Integrated fisheries systems open up a range of possibilities

for employment and environmental rehabilitation 319 A consultative process is needed that puts social, environmental,

and engineering objectives on an equal footing 3610 Resettlement fisheries grew rapidly in the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs 38

Tables1 Sediment discharge rates of selected Asian rivers 132 Yield characteristics of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in floating net cages 233 New employment opportunities and wages of people resettled at the Cirata Reservoir, 1992 404 Survey respondents involved in new occupations at the Cirata Reservoir,

by type of employment, November 1992 425 Institutions responsible for managing and monitoring activities

at the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs 46

vi

Foreword

Sustained population growth in developing coun- ernment, assisted by the World Bank and thetries has led governments-with the support of inter- International Center for Living Aquatic Resourcesnational financial institutions-to increase their Management, has been giving displaced farmers a

efforts to provide electric power and irrigation water way to rebuild their lives: shifting from rice and cas-by harnessing rivers. The need for hydropower and sava farming to fish farming, using the water that

irrigation has long been considered more important flooded their land.

than the effect of these efforts on downstream fauna The success of the fish farming efforts in theor the disruption of the livelihoods of millions of Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs inJava attests to the

people in flooded areas. Fish and other aquatic life potential for creating employment in reservoirs thatthat could have been preserved with appropriate are in place and under construction around thetechnologies have been lost forever, and many reset- world. The World Bank will continue to emphasizetled farmers have not fully adapted to the changes the need to adopt an integrated approach to the use

forced on them. of large reservoirs during project planning-to

Progress has been made in applying existing ensure that these projects are environmentally sus-

and new technologies-including fish ladders, ele- tainable and improve the living standards of the peo-

vators, and hatcheries-to prevent the damage to ple affected. The search for new technologies willaquatic life that results from the construction of not cease until a sound balance is struck among the

large dams. But until recently little had been done needs to raise living standards by expanding sup-

to deal with the effects large dams have on people, plies of electric power and irrigated land, to protecta far more important problem. and enhance the environment, and to improve

The lack of an integrated management human settlements in the flooded areas.

approach for large bodies of water has preventedmost planners and reservoir authorities from con- AlexanderMcCalla

sidering using the water for purposes other than Director

hydropower or irrigation. But the Indonesian gov- Department ofAgriculture and Natural Resources

vii

Preface

Although the development of fish cage culture tech- factors would be employment generation, domestic

nology in the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs inJava, fish supplies, and export of value added fish

Indonesia, was motivated by the displacement of products.

more than 100,000 people by the flooding of the The Betania hydropower reservoir in thereservoirs, the lessons learned go beyond the issue Department of Huila, in Colombia, is a good exam-

of involuntary resettlement. The development of a ple of fish cage culture development under a dif-technologically, economically, and financially viable ferent set of conditions. Before flooding, the areafish culture system in Indonesia-a coordinated was used by large land owners for extensive cattleeffort by the Directorate of Fisheries, Padjadjaran grazing. Working closely with the reservoir author-

University in Bandung, the International Center for ity, private entities planned the development of aLiving Aquatic Resources Management, and reset- tilapia cage culture model based on technical pack-

tlement specialists from the World Bank-was made ages from Asia. The high demand for fish in the

possible by adapting cage culture technologies from domestic market, particularly in Bogota, has helped

other Asian countries (such as Nepal) and by apply- sustain this effort.

ing research to develop approaches that suited the In other places reservoirs may create newreservoir conditions and the social fabric of the dis- employment opportunities for subsistence farmersplaced farmers and communities. Because of this or for communities in which development optionsapproach and the results it yielded, this effort has are limited or absent because of semiarid condi-far-reaching implications. tions. And if the reservoirs are used for irrigation,

If the work on the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs there would be an added bonus for downstream

were to remain merely a bibliographic reference on fields because fish waste enriches water.resettlement issues, the effort expended in prepar- There are hundreds of thousands of hectares of

ing this paper and its companion video and instruc- large reservoirs around the world. Although not all

tional manuals would be a sunk investment. The of them may be suitable for fish cage culture, theWorld Bank and other development agencies need potential for creatingjobs, raising incomes, increas-to take an active approach, one that leads to the ing domestic fish supplies, and exporting value

replication of this experience while taking into added fish productsjustifies an active role for devel-account the many variables that differentiate large opment institutions and governments in develop-reservoirs around the world. ing integrated use plans for large reservoirs.

In many heavily populated areas the main fac-

tors motivating reservoir fisheries development are Eduardo A. Loayza

similar to those in Indonesia. But in many others Fisheries Development Adviser

(especially semiarid, low-density areas) the main Department of Agriculture and Natural Resources

viii

Acknowledgments

My work for the World Bank in Indonesia and in phases of its evolution. Eduardo Loayza, Guy LeWashington, D.C., would not have been possible Moigne, Ron Zweig, Gloria Davis, and Michaelwithout the kind assistance of many world-class pro- Cernea at the Bank have also given invaluable assis-

fessionals. In Indonesia, I would like to thank the tance to me and to this work. The World Bank pro-

staff of the Indonesian Directorate General of vided funding to develop a video on the fisheries

Fisheries and the West Java Provincial Fisheries ecosystems in Indonesian reservoirs, titled "Farming

Service, especially Pepen Effendi and T. Asikin; the the Waters: Java's Blue Revolution" (available fromIndonesian State Electric Company (PLN) ,Jakarta, the World Bank, Environment Department, Socialand its Pikitdro, Bandung, office, especially Kodyat Policy and Resettlement Division, 1818 H StreetSamadikun, Adhi Satriya, Komar Sudjana, and Mr. N.W., Washington, D.C. 20433).Sudarwanto; and Padjadjaran University, especially At the International Center for Living AquaticSutandar Zainal, Mr. Rusydi, and Nani Djuangsih. Resources Management (ICLARM), special thanks

At the World Bank, I'd like to give special thanks are due to Ian Smith, Roger Pullin, Jay Maclean,to Scott Guggenheim, who made many invaluable John Munro, Catalino de la Cruz, and Harlan

contributions to this project and related work in all Lampe for their expert assistance in this project.

ix

Abstract

Hydropower and irrigation projects involving reser- resettlement and environmental rehabilitation has

voirs can displace thousands of people from their tra- received little attention despite reports from a grow-

ditional lands and deprive them of their livelihoods. ing number of projects showing unexpectedly high

If poorly planned, they can also lead to environ- returns from fisheries. In some years the totalmental degradation. Solutions to these problems income from fisheries in reservoirs has exceededmust be found-solutions that are technically feasi- the income generated from electricity sales.

ble, sustainable, environmentally appropriate, and The Saguling-Cirata reservoir project in Westacceptable to the people who are resettled. Java, Indonesia, was the first to demonstrate the

Such solutions demand an ecological view-a potential of a planned, "ecosystems" approach to

view of reservoirs as ecological resources with far resettlement fisheries. This environmentally ori-more value than as mere water storage units. The ented resettlement effort fully utilized the new

formation of a reservoir is a dramatic reordering of water surface for aquaculture and capture fisheries

nature that creates a suite of complex, dynamic and developed supporting production, economic,aquatic ecosystems. With proper planning, these and marketing infrastructure. More new jobs werenew ecosystems can make potentially much more created in the support industries for reservoir fish-

valuable contributions than those to national eries than in the fisheries themselves.energy or to agricultural production. Indeed, they The development of fisheries is complex, how-

offer to the people who can adapt to living and ever, since it requires a great deal of preparation

working with them new opportunities for employ- and planning not only for the water-based fisheriesment, and they can dramatically increase the pro- systems, but also for the land-based infrastructure,

duction of aquatic protein. seed, feed, and other market and agricultural sup-

This paper explains how the planned, integrated port systems that are vital components. But as thedevelopment of fisheries ecosystems in reservoirs Saguling-Cirata project shows, if the right condi-

not only can mitigate the negative social conse- tions are in place, the planned development ofquences of dam construction, but also can enhance reservoir fisheries can be an effective way to createthe economic benefits from hydropower and irriga- alternative livelihoods for people displaced by ation projects in many developing countries. reservoir, greatly enhancing the economic and

The use of integrated reservoir fisheries and social benefits from hydropower and irrigationaquaculture development as a tool in large-scale projects.

x

Executive summary

Many nations have few or no indigenous energy new opportunities for employment, and they can

sources and limited funds to increase oil imports or dramatically increase the production of aquatic

develop nuclear power. With both coal-fired and protein.

nuclear power plants increasingly seen as likely to

impose unacceptable economic and environmental Economic and social benefits of reservoir

costs for present and future generations, hydropower fisheries development

has emerged as the best alternative for the vast major-

ity of developing countries. The successful fisheries ecosystems developed for

Today, the technical and engineering aspects of farmers resettled in the Saguling-Cirata reservoir

river basin development projects are straightfor- project in WestJava, Indonesia, serve as a model for

ward. What deters the development of hydropower the use of integrated reservoir fisheries and aqua-

resources are the persistent problems of resettle- culture development in large-scale resettlement

ment and the economic and social disruption that and environmental rehabilitation. The Saguling

accompany the creation of a new storage reservoir. and Cirata hydropower reservoirs, flooded in 1985

Viable solutions to these problems must be and 1988, covered an estimated 12,300 hectares,

found-solutions that provide productive new including 5,783 hectares of rich rice-growing land,

enterprises and alternative livelihoods for the hun- with a financial loss to farmers of an estimated $5.21

dreds of thousands of people displaced by reser- million a year. But by 1993 fish cages in the reser-

voirs and that mitigate environmental degradation voirs were producing more than 10,000 tons of fish

caused by poorly planned hydropower projects. a year, worth an estimated $10 million.

These solutions must be technically feasible, sus- Such projects have received little attention

tainable, environmentally appropriate, and accept- despite reports from a growing number of them

able to the people who are resettled. showing unexpectedly high returns from fisheries.

Such solutions require a new view of the situa- Indeed, in some years the income from fisheries in

tion, one that treats reservoirs notjust as water stor- reservoirs has exceeded the income from electric-

age units, but as far more valuable ecological ity sales. For example, in 1978 the Ubolratana

resources. The formation of a reservoir is a dra- Reservoir in northeast Thailand produced fish

matic reordering of nature that creates a suite of from capture fisheries worth 40 million baht, while

complex, dynamic aquatic ecosystems. With proper electricity sales generated just 30 million baht.

planning, these new ecosystems can make poten- The Saguling-Cirata project in Indonesia was

tially much more valuable contributions than those the first to demonstrate the potential of a planned,

to national energy or, through irrigation, to agri- integrated ecosystems approach to resettlement.

cultural production. Indeed, they offer to the peo- This project fully utilized the new water surface for

ple who can adapt to living and working with them aquaculture and capture fisheries and developed

1

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

supporting production, economic, and marketing has traditionally been the main source of animal

infrastructure. Reservoir fisheries were developed protein, consumer recognition of the product is

as part of a regional development effort promoting high, access to capital is good, and fish marketing

local recycling of resources from one productive and transport infrastructure is excellent.

enterprise to another and the creation of complex * Adequate availabilities of seed fish (finger-

interactions among enterprises. lings) and feed.

Among the people resettled in the Saguling- * Farmers' sophisticated traditional knowledgeCirata project there was widespread acceptance of of fish and fisheries systems.

the change from land-based to water-based liveli- * The ready availability of capital from com-

hoods. In surveys the displaced people evaluated pensation money and other sources, allowing the

cage aquaculture as easy, enjoyable work allowing displaced people and others to make immediate

much leisure time, in contrast to the back-breaking investments in new fisheries enterprises.

toil they had been accustomed to in their rice andvegetable fields. Among the displaced people who Reservoir aquaculture schemes developed, in

had increased their incomes and status since reset- their initial phases, low-cost cages appropriate to,

tlement, most were involved as owners or workers in and conserving of, available capital. They were thenwater-based businesses. intensified as capital availability and market

The integrated fisheries systems increased the demand increased. For the poorer segments of soci-

number and variety of jobs and the number of ety, mini-cage or subsistence systems and no-feedhigher-payingjobs. This occurred in an area where cage culture systems have been successful inthe lack of growth in employment in rice and veg- Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines. For entre-

etable production had been a major concern in the preneurs with more capital, semi-intensive and1970s and where the capacity of rice-based agricul- intensive systems (single and biculture cage sys-ture systems to absorb more labor had been pro- tems) have proved profitable. There is a wide range

jected as virtually nil. of cage aquaculture systems. To ensure success, sys-More new jobs were created in the spin-off-or tems where the "seed, feed, and need" are clearly

support-industries than directly in the new fish- present must be selected for development, and aeries enterprises. Of the thousands of people dis- "market-driven technological approach" is needed.placed by the flooding of the Saguling and Cirata Successful reservoir capture fisheries schemes inReservoirs, an estimated 7,600 were employed Asia use self-perpetuating species with short lifedirectly in the reservoir fisheries enterprises by cycles that can be heavily fished with low-cost gear1992, and 22,800-30,400 in the new support indus- and are owned and managed by local people.tries created. Successful species in reservoir capture fisheries have

The development of reservoir fisheries was been the tilapia (Indonesia, Sri Lanka), freshwater

accompanied by new forms of community organiza- sardines (clupeids) (Thailand), and indigenoustion that are knowledge-based, relying on skills and carp (India, Sri Lanka). Selective fishing of preda-education. Fisheries cooperatives, schools, a labor tors has increased total yields and allowed theservice, and a fish farmers organization are active. manipulation of reservoirs' fish species composition

in order to build large populations of herbivorousIngredients of success and omnivorous fish that have contributed substan-

tially toward meeting human needs. Dam operationsThe success of the development of aquaculture in play an important part in the success of reservoir

reservoirs in West Java, Indonesia, is due to four fisheries. The extent and timing of changes in watermain factors: levels in a reservoir and the size of the minimum

* The presence of large, unsaturated markets in pool of water maintained affect the production anda densely populated region where freshwater fish yield of both capture and culture fisheries systems.

2

EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

Recommendations monitoring and reporting system should be estab-lished. It is recommended that the environmental

Development planning for integrated fisheries impact assessments routinely required at the initialecosystems to support resettlement and social and stages of hydropower and irrigation projects shouldenvironmental rehabilitation should be included in be expanded to cover social and resettlement con-the policy and operational guidelines for all water cerns. These assessments should be conducted regu-resource projects in developing countries, espe- larly as part of a continual monitoring process thecially for dam-reservoir, irrigation, watershed, and first 10 years after the impoundment of a reservoir.river basin development projects. Such planning Where there are major water resource develop-should also be included in regional development ment projects with social and environmentalplans wherever World Bank-financed projects impacts, multidisciplinary river basin commissionsaffect water resources and riparian ecosystems. need to be formed that include fisheries experts

The rehabilitation of natural ecosystems dam- and planners. These commissions should beaged because of water resource development pro- funded under project loan agreements, remain injects, and the adaptation of the displaced population operation for a minimum of 10 years after projectto a new "fisheries culture," should be seen as a loan agreements are signed, and be responsible forprocess and broken down into specific phases, with contributing to the development and managementobjective milestones of progress in each phase. To of the fisheries ecosystems approach as part of theensure that these milestones are met, an effective rehabilitation and monitoring process.

3

Introduction

Many developing countries need to dam rivers to world it is these problems, not technical or engi-develop modern irrigation systems and hydropower neering problems, that are the main obstacles to

in order to meet the urgent food and energy needs increased hydropower development.

of their burgeoning populations. In many areas But hydropower and irrigation developmentagricultural development is impossible without reli- projects contain possible solutions to the problems

able water supplies during the dry season. And for they create. Reservoirs are more than just water

nations lacking oil resources, hydropower provides storage facilities; they are also complex, dynamica domestic energy source that avoids the potential aquatic ecosystems. These new ecosystems offer

long-run health and safety effects of coal-fired and vast, virtually untapped opportunities to dramati-

nuclear power plants. As a result, the number of cally increase the production of aquatic protein,

multipurpose dams is increasing rapidly, especially especially in Asia, and to generate new employ-

in the developing countries of the humid Tropics. ment. Yet empirical studies of the potential of reser-The International Commission on Large Dams voir fisheries to help ease the problems of

records more than 37,000 large dams (those with resettlement and assist in rehabilitating the natural

reservoir surface areas greater than 10 square kilo- environment are surprisingly rare, despite the obvi-meters) in operation worldwide (ICOLD 1992). ous attractiveness of this solution. In Asia develop-The number of smaller dams is unknown, but it is ment of reservoir fisheries was not widelylikely to be in the hundreds of thousands. considered outside of Sri Lanka until the mid-

Although hydropower avoids the long-term con- 1980s.

sequences of polluting or potentially more danger- As dam and reservoir construction speeds along

ous energy sources, the problems posed by in developing countries, the vast majority of waterresettlement and loss of traditional lands that development projects-whether for irrigation,

accompany a new reservoir are long-lasting. New drinking water, or hydropower-still fail to plan for

reservoirs often flood rich agricultural land that has fisheries development. Project managers rarely call

been settled for generations. The unfamiliar new on fisheries experts to do more than assess possiblewater ecosystems often exacerbate conflicts pitting environmental impacts. When fisheries experts are

local people against national interests, rural self- asked to play a larger role, they are often involved

sufficiency against urban demands, and traditional much too late in the process, as part of the "cleanupagainst modern development models. Figure 1 crew" for resettlement programs gone awry. Too

shows the complex web of effects of dams and often, fisheries are an afterthought that, at best, mustreservoirs. fit into power or irrigation schemes as a secondary

There are few simple solutions to the perplex- benefit. As a result, reservoir fisheries often fail.

ing social and environmental problems of water Fisheries that develop spontaneously in project

development projects. Indeed, in many parts of the reservoirs or as an afterthought to water develop-

4

INTRODUCTION

Figure I Dams and reservoirs affect a range of natural systems-including the human system

Dam andreservoir

Atmospheric system Earth crustal systemLocal weather Earthquakesand climate

Hydrological systemGroundwaterSedimentationErosionLimnological conditionsWater balanceWater quality

Aquatic biological system Terrestrial biological systemSubstrate for aquatic Cultivable land

production Cattle and other livestockUseful aquatic plants Big game and other useful speciesNuisance aquatic plants Rare or endangered speciesUseful aquatic animals Nature preserves and game parksNuisance aquatic animals Forest harvest and dearanceRare or endangered speciesIntentionally introduced species

Human system

Resettlement Livestock production UrbanismPublic health Manufacturing TransportFishing Service industries EducationHunting Commerce Historical continuityAgriculture Tourism and recreation

Source: Pantulu 1979.

ment projects tend to be low yield. But that is not the transition from a "terrestrial" to a 'water" society.always the case. Reports from a growing number of Successful transitions remain the exception. What is

projects that provided little or no additional capital needed is to develop indigenous, interdisciplinaryfor developing and managing new fisheries opera- management teams capable of assessing, planning,tions have shown unexpectedly high returns from implementing, and monitoring an integrated set of

reservoir fisheries. In some years large reservoirs in technical, social, and operational solutions to the

Asia and Africa have generated more income from complex problems of local resettlement-difficult

fisheries than from electricity sales. tasks under the best of conditions. Also needed are

Although reservoir fisheries offer an attractive more intensive project planning and attention to

solution to the problems of resettlement, making process. If people feel left out ofthe process of devel-them work can be extraordinarily difficult. For tra- opment, they will not participate in the changes tak-

ditional people whose lives are inextricably linked to ing place.

the land, the shock of losing their homes and land, This paper examines the development and man-combined with the appearance of a new body of agement of integrated reservoir fisheries and aqua-

water in their midst, can be unbearable. There is an culture as a strategy for creating new jobs andurgent need to identify acceptable means of easing business opportunities for displaced people. Few

5

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEoPLE DISPLACED BY DAMs

such reviews have been done to verify the employ- percent by the year 2000 if current plans to development and production potential of integrated reser- its vast hydropower potential proceed. Invoir fisheries ecosystems. Nor has any road map of Cambodia, the Lao People's Democratic Republic,the technical and operational requirements been and the Philippines reservoir surface area could

developed that lays out the range of possible aquatic increase by more than 1,000 percent (Costa-Pierce

protein production systems for development. and Soemarwoto 1987).Moreover, little applied social research has been The paper makes frequent reference to a casedone on ways to help smooth the transition from study ofthe Saguling-Cirata reservoir fisheries reset-land-based livelihoods to water-based ones for reset- tlement project in Indonesia, one of the more suc-tled people. cessful and well-documented working models in

The paper reviews key technical, social, eco- Asia. The report reviews technical issues, and thennomic, and institutional concerns in developing sets out a practical ecosystems model of reservoirfisheries as a means of support for people affected fisheries development. It emphasizes key issues,by large-scale resettlement projects. These con- constraints, needs, and operational and managerialcerns are particularly relevant in Asia, where reser- challenges faced in the Indonesian project and oth-

voirs are growing in number. The region's reservoir ers, and details planning concerns for future pro-surface area will expand by an estimated 500-600 jects in resettlement fisheries.

6

Engineering issues in reservoir fisheries

To develop sustainable, productive fisheries, the undergo large annual fluctuations in water levelsrequirements of fisheries ecosystems must be and may be dry for part of the year.demonstrated to engineers so that they can be Multipurpose reservoirs serve the functions oftaken into account in the operations of dams. The both storage and flood control. The objective is towater in a reservoir can be envisioned as a series of control the peak flood wave and to attain greaterlayers (Bernacsek 1984). Dam engineers have much dry season flow than is possible with storage reser-control over the presence or absence of these water voirs. Most modern reservoirs, and all those associ-layers and their size, features that have fundamen- ated with the newer hydropower dams, are of thistal implications for the sustainable development of type. Flood control is achieved by drawdown ofreservoir fisheries. This section provides an over- water levels in the rainy season, and storage isview of reservoir engineering issues-the types, accomplished by engineering adequate reservoirdesigns, and operations of reservoirs-as they affect size and depth.fisheries. 1

Figure 2 Regulation allows the redistributionTypes of reservoirs of water from the rainy to the dry season

Discharge below damDams are constructed to regulate a river by achiev- (cubic meters per second)

ing control over the discharge of water. Regulation Unregulated river

makes it possible to redistribute water from therainy to the dry season (figure 2). Dams are associ- Minimum discharge

ated with three types of reservoirs: storage, flood undesired flooding iver regulated bycontrol, and multipurpose. downstream /sorage reservoir

Storage reservoirs store water from the rainy season . / - - -for downstream use in the dry season. Storagebehind the dam reduces peak discharge during the I

rainy season so that water use is more or less uniformduring the dry season. Reservoirs are kept near the River regulated

normal upper storage level, and fluctuations in their r e byntrolrsrvoirsurface area are small. Storage reservoirs are used River regulatemainly for irrigation and water supply. by multipurpose

Flood control reservoirs control the peak of the reservoirrainy season flood and prevent downstream flood- ...............RainDy...................... . ... ......

, seasonH season I s"easoning. They fill during the rainy season, and the water Jan 'Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sep Oct Nov Dec

is used during the dry season. These reservoirs Source: Bemacsek 1984.

7

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPlACED BY DAMS

Dam crest elevation elevation produces hydraulic pressure across tur-bine blades, situated at an optimum intermediate

The dam crest elevation-the highest elevation of elevation (Bernacsek 1984). Electricity production

the dam above sea level-determines the econom- requires the continuous management of reservoirics and the possible range of functions of a multi- water levels to keep them above the normal mini-

purpose dam project. Because it defines the size of mum operating water levels of the dam. Maximum

a reservoir, it also determines potential fisheries electric power generation is attained at maximum

yields, as well as the area of land to be inundated water levels.

and thus the resettlement needs. In addition to size, Today, however, choices of dam crest elevations

the dam crest elevation determines other morpho- are not based simply on technical equations of

metric characteristics of the reservoir, such as power generation capacities or river basin mor-

shape, water levels, and depth-important factors phology, geology, or engineering. Choices are alsoin the development of fisheries. influenced by resettlement considerations, the

Economics drives the choice of the dam crest amount of land to be inundated, and other social

elevation. Hydroelectric engineers attempt to and political factors. For example, the proposed

achieve the highest dam crest elevation possible so dam crest elevation of the Pa Mong dam in the Lao

as to maximize the height of reservoir water levels People's Democratic Republic was changed from

above the turbines and thereby achieve the highest 250 meters to 210 meters to reduce the estimated

possible hydraulic head and electricity output (fig- number of people who would be displaced in thature 3). Hydraulic head is the drop in elevation from country and in Thailand from 250,000 to 60,000. Inthe intake to the tailwater discharge. The drop in Indonesia the dam crest elevation of the Saguling

Figure 3 The dam crest determines the economics of a dam project

Dam crest elevation -----------------------Maximum permissible - - 0 -- ---O-- Freeboard elevation+- ----- -------------------

flood level jL 3m +.

Normal upper storage level ------------------ I -----t------------------- - -

Maximum available flood controlLive levels in mu purpose dams

storage | @.S l

Normal operating level >

Minimum level fr maximum/ electricity genrto I

Minimum drawdown lFood control valves Maximum available.o level L storage levels

nta~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~a

stDorbagdeLQ .Power plant f

l r ̂ 2 J \ \\ ~~~~~~~~~~turbines I

IF FL , ,\ Tailwater- \0 discharge

elevation

Source: Bemacsek 1984.

8

ENGINEERING ISSUES IN RESERVOIR FISHERIES

dam was lowered from 650 to 645 meters to reduce * Cut off fish migrations.resettlement. In Mozambique the dam crest eleva- . Strand fish, both during spawning and attion of the Cabora Bassa dam was lowered to pre- other times.vent the inundation from extending into a * Destroy spawning areas by uncovering them,neighboring country (Bernacsek 1984). leaving them to be trampled by animals and

humans during the dry season.Drawdown . Reduce or destroy fish habitats and spawning

grounds, weed beds, and the supply of bottom (ben-The two main factors in dam operation that have thic) foods.documented effects on reservoir fisheries produc-tion are the size and the rate of drawdown. Rapid changes in water level are particularly dan-Engineers use drawdowns to maintain water levels gerous, as they upset ecological balances betweenwithin limits specified to meet the primary goals of producer (food) organisms that feed higher-levelthe dam (power generation, irrigation). Drawdown consumers such as fish.can result in highly erratic water levels and changes Engineers typically control reservoir water levelsin the size of the minimum pool of water in the according to a design rule curve. Before construc-reservoir. The extent and timing of water level tion of a modem, multipurpose dam, hydraulicchanges and the size of the resultant pool of water engineers examine available data or collect primaryhave important effects on fisheries. data on riverine water flows, their seasonal variation,

Most Asian reservoirs are multipurpose and the magnitudes of river flood cycles over as longhydropower and irrigation reservoirs subject to sig- a period as possible. Using information on seasonalnificant water drawdown. Bhukaswan (1980) has flows and flood probabilities, engineers then con-stated that the most important factor influencing struct design rule curves, which put strict limits onfish production in Asian reservoirs may be fluctua- the upper and lower water levels to be maintainedtions in water levels. In Sri Lanka De Silva (1985) for the optimal economic operation of the dam.found a positive correlation between reservoir In many developing countries there are insuffi-water level and tilapia yields two years later. cient data on flood levels (the maximum flood level

Changes in water level affect nearly all aspects- is usually chosen at a one-in-i0,000-years flood), sostructural and functional-of the aquatic ecosystem that a design curve must often be redone after thein reservoirs. Water level changes have both positive first few years of experience with a new dam. Thisand negative consequences for fisheries. Positive lack of data is one reason that many dams have beenchanges include these: over- or underdesigned, leading to, for example,

* If water levels are lowered after an unwanted insufficient inflows because flood cycles were over-aquatic species (such as a predator) spawns, the estimated, or vice versa.eggs and spawn of the species may be stranded, Bernacsek (1984) has pointed out that theeliminating or reducing its population. design rule curve is more a safety feature to protect

* If water levels are raised, nutrients (such as against natural variability in inflow and user-cattle manure) washing from the dried areas of the dependentvariations in outflow than a precise guidereservoir's shallows (its littoral zone) may raise fish to the water levels that should be maintained at anyproduction by increasing the production of the one time. He argues that incorporating the needs ofaquatic ecosystem and thus the survival of new fish fisheries into reservoir management requires a shiftrecruits. from using the design rule curve as a safety valve

* If water levels are raised during the spawning toward using it as an operational target for water lev-season, fish spawning and recruitment may increase. els. In this management approach a dam operator

Negative changes stem primarily from lower would attempt to maintain a particular water level atwater levels, which can: a specific time. Because that would make it easier to

9

FROM FARMERS To FISHERS: DEVELOPINC RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

predict water levels, fisheries planners would be bet- percentage of reservoir areas should be kept

ter able to forecast yields and determine potential uncleared in the Tropics, although a number ofbenefits for end users. Nevertheless, the bottom line studies address this issue in the temperate zone.

for fisheries planners is that it is impossible for engi-neers to maintain a reservoir at a constant level Position of reservoir outletsunder current operational guidelines.

In the Tropics the position of a reservoir's outlet

Bottom clearing strongly influences the reservoir's nutrient content,oxygen conditions, and fish production (figure 4).

For engineering purposes, only the bottom areas Positioning the outlet in the bottom waters

near the spillway and sluice gates of a dam must be (hypolimnion) of a reservoir helps avoid thermalcleared. But for fisheries the issue of whether to stratification. If a reservoir is permanently strati-undertake the major effort and expense of clearing fied, inflows of warm river water will course throughthe reservoir bottom is much more complex. only its surface waters, leaving its bottom waters

Leaving the reservoir bottom uncleared makes unaffected (see section below on turnover events).

the use of many types of fishing gear, such as trawls A bottom outlet enables dissolved oxygen to pene-and seine nets, impossible. But leaving organic trate to the depths of the reservoir, expanding the

materials such as trees, brush, and grasses on the productive area for aquatic life and leading toreservoir bottom provides essential habitats for fish higher fisheries production (Sreenivasan 1986).

and for aquatic organisms on which fish feed. Multiple outlets can offer more flexibility inPloskey (1985) suggests that bottom clearing is operation and avoid conflicts between uses of the

preferable for reservoirs in North America, but rec- reservoir water. Surface and bottom outlets can beommends retaining some uncleared areas to pro-vide extra habitats for fish. For African reservoirs, Figure 4 Bottom outlets lead to deeper oxygenBernacsek (1984) believes that the long-term bene- penetration and higher fish producion

fits of bottom clearing for fisheries activities out- 12weigh any benefits from keeping trees and other D oyevegetation as habitat and food for fish. (milligrams per liter)

De Silva (1988a) reviewed the effects of bottom Fish abundant

clearing in Asian reservoirs and identified both neg-ative and positive consequences. He found that bot- -----tom clearing provides extra niches for fish, increases X J Fsh scarce

the role of birds in predation and nutrient cycling, Fsh absentand reduces erosion and siltation. But he also found 'WAthat it impedes fishing, leads to eutrophication and

adverse effects on water quality, and results in the 0 12leaching of toxic organics such as trihalomethanes. Dissolved oxygen

De Silva concluded that although quantitative (milligrams per liter)

evaluation of the effects of bottom clearing is impos- _

sible at present, there is convincing evidence that ,fish stocks are larger where the reservoir bottomshave not been cleared. This finding would lead to a l

recommendation to keep some areas uncleared toincrease fish populations and yields. No scientific oreconomic studies are available that would help in

formulating specific recommendations on what Source: Sreenivasan 1986.

10

ENGINEERING ISSUES IN RESERVOIR FISHERIES

used for flood control or irrigation, while mid-level deoxygenated water and large quantities of hydro-

outlets can be used for drinking water to avoid gen sulfide that rise to the surface suffocate nearly

excessive iron and hydrogen sulfide and to prevent all aquatic life. Turnover events in the Saguling

a need for excessive filtration and other problems Reservoir in Indonesia during January-February

caused by using algae-laden surface waters. 1993 killed 850 tons of fish (Sutandar 1993). In the

Jatiluhur Reservoir, in WestJava, Indonesia (at 94.6

Reservoir turnover events meters above sea level), a turnover killed 1,560 tons

of fish in aquaculture cages, causing losses estimated

In the lowland Tropics the water column of reser- at 3.5 million rupiah (Rp) and putting an estimated

voirs is essentially mixed from top to bottom. Wind 215 farmers out of business (Suara Pembarvan,

action can stir the water column to nearly the depth Jakarta, January 10, 1996).

of the bottom. At altitudes above 200-300 meters in Indonesia has two distinct seasons, determined

the Tropics or at increasing latitudes from the equa- by its prevailing wind patterns: a dry season from

tor, reservoirs are thermally stratified-that is, the April to August, when winds come from the south-reservoir water is stratified in layers of differing den- west (or "Australian" direction), and a wet season

sity, with warmer, less dense water overlying colder, from September to March, when northeast mon-heavier water. Sreenivasan (1970) showed that in soon winds from the Indian Ocean buffet the

India lowland reservoirs north of 140 north latitude nation. Since inundation in 1985, turnover events

were stratified, whereas south of this latitude only have occurred regularly in the Saguling Reservoirreservoirs at elevation were stratified. (650.5 meters above sea level) at the onset of West

Where stratification occurs, bottom waters Java's upland rainy season. Turnovers have also

become laden with suspended sediments and nutri- affected the Cirata Reservoir, at 60 south latitude

ents from watersheds and the surrounding basin and 225 meters above sea level, but to a much lesser

while surface waters become nutrient-poor. As sed- extent: in 1991, when 300 tons of fish were lost in

iments and nutrients accumulate in bottom waters, Saguling, only 10 tons were lost in Cirata. In 1992,dissolved oxygen plummets to zero and hydrogen however, an unusually dry year with poor rains, no

sulfide reaches toxic concentrations. Hydrogen sul- turnover events occurred in Saguling or Cirata for

fide has reached such high levels in the bottom the first time since inundation (Effendi 1992).

waters of some reservoirs that it has corroded tur- Observations of turnovers during three rainy sea-

bines and other structures. sons in Saguling showed the following characteristics:

Many hydropower reservoirs in the Tropics are * Conditions varied across the reservoir, with

located at elevation in order to maximize hydraulic turnover occurring in one bay but not in others,

head to the turbines and increase power output. In perhaps because individual bays received cooler

reservoirs above 200-300 meters annual turnover water from localized cloudbursts in the mountains.

events can occur, in which toxic bottom water rises * Some turnovers seemed to be caused by the

to the surface. Water column turnovers are initiated entry, at the onset of the wet season, of cool rain-

by a seasonal cooling of surface water to a tempera- water that caused bottom water displacement rather

ture similar to that of bottom water or by the entry than surface cooling.

of cooler water from upland rivers or tributaries * Strong drawdowns during the rainy season

during heavy rains that sinks to the bottom (since it increased the frequency of turnovers.

is cooler than surface water) and forces the bottom * Turnovers were followed by dense, blue-green

water to the surface. Turnovers are exacerbated by algal blooms because of the movement of bottom

strong drawdowns. nutrients to the surface.

Sudden turnovers in reservoirs have led to cata- * Farmers who reduced stocking density in

strophic fish kills, including losses of hundreds of cages tended to survive even the worst of the

tons of fish in floating cage aquaculture systems. The turnover events.

11

Transition: From tropical river to reservoir

Damming a tropical river to create an artificial lake Krishnarajah 1983). Some reservoirs in degradedhas dramatic effects on all parts of the former water- watersheds in Bangladesh, India, and Pakistan have

shed ecosystem. The effects on the production and lost more than 60 percent of their storage capacity

fertility of riverine fish species occur immediately and become uneconomic in less than 50 yearsafter the new reservoir is filled and continue over (Sreenivasan 1986).

the next 5-10 years. As the new aquatic ecosystem How much silt a river carries depends on the

evolves, the biota respond-mainly to the operation erodibility of soils, the health of the watershed

of the dam and to the land use practices in the ecosystem, and especially the areal extent ofwatershed. The direction of change in the new human impacts on riparian and upland areas.

aquatic ecosystem can be managed in a positive way Land uses in watersheds that have the most seriousthat is compatible with reservoir engineering oper- effect on siltation are deforestation; clearing of

ations-given adequate expertise, institutional will, upland and riparian land for agriculture, especiallyand financial resources. For a new "ecosystems man- shifting cultivation; nonpoint pollution from agri-agement" strategy to evolve, operational engineers culture, especially nutrients and pesticides; over-and fisheries planners need to be concerned with grazing and trampling of soils and vegetation by

water quality and siltation, vegetation, the distribu- animals; sand and other mining; and the use oftion and composition of fish species, and changes heavy machinery in site preparation, clearing, and

in their production. finishing.

The effects of erosion and siltation fromSiltation degraded watersheds are particularly notable and

concentrated during the rainy season, when largeReservoirs receive large deposits of silt carried from plumes of brown water and terrigenous matter can

the watershed by tropical rivers. In intact watershed be seen entering reservoirs. Silt and soil particlesand river ecosystems tropical rivers carry tons of silt retain large quantities of nutrients, which acceler-

and associated terrestrial materials to the coast, ate the growth of plant plankton (phytoplankton)replenishing deltas and coastlines and contributing and lead to plankton blooms. Under tropical con-

vital nutrients to coastal zone fisheries ecosystems. ditions, this additional nutrient input leads to the

But excessive silt and nutrient loads due to uncon- development of enormous, thick, green scums oftrolled development of watersheds can dramatically algae on the surface of reservoirs, cutting off light

reduce reservoir storage capacities and set in to the underlying water. Boom and bust cycles of

motion nutrient cycles with destructive effects on plankton populations then occur, as algal growthfisheries. Several of the major Asian rivers have becomes self-limiting because of light deprivation

among the highest reported sediment discharge and the algae suddenly dies, depleting the water ofrates in the world (table 1; El-Swaify, Aryad, and oxygen and causing massive fish kills.

12

TRANSITION: FROM TROPICAL RIVER TO RESERVOIR

Table I Sediment discharge rates of selected Asian nized that the process is occurring. Deep reservoirsrivers with little shallow area (littoral zone) are largely

Sediment discharge free of weed problems. But shallow reservoirs withRiver (millions of tons a year) large littoral zones have huge problems with water

Haiho (Chsna) 85 hyacinth, water lettuce, and Salvinia.Yellow (Huangho) (China) ,080 Aquatic weeds can have severe effects on damYangtze (China) 478 operations and fisheries. Infestations can be soPearl (Zhu Jiang) (China) 69Mekong (Vietnam) 160 thick that their weight undermines the foundationIrrawaddy (Myanmar) 265 of the dam. Weeds can consume prodigious quan-Ganges/Brahmaputra (Bangladesh) 1,670Indus (Pakistan) 100 tities of nutrients, leaving little for the developmentSource: Sreenivasan 1986. of an aquatic food web to feed fish. Aquatic weeds

also interfere with fishing.

The long-term economic viability of operations Controlling aquatic weeds is difficult once the

and the integrity of reservoirs as productive aquatic problem gets out of hand. Millions of dollars have

ecosystems depend on the management of land use been spent on single control methods, whetherin the watershed and upland areas. In Southeast chemical, biological, or mechanical. Water

Asia degradation of watersheds, proliferation of hyacinth control in the Saguling Reservoir, for

nonsustainable agricultural practices, and pollu- example, cost the Indonesian State Electric

tion due to urbanization and industrialization are Company an estimated $300,000 a year. Experiencethe most serious threats to both reservoirs and shows that control is possible only through an inte-coastal zones. Some commonsense recommenda- grated approach combining mechanical means,tions for mitigating the severe degradation of Asian community efforts, judicious application of chemi-

watersheds are to: cals, and biological control using the weeds' naturale Develop afforestation methods as part of an enemies (Pieterse 1977).

integrated plan for rehabilitating river basin ecosys-

tems. Changes in ecological balance* Develop mixed grasses, vegetation, and tree

crop agro-ecosystems that control erosion and pro- Damming a tropical river leads to three majorvide viable livelihoods. changes that affect the ecological balance as a reser-

* Control riparian erosion through buffer strips, voir forms:

planting combinations, or mechanical control meth- * From a flowing water (lotic) ecosystem to aods such as riprap (stones lining stream banks). standing water (lentic) ecosystem.

* From a benthic to a pelagic food web.Aquatic vegetation * From a nutrient-poor ecosystem to a nutrient-

rich one.The second major concern in the transition from atropical river to a reservoir is the accumulation of In addition, dams may cause the extinction in aaquatic vegetation in the calm waters of the new river of anadromous and other migrating fish andlake. Most tropical rivers contain a plethora of of fish requiring specific spawning grounds. In

aquatic vegetation that becomes trapped in the still India, for example, the Indian shad (Hilsa ilisha)waters of the new reservoir (the transition from a and the mahaseer (Tor khudree) have become extinct

"lotic" to a "lentic" ecosystem). Reservoirs are nutri- in the Cauvery River system (Sreenivasan 1986).ent and sediment traps. When aquatic vegetation Tropical rivers generally are turbid and narrowmakes its way into this environment, it undergoes in their upper and middle reaches. As a result, in

explosive growth. A major economic and environ- most inland areas of Southeast Asia the predomi-mental problem can arise before it is even recog- nant riverine fish species are tactile (as opposed to

13

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

visual) feeders that depend on river bottom (ben- the shallows near the shorelines. Species that can-

thic) food webs. There are few riverine fish with not find suitable space, cannot adapt, or face newopen-water (pelagic) life cycles or food webs competition from species that they might be(Fernando 1980; Fernando and Holcik 1982). encountering for the first time are flushed out ofNative carp species (family: Cyprinidae) that feed the system and lost. In such situations the open-on bottom resources dominate the fish species com- water (pelagic) zones can be nearly devoid of fishposition of most rivers in the region. species. In addition, displaced people who resettle

Fewer fish species occur in reservoirs than in the near the new lake often fish heavily in shorelineoriginal rivers, primarily because reservoirs have areas, depleting and destroying the remaining river-

fewer habitats than rivers. In addition, the lower tur- ine fish populations.bidity in reservoirs helps predators to be more The deposit of nutrients from a turbid, tropical

effective in hunting prey. And a new fishery reduces river ecosystem into a nutrient sink (for example, apopulations of valuable species, leaving slower- new lake ecosystem) causes a rise in fisheries pro-growing, less desirable fish (Wadjowicz 1964). ductivity in the first few years after inundation.

The change from a lotic to a lentic ecosystem Balon and Coche (1974) describe this change inleads to changes in the spatial distribution and food aquatic ecosystem as a four-phase process: (1)habits of native riverine fish species. A "toilet bowl" unbalanced fertility (or eutrophy), (2) vulnerableeffect occurs in the transition from river to reser- stability, (3) stabilization, and (4) maturity. A fifthvoir. Riverine fish species that normally inhabit phase, unbalanced eutrophy, occurs where there isshallow-water, benthic ecosystems seek similar nutrient pollution and adverse land use practicesdepths and habitats in the new reservoir and choose (figure 5).

Figure 5 The ecosystem of a new reservoir undergoes several phases before maturity

E 700-Diversity of species

40- S600-

CL

8 500- -/ \

~400-Eo *.. E Fish production -

CZ z20 -1 )iQ Z 20- o 300 .i j .1 l ,! 'I' -u Vulnerability-stability

'O 90- < 1 "~' (number of species)X i 200_ - - " i g\2,,--' Farmnland runoff,>70- 10se

50 -- Nutrient load sewage

50 Dam' closed

1958 1 963 1 967 1 972 1 978

Unbalanced Vulnerable Stabilization Maturity Unbalancedeutrophy stability eutrophy

Zambezi River | Lake Kariba

Source: Balon and Coche 1974.

14

TRANsITION: FROM TROPICAL RIVER TO RESERVOIR

During the filling of new reservoirs nutrients are

leached from soils and other organic matter, result- Box 1 Factors affecting the fish yield

ing in a fertile aquatic ecosystem. Successfully of reservoirs

adapting fish species initially increase in popula- Factors increasingyield

tion, and fish production rises. The initial burst in * Extent of shoreline development (coves, bays)

fish production during the first few years after inun- *Existence and extent of marginal vegetation

dation often is not sustainable. Fish production . Average depth of less than 18 metersdeclines rapidly as the reservoir basin reaches its - Conditions that permit passage of migratory fish

basal level of fertility. At maturity, fish populations * Introduction of species well adapted to lenticenvironment

and their food organisms become adjusted to the * Existence of permanent fisheriespermanent fertility level of the basin and nutrient * Use of modern fishing gear

balances resulting from inflows, outflows, and * Enforcement of fishery regulations

runoff (Bhukaswan 1980). . Management and financial assistance to fisheries

Year to year, however, fish production patterns Factors reducingyield

may differ greatly from these general outlines. Each . Erosion in reservoir watershed areas

reservoir has different nutrient inflows that vary . Reduction of water flow into reservoiraccording to dam management practices, rainfall . Large seasonal fluctuations in water level

n Fish species composition favoring predatoryand amount of runoff and river input, and addi- speciestional nutrient loads from human activities. - Pollution in reservoir watershed areas

Outflows similarly can vary widely, depending on Note: Based on reservoirs in Brazil.demand. Other factors also affect the fish yield of Source: Paiva 1976.

reservoirs (box 1). The challenge is to develop cost-

effective monitoring and management systems to lakes in the Philippines, Sri Lanka, and Thailand.

ensure the optimal use of fisheries resources for They found that total capture fisheries yields and

human needs and for maximum economic benefit. yields per unit of area in Asian reservoirs were

related more to morphometric features (water

Predicting capture fisheries yields area, catchment area, ratio of catchment area to

in a new reservoir water area, mean depth, shoreline development

index) than to biological features. They argued

The combined influences of the age, size, depth, that morphometric factors will be more effective

shape, catchment area, and hydrological regime of than other factors in predicting fisheries yields in

a reservoir largely determine its biological produc- Asian reservoirs for several reasons: Unlike mor-

tivity. Fisheries management practices and human phometric factors, biological factors vary signifi-

impacts (such as pollution) also affect a reservoir's cantly from year to year. Morphometric factors are

productivity. The magnitude of the influence of easily measured for large numbers ofwater bodies.

these factors and the synergies among them are dif- And morphometric factors are not influenced by

ferent for each reservoir. The challenge is to deter- cultural factors.

mine which physical or limnological factors exert Soemarwoto and others (1990) characterized

an overriding influence on fisheries productivity the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs on the basis ofunder different seasonal regimes.2 14 morphometric and hydrological variables.

To delineate predictive factors relating physi- Assembling an Asia-wide database characterizing

cal, hydrological, and chemical features to capture reservoirs according to such morphometric factors

fisheries yields in Asia, Moreau and De Silva (1991) might be an effective approach for predicting cap-

reviewed data on a large number of reservoirs and ture fisheries yields from Asian reservoirs.

15

Reservoir capture fisheries

Sustaining reservoir capture fisheries yields of just 10-37 kilograms per hectare a yeareven with annual restocking of tilapia.

The yields of reservoir capture fisheries are con- In efforts to enhance and sustain reservoir cap-strained by the priorities given to water use for ture fisheries, the main technical issues to be con-human needs, as well as by a number of other envi- sidered are these:ronmental and social factors. One of the most * Preservation and enhancement of natural

important points to recognize with any capture fish- stocks, including mitigation of physical barriers toery is that the aquatic ecosystem itself imposes lim- breeding.

its on yields and that no amount of management * Selective fishing to control populations ofand fisheries enhancement will increase the pro- predator fish.

duction of wild fish stocks beyond certain biological * Stocking and protection of stocked materiallimits (Munro, Iskandar, and Costa-Pierce 1990). In (for example, protected nursery areas).a well-managed, shallow, tropical reservoir, capture * Creation of new spawning grounds or preser-fishery harvests normally do not exceed 50-150 vation of existing ones.

kilograms per hectare a year. Larger, deeper reser- * Regulation, participatory community man-

voirs can be expected to yield substantially less agement, and habitat preservation.because much of the water and the benthic ecosys-

tem lie in the deoxygenated hypolimnion below the Mitigatingphysical barriers

thermocline.Capture fisheries yields from Asian reservoirs There are few true anadromous fish (those that

are usually low, seldom more than 50 kilograms per migrate to spawn in fresh water) in Southeast Asia.hectare a year (Yap 1987). The exception in Asia is But elsewhere in Asia, and in Africa, Australia, andsmall, shallow reservoirs stocked with a prolific the United States, populations of anadromous fishAfrican fish, the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis have been decimated by dams and aqueducts. Inmossambicus). Average capture fisheries yields of India, Pakistan, and Sri Lanka the Indian shadshallow Indonesian reservoirs with tilapia are (Hilsa ilisha), mahaseer (Torkhudree), and mountain

200-400 kilograms per hectare a year (Hardjamulia labeo (Labeo fischeri) have virtually disappeared

and Suwignyo 1988). Similar reservoirs in Sri Lanka since the construction of reservoirs on a number ofproduce 283-307 kilograms per hectare a year (De river systems.

Silva 1988b). Deep reservoirs (more than 30 To combat such losses in India, broodstock ofmeters) yield much less even with repeated stocking major and minor Indian carp species are trans-of tilapia. For example, the 36.4-meter-deep ported from the river to pens in the reservoir, where

Jatiluhur Reservoir in West Java produced average the fish breed at the onset of the monsoons

16

RESERVOIR CGyruRE FISHERIES

(Sreenivasan 1986). Unlike in Latin America and or occasional supplemental stocking of self-

the former Soviet Union, however, there has been sustaining (naturally reproducing) species and

little work in Asia on fish passageways and ladders repetitive restocking of nonreproducing (or occa-

(Pavlov 1989; Quiros 1989). sionally reproducing) species. Fernando (1980)

summarized a strategy for stocking fish in Asian

Controlling predators through selectivefishing reservoirs:* Give priority to managing indigenous species

In Asian reservoirs the guiding principle of fisheries from riverine and wetland areas in the vicinity.

management is to increase the production and * Do not automatically stock on an annual or

yield of fish that feed at the lowest levels of the seasonal basis in order to harvest stocked fish with

aquatic food web, mainly herbivorous and omnivo- resident fish. Most Southeast Asian reservoirs have

rous fish. Predators, because they reduce the resident populations of predators that can decimate

biomass of fish harvests, need to be controlled or the small stocks of introduced fish.

fished out. * Never stock predator fish in countries where

Exerting intensive, selective fishing pressure on the availability of protein food-not sport fishing-

predator fish has been a successful management is the overriding concern.

tool in many Asian countries. The main predator * Promote the introduction of self-perpetuat-

fish of concern in Southeast Asian reservoirs are ing species.

native carp (Hampala macrolepidota), catfish (Clarias * Develop cage aquaculture, especially in reser-spp., Macrones spp., Mystus spp., and Wallago spp.), voirs dominated by predators.

and snakeheads (Channa spp.). Success in reducing * Introduce pelagic and deep-water fish wherepredator fish populations has been notable in the the reservoir ecosystems and gear are appropriate.

Gandhi Sagar Reservoir in India and the Ubolratana * Use large fingerlings for stocking and encour-

Reservoir in Thailand (Bhukaswan 1980; Costa- age selective fishing of predators before stocking in

Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990a). In Gandhi Sagar small reservoirs to increase fish yields.

longline techniques are used for fishing predators.In Ubolratana longlines, gill nets, baited traps, cast Fish that are introduced can be either indige-

nets, harpoons, and hooks and lines are used to nous or exotic. Because of the increased concern

catch predators, which have decreased both in size about the environmental impact of introduced

and in number. Forage fish such as native carp and species in many Southeast Asian countries, Costa-

pelagic sardines now dominate catches. Pierce and Soemarwoto (1990a) developed guide-

lines for introducing exotic species.

Introducing and stocking species The stocking of self-reproducing fish species,

especially of the tilapia, has been very successful in

Stocking involves adding fish to a reservoir from Indonesia, the Philippines, and Sri Lanka (Baluyut

hatcheries or other outside sources. Stocking is 1983; De Silva 1987 and 1988b; Sarnita 1987;

done for several purposes: to enhance the yield of a Guerrero 1988; de los Trinos 1992; Hardjamulia

reservoir by altering the balance of species, to fill an and Suwignyo 1988). Repetitive restocking of fish to

ecological niche perceived to be vacant, to make up enhance or rehabilitate fish populations, however,

for a lack of natural reproduclion, to replace fish is not always the best or most appropriate way to

that have died catastrophically, to provide food or increase fish stocks and production. Indeed, from a

sport, to control nuisance weeds, to provide food cost-benefit perspective, many fish restocking pro-

for desirable fish, and to provide employment grams are difficult to justify. But fisheries depart-

(Bhukaswan 1980). Two types of stocking programs ments throughout the world are often compelled to

have been conducted in Asian reservoirs: one-time conduct stocking programs because of pressure

17

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

from the public and politicians to "do something" because of lack of financial resources and of people

to enhance the fish populations in unproductive with appropriate training, among other socioeco-

lakes and reservoirs. nomic problems.

Creating spawning grounds Successful models of reservoir capturefisheries

Spawning conditions for most reservoir fish speciesdeteriorate over time because of shoreline degrada- Successful reservoir capture fisheries in Southeast

tion and fluctuations in water levels (Walburg 1976). Asia range from self-sustainable, non-restocking

To improve spawning conditions for desired species, enterprises to "put and take," or regularly

existing knowledge on the place and timing of restocked, intensively managed capture fisheries.

spawning and on environmental factors that trigger Three notable examples of successful capture fish-

spawning can be combined with field observation to eries using an ecosystems management concept areidentify the areas, the seasons, and the biological fac- tilapia in Indonesia and in Sri Lanka and freshwatertors that are key in the spawning of both desired and sardines in Thailand. 3 Reservoir capture fisheries inundesired species. Artificial spawning areas can be all three countries produce fish at a competitivecreated in key sites to expand fish populations. price for local consumption. These important mod-

els illustrate the diversity of sustainable paths thatProtecting,fisheries through regulation and community may be taken to develop fisheries in small tomanagement medium-size reservoirs.

Even the most elaborate fisheries management and Capturefisheries integrated with other reservoir uses

regulatory system will collapse unless measures are through zonation in Indonesia

taken to protect fish populations. Although com-

munities and governments can take such measures Suwignyo (1974) attributes the success ofseparately, protection will be impossible if both do Indonesian reservoir capture fisheries to the devel-

not take action. opment of a self-sustaining concept-achieving aFisheries regulations and controls fall into sev- balance between the carrying capacity of the water

eral common categories (Munro 1983): body and fishing pressure through zonation.

* Closed areas-bans on fishing in the main Indonesian scientists and government officials con-

spawning grounds and in nursery areas for the most tributed to the design of a zonation system that hasimportant species of a fishery. allowed development of productive capture fish-

* Closed seasons-bans on fishing during the eries in four reservoirs of the Brantas River basin inspawning and nursing periods of important species. EastJava: Selorejo, Karangkates, Lahor, and Wlingi.

* Gearregulations-bansorseasonalrestrictions The four reservoirs, the subject of collaborativeon the use of gear. studies by Institut Pertanian Bogor (Bogor

* Size regulations-restrictions on keeping fish Agricultural University), BIOTROP (Bogor), andbelow a certain size or weight. the Indonesian Department of Public Works, serve

* Limited entry-quotas on fishers and on the as test beds for institutional and planning mecha-

gear they can use and limits on time spent fishing. nisms that may help to sustain capture fisheries in

* Prohibitions-bans on use of fishing gear and small tropical reservoirs.methods that cause indiscriminate damage to The Indonesian reservoirs are multipurpose

stocks, such as seines, trawls, poisons, and explosives. reservoirs for electricity generation, drinking watersupply, irrigation, and flood control. To ensure that

It is questionable whether such regulations can fisheries do not hamper these functions in any way,be enforced in many tropical nations, however, a zonation pattern was developed for the reservoirs

18

RESERVOIR CAITURE FISHERIES

that delineated four fisheries zones: a prohibited grams per hectare, a year (Suwignyo 1974). Fishing

zone, a conservation zone, a regulated zone, and an in the four reservoirs is regulated through restric-

open, or unregulated, zone. tions on the mesh size of gear. The mesh size must

The prohibited zone is the area closest to the exceed 6 centimeters, which was found to be the

dam and is closed to fishing for security and safety size of tilapia after first spawning.

reasons. It includes the area around the dam and Initially the main concern of reservoir engi-

installations connected with dam functions, and neers was to ensure that the water was "clean" and

dangerous areas near the outflow. The conserva- that fisheries did not conflictwith the main purpose

tion zone is also closed to fishing. It contains fish of the reservoirs-water storage. The managers suc-

spawning and nursery grounds, including river ceeded in achieving at least the second goal: cap-

mouths and nesting sites. In the regulated zone cap- ture fisheries developed after dam construction in

ture or culture (aquaculture) fisheries are allowed a manner that ensured that there would be no con-

but regulated by limits on catch, size, or gear or by flict with the primary activities of irrigation and

closed seasons. The open zone, where there are no power generation.

regulations on fishing, exists only in large reservoirsin Indonesia. Capturefisheriesforfreshwater sardines in Thailand

The location and size of the zones are not fixedand may differ in every reservoir. And a reservoir In Thailand indigenous species have been devel-

may not have all the zones. The number and size of oped in reservoirs ranging in size from 1,200 to

the zones in a reservoir are related to its size and 4,100 hectares. Yields are low, averaging 47 kilo-

morphometry. Figure 6 shows the delineation of grams per hectare a year (Chookajorn andfisheries zones in the Selorejo (400 hectares), Bhukaswan 1988). In some years, however, gross

Karangkates (1,500 hectares), and Lahor (260 returns from reservoir fisheries have exceeded

hectares) Reservoirs. the revenue from electricity. For example, the

In the Selorejo Reservoir the prohibited zone 41,000-hectare Ubolratana Reservoir in north-

(zone 1) includes the area along the dam wall, the east Thailand produced fish worth 40 million

intake area delineated by the trash boom, and the baht in 1978, while electricity sales generatedjust

spillway. The conservation zone (zone 2) comprises 30 million baht (Costa-Pierce and Soemarwoto

the areas where the Konto, Kwayangan, and 1990a).

Ngantang Rivers enter the reservoir. All other open- The main fish in the Ubolratana Reservoir is a

water areas are in the regulated zone (zone 3). small freshwater sardine (Cludeidichthys aesarnensis)

Selorejo does not have an open zone because it is a that occupies the pelagic areas of the reservoir

small reservoir with heavy fishing pressure. It was (Sirmongkonthaworn and Fernando 1994). The

estimated that 113 people fish the reservoir every sardine is fished with simple technology (light

day, with a fishing pressure of 751 person-hours a traps and nets) and used as a low-cost food or ren-

day (Hermanto 1978). dered into fish sauce for export to Bangkok

Although government fisheries agencies have (Costa-Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990a). The sar-

stocked a number of species in Selorejo, fisheries dine represents a solution to one of the most

have been dominated since the reservoir's intractable technical problems in large tropical

impoundment by a wild, nonnative fish thatwas not reservoirs: finding a suitable species to inhabit the

stocked, the Mozambique tilapia (Oreochromis large, nearly devoid open-water fisheries zone

mossambicus). Tilapia comprise about 70 percent of found in the great majority of these reservoirs

the hook and line catch and more than 80 percent (Fernando and Holcik 1982).

of fish captured by nets. An interesting feature of the sardine fishery is its

Yields are high for capture fisheries in the small social setting. Out-migrations from northeast

reservoirs, totaling 120-140 tons, or 300-350 kilo- Thailand to Bangkok due to a lack of rural employ-

19

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

IBRD 28381

Selorejo Reservoir Kwayangan Figure 6 Zonation has helped sustaing aver capture fisheries in Indonesian reservoirs

I Prohibited zone

2 Conservation zone

3 Regulated zone

4 Unregulated zone

Ngantang Dam, intake, Karangkates ReservoirRiver and spillway

0 0.5

Kilometers

Dam, 0 0 4

and spillway Konto River Kilometers River

* IPHILIPPINES;:

BRUNEI : PACIFIC OCEAN

Lahor Reservoir _. /

i004000;0%Xt>n2 <'2 0002KALIMAN"TAN >0,<:0 y0f *; :_ 0 0

5 n g0+XEv:: >> M0W ? f0000g ;00;:> .IRAN !z -ava Sea ~~~~~~~~~~~JAYA ~

2 Ja~~~~~~~* I N D 6 ~~~~~~~~~~~~N E S I

Locat 0 i0 ion oN00ln j0f reservoir - 0ST-RALIA

This map was produced by the MapDesign Unit of The World Bank. The

Dar and boundones, colors, denominations ondspillway 05 any other information shown on this

tmap do not imply, on the port of TheKilometers World Bank Group, ony judgment on

the legal status of any territory, or any

- Connection tunnel endorsement or occeptonce of suchboundaries.

Source: Suwignyo 1974. January 1997

ment opportunities had taken their toll. But Capturefisheries for tilapia in Sri Lanka

because of the development of the pelagic sardine

fishery, fishing families now migrate seasonally Sri Lanka has an estimated 175,000 hectares of

between the Gulf of Thailand and the Ubolratana reservoirs (Fernando and De Silva 1984), expected

Reservoir in the northeast. to increase to 250,000 hectares by 2000 (De Silva

20

RESERVOIR CAPrURE FISHERIES

1992a). Relative to land area, Sri Lanka has a model for sustainable aquatic ecosystems manage-

greater area of freshwater reservoirs than any other ment. The fisheries involve little coordination

nation, estimated at 3 hectares of reservoir surface between communities and government and have

per square kilometer of land and expected to not been developed on a scientific basis. Accordingincrease to 4 hectares by 2000 (De Silva 1983). The to De Silva (1988b),

capture fisheries in these reservoirs, among themost studied in the world, are dominated by catches Basic questions as to when to commence fish-

of an imported, exotic species, the Mozambique ing and what the initial fishing pressuretilapia (Oreochromis mossambicus) (De Silva 1988b). should be in newly impounded reservoirs are

Inland reservoir fisheries in Sri Lanka yield being solved or attempted to be solved

27,000-30,000 tons a year for an average fish pro- through intuition rather than scientific rea-

duction of 283-307 kilograms per hectare a year soning. (p. 25)(De Silva 1988b).

Fish yields from the commercial fishery have The only regulations imposed on the reservoir

been shown to be positively related to fluctuations fisheries has been a minimum mesh size of 50 mil-in the water levels of the reservoirs. In the limeters and a prohibition on the use of seines. InParakrama Samudra Reservoir fish yields were sig- addition, fishermen's cooperatives sometimesnificantly related to the mean water levels in the pre- agree to cease fishing during dry years for brief peri-

vious three years (De Silva 1986). ods (two to three months) every two to three yearsDespite the success of the Sri Lankan reservoir when yields decline. The effects of these measures

fisheries, their management cannot serve as a are not known (De Silva 1988b).

21

Reservoir culture fisheries

Culture fisheries, or aquaculture, can dramatically * Technical factors. There should be adequate

increase fish yields in reservoirs. Depending on the supplies of fish seed and feeds and aquaculture

river basin's fertility and on technical, socioeco- equipment.nomic, and marketing considerations, a wide vari- * Availabilityoftrainedmanagers.Expertiseinaqua-

ety of aquaculture systems can be developed that culture management is essential. Trained personnelare vastly more productive than capture fisheries. understand the fundamentals of aquaculture pro-

For a reservoir aquaculture development pro- duction systems: stocking, feeding, disease prevention

ject to succeed, however, adequate consideration and treatment, and harvesting and marketing.must be given at the planning stage to sociocultural, * Political stability. Aquaculture has acquired a

infrastructural, economic, marketing, and other reputation in some areas as a high-risk venture. Ifvital factors. political risks are added, an aquaculture project is

* Socioculturalfactors. It is essential to assess the doomed.acceptability of fish as food among consumers, to * Traditional knowledge offisheries. In many partsestimate the fish consumption rate of the target of Asia there are "fisheries cultures" that have tra-group, and to determine the product form and sizes ditional knowledge of aquaculture and fisheries sys-

preferred by the group. For religious or other rea- tems handed down through the generations. Insons, some cultures are primarily vegetarian or pre- many of these societies farmers are as expert as sci-

fer protein from other animal sources. entists. But other cultures have little experience

* Economic and marketingfactors. Planners should with "water farming."assess the market and price competition from alter- * Laws and regulations. Taxes, permits, importnative terrestrial and aquatic protein sources, espe- duties, and regulations on sales, species, and drugscially from lower-cost fish caught seasonally (or can determine the success or failure of aquaculture.year-round) in wild fisheries. They should also esti-mate the capital and operating expenses of pro- Aquaculture systemsducers and the resulting cost of fish to theconsumer. There are two general types of reservoir aquaculture

* Infrastructure. The condition of a country's systems, water-based and land-based. The mainbasic infrastructure-roads, communications, mar- advantages of water-based aquaculture systems areketing (refrigeration), airports-might present that they do not take up scarce land and they inten-

constraints to aquaculture development. sify the productive use of the lake water surface, an* Environment. Suitable sites must be available, underexploited resource. The primary water-based

water quality should be good and temperatures aquaculture systems are cage culture and pen culture.

appropriate, and there should be no chemical or Land-based aquaculture systems are capitalpesticide pollution or fish diseases. intensive. They require facilities for holding and

22

RESERVOIR CULTURE FISHERIES

raising fish-ponds, tanks, silos, or concrete basins ations for the cage culture of many fish species in(raceways)-and infrastructure for water supply and reservoirs fully floating. Common carp, one of the

flows. Developed to serve as hatcheries and nurs- most important food fish, is one example. The spawn-

eries in support of cage and pen systems in reser- ing of common carp in cages in reservoirs has beenvoirs, however, land-based aquaculture systems can successful in India using water hyacinths as substrates

play a vital part in the long-term sustainability of for egg collection (Tripathi 1987). For an acceptable

new, water-based (reservoir) aquaculture systems. survival rate after hatching, however, common carprequire zooplankton feed of an increasing size until

Cage culture they reach about 40-50 grams, when they readilyaccept feeds with lower protein content. The remain-

In cage culture fish are raised in circular, square, or ing technical problem is the need for a technique that

rectangular net bags suspended in the water, either would enable common carp to be raised from hatch-

floating from a raft (offshore cage culture) or fixed ing to 40-50 grams in floating net cages. Experiments

to the bottom near the shore in the littoral zone. In to date have proved unsuccessful or uneconomicnearshore cage culture the four sides of the net bag compared with land-based hatchery and nurseryare attached to stakes driven into the reservoir bot- methods (Costa-Pierce and Hadikusumah 1990).

tom. Floating cage culture is more suitable for reser- Floating hatcheries and nurseries for tilapia,voirs subject to large fluctuations in water level. however, are well developed, making rapid expan-

Cage culture can be practiced intensively, semi- sion of the cage culture of this species in tropicalintensively, or extensively. The intensity of opera- reservoirs possible. The water-based hatchery andtions depends mainly on the economics-the nursery technologies for tilapia are well known and

availability of fingerlings and feed and the market are economically competitive with land-based

demand for fish products. methods (see Beveridge 1987, Behrends and LeeCages can be used as hatcheries, nurseries, or 1990, and Costa-Pierce and Hadikusumah 1995 for

grow-out systems, depending on the development discussion of the techniques and economics).

of the aquaculture production network (see sectionbelow on such networks). Multispecies stocking has Single cage systems. In the Saguling and Cirata

been carried out where species are compatible with Reservoirs commercial cage aquaculture is con-

each other or where a 'janitor" fish is stocked at low ducted in net bags (7 x 7 x 2.5 meters) floated fromdensity to prevent algae from clogging nets or to a raft of bamboo and oil drums. The cages are

clean parasites off a commercial species. stocked with approximately 300 kilograms of com-mon carp fingerlings averaging 50-100 grams.

Hatchery and nursery systems. Technical problems Three to four months later, 1.0-1.5 tons of fish of

remain to be solved in order to make the entire oper- 300-500 grams can be harvested (table 2).

Table 2 Yield characteristics of common carp (Cyprinus carpio) in floating net cages

Stocking HarvestTotal Average Total Average Length Survival Food

vofume weight Number volume weight Number of of cycle rate Feed conversionCage (kilograms) (groms) of fish (kilogroms) (grams) fish (days) (percent) (kilogroms) ratioa

1 300 71.6 4,190 905 217.4 4,162 90 99 1,328.2 2.22 300 68.1 4,407 1,225 283.8 4,316 82 98 1,536.5 1.73 300 68.2 4,397 982 241.8 4,062 90 92 1,441.9 2.14 300 74.8 4,009 1,168 293.6 3,978 89 99 1,677.8 1.9

a. Food conversion ratio is the dry weight of feed in kilograms divided by the wet weight of fish in kilograms.Note: The cages (7 x 7 x 2.5 meters) were stocked at 2.4 kilograms per cubic meter (300 kilograms per cage) and fed at 3 percent body weight per daywith a commercial feed of 24-26 percent crude protein. Stocking and management followed the practices used by the majority of farmers in the cageculture industry documented in Bongas, Saguling Reservoir.Source: Costa-Pierce and Hadikusumah 1990.

23

FROM FARMIERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DA_MS

Rusydi and Lampe (1990) estimated that a Nearly all the tilapia were produced in biculture

farmer operating three cages would have a net oper- cage operations in which common carp were raised

ating income of $500 per fish crop. With the possi- in inner cages and tilapia in outer cages. The inner

bility of three crops a year if sufficient fingerlings cages were 7 x 7 x 3 meters with 1.5-centimeter

and feed are available, the income potential for the mesh. The outer nets were also 7 x 7 meters, but had

single cages is excellent. As a result, this type of cage a total depth of 3.5-4.0 meters, so that the tilapia

aquaculture has expanded rapidly in the Saguling had a space 50-100 centimeters in depth below theand Cirata Reservoirs in Indonesia. carp cage.

Farmers' stocking and harvest cycles were struc-Biculture cage systems. Costa-Pierce and tured around the facts that common carp were

Hadikusumah (1990) demonstrated the feasibility reported to grow faster than tilapia and that market

of a biculture cage system in which common carp preferences in Jakarta were for tilapia of 200-300

were raised in small-mesh cages floated above or grams. Tilapiawere stocked at an average weight of

placed within larger cages used for raising tilapia. about 25 grams in outer nets, and common carp,

Common carp fingerlings in two cages (2.4 x 4.0 x averaging about 50 grams, were stocked in inner

1.2 meters) with net mesh of 2-3 millimeters were nets. The total stocking weight was 300 kilograms ofplaced in a single outer net (7 x 7 x 2.5 meters) with common carp and 150 kilograms of tilapia. Feed4-centimeter mesh. The outer nets were stocked was given only to the common carp. The feed

with two sizes of tilapia, with mean weights of 84 (24-25 percent protein) was given three to fivegrams and 208 grams. Feed was given at a rate typi- times a day at 30 kilograms per cage per day, for a

cal for common carp nursery culture, while a main- total of 2.5-3.0 tons over a common carp grow-out

tenance ration was fed to the tilapia. Common carp period of two and a half to three months. At the end

in nurseries within the tilapia cages had significantly of the period common carp were harvested at an

higher net production, higher mean weight at har- average weight of about 330 grams.

vest, and lower food conversion ratios (FCRs, the The tilapia remained in the outer net whileratio of the dry weight of feed to the wet weight of another common carp groNw-out cycle was initiated.

fish produced, in kilograms) than carp in nets with After another two and a half to three months the

no tilapia on the outside. It was hypothesized that second batch of common carp was harvested at a

the low FCRs were due to increased food availability, size similar to that of the first cycle, and then thewhich occurred because the tilapia kept the nets free tilapia were harvested. After the total of six months

of attached organisms. In addition, a second crop of the tilapia averaged about 250 grams.fish was produced from the same feed inputs, since In one year four crops of common carp and twothe tilapia were eating these organisms and recycled crops of tilapia were taken. Assuming conservative

feed and fish waste from the carp nets above them. survival rates of 90 percent for common carp andBy 1993 at the Saguling Reservoir, cage farmers 95 percent for the tilapia, each three-month carp

in the Bongas area were observed practicing an cycle produced about 1.8 tons, and each six-monthimportant newcommercialvariation ofthis biculture tilapia cycle 1.4 tons. If enough fingerlings werecage system, reflecting the innovativeness of farmers available, 10 tons of fish could be harvested for

and the presence and evolution of traditional knowl- every 49 square meters of water surface using thisedge systems in the new reservoir aquaculture indus- method, or 204 kilograms per square meter per

try. The production of tilapia in cage aquaculture year. This production rate is among the highesthad grown substantially in the Bongas cage culture recorded for any animal protein production system.

industry, from zero in 1989 to an estimated 15 tons aday in 1993. By that year five fish transport vehicles Subsistence cage and mini-cagesystems. Costa-Pierce

were carrying 3 tons each of freshly harvested tilapia and Hadikusumah (1990) estimated the capitaleach day from Saguling to Jakarta. costs for the 7 x 7 x 2.5 meter commercial cages in

24

RESERVOIR CULTURE FISHERIES

the Saguling Reservoir in 1989 at Rp 491,200 (in stocked at high densities (for tilapia, 4-12 kilo-1989 US$1 = Rp 1,796). They developed improved grams per cubic meter, and for carp, 1-6 kilo-construction methods that reduced capital costs to grams). Prospects for low-cost, extensive (no-feed)

Rp 274,500. They also engineered a cage system that cage culture of carp and tilapia are often over-

did not require expensive oil drums for flotation looked or underestimated. In extensive cage cul-but instead used bamboo, for a total capital cost of ture microphagous (small-particle-feeding) fish are

Rp 177,500. raised at low stocking densities and are provided noShortly after inundation 64 percent of the people feed or fed agroindustrial wastes, such as rice or

displaced by the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs maize bran, which has a low protein content (less

remained below the Indonesian poverty line than 10 percent) and is inexpensive.(Suwartapradja and Achmad 1990). Thus, the major- Extensive cage culture of herbivorous or omniv-

ity of displaced people lacked the capital to invest in orous fish at low stocking densities (tilapia at

even the lower-cost commercial cage models. As a 0.02-0.69 kilogram per cubic meter and Chineseresult, the development of intensive mini-cage and carp at 0.12-0.55 kilogram) in naturally or artifi-

subsistence cage systems was undertaken (Costa- cially enriched water bodies (mesotrophic to

Pierce and Hadikusumah 1990; Schmittou 1992). eutrophic) is a viable option for producing low-cost

The capital costs for constructing a 17-cubic- food fish. The Chinese silver and bighead carp

meter subsistence bamboo cage were Rp 60,000. (Hypophthalmichthys molitrix and Aristichthys nobilis)

Fish production in such cages ranged from 136 to and tilapia (principally Oreochromnis nriloticus) are the

153 kilograms over periods of 86-90 days. It was cal- fish most commonly raised in extensive cage cultureculated that, with proper management over succes- in Asia, principally in cages in reservoirs in China,

sive 90-day grow-out cycles, two bamboo cages could Nepal, and Singapore (Chookajorn 1982; Cocheprovide an Indonesian family three fish of about 1982; Hai and Zwieg 1987). Net production in no-250 grams every day. The cages were durable, last- feed cage culture for tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus

ing more than two years in the reservoir (six cycles, and 0. mossambicus) ranges from 0.3 to 7.5 kilo-three per year in 1987-89) with minor repairs. grams per cubic meter, and for the Chinese silver

Low-cost, one-cubic-meter mini-cage models and bighead carp from 0.6 to 2.8 kilograms. Fish

were developed in Indonesia. by Schmittou (1992). culture periods range from 72 to 180 days for tilapiaThe total capital costs of such a cage were estimated and 72 to 420 days for Chinese carp.

at Rp 40,000, and the common carp production Successful extensive cage aquaculture requiresachieved was 200 kilograms per cage every three that cages be sited in rich water bodies where con-

months. The net income per cage (with interest) centrations of plankton and detrital and suspendedwas estimated at Rp 112,000. organic matter are adequate to support fish that are

These cage aquaculture models have tremen- confined to small spaces and have nonspecific,dous potential to attract poor villagers with little filter-feeding habits. Eutrophic and hypereutrophiccapital into cage aquaculture. The mini-cage mod- water bodies are therefore excellent locations.

els could also serve as economic and biotechnicalprecursors to larger business ventures by small Pen culture

farmers. At the Saguling Reservoir many who

owned small cages eventually saved enough of their A pen culture system consists of an enclosed area ofearnings to become commercial cage owners. shallow water, usually a cove, backwater, or bay shel-

tered from strong winds. Netting is attached toExtensive cage culture of Chinese carp and tilapia. stakes (wood, bamboo, or metal) driven into the

Prospective sites for cage culture are normally con- reservoir bottom. Pens require a flat reservoir bot-sidered for their potential to sustain intensive cul- tom or one that slopes toward the main part of theture in which formulated feeds are given to fish reservoir and fairly stable water levels.

25

FROM FARNIERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DANIs

Most fish pens are operated as semi-intensive developed markets for fingerlings and market-size

aquaculture systems: they are fed, fertilized, cleaned, fish.

and harvested regularly. In a well-developed aqua- A fully developed aquaculture production net-

culture production network, pens can serve multiple work is important not only because of the efficien-

purposes. They can be used to raise fish to market cies it generates, but also because of the importantsize. They can also be used to supply fingerlings to social and economic benefits that it produces. The

other aquaculture systems in the reservoir or to sys- development of such a network is an evolutionary

tems outside the reservoir. And, if operated as a process-even in Asia, where aquaculture is mosthatchery, they can be used to conserve and enhance advanced. The network grows and changes shape as

reservoir capture fisheries populations. Seeded with new production systems and market linkages arise

large broodstock, pens produce small fish (recruits) to meet new demands. This process is illustrated bythat can "leak out" through the meshes and colonize the evolution of an aquaculture production net-

the reservoir, enhancing capture fisheries. work for common carp in the Bandung regency of

Pen systems are successful only where there are WestJava.

no large fluctuations in water levels such as those In West Java the traditional aquaculture pro-

that occur in reservoirs associated with hydropower duction network for common carp, dating to aboutdams. For example, as a result of the routine 15-20- 1910, linked pond hatchery systems to rice-fish

meter drops in water level in the Saguling Reservoir, nursery systems and family ponds for grow-out (fig-

leading to an unacceptably high risk of crop losses, ure 7). While urban markets provided a demand forpen systems did not develop there, even though large fish (0.5 kilogram or more), the demand in

they were demonstrated to farmers. To avoid fish traditional markets in the rice-growing regions was

kills due to rapid drawdowns, additional canals and for fish ofjust 50-200 grams. Most of the fish froma sump pond were dug into the bottom of pens near rice fields was sold in local markets for local con-

the fence. As water drained from the pen, fish were sumption, but family ponds also produced large fishdirected by the canals into a sump pond. for sale in the cities (Costa-Pierce 1992d).

Nevertheless, after the first few years rapid draw- By 1976 the technical and economic feasibility

downs led to the stranding and loss of fish, and of intensive culture of common carp in concretefarmers moved to other, less risky aquaculture raceway systems had been demonstrated. These sys-systems. tems proved profitable, and by 1985 more than

5,000 running water systems were operating. FishAquaculture production networks markets expanded with the increased demand from

a rapidly growing population. At the same time,

An aquaculture production network comprises the running water systems created increased demand

inputs, supplies, and markets that sustain an aqua- for fingerlings of 80-100 grams. This demand was

culture system. Such networks range from isolated, not matched by an expansion in the rice-fish nurs-

undeveloped networks to segmented, integrated, ery systems, however, and fingerling shortages andand highly developed systems. Well-developed, seg- price increases occurred.mented aquaculture industries have distinct hatch- During the late 1970s and 1980s pesticide use onery, nursery, and grow-out sectors, with markets for rice skyrocketed in Indonesia, which at that time

farm-raised fish of all sizes. In the most under- purchased about 20 percent of the world's ricedeveloped networks single farmers (or farm fami- insecticide. By the early 1980s traditional practices

lies) must invest in and manage their own hatchery, of fish culture in rice fields nearly disappeared. The

nursery, and grow-out systems and raise fish of all small fish traditionally marketed in the rice-growingsizes, though marketing only large fish (food fish). areas became scarce, and rural people were

Indonesia, the Philippines, and Thailand have deprived of a vitally important, low-cost, traditional

highly segmented aquaculture industries and well- source of protein.

26

RESERVOIR CULTURE FISHERIES

By 1986 the popularity of running water systems aquaculture grew dramatically in the Sagulingwas on the decline as a result of management fail- Reservoir from 1986 to 1990 and in the Cirata

ures, rising feed and fingerling prices, and declin- Reservoir after 1989 (Sutandar and others 1990),ing fish prices. In addition, the higher profitability leading to substantial new fish production from theand lower capital costs of floating cages in reservoirs two reservoirs, estimated at 10,000 tons a year by thehad been successfully demonstrated. Owners of end of 1992.

reservoir cages began to undercut owners of run- During this period Indonesia's rice sector hadning water systems, exacerbating their financial two massive outbreaks of brown plant hopper pests,problems. Dramatic changes occurred in the aqua- and the resistance of rice pests to a number of com-culture production network. monly applied broad-spectrum pesticides increased

Fish markets expanded with continued popula- significantly. As a result, a 1986 presidential decreetion growth, but the number of registered running banned the use of 57 broad-spectrum pesticides onwater systems fell by more than 50 percent. Cage rice. These events in the rice sector, combined with

Figure 7 An aquaculture production network is a dynamic system

Hatc he ~ _ _ _ _ _ Rce fs _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ ]1910-76 s Ms sy M Pod Markets

1976-85 te her

98 Hatchery Rice-fish~ ~ ~~wate16- systems systems

(RWS) /

n s

196 _ Mssstm

The figure shows the historical development of the aquaculture production network for common carp in West Java, Indonesia.Between 19 10 and 1976 a traditional network developed in which rice-fish systems supplied seed fish for grow-out in family pondsand fish for local consumers in the rice-growing districts. Between 1976 and 1985 fish markets grew as a result of the rapidpopulation growth in West Java, and ponds and rice-fish systems increased in number. Running water systems were introduced,increasing the demand for seed fish and contributing to the growth in rice-fish and pond nurseries. The production of small fish forlocal markets declined. The year 1 986 marked the beginning of a period of continuing change. Demand for freshwater fish continuedto grow, but the number of traditional fish ponds remained relatively constant because of urbanization, and the number of runningwater systems dropped sharply. The rapid development of reservoir cage culture created new demand for seed fish, boosting thegrowth of rice-fish nurseries, which still supplied a small amount of fish to local consumers. How will the network evolve? Thedashed lines indicate possible future directions of development.

Source: Costa-Pierce 1992d.

27

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

the increased demand for seed fish for stocking cage cage area to reservoir area is 1 to 500 (Un,grow-out systems, led to a sharp increase in the area Guggenheim, and Costa-Pierce forthcoming). Afterdevoted to rice-fish culture in West Java and to an measuring the biological oxygen demand (BOD) ofexpansion of pond hatcheries (Costa-Pierce 1992d). concentrated fish wastes settling from carp cage cul-

Many of the changes in WestJava's aquaculture ture in the Saguling Reservoir, the Institute ofproduction network have proceeded with little Ecology (IOE) and the International Center forplanning, occurring largely as a result of shifting Living Aquatic Resources Management (ICLARM)market forces. The planning to develop cage aqua- recommended that cage aquaculture in thatreservoirculture in the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs in be limited to four 7 x 7 meter cages per hectare, orconnection with the resettlement, in particular, 22,640 cages, a 1 to 50 ratio (IOE and ICLARM 1989).gave little attention to the tremendous potential The carrying capacity of cages in a reservoir willboost to overall regional development that the care- be higher with higher throughput or waterfully planned development of a sophisticated aqua- exchange rates, as in a hydropower reservoir.

culture production network can provide. Even so, Although there are no reports available indicatingthe reservoir aquaculture development probably that reservoirs with high water exchange rates couldcreated far more indirect employment-jobs and support a higher number of intensive cage units,new business opportunities-in hatcheries, nurs- the IOE and ICLARM (1989) proposed this as a rea-eries, and rice-fish culture than direct employment sonable assumption.in the reservoir aquaculture industries.

Box 2 Combined uses of reservoirsCarrying capacity In many developing countries the primary or sec-

ondary use of reservoirs is as a supply of potableThere is a limit to the number of aquaculture units water. In theory there are no conflicts between fish-

that a body of water can support before self- eriesandcommunitywatersupplies, sincewatersuit-pollution or negative feedback occurs, reducing the able for drinking is excellent for fish production and

vice versa. In Singapore bighead carp (Aristichthysproductivity of aquaculture activities. This limit-or nobilis) are kept in cages as biological control agents

carrying capacity-is reached more quickly by in drinking water reservoirs (Chookajorn 1982).intensively managed units receiving large amounts The fish, which receive neither feed nor fertilizer,

of high-protein feed. are used solely to control noxious algal blooms thatcontribute to taste and odor problems.

Some work has been done to measure the effects But excessive aquaculture development can have

of different types of semi-intensive and intensive detrimental effects on the quality of reservoir and

cage culture on the water quality of reservoirs lake water. Although there have been few studies of(Beveidge 984; ostaPierc and oem 190). this issue in the Tropics, Beveridge and Phillips(Beveridge 1984; Costa-Pierce and Roem 1990). (1993) have theorized that cage aquaculture that

Costa-Pierce (1992b) found that the environmental exceeds the absorptive capacity of its aquatic ecosys-impact of cage culture in the Saguling Reservoir was tem will lead to noxious algal blooms and weed prob-insignificant compared with the impact of the lems, degrading water quality. In India, however,

nearly all reservoirs are used for both drinking water150,000 cubic meters of raw sewage discharged into and fisheries, even when their main purposes are irri-

the reservoir each day, the impact of turnovers that gation and hydropower. For example, in the Poondibring nutrients previously locked in the bottom Reservoir in Tamil Nadu, a drinking water reservoir,waters to the surface, and the impact of routne fluc- productive capture fisheries have been developed

-with no detrimental effect on water quality; in fact,tuations in water level (box 2). the reservoir's water quality is well within World

Much less work has been done on the larger ques- Health Organization (WHO) standards (Sounder,tion of the limits that self-pollution by cages puts on Franklin, and Sreenivasan 1971; Sreenivasan 1977).

The development of fisheries in drinking water reser-the number of cages per unit of surface area or water voirs is not permitted everywhere, however, and is

volume. Most guidelines are arbitrary. In Chinese banned in China, for example.

reservoirs, for example, the recommended ratio of

28

RESERVOIR CULTuRE FISHERIES

Site selection for cage aquaculture due to turnover events, that are subject to landslides

during heavy rains, or that receive organic, chemi-

The site selected for cage aquaculture is an impor- cal, or industrial discharges should be avoided. In

tant determinant of business success or failure. The choosing a site, temperature, oxygen, and pHmain criteria for site selection are technical and should be measured two to three times a week dur-

social. For a producer, the best site is one in which ing the onset of the rainy season (for four to eight

the chosen species will reach optimum market size weeks) at 4:00 to 6:00 a.m. to determine the suit-in the shortest possible time and can be readily sold ability of the site during this most critical period.

at a high price in an open market. Technical factorsto consider in site selection include these: The social factors to consider in site selection

* Exposure. A site should be sheltered from include the following:

strong winds, storms, and damaging waves yet have * Marketing. Marketing costs should be kept as

relatively constant winds and waves to provide reg- low as possible. In this regard, the best site is one toular flushing. Interviews with local residents can which buyers can easily come to make direct pur-

help in identifying storm patterns, unusual weather, chases and where there is good infrastructure for

and the directions of seasonal winds. Sites sur- transporting products from the site.rounded by land whose topography will channel * Vandalism and theft. Sites should be located in

storm winds and waves should be avoided. areas that can be easily guarded and are free from* Flushing. Relatively sheltered bays connected to social unrest.

a river, a tributary, or an inlet that ensures good flush- * Political and legalfactors. Sites should be accept-ing rates (high water renewal rates) are excellent able to local and other authorities and involve min-

sites for cage aquaculture. Sites in hydropower reser- imal legal or regulatory complexity and associatedvoirs with high water exchange rates are preferred. costs.

a Basin morphometry. In a reservoir subject to * Costs and availability of services. Sites should be

turnover events the shape of the bottom can either in areas where capital and operating costs and ser-prevent or facilitate the rapid movement of deoxy- vices will allow profitability and where there is tra-

genated bottom water to the surface. In the ditional knowledge of complex agricultural systemsSaguling Reservoir, which experiences annual and knowledge of hydrobiological and irrigationturnover events, cages in bays protected from the systems.

wind and with V-shaped bottoms were unaffected by * Cultural and aesthetic acceptability. Sites for cageturnovers, but cages in unprotected bays with U- aquaculture systems should be culturally and aes-shaped (or plate-shaped) bottoms all experienced thetically acceptable to the community. Ensuringcatastrophic fish kills. that a system fits into the local environment and is

* Water quality. For semi-intensive and intensive a source of community pride is preferable to con-cage culture, sites in which there have been fish kills tinually battling special interest groups.

29

An ecosystems approach to planningreservoir fisheries

Integrated fisheries ecosystems can be adapted to a Organic pollution as a misplaced resourcewide range of environmental and social conditions.

A pictorial representation of an integrated system In Asia hydropower and irrigation reservoirs

incorporating fisheries and aquaculture, drawdown increasingly are being located near the urban areasagroforestry, aquaculture production networks, they serve in order to reduce the costs of power and

and land-based markets illustrates the range of pos- water transmission. Because most Southeast Asiansibilities for new productive enterprise that can be nations lack adequate means of sewage disposal,developed to revitalize a society and its economic storage reservoirs near major urban areas generally

and ecological systems (figure 8). The system receive large loads of untreated sewage.depicted in the figure is modeled on a development For most Asian nations, diverting this sewage

plan for fisheries ecosystems in the Saguling-Cirata stream into centralized sewage treatment facilities is

hydropower reservoirs in WestJava, Indonesia. not a solution they will be able to afford at any time

There are few models of reservoir ecosystems in the near future (Edwards 1992). If the sewagethat have been designed in this way-as interactive stream is untainted by heavy industrial or chemicalland-water ecosystems with the aim of increasing pollution, an alternative solution is to divert the

the social and economic benefits. Nor has any plan- diluted sewage stream into simple oxidation ponds

ning system been devised for developing reservoir for fish culture, as has been successfully done infisheries and aquaculture as part of a fully devel- Calcutta, India (Edwards and Pullin 1990). More

oped aquaculture production network or an overall than 24,000 people are employed in Calcutta'sregional development plan. sewage-fed fisheries, which send about 20 tons of

An ecosystems management approach provides fish a day to the city's markets, 10-20 percent of the

the basis for planning the integrated development of fish consumed by the residents (Gosh 1990).

reservoir fisheries and aquaculture. Sustainable fish- Organic pollution from runoff, nutrients, anderies require inputs from outside the reservoir system sewage was also a problem in the Saguling Reservoir

(seed fish, feed, capital), which in turn produce out- in Indonesia. As the Citarum River coursed throughputs that are of value outside the system or as inputs the city of Bandung, it picked up a large organic

for the system itself. Numerous recycling pathways are nutrient load and water hyacinths. The river,evident in such a system. Depending on local condi- dammed downstream by the Saguling hydropowertions, more pathways can be designed to enhance the dam, delivered the nutrients and weeds to the

productivity and sustainability of the new, evolving, northeastern sector of the reservoir.productive enterprise systems. An ecosystems Water hyacinths developed rapidly in the reser-

approach to planning can help fisheries benefit from voir. Alarmed, the Indonesian State Electric

the recycling pathways and can develop complemen- Company (PLN) undertook regular mechanicaltary economic uses of the reservoir and basin area. removal of the weeds and erected a weed boom, or

30

AN ECOSYSTEMS APPROACH To PLANNING RESERVOIR FISHERIES

Figure 8 Integrated fisheries systems open up a range of possibilities for employmentand environmental rehabilitation

TropicalFood fish rives,

Seed fish5

and recreational ~ ~ ~ ran re

nhanced \/

/rrigation hcfsheriesNo/e Figure imoeeonpens i 9 / Seed93.

approac proposed developing, with community fishees harness the fertiliziof t

involvement,/low-cost, aquatic plant and no-feed to both mitigtee pollution at a lowlcosnd

wedbrrierse t i p we h h ao s t t ductsand waste nutrient stream as \misplace o Smcmall-scaleage

thacoldeicoportedintnw,product Ehych goi village crafts

enterprise systems. A watehyainthfiltrwa lon,stongibersuiablefisheries

eoshuin trieLand-based

rnears the r hatcheries

Rce-fisu nW<F gerings

nurserieS

Note: Figure is modeled on the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs in 1 986-93

barrier, across the river to prevent downstream wastdeveloped,sbasedaon tilapiastocked at lowden-spread ofthe hyacinths. Neitheireffortwas effective. sity and filter-feeding Chinese carp (Costa-Pierce

An alternative solution based on an ecosystems and Hadikusumah 1995). The aquatic plants and

approach proposed developing, with community fisheries harness the fertilizing effects of the sewage

involvement, low-cost, aquatic plant and no-feed to both mitigate pollution at a low cost and produce

cage culture fisheries systems as nutrient filters and fish.

weed barriers. This solution used the aquatic plants The water hyacinths also supported the devel-

and waste nutrient stream as "rmisplaced" resources opment of small-scale cottage industries. Water

that could be incorporated into new, productive hyacinths growing in nutrient-laden waters produce

enterprise systems. A water hyacinth filter was long, strong fibers suitable for making garments,

erected at the point where the nutrient-laden water handbags, and shoes. Knowledge on fabricating

enters the reservoir, to capture nutrients and to uti- handbags from water hyacinth fibers in cottage

lize sunlight for productive purposes. Downstream industries was available in the town of Pekalongan,

from the water hyacinth filter no-feed cage culture in CentralJava.

31

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

Drawdown agriculture, agroforestry, and been expanding to meet the demand for bamboo

erosion control created by the new cage aquaculture industry. Each

7 x 7 meter fish production cage required 26 bam-

Besides fisheries, another element of an integrated boos for initial construction. About half the bam-land-water ecosystem is agriculture-livestock or boos needed replacement within two years, and all

crops-in the reservoir drawdown area. Most con- needed to be replaced within four years (Costa-ventional farming methods are unsuitable for the Pierce and Hadikusumah 1990). In 1993, with 1,062

drawdown area, however, especially for crops cages in operation, new bamboo forests had beenrequiring regular application of chemical fertilizers planted in many areas around Saguling and Cirata.and pest control methods. These forests undoubtedly are helping to control

Moreover, drawdown agriculture is unsuitable erosion and sedimentation in the watershed. Yet

for hydropower reservoirs where there is little pre- despite their presumably positive effects, no

dictability of the magnitude of drawdown. In the advance planning for the role of bamboo in thefirst few years after impoundment of the Saguling aquaculture ecosystems had been done.

Reservoir farmers attempted to grow rice and veg- In the drawdown area of Lake Kariba, in Zambia

etables in the fertile soils of the drawdown area. But and Zimbabwe, a grass (Panicum repens) was plantedafter the crops were repeatedly drowned, many that has the remarkable ability to remain alive even

farmers abandoned the area, which was then con- when submerged for many months. At reemer-verted to grazing land. gence, the grass recovers and flourishes, covering

Land above the drawdown area in Saguling, how- wide swaths of Lake Kariba's drawdown zone in a

ever, is being intensively cultivated with multiple rich, green carpet and helping to reduce wave ero-

crops. Farmers report that easy access to water sion. During the dry season thousands of animalsensures them a crop even when farmers elsewhere from the savannah come to the drawdown area to

suffer from drought. Farmers also take advantage of graze, leaving tons of manure. The manure fertil-

the highly fertile soil in the drawdown area, moving izes both the grass and the large reservoir's pro-

it to the land they cultivate above the drawdown area. ductive littoral zone. A herbivorous tilapia (Tilapia

Bamboo forests have been established above the rendalli) was introduced to utilize the new feeding

high-water mark of the reservoir, and they have area (Caulton 1977).

32

Economic and sociological issues of resettlement

From a national perspective, hydropower is a clean enormous problems as a result of the displaced peo-

energy source, tainted only by its environmental ple's loss of their traditional homes and land-and social impacts. From the perspective of the including cultural, economic, and mental and

rural communities affected, however, hydropower physical health-related problems. There areinvolves sacrifices that are not equally shared: increasing reports of violence and social upheaval.

Urban people get cheaper power, rural people get The problems arising from resettlement aredisplaced. Asia, with most of the world's medium- complex. They require clear thinking about the bal-

size hydropower reservoirs and high population ances that need to be achieved and the processes

density in rural areas, has undertaken most of the that will be used to reestablish the economic healthworld's reservoir-related resettlement efforts (De of communities and the health of the environment.Silva 1988a). For example, as originally planned, at Every development effort has both positive and250 meters high, the Pa Mong dam in the Lao negative aspects-both winners and losers. ThePeople's Democratic Republic (west of Vientiane) challenge is to include as many segments of soci-would have inundated 3,700 square kilometers of ety-rich and poor-as possible, to call attention toland and displaced about 250,000 people in that gender-related biases, and to ensure that the bene-

country and Thailand (Hiebert 1991). A study of 39 fits of development are shared as equitably as pos-

dam projects in Asia financed by the World Bank in sible. Planning for new land-water ecosystems may

1979-85 showed that they displaced about 750,000 be the most rational approach for meeting these

people in 27 countries (Cernea 1989). Cernea challenges.(1991) cites studies from China and India indicat-ing that dam projects in these countries may have Planning for resettlement fisheriesdisplaced up to 30 million people over the past 40years. Resettlement requires large expenditures and a

Resettlement has the following characteristics: commitment to a long-term process that must be

It is compulsory-people must move or be moved. incorporated into the plans for a dam and reservoirIt involves entire communities-young and old, project at the initial stages. In the 1970s many reset-

conservative and liberal. It is a process that begins tlement efforts were not initiated until construction

with rumors and ends only when people are finally or engineering preparations for the dam had

settled in their new homes. It involves dismantling begun. Governments' and lenders' lack of knowl-

the production systems on which people depend edge about and experience with resettlement led to

for their incomes and livelihood. And it involves a huge underestimate of the time needed to ade-stresses that increase the incidence of disease quately (and peacefully) resettle people. The result

(Goldsmith and Hilyard 1984 and 1986). In densely was crash programs laden with tension and conflictpopulated rural Asia the damming of a river creates and the movement of thousands of displaced

33

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

people to new areas where, in many cases, the * Restoringproductionsystemsonasustainable

extant land-water ecosystems could not support basis.

them. As a result of these experiences, the World * Establishing communication links to support

Bank has drawn up guidelines for projects it sup- participation by communities.ports that involve resettlement (box 3). * Implementing an integrated regional devel-

There is no one solution or set of solutions to opment plan for ecosystems and human systems.the technical, social, cultural, ecological, and finan- * Developing a long-term monitoring and eval-cial challenges of resettlement. The major chal- uation process.lenges are these:

Initiating and timing resettlement programs. Resettlement plans should be initiated so as tocoincide with any serious negotiations on physical

works. They should include a detailed environ-Box 3 World Bank guidelines for resettlement mental impact assessment, covering all major

Cernea (1988) has reviewed the issues of involuntary aspects of the ecological and social impacts of reset-resettlement for the World Bank and developed tlement. They should also include studies of thetechnical checklists for preparing, appraising, mon- local traditonal food systems, health status, educa-itoring, and evaluating resettlement plans, andguidelines for economic and financial analyses of tion, housing, land use, social structure, andproject components addressing resettlement. The administration. Preinvestment feasibility studieskey objective in all Bank-supported resettlement is to should include:provide displaced families with the means to restorelost incomes. Thus, developing new production * Adescriptionofthestatusofthecommunitiessources is the core requirement. In land-scarce Asia based on ecological, agricultural, water, and fish-meeting this objective requires innovative thinking. eries surveys.

The World Bank requires completion of a reset- * Demographic studies.tlement plan that details the government's responsi-bilities, the resettlers' participation, and aspects * Assessment of the health status of the popula-concerning the host populations. The objective of tion and the possibilities of disease transmission.the World Bank is to: * A land inventory and a description of land use

help the borrowing country ensure that, after a and soil capabilities.transition period, the displaced people regain * A description of the communities' traditionalat least their previous standard of living andthat, so far as possible, they be economically knowledge systems and the innovativeness, abilities,and socially integrated into the host communi- and education status of those to be resettled.ties. In pursuing such integration, the majorobjective is to ensure that settlers are afforded * A description of the traditional farming andopportunities to become established and eco- fishing ecosystems using participatory approaches.nomically self-sustaining in the shortest possi-ble period, at living standards that at leastmatch, and if possible improve upon, those Part of the reason for the frequent failure ofbefore resettlement. (Cernea 1988, p. 19) resettlement projects is the fundamentally different

The World Bank's operational directive requires premises held by project personnel and the peoplethat resettlement plans who are displaced. Governments tend to impose

incorporate three distinct sets of activities con- their plans, neglect to take the time to establishcerning: (i) the preparation of the affected . . .groups for the transfer; (ii) the transportation of meanigful dialogue with communities to accu-the displaced to the new site; (iii) the integration rately identify their concerns, and fail to make theof the displaced into the new community. displaced people aware of the range of new oppor-Preparation of the resettlement component mayrequire expertise in many disciplines, and tunities opened to them by the new reservoirs andshould normally involve the on-site services of at new land-water ecosystems.least one sociologist/anthropologist, preferably Community participation needs to be givenfrom the country, and a specialist in resettle-ment. (Cernea 1988, p. 35) more than lip service. Mechanisms to involve the

communities to be displaced should be initiated

34

ECONOMIC AND SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES OF REsETTLEMENT

well before any physical works (Cernea 1988). The * Recognizes all parties involved in the riverlonger-term social goals of a reservoir and dam are basin development: the people affected, their insti-

nearly always unclear to those who will be most tutions, arbitrators, nongovernmental organizations,

affected by them. Conflicts arise when the goals of and local, provincial, and national governments.a dam are articulated only in economic terms, and Every effort must be made to establish an inclusivein a way that implies that the dam and reservoir pro- setting. Existing institutions need to be evaluated

ject will involve only sacrifice for the communities beforehand to see whether they need strengthening

affected. to carry out a comprehensive, participatory planning

Dams need to be explained within the broader process, or whether a special agency needs to be cre-

context of the future development needs of these ated, such as a river basin commission.

communities and the needs for rehabilitating and * Recognizes the equal importance of the engi-

enhancing ecosystems. Local resettlement plans neering, social, and environmental aspects of theshould be a part of overall government plans for project, and establishes a commission that incorpo-regional and rural rehabilitation and development. rates the dam and reservoir project and its impacts

Resettlement needs to be explained to those into a regional development and management planaffected not as a win-lose situation that can be for the local society and environment.addressed through simple compensation, and not * Establishes trust in a process of participatory

solely in terms of the benefits to the nation as a consultation before any engineering works or otherwhole, but also in terms of local benefits, local actions are initiated, and establishes written work-

development, and localjobs. ing agreements for the parties involved that detailSimple monetary compensation for displaced the process, the requirements from the different

people is not an optimal solution for resettlement parties, the reporting structure, and the processesif the means exist to restore natural ecosystems, to for resolving conflicts and reporting their resolu-

preserve traditional knowledge in ecosystem man- tion. Such a consultative process is not a one-timeagement, and to create methods of developing new, event, but a continual, evolving activity.integrated land-water enterprise systems that can * Determines project objectives holistically, tak-intensify the use of the new reservoir ecosystem and ing into consideration engineering, management,

help to restore or improve the economic and social social, resettlement, and environmental aspectsconditions of those displaced. (figure 9).

9 Develops cost-benefit analyses of develop-A consultative process ment programs and social and environmental

restoration and rehabilitation programs.Planning to incorporate fisheries ecosystems and * Considers new opportunities, tradeoffs, andintegrated land-water enterprises into hydropower constraints, then produces strategies for optimizingand irrigation projects must be done at the projects' and mitigating the outcomes of decisions.

design stage. But this kind of planning does not * Determines priorities.occur anywhere, probably because of the extra time * Reexamines its decisions and priorities in theand money required to establish effective commu- light of the original project objectives and revisesnication links across professional groups not nor- them-and the objectives-as agreed to be

mally associated-engineers, sociologists, biologists, necessary.and environmentalists.

Developing integrated reservoir fisheries ecosys- A five-phase planning process

tems requires establishing a process for preparingplans that detail the range and complexity of the Each river basin development project is unique,

problems. The key is to formulate new links and and its coordination and planning must be adaptedestablish a consultative process that: to the local environment and social and economic

35

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMs

Figure 9 A consultative process is needed that puts social, environmental, and engineering objectiveson an equal footing

Dammanagement

* Electricity* Irrigation* Flood control

Social aspects Cost-benefit analysesDetermination

of project * Impact analyses * Socialobjectives * Preservation * Economic

* Restoration * Environmental* Enhancement

Environmentalaspects

* Impact analyses* Conservation* Rehabilitation ,* Enhancement Decisions/optimization

* Tradeoffs* Constraints

Priority setting

Reexamina=ton * Dam management* Social concems* Environmental concems

systems. Planning requires close, continuous inter- Phase 2: formulating an integrated development

action with the people affected and with the local and management plan for land and water ecosys-

decisionmaking and political processes. A five- tems to support local resettlement. This phase

phase planning process is envisaged for incorporat- occurs after the decision has been made at appro-ing fisheries ecosystems into a long-term regional priate government levels to proceed with the pro-development plan for resettlement from river basin ject. During this phase an implementation plan for

projects. integrated reservoir fisheries ecosystems is devel-

oped, at the same time as plans for dam engineer-

Phase 1: preparing background studies, feasibil- ing and construction.

ity studies, reports on the social and political status Formulating a local resettlement plan that

of the affected communities, and preliminary rec- develops alternative livelihoods-such as inte-

ommendations. Phase 1 studies should document grated fisheries ecosystems-is a lengthy process

the society's organization, community traditions that should begin before planning for engineering

and practices, government structures, and relevant works. Delaying planning for local resettlement and

laws, regulations, policies, and responsibilities. The for integrated reservoir ecosystems until dam con-

studies should use rapid appraisal techniques to struction begins leaves too little time for the plan-evaluate major natural, agricultural, and economic ning process and for creating the web of essential

systems and their forms and functions in society. connections to the communities affected.

The goal is to come up with a preliminary set of rec-ommendations addressing the major issues and pri- Phase 3: involving community leaders and

orities for action. The work in this phase is crucial groups in formulating and assessing plans and con-

in determining the possible impacts of the project. tracting with or forming nongovernmental organi-

36

ECONOMIC AND SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES OF RESET-TLEMENT

zations (NGOs) to assist in the project. This phase Resettlement in Saguling and Ciratais often the missing link in resettlement, especially through intensification of integratedwhere governments tend to shroud projects in tech- land-water ecosystemsnical details. As Cernea (1991) states, "forced pop-ulation displacement, even by size alone, is the most Construction of the Saguling and Cirata dams in

significant variable in river basin development. Yet 1986 and 1988 displaced more than 120,000 peoplecurrent thinking and planning patterns do not rec- in WestJava, Indonesia. In 1986, with funding from

ognize it adequately, either in terms of its magni- the World Bank, ICLARM and the IOE undertooktude and real costs, or ... in terms of its social a collaborative project to develop integrated fish-

consequences" (p. 8). Too often, active community eries and aquaculture options as a means of socialparticipation in planning for the livelihoods of the and environmental rehabilitation. Extension, train-

displaced people, and for rural roads, electrifica- ing, and research were conducted to resettle 3,000tion, potable water, sanitation systems, and food families (1,500 each in Saguling and Cirata) inproduction, is given only lip service. Little attention reservoir cage aquaculture or fisheries-related

is paid to setting aside adequate funding to create industries (Costa-Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990b).

new community structures that can regularly evalu- The project was the first to examine in detail the

ate and, if necessary, redirect resettlement efforts. potential role of fisheries in a resettlement effortForming NGOs that include community leaders associated with a tropical hydropower project. Its

can be an important part of this interactive process. results demonstrate the potential social and envi-But these new organizations must consider the com- ronmental benefits of reservoir fisheries develop-

munity relationships with the new ecosystems cre- ment when holistic ecosystems development andated. They must also be adequately funded and management approaches are pursued with appro-

supported in their attempts to establish new priate institutional support and developmentprocesses for discussion and compromise. assistance.

Progress in developing the integrated fisheriesPhase 4: preparing progress reports, including enterprises has been excellent. By the end of 1992

reassessing plans and charting progress through the cage aquaculture systems in the Saguling and Cirata

stage in which the reservoir fills and the ecosystem Reservoirs (flooded in 1985 and in 1988) employedis unstable. This phase focuses on monitoring the an estimated 7,527 people (1,162 owners and 6,365

society and the new ecosystems during what is for workers). In 1992 cage aquaculture systems pro-

both the most critical stage of the project. In this duced 10,047 tons of fish-compared with an esti-phase the best-laid plans can go seriously awry mated 10 tons a year produced from the original

unless a system of rapid assessment, reporting, and river fisheries in 1985 (figure 10).

communication is established. The agreed-on The fish production from the reservoirs was esti-process for resolving conflicts must be in place mated to have increased the fish supply entering the

before this phase. greater Bandung district, an area of more than 3

million people, by more than 25 percent. At the endPhase 5: reevaluating and, if necessary, reformu- of 1989 revenue from fish was estimated at Rp 5 bil-

lating the resettlement plan after a period of moni- lion a year, some 2.6 times the estimated Rp 1.9 bil-

toring and ofdrawing lessons during the stabilization lion in revenue from the 2,250 hectares of riceof the reservoir and from operational experience flooded by the dam (IOE and ICLARM 1989; see

with the new ecosystems and the dam and other box 4).major structures. During this operational phase the In 1985 the Institute of Ecology of Padjadjaran

integrated reservoir fisheries ecosystems are devel- University conducted a study of Saguling that

oping rapidly and institutional structures are adapt- showed that after relocation, the incomes of dis-ing or need to adapt to cope with the changes. placed families were 49 percent lower and their

37

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

Figure 10 Resettlement fisheries grew rapidly in the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs

Saguling Reservoir Cirata ReservoirFish production Fish production(thousands of metric tons) Cage owners (thousands of metric tons) Cage owners6 Productio 800 8 600

5 500ovgeowners 4 600 6

4 400

3~~~~~~~~~~~02 ~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~~200

~~ ~, ~ 200 2 0

100

1986 1987 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993 1988 1989 1990 1991 1992 1993

Source: Reservoir Fisheries Technical Unit, West Java Provincial Fisheries Service.

land ownership was 47 percent lower (IOE 1985). prise systems that use as much as possible the rich

In 1989 an IOE study of those displaced from Cirata traditional knowledge base in these rural

found that 59 percent had higher incomes after communities.relocation and 21 percent were worse off (IOE Resettlement necessitated by the construction

1989). of a reservoir involves a dramatic shift from a pre-

Most of the displaced people who have dominantly land-based agricultural society to a

increased their incomes and status in the water-based fisheries society. But in many parts of

Saguling-Cirata project have been participants (as Asia people have traditionally integrated fisheries

owners or workers) in the resettlement strategy, into complex agricultural and ecological systems towhich has focused on intensifying and integrating meet their needs. Integrated reservoir fisheries

uses of the reservoir surface and surrounding ecosystems have flourished in the Saguling-Cirata

land to develop new, interactive land-water ecosys- region of Indonesia, where as many new jobs were

tems (Soemarwoto 1990; Sutandar and others created in spin-off or support industries as in the

1990). Such environmentally oriented resettle- new fisheries enterprises.

ment efforts fully utilize the new water surface for The examples of Saguling and Cirata show that

aquaculture and fisheries, and develop support- under the right conditions, integrated fisheries

ing production, economic, and infrastructure sys- development can greatly enhance the economic

tems to support this industry and to promote the and social benefits from hydropower and irrigation

recycling of resources from one local enterprise to projects in some developing countries. The successanother. This option is especially attractive in of integrated fisheries development in providing

Asia, where a majority of the people rely on fish as alternative livelihoods for those displaced by new

their main source of animal protein and where a reservoirs is best proved by the actions of thosewealth of knowledge exists on traditional water affected. During the early 1990s reports were

resources management practices and on both tra- received at regional fisheries offices at the reser-

ditional and modern aquaculture technologies. voirs that many of those who migrated from the

A comprehensive fisheries ecosystems devel- areas in 1986-88 have returned. These people were

opment and management approach to resettle- attracted by reports of better economic and living

ment fosters close interaction with the affected conditions due in part to the opportunities offeredcommunities to extract technologies that have by the new land-water ecosystem and integrated

been traditionally proven and adapted to the new fisheries systems developed at Saguling and Cirata

resource base and to create new productive enter- (Effendi 1992).

38

ECONOMIC AND SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES OF RESETrLIMENT

achieved as much as in the nearby SagulingReservoir, where fish production was about 2,500

The Saguling dam, a high dam intended for peak- tons a year, and their successes were being widelyload power generation, was completed in 1985 at acost of $665,897,000, and Cirata, a lower dam for disseminated by word of mouth among the dis-base-load power, was completed in 1986 for placed people (Costa-Pierce 1992a). A large exten-$565,000,000. Revenue from sales of Saguling's elec- sion and training effort for displaced residents fromtricity consistently exceeded $500,000 a day in 1992 Cirata had been under way since 1986. The success(Supramoto 1993). Under a conservative assump-tion that this revenue could be sustained for 200 days at Saguling prompted 70 percent of the displaceda year, Saguling is a very profitable project with a pay- people at Cirata to relocate to the area around theback period of less than seven years. A similar sce- new reservoir and to take the risk of changing theirnario can be put together for Cirata.

Estimated 1992 fisheries revenue for Saguling and livelhoods. Only 26 percent of the people chose toCirata was $10.05 million (10,047 kilograms x Rp 2,000 migrate (IOE 1988).per kilogram at an exchange rate of Rp 2,000 to $1). As a result of the demonstrated successes atAssuming an annual revenue from electricity of $200 Saguling, fisheries development proceeded inmillion for Saguling and Cirata, fisheries generate only Cirata even more rapidly than the breathtakingan estimated 5 percent as much revenue as power gen-eration. pace at Saguling. From nearly zero in 1988, fish pro-

But when looked at from the standpoint of agri- duction reached 5,000 tons in 1992, produced byculture, the revenue from the reservoir fisheries is 469 owners (see figure 10).impressive. In 1984 the estimated revenue from the2,250 hectares of rice flooded by the Saguling dam The number of rice farmers at Cirata haswas $1.68 million, or $747 per hectare. At Cirata, declined and the number of cage aquaculture work-where the quality and price of rice are higher, a price ers and boat owners and drivers increased. Beforeof $1,000 per hectare is assumed (IOE 1987), andthe revenue from the 3,533 hectares lost is therefore the reservoir was iundated, male seasonal agricul-estimated at $3.53 million (IOE 1992). So the esti- tural workers would earn Rp 2,000 a day and womenmated loss of revenue from rice is $5.21 million a Rp 1,500 a day during a 36-day season. Many ofyear-just 52 percent of the estimated revenue gen- these workers now work as employees in the cageerated by only 1,062 aquaculture cages in 1992.

The IOE and ICLARM (1989) recommended that aquaculture industry, receivig Rp 20,000 per cage1 percent of the reservoir surface area (5,300 hectares a month. Those who manage a four-cage unitat Saguling and 6,200 at Cirata) be developed for cage (including a guardhouse) earn Rp 80,000 a month.aquaculture. That would mean 1 1,500 fish cages at the The IOE (1992) reports a wage difference betweenindustry's maturity. If each of these cages produced aconservative estimate of 3 tons a year (Costa-Pierce rice field workers and cage aquaculture workers ofand Hadikusumah 1990), the fisheries would generate Rp 56,000 a month.$34.5 million a year at 1992 prices. The integrated fisheries systems have increased

the number and diversity ofjobs and the number ofAccelerated learning in Cirata higher-paying jobs. The IOE (1992) documented

22 new types of jobs generated directly and indi-Construction of the Cirata hydroelectric power rectly by the new fisheries enterprises (table 3). New

plant began in 1983 and operations in 1988. The developments in tourism and a planned resort will

reservoir caused a loss of more than 50 percent of further increase job opportunities. In a 1992 sam-

the rice land in the area (IOE 1988). This loss ple of displaced people, 29 percent were employed

occurred in an area where the lack of growth in in jobs related to the new reservoir ecosystems (86

employmentin rice andvegetable cultivation was of percentof them men, 10percentwomen, 3 percent

major concern in the 1970s and the labor absorp- children; IOE 1992).

tion capacity was forecast as virtually nil (Collier, A split between young and old has occurred,

Hadikoesworo, and Saropie 1977). with most of the remaining traditional agricultural

But by 1988 reservoir fisheries operators, insti- systems managed by older people while young peo-

tutions, and extensionists in Cirata had already ple are more likely to invest in new, water-based fish-

39

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

Table 3 New employment opportunities and wages Inequitable distribution of the new aquacultureof people resettled at the Cirata Reservoir, 1992 enterprises and the concentration of available cap-(rupiah)

ital in the hands of a few result from a number of

Typae ofemployment ager 100 - 1 66,667 per month factors, including the preexisting landownershipFish cage mar.ager 100,000-166,667 per monthFish dealer 200,000 per month patterns, weak regulations and poor enforcement,Cage feeder 80,000 per month and the sale by local people of their resources forFull-time fisher(capture fisheries) 4,000-6,000 per day short-term gais or, i cases of extreme poverty, for

Raft fisher 24,000 per month basic survival.Part-time angler 120,000-168,000 per month At the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs the bene-Boat rower 72,000-120,000 per monthRaft operator 144,000-288,000 per month fits of the new cage aquaculture enterprises haveBarge driver 120,000-144,000 per month accrued mainly to those with relatively more capitalPublic transport driver 144,000 per monthStall keeper 120,000-720,000 per month and power. Most of the poorest displaced residents

Construction worker 840,000 per month are workers in the cage aquaculture industry rather

Snail collector 500 per kilogram than owner-operators controlling its development.Shrimp collector 1,000 per kilogram Equity problems have arisen despite legislationCage mover 35,000 per cage moved passed by the provincial government of West JavaNet retriever 35,000 per netFish middleman 10,000 per cage stipulating that the waters and drawdown areas ofBoat maker 150,000 per boat the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs were for theBoat driver -Drawdown agricultural worker - exclusive use of the people displaced from the inun-Tent maker - dated areas. The legislation specified that permits

- Not available. to enter the cage aquaculture industry were to beSource: IOE 1992.

issued by the West Java Provincial Fisheries

eries enterprises. A disporportionate share of the Department only to displaced people. Each dis-

cage aquaculture owners and employees are under placed family could obtain a permit to operate a

age 45. In a number of cases people have sold rice single-unit enterprise, defined as a maximum of

land to purchase cage enterprises. Many young peo- four 7 x 7 meter cages and a guardhouse.

ple have observed that cage aquaculture is easy and The legislation and permitting system to control

enjoyable work that allows much leisure time, in entry were not adequately enforced, however. IOE

contrast to the back-breaking toil in the rice and (1992) surveys found a few rich families operating

vegetable fields of their elders. more than 100 cages. According to 1992 records of

Since the inundation of the reservoir, new forms the Fisheries Department, 57 percent of permits

of community organization have arisen that are were given to displaced people and 43 percent to

knowledge-based, relying on skills and education. people not affected by the project. Cage owners

Fisheries cooperatives, schools, a labor service for from Bandung, Jakarta, Cianjur, and other cities

cage aquaculture, and a cage fish farmers organiza- were found operating in the reservoirs.

tion are active in Cirata. The intent of the legislation was undermined in

several ways. Fisheries officials issued permits to

Equity effects of resettlement fisheries people whose residence of record was the area of

the reservoir without requiring proof that they had

In developing reservoir fisheries ecosystems to sup- actually been displaced by the project. Some of the

port resettlement, user rights must be defined in a poorest of the displaced people sold their rights to

binding contract between an arbitrator (usually a outsiders on the condition that they would be

government authority), the developer (usually an employed as an aquaculture farm manager or

electric power or irrigation authority), and the peo- worker. Others developed cages in their own names

ple affected by the reservoir. It is difficult to ensure and then rented them to outsiders. And some fam-

equity among those who are resettled, however. ilies were able to subvert the regulations by claim-

40

ECONOMIC AND SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES OF REsETTLEMENT

ing that each family member, including all mem- capital from conventional sources because they

bers of the extended family, had a right to one unit lacked adequate collateral. In some cases land spec-

of cage aquaculture (four cages). Among the fami- ulation and inflation have played a part: with thelies that acquired more than 100 cages, some were higher prices caused by speculation, many could

able to diversify into the provision of feed, fish seed, only afford to buy a smaller piece of land than they

and credit and marketing services, gaining undue had owned before the reservoir was created (IOE

control over the new aquaculture industry. 1988).But the cause of the equity problems in the cage In a survey of 365 displaced residents in the

aquaculture industry extends beyond the use of Cirata Reservoir area, the IOE (1992) found that 20

connections to get permits. Land inundated by the percent owned cages. Among the 80 percent who

Cirata Reservoir was owned not only by local people did not, 91 percent reported that they did not have

but also by outsiders. The IOE (1992) estimated enough capital, and 76 percent of these respon-

that resettlement plans for Cirata involved the com- dents stated that they wanted to enter cage aqua-

pensation of 8,459 resident families and 2,593 non- culture once they had saved enough. For those

resident families that owned land in the area. There already in the industry, capital had come from com-was much less nonresident. landownership in pensation money (26 percent), returns on agricul-Saguling, probably because it is farther away from tural (3 percent) and nonagricultural ventures (16

the urban centers of Cianjur, Bogor, andJakarta. percent), loans (23 percent), savings (12 percent),

One way to adequately police the use of fisheries and sales of land (10 percent). Some of the moreresources is to fully privatize the rights to their use. entrepreneurial people had saved their compensa-In reservoirs, for example, exclusive, nontransfer- tion money, bought land, and then sold it and used

able permits to conduct cage aquaculture could be the proceeds to start new fisheries enterprises (IOEissued to families. Under such a scheme, originally 1992).

suggested by Munro, Iskandar, and Costa-Pierce Those who own cages could expect to earn an(1990) for privatizing Saguling's capture fisheries income of Rp 300,000-500,000 per cage every threeresources, permanent permits to conduct cage to six months. But owning cages-or working in the

aquaculture would be issued to a limited number of cage industry, as the poorest residents tend to do-families, determined by the ecological carrying turns out not to be the only way to profit from aqua-

capacity of the reservoir. Licenses would be valid for culture. The many fish lost from the cages duringthe lifetime of the head of the family and could not stocking and harvesting have led to the development

be sold or transferred without permission of the of significant capture fisheries for the poor who lackauthorities. No additional licenses would ever be access to capital for aquaculture. More than 580 dis-sold. All those who held licenses would know who placed poor people were found to be capture fishersthe other licensees were, so that responsibility for in 1992 (IOE 1992). They caught an average of 2.9policing the resources and determining abuses kilograms a day, earning Rp 5,040-5,800 a day from

would be theirs. Since outsiders could be readily this activity, more than the national minimum dailyidentified, policing would improve. wage.

Access to capital also has effects on the equity of The development of the Cirata Reservoir andaquaculture development. Even the low-cost cage the new fisheries enterprises has also had gender-aquaculture models developed by Costa-Pierce and related equity effects, causing a shift in employmentHadikusumah (1990) and others, and promoted patterns for men, women, and children. The IOEand recommended by the IOE and ICLARM (1989) (1988) reported that, before inundation, most res-

in their reservoir fisheries and aquaculture devel- idents were occupied in agriculture. But aopment plan for Saguling and Cirata, have proved November 1992 survey showed that while most men

too expensive for the poorest of the displaced resi- and children had moved into fisheries occupations,

dents. In addition, the poor could not get access to women had entered business as small shopkeepers

41

FROM FARMERS To FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMs

or were working as housewives (table 4). Many * High-tech aquaculture overtakes subsistence

women were unemployed. The cage aquaculture aquaculture, producing the wrong species at theoperations are considered largely "men's work," wrong time for the wrong people (Kent and

and opportunities to work in agriculture are limited Josupeit 1989).

because of the loss of more than 50 percent of the

productive agricultural land in the area. The reservoir region in Indonesia was found tohave surprisingly low average annual fish consump-

Nutritional impacts of resettlement fisheries tion: 5.8 kilograms per capita of fresh fish and 6.6

kilograms of salted fish (12.4 kilograms in total) inFish from reservoir fisheries can contribute to nutri- the Saguling area, and 8.0 kilograms per capita oftion directly, through their consumption, or indi- fresh fish and 3.8 kilograms of salted fish (11.8 kilo-

rectly, through their commodity value. Under some grams) in the Cirata area (Costa-Pierce 1992d). The

circumstances the poor will benefit more from national rate is 15.05 kilograms per capita a year.direct consumption of the fish; under others they The higher consumption of inexpensive, dried,will benefit more from selling the fish and using the salted ocean fish compared with fresh fish indicated

income to purchase food. The commodity value of that inadequate income was a limiting factor in fish

fish is important to poor communities that need to consumption in the 16 villages monitored.improve not only their nutritional status but also As Kent (1987) has pointed out, it is important

their overall quality of life (Kent 1987). to distinguish between development of fisheries toFisheries and aquaculture products may not increase production and development of fisheries

help in meeting nutritional needs when: to enhance their contribution to nutrition. It can be- Aquaculture products are exported. argued that in Indonesia's reservoir region the cage- Aquaculture products are consumed by the aquaculture industry benefited the poor by increas-

rich. ing their incomes and thus enabling them to pur-• Income from fisheries is diverted. chase a wider variety of food and improve their

- Fisheries operations take time and labor away nutrition. But it can also be argued that, because

from subsistence crops important to nutrition. almost all the large fish produced in the commer-

* Increased fish consumption results in cial cages were exported to urban areas, the indus-decreased consumption of other nutritionally try benefited the urban rich more.important foods. The truth lies somewhere between these two

extremes. The cage aquaculture industry in theTable 4 Survey respondents involved in neSw Saguling and Girata Reservoirs did provide moreoccupations at the Cirata Reservoir, by type ofemployment, November 1992 jobs at better pay and with better working condi-(percent) tions than had been available in agriculture before

Type of emp/oyment Men Women Children inundation. The increased employment and

Cage grow-out farrner 39 4 0 income certainly contributed to better livelihoodsHatchery farrner I 0 0 and possibly to improved nutrition. But it wasLaborer 30 4 50Feed broker 2 0 0 observed that poorer residents who operated cagesFish broker 2 4 0 sometimes purchased inexpensive, low-qualityFisher (capture fisheries) 14 0 0Boat owner 8 0 0 salted ocean fish rather than eat the higher-ualtyBoat driver 14 0 17 fresh fish from their cages. Large fish were con-Lhnd kransport worker 590 17 sumed only on special occasions, such as weddings

General laborer or peddler I I 0 17 and holidays. Moreover, the children of a few cageOther 0 27 0 operators exhibited nutritional deficiencies. When

Note: Numbers do not add to 100 percent because many people hold queried, these farmers admitted that they had soldmultple jobs.Source: IOE 1992. fish to purchase consumer goods and a vehicle.

42

ECONOMIC AND SOCIOLOGICAL ISSUES OF RESETLEMENT

The IOE and ICLARM (1989) observed that * A defined target group. Problems in "agenda set-although the poorest of the reservoir residents had ting" can make fisheries development projects go

little capital available for starting aquaculture oper- awry from the outset. One of the main questionsations, they were actively involved in capture fish- that must be addressed in defining clear objectiveseries. Given the preference of most of the poor for for a project is, Who and where is the primary tar-dried, salted ocean fish (Costa-Pierce 1992d), the get group (or groups)? In the Indonesian reservoirintroduction from Thailand of a small, open-water project the target group was clearly defined. Lists of(pelagic) freshwater sardine was proposed to family names with the addresses of the displacedimprove food security for these people (Costa- people were provided by the state electric company.Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990). * Ready availability of capital. Aquaculture gen-

In planning reservoir fisheries, it is essential to erally has a mixed to poor reputation amongconsider local preferences. Just as fish species are bankers and investors. Less well known than otherimportant consumer preferences in many areas, so agricultural enterprises, the business is widely con-is the size of fish. In most of Asia (excluding China) sidered excessively risky for all but investors withthe smallest fish are regularly prepared in many deep pockets. In the Indonesian project, however,

local cuisines. In some Asian cultures presenting investment capital was readily available from landlarge fish to a social gathering can have negative compensation money.

connotations: someone must get the head, some- * Lack of alternative employment opportunities. Inone the tail. rural Java, one of the most densely settled areas in

In a survey of 16 villages in WestJava 85 percent the world, existing agricultural activities couldof villagers reported preferring tilapia of 25-50 absorb little or no additional labor. With few alter-grams, and 71 percent common carp of 67-200 native rural employment opportunities, aquacul-grams, over larger fish (Costa-Pierce 1992d). It is ture was a promising new enterprise.fish of these sizes that the large majority of people * Rich local traditional fisheries knowledge. Thein Southeast Asia consume. innovative farmers in WestJava were quick to adopt

Sundanese people in West Java prefer small integrated fisheries ecosystems. The farmers had acommon carp to make a special steamed fish dish rich traditional knowledge of aquaculture, andknown as pepes ikan. Smaller tilapia are preferred for commonly raised fish in paddies in complex rota-frying and eating whole. The fish are prepared so tions with rice crops or in backyard family fishthat the bones either "disappear" (dissolved into ponds.the flesh by long boiling), or are made crisp. These * Large markets and social acceptability. There istraditional ways of preparing fish not only provide strong market demand for freshwater fish. Peoplehigh-quality fish protein but also yield important prefer freshwater over saltwater fish and are willingsources of calcium and phosphorus. to pay high prices. Fish provide about 70 percent of

the animal protein in the local diet and also play anLessons from Saguling and Cirata important part in the culture.

* Adequate infrastructure. The local and nationalEssential to the sustainable development of aquacul- governments developed an adequate transport sys-ture is having the supporting pillars in place-the tem that provided farmers with quick and readyseed, the feed, and the need. The availability ofinputs access to large urban markets.at an appropriate cost and quality and large market * Dendritic reservoir A dendritic reservoir (hav-demand for farm-raised freshwater fish have been key ing numerous arms or fingers), Saguling had manyin the success story of the Saguling and Cirata reser- deep, sheltered bays suitable for cage aquaculturevoir fisheries. Their development, and the use of fish- and high surface and volume contact with the sur-eries as a meaningful resettlement option, depended rounding land, which makes it a rich (eutrophic),on the presence of the following ingredients: productive aquatic ecosystem.

43

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

* Institutional agreements. Institutional agree- involved primarily as laborers, not owner-operators,ments supported technical assistance to the new vil- in the capital-intensive cage aquaculture industry.lages surrounding the reservoirs by the government, In Saguling, for example, rich traders from

the electric company, a university ecology institute, Bandung and Jakarta have been illegally edgingand fisheries organizations, leading to rapid tech- their way into the aquaculture industry (Rusydi andnological development and economic evaluations of Lampe 1990).

new models of productive aquaculture enterprises. * Institutional coordination. The Saguling-Cirata

* A developed, segmented aquaculture production fisheries projectwas not a model of institutional col-

network. Indonesian freshwater aquaculture is an laboration. The new working relationships and pro-

evolved, dynamic industry, clearly segmented into cedures created between disparate ministries and

hatchery, nursery, and grow-out sectors. The devel- line agencies for this short-term project are unlikely

opment of the grow-out cages resulted in a dynamic to be sustainable.

restructuring of the aquaculture production net- * Reservoir turnover events. Turnover events havework and lower-priced fish in the urban markets of occurred each year since Saguling was inundated.

Jakarta and Bandung. Interestingly, however, farmers continue to take the

* Ready availability of seed and feed. Large seed risk involved in raising fish. Interviews indicated thatmarkets and feed mills mean that production inputs because of fish shortages during the season whenare readily available in rural areas. turnovers occur (at the onset of the rainy season,

when the ocean is rough and the supply of ocean fishOffering equally important lessons for the devel- therefore declines), fish prices are higher and the

opment and management of reservoir fisheries are potential benefits more than offset the risk of fishthe problems that the Saguling-Cirata project has kills. Moreover, dead fish still have value; they can be

encountered: sold for 20-50 percent of the price of live fish,* Equity issues. There is a risk that the benefits of depending on their state of decomposition.

reservoir aquaculture development may eventually * Degradation of water quality. The increasingbe transferred away from the target group. When chemical pollution from the growing number ofthe cage culture industry began to take off, rich textile and chemical plants in the reservoir water-

people from Bandung and Jakarta began to enter shed areas could spell the death of the fisheriesthe industry, and now dominate new cage aquacul- ecosystems in both reservoirs if adequate pollution

ture development. The displaced people are controls are not put in place.

44

Institutional, planning, and management needsin developing reservoir fisheries ecosystems

Institutional concerns, constraints, and and unable to articulate the needs of fisheries in

coordination terms understandable to power officials.

The balance of power between fisheries organi-If the general kind of institutional framework zations and electric power agencies is reflected inneeded to support the development of reservoir the ordering of priorities in reservoir development.fisheries ecosystems for resettlement is known, No reservoir has ever been constructed with fish-

achieving it nevertheless remains one of the biggest eries as the primary function. The fisheries compo-practical problems. The main constraint is the poor nents of hydropower or other reservoir projects

quality of the institutional coordination across sec- have often had an add-on quality. Most are writtentors, or line ministries, that is needed to ensure that into project proposals by development profession-fisheries are included on the management agenda als without fisheries expertise and read as if fisheries

of tropical hydropower projects. There are several were afterthoughts to the project, even when thereasons for this poor institutional coordination. fisheries will involve a large number of people.

Government fisheries organizations tend to be Developing reservoir fisheries is clearly secondaryweak. Fisheries are considered of secondary impor- to the main purpose of reservoir construction.tance in the development of reservoirs. And not The main development goal for reservoir fish-

enough attention or resources are given to the coor- eries, therefore, must be to ensure that they are

dination of ministries and agencies in reservoir fish- compatible with the primary functions ofwater stor-eries development. age and dam operations. And the primary institu-

Fisheries activities are generally coordinated by tional goal is to create an institutional structure thatgovernment fisheries departments or are institu- not only can articulate clearly to policymakers thetionally buried within ministries of agriculture. benefits of developing or enhancing reservoir fish-These fisheries departments are widely considered eries, but also has the authority to carry out agree-

among the weakest agencies of governments. As a ments between the agencies and authoritiesshare of each sector's contribution to GDP, public concerned.support to fisheries is usually much less than public The essential compatibility of integrated fish-support to agriculture (ICLARM 1992). eries ecosystems with the primary activities of reser-

By contrast, electric power agencies are among voirs needs to be recognized. Where fisheries arethe strongest government agencies. Well funded, culturally and nutritionally important and markets

they command the attention of powerful policy- are large, reservoir fisheries should be included as

makers. There is little awareness or concern in elec- an integral part of the planning and management

tric power organizations about the potentials and of dam operations. For dam operations that meansproblems of fisheries. But for their part, fisheries that the timing of water releases should not onlydevelopers often are far too technically oriented meet engineering considerations, but also ensure

45

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

the ecological stability and sustainability of the The Saguling-Cirata project provides a good

aquatic ecosystem and of the fisheries. example of the challenges and pitfalls of institu-

The institutions that need to coordinate their tional coordination in reservoir projects. At the

efforts to develop reservoir fisheries extend beyond outset a nightmare web of new interactions had to

the fisheries department and the power company. be created and re-created between different levels

Also involved are communities, extension agencies, of government and between government and non-

universities, and nongovernmental organizations. government agencies that had never or rarely

The requirements for coordinating the efforts of worked together before, including the electric

these institutions are not given adequate attention. company, the university, the department of fish-

Simply stating that "the project will attempt to eries, and provincial, regional, and village political

develop sustainable watershed management of the institutions (table 5). Each of these institutions had

reservoir and will therefore require the collaboration different objectives and policy goals, and institu-

of the ministries of water supply, environment, fish- tional agreements and project responsibilities were

eries and electric power," for example, is not enough. only vaguely defined. What resulted were numer-

Table 5 Institutions responsible for managing and monitoring activitiesat the Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs

Activity Institution

ManagementRegional planning, including pollution prevention Bappeda (district administrative office) and head office of PLN

(state electric company)Overseeing the planning PLN head officeExecution and coordination of plans PLN-KJB (PLN provincial office, Bandung)Integrated management of Citarum River watershed PLN, Public Works Department of Forestry Service, Jatiluhur AuthorityGranting licenses for fishery businesses West Java Fisheries Service (controlled by PLN-KJ B)Granting licenses for using drawdown area PLN-KJB (in cooperation with West Java Agriculture Service)Fishery extension Technical Implementation Unit of West Java Fisheries Service (in

cooperation with PLN-KJB)Supervision and coordination Cooperation Service (working with Fisheries Department of PLN-KJB)Development of rabbit and earthworm farming West Java Animal Husbandry Service (in cooperation with West Java

Fisheries Service and BRLKT, the regional agricultural training agency)Development of feed and hide industries West Java Regional Department of Industry (in cooperation with West

Java Fisheries and Animal Husbandry Services)Soil conservation extension BRLKT (in cooperation with West Java Agriculture and Animal

Husbandry Services)Health Health ServiceTourism development West Java Regional Tourism OfficeFamily planning development BKKBN (regional family planning agency)Skills training BLK (regional job training agency)Observation and advanced research Competent research center (in cooperation with PLN-KJB)Disseminating Saguling and Cirata model as Competent research center (in cooperation with PLN-KJB)a component of integrated river basin management

MonitoringFish population dynamics Inland Fishery Research Center or competent research centerAquaculture marketing Technical Implementation Unit of West Java Fisheries Service

(in cooperation with West Java marketing cooperatives)Development of rabbit and earthworm farming and of West Java Animal Husbandry Service (in cooperation with West Javaaltemative feeds Fisheries Service, BRLKT, and Industrial Development Department)

River water Center of Research and Irrigation Development (in cooperationwith PLN provincial office)

Reservoir water PLN-KJBAquatic weeds PLN-KJBHeavy metals and pesticide residues in fish Competent research centerWater temperature (for early waming of tumover) Fish farmersCatchment area of reservoir and upper river basin BRLKTSedimentation of reservoir PLN-KJBClimate PLN-KJB (in cooperation with Center of Meteorology)

46

INSTITUTIONAL, PLANNING, AND MANAGEMENT NEEDS IN DEVELOPING RESERVOIR FISHERIES ECOSYSTEMS

ous overlapping authorities over resources and Another key is to undertake, over a long period,

people. environmental and social assessments of the

At the project design stage little attention had changes brought by these projects and of the effects

been given to Indonesia's existing political struc- of these changes. River basin development projectsture and lines of reporting from the center to the lead to new systems, natural and social, that evolve

provinces and regions. Tasks were assigned to the over time, both in structure and in function. For the

wrong levels of government, pcossibly because too first 10 years after inundation, dramatic changeslittle time had been allotted for detailed project occur in people's livelihoods, in communities, and

design and preparation. And because the project in the lake basin as it adjusts to its basal fertility level

agreement was vague, collaborating institutions fre- and the management of water levels.

quently had their own interpretations ofwhat it said Currently environmental impact assessmentsand sometimes carried out those interpretations (EIAs) are routinely required only during formula-

without communicating with others. tion and appraisal of hydropower projects. ThisThe interdisciplinary nature of reservoir pro- assessment process needs to be extended over a

jects further complicates their coordination. The longer period through careful, field-based monitor-

Saguling-Cirata reservoir project had problems ing that can last as long as 30 years after inundation.coordinating all the professionals needed to imple- Periodic EIAs should address social and resettle-ment the integrated resettlement fisheries project, ment concerns, assessing changes in the environ-

many of whom had difficulty seeing beyond the ment and in society, evaluating priorities, andbounds of their narrow professional training. making predictions about both the problems and

An essential part of the solution to the coordi- the opportunities occurring as a result of projects.nation problems is to create a new authority for A continual EIA process could become an essen-each reservoir development that has jurisdiction tial monitoring mechanism for charting progressover the resources and can control the develop- toward the goals of a regional rural developmentment for the benefit of the local people. River basin plan. The process could be institutionalized bycommissions have been created in some countries forming a monitoring agency, such as a river basin

to manage such efforts. But in most developing commission that retains responsibility for social andcountries different line ministries are responsible resettlement issues as well as engineering and envi-for different parts of an ecosystem, so that imple- ronmental issues.menting watershed management or other ecosys- The management of integrated fisheries devel-temwide programs is extremely difficult. Petr opment is an evolving process that can be envi-(1985) stated that one of the major constraints to sioned as comprising three 10-year phases:sound fisheries development in developing coun- * First 10-yearphase. Government subsidies aretries is the lack of coordinating river basin authori- necessary to conduct demonstration, education,ties, both during the planning and design of and training activities in community schools and toprojects and during their implementation and support a management office near the reservoir tomanagement. monitor the rapidly changing ecosystems and the

conditions of the people and to issue permits.Long-term management concerns * Second 10-year phase. Community demonstra-

tion and training activities are turned over to anThe main management concern of integrated fish- NGO or to farmers groups, and monitoring func-eries projects is long-term sustainability. One key to tions contracted out to a university or a professional

ensuring their sustainability is to institutionalize their NGO.management within the existing management sys- * ThirdO1-yearphase.Allmonitoring,education,tems of the power companies, fisheries departments, and permitting functions are turned over to a pri-NGOs, and universities involved in the projects. vate enterprise, which finances its operations and its

47

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

services to producers through dues paid by the The idea behind this participatory approach is

producers. that the target group (the displaced farmers) must

Many reservoir systems in Asia are in the second be involved in the process of developing and dis-phase, but there are no known examples offullypri- seminating technology. Rather than developing

vatized efforts. one fixed set of techniques to extend to farmers, a

basket of technologies is developed and demon-Demonstration, extension, and training strated in a short period to thousands of farmers

with vastly different amounts of capital available.

Efforts to strengthen the organizational framework Farmers are invited to take part in the develop-

of reservoir fisheries must be matched by a solid ment and testing from the start. They can comment

understanding of how communities can take own- and criticize as much as they want; they can test new

ership of their new resources. Given the changed technologies at the demonstration sites, at field

resource base, community-based training is essen- schools, or in the reservoir near their property; andtial, especially in alternative, water-based enter- they can modify technologies as they find necessary.

prises and other livelihoods that will not accelerate Because the changes are made by the farmers, the

environmental degradation. Extension, training, approach is "evolutionary," not "revolutionary."

and technical assistance play important roles. The responsibility for adopting a new technol-

Asian farmers have a large store of traditional ogy rests entirely with the farmer. The farmerknowledge of fisheries systems. In contrast to farm- decides whether or not to try a new technology;

ers elsewhere, they have the intuitive knowledge farmers' refusal to do so is an important signal tothat fish can be raised much like any other farm ani- the extension worker that something is wrong. And

mals. Thus, what is needed in many cases is not because farmers receive only information, notextensive education and training, but practical, financial assistance or subsidies, they are not in a

hands-on demonstrations, exchange visits among dependent position.

farmers, and "social lubrication." In the Saguling-Cirata project in Indonesia inte-Connell (1990) defined an approach to partici- grated fisheries technologies were rapidly dissemi-

patory extension that he termed "minimalist": to nated to the displaced people through thedeliver sets of viable technologies to farmers in development of community and village integrated

diverse environments. Farmers are offered a "super- fisheries systems centers. Each of these demonstra-

market" or "basket" of technologies, allowed suffi- tion and information centers displayed a continu-

cient "creative distance" to evaluate the applicability ally changing basket of technologies that could beof the technologies, then encouraged to identify of interest to farmers. Farmers were regularlyareas for collaborative research (Conway 1986). invited to open days to view the technologies, given

This approach seeks to elicit farmers' traditional fisheries extension books (developed as comicagricultural knowledge systems and the opportuni- books in the local languages), and provided lunch

ties and constraints these pose for adopting new to allow time for informal conversations. They were

farming systems. The results of applied demonstra- encouraged to criticize the demonstrations and totion and research are transferred to smallholder suggest improvements or alternatives. Farmers were

farmers, and feedback is sought from farmers so also encouraged to return to the village centers with

that demonstrations and agendas for applied their ideas, to stay at the site in order to acquire

research can be regularly revised. The main goal is practical experience, or to come up with proposalsto make large numbers of farmers aware of new to work on together at their sites.options in a short time, and to develop low-cost All the extension and training methods pre-

extension methods that can be sustained after pro- sented were low-cost and sustainable and put theject financing ends and all activities revert to main- farmer first in developing technology appropriate

stream government or NGO extension services. for integrated reservoir fisheries. The methods

48

INSTITUTIONAL, I>LANNING, AND MANAGEMENT NEEDS IN DEVELOPING RESERVOIR FISHERIES ECOSYSTEMS

recognized the diversity of possible systems, the There are many, more specific needs for strategic

different applicability they might have for differ- applied research in integrated reservoir fisheries:ent farmers, the concept that no one technology * Research is needed to help predictthe timing,is universally applicable, and that the farmer, not magnitude, and duration of reservoir turnovers, tothe extension worker, chooses the technology to develop a simple monitoring system, and to deter-apply. There are many ecological niches in tropi- mine whether turnovers are due to surface coolingcal reservoirs, and farmers must be allowed to or to upwellings of bottom waters caused by riverineadopt and modify technologies to suit their cir- inflows.

cumstances. * The feasibility of supplementing reservoirswith freshwater pelagic sardines, which occupy the

Needs in strategic applied research all-too-often empty open waters (the pelagic zone),should be tested. At Ubolratana Reservoir in

Asia has a wealth of experience with reservoir fish- Thailand the development of a small, pelagic fisheries, but little of the information from this experi- helped ensure the food security of the poorest peo-ence is available to support national policymaking ple displaced by the reservoir (Costa-Pierce and

and research. In all Asian countries statistics need Soemarwoto 1990a).to be collected and analyzed on the number of cur- * The cost-effectiveness of recurrent stocking ofrent and planned reservoirs, on their biological, fish in tropical reservoirs should be compared withsociological, and fisheries management status, and that of stocking self-perpetuating species. Researchon researchers' experience with these bodies of should also look at what timing for stocking andwater. what size of stocking fish would maximize survival

Also needed is market-oriented technology rates and economic returns in reservoir captureresearch to select the highest-priority reservoirs for fisheries.the development of integrated fisheries. And for * Low-cost pens should be developed toeach of these reservoirs market, cultural, and eco- enhance stocks, and artificial spawning sites creatednomic assessments should be carried out-to iden- to enhance fisheries.tify the best fish, the best system, and the best * The use and cost-effectiveness ofphysical mit-markets. igation measures (ladders, fishways, diversions)

Research is also needed on how the manage- should be examined where there are importantment of dam operations can sustain or enhance fisheries for indigenous migrating fish.fisheries. For example, water withdrawals could be * Biological engineering solutions should betimed to stimulate spawning-by discharging developed to ensure that water flows from dams areenough water to ensure the spawning of riverine retained and released at ecologically appropriatefishes downstream during the crucial spawning sea- times to facilitate the spawning and recruitment ofson-or drawdown could be used to control the fish in reservoir capture fisheries or to eliminatespawning of an unwanted species. predatory fish. Research is also needed on the pos-

Another research need is to establish the mini- itive and negative effects of drawdowns on reservoirmum water levels necessary to conserve a species. cage aquaculture systems.While Fraser (1975) found that 30 percent of the * Research is needed on the costs and benefitsmean annual flow is satisfactory for maintaining of clearing or not clearing reservoir bottoms in dif-salmonid fisheries, such data are lacking for many ferent types of reservoirs with capture fisheries.tropical reservoir fisheries projects. In Tamil Nadu, * Low-cost aquaculture systems should be devel-India, reservoir authorities have agreed to maintain oped that are more affordable for the poorest dis-a minimum water level of 10 percent of the full pool placed residents and that produce fish suitable forlevel to conserve broodstock and ensure successful meeting nutritional needs and for sale in localspawning (Sreenivasan 1986). markets.

49

FROM FARMERS To FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMS

* The carrying capacity of semi-intensive and Disseminating informationintensive cage aquaculture systems in reservoirs

with different water renewal rates should be esti- Closely related to the need for applied research ismated, to test the hypothesis that reservoirs with the need for greater dissemination of information

higher rates can support more cages. And the car- on reservoir fisheries. Much information is buried

rying capacity of extensive cage aquaculture in in fisheries institutions, mainly in unpublished, in-

organically enriched (eutrophic) reservoirs should house, or "grey" literature, although such institu-

be compared with that in organically poor (olig- tions as ICLARM, the Food and Agriculture

otrophic) reservoirs. Organization, and the Southeast Asia Fisheries

* Finally, research is needed to make it possible Development Center do make some of this infor-

to conduct fish farming-from hatchery to grow- mation available. Reservoir fisheries literature isout-entirely in floating systems for the many rarely collected and disseminated, and little infor-species that now require land-based systems (such mation has been gathered on the social, economic,

as ponds) during some part of their life cycle. and institutional aspects of reservoir fisheries.Making farming systems entirely floating would Moreover, there is no regular mechanism in Asia forrelieve pressure on the land surrounding the reser- disseminating information on reservoir fisheries.voir and increase the number of productive enter- Only in China, which has a reservoir fisheriesprises that can be located on the reservoir water research institute and a journal of reservoir

surface. research published in Chinese, is the informationthat is necessary for making integrated technical

The development of integrated fisheries as a proposals and policy decisions available in onemeans of environmental and social rehabilitation is place.constrained by the lack of a focal point for solving As a result, for many Asian countries thethe many complex and multidisciplinary problems unrecorded experience with reservoir fisheries far

they involve. Establishing a "research reservoir" or exceeds the written documentation. Much of thisa center for research on tropical reservoirs, reset- experience would be of great value for the grow-

tlement, and the environmentwould allow practical ing number of workers who recognize the poten-

work to be done on the interface between engi- tial of reservoirs for inland fisheries developmentneering, ecological, social, and technical problems. in Asia.

50

Conclusions and recommendations

The new productive enterprise systems in the * Markets and market access-the presence ofSaguling and Cirata Reservoirs have met human large, unsaturated markets in a densely populated

needs and have provided local resettlement options region where freshwater fish has traditionally beenfar beyond what was envisioned in the original the main source of animal protein, consumer

development plans. Involuntary displacement and recognition of the product is high, there is goodresettlement typically are associated with serious, access to capital, and fish marketing and transport

long-lasting, adverse effects, but for the communi- infrastructure is excellent.ties displaced by Saguling and Cirata that have * Inputs-adequate availabilities of seed fish

moved into fisheries, the new reservoirs are the (fingerlings) and feed.

source of restored incomes and successful develop- * Human capital-farmers' sophisticated tradi-ment. While these successes must be attributed to tional knowledge of fish and fisheries systems.

the people and organizations on the ground, an * Financing-the ready availability of capitaloverall support structure was necessary to provide a from compensation money and other sources,

push and to ensure completion of the efforts to allowing the displaced people and others to make

develop the integrated fisheries ecosystems. The immediate investments in new fisheries enterprises.

World Bank's funding, monitoring, and supervi-sory roles were essential. In a time when large dam Successful reservoir capture fisheries schemesand reservoir projects are under attack because of in Asia use self-perpetuating species with short life

their social and environmental impacts, develop- cycles that can be heavily fished with low-cost gearment planners would do well to study carefully the and are owned and managed by local people.

lessons for resettlement offered by cases such as that Successful species in reservoir capture fisheries

of Saguling and Cirata. have been the tilapia (Indonesia, the Philippines,

Sri Lanka), freshwater sardines (clupeids)

Key ingredients for successful reservoir (Thailand), and indigenous carp (India, Sri

fisheries Lanka). Selective fishing of predators has increased

total yields and allowed the manipulation of reser-How reservoir fisheries develop will vary substan- voirs' fish species composition in order to buildtially among projects, depending on the physical, large populations of herbivorous and omnivorous

economic, and sociocultural context. Even so, there fish that have contributed substantially towardare a small number of core variables that need to be meeting human needs.

considered in nearly all fisheries development pro- Reservoir aquaculture schemes developed, in

grams. The success of the reservoir culture fisheries their initial phases, low-cost cages appropriate to,

in WestJava also depended on four essential condi- and conserving of, available capital. They were then

tions in the local area: intensified as capital availability and market

51

FROM FARMERS TO FISHERS: DEVELOPING RESERVOIR AQUACULTURE FOR PEOPLE DISPLACED BY DAMs

demand increased. For the poorer segments of soci- rehabilitation should be woven into long-term

ety, mini-cage or subsistence systems and no-feed regional development plans. These plans shouldcage culture systems have been successful in ensure that people are resettled locally, and given a

Indonesia, Nepal, and the Philippines. For entre- vision of a better life, with rural roads, electrifica-preneurs with more capital, semi-intensive and tion, new water-based businesses, and other means

intensive systems (single and biculture cage sys- for restoring their lives and building productivetems) have proved profitable. enterprises. Development planning for integrated

Dam operations play an important part in the fisheries systems should be included in regionalsuccess of reservoir fisheries. The extent and timing development plans wherever World Bank-financed

of changes in water levels in a reservoir and the size projects affect water resources and ecosystems.ofthe minimum pool ofwater maintained affect the Third, the rehabilitation of natural ecosystemsproduction and yield of both capture and culture damaged because of water resource development

fisheries systems. projects, and the adaptation of the displaced poptu-

There is a wide range of cage aquaculture sys- lation to a new fisheries culture, should be seen astems. To ensure that the systems selected for devel- a process and broken down into specific phases,

opment are those where the seed, feed, and need with objective milestones of progress in each phase.are clearly present, a "market-driven technological To ensure that these milestones are met, an effec-

approach" is needed. tive monitoring and reporting system should beestablished. The environmental impact assessments

Recommendations routinely required at the initial stages ofhydropower and irrigation projects should be

This review of options for developing reservoir fish- expanded to cover social and resettlement con-eries as a tool in resettlement at the Saguling and cerns. These assessments should be conducted reg-

Cirata Reservoirs and elsewhere in Asia has led to ularly as part of a continual monitoring process the

four main recommendations. First, development first 10 years after the impoundment of a reservoir.planning for integrated fisheries ecosystems to sup- After that time, the monitoring process could beport resettlement and social and environmental taken over by universities or NGOs or privatized.

rehabilitation should be included in the policy and Fourth, where there are major water resource

operational guidelines for all water resource pro- development projects with social and environmen-

jects in developing countries, especially for dam- tal impacts, multidisciplinary river basin commis-reservoir, irrigation, watershed, and river basin sions need to be formed that include fisheries

development projects. experts and planners. These commissions should

Second, hydropower and other water resource be funded under project loan agreements, remain

development projects should not be explained as a in operation for a minimum of 10 years after pro-

win-lose situation pitting urban interests against ject loan agreements are signed, and be responsible

rural, and the interests of the rich against those of for contributing to the development and manage-

the poor. Instead, plans for developing integrated ment of the fisheries ecosystems approach as part of

land-water ecosystems for social and environmental the monitoring process.

52

Notes and references

Notes Technical Paper 11. Food and AgricultureOrganization, Rome.

1. Bernacsek (1984) has reviewed in detail the funda- Beveridge, M.C.M. 1984. Cage and pen fish farming:mentals of dam engineering essential for understanding Carrying capacity models and environmental impact.the effects of dams on indigenous fisheries and for FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 255. Food anddeveloping reservoir capture fisheries. Agriculture Organization, Rome.2. Marshall (1984) performed a similar exercise for . 1987. Cage aquaculture. Surrey, England: FishingAfrican reservoirs. News Books.3. China has an estimated 87,000 reservoirs, with an Beveridge, M.C.M., and MJ. Phillips. 1993.area for fisheries development of about 1.5 million Environmental impact of tropical inland aquacul-hectares, about 40 percent of the nation's potential area ture. In R.S.V. Pullin, H. Rosenthal, and J.L.for inland fisheries. In 1988 reservoirs in China pro- Maclean, eds., Environment and aquaculture in develop-duced an estimated 308,700 tons of fish, for an average ing countries. Manila: ICLARM.yield of 214 kilograms per hectare a year (Liu, Zhitang, Bhukaswan, T. 1980. Management of Asian reservoirand Zegui 1992). Although the technology of cage fisheries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 207. Foodaquaculture has been evolving rapidly in China, most and Agriculture Organization, Rome.reservoirs have been developed for capture fisheries for Caulton, M.S. 1977. A quantitative assessment of theindigenous Chinese carp. Lin, Guggenheim, and Costa- daily ingestion of Panicum repens L. by Tilapia rendalliPierce (forthcoming) have reviewed the development of Boulenger (Cichlidae) in Lake Kariba. Transactions ofChinese reservoir fisheries in detail. the Rhodesian Science Association 58: 38-42.

Cernea, M.M. 1988. Involuntary resettlement in development

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de los Trinos, R. 1992. Technological and sociological resources: An annotated bibliography. FAO Fisheriesassessment of the Magat reservoir. In De Silva 1992b. Technical Paper 113. Food and Agriculture

De Silva, S.S. 1983. The reservoir fishery: Present status Organization, Rome.and future strategies. Journal of Inland Fisheries (Sri Goldsmith, E., and N. Hilyard. 1984. Social and environ-Lanka) 2: 3-13. mental effects of large dams. Vol. 1. Wadebridge

. 1985. The Mahaweli Basin, Sri Lanka. FAO Ecological Centre, Camelford, U.K.Fisheries Technical Paper 265. Food and Agriculture - . 1986. Social and environmental effects of largeOrganization, Rome. dams. Vol. 2. Wadebridge Ecological Centre,

.1986. Reproductive biology of Oreochromis mossam- Camelford, U.Kbicus in man-made lakes in Sri Lanka: A comparative Gosh, P. 1990. Wastewater-fed aquaculture in the wet-study. Aquaculture Fishenes Management 17: 31-47. lands of Calcutta. In Edwards and Pullin 1990.

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Hardjamulia, A., and P. Suwignyo. 1988. The present status Lanka and Thailand. FAO Fisheries Technical Paperof reservoir fisheries in Indonesia. In De Silva 1988c. 319. Food and Agriculture Organization, Rome.

Hermanto. 1978. Status of fisheries in the Selorejo Munro, J.L. 1983. A cost-effective data acquisition sys-Reservoir, Malang, East Java. Bogor Agricultural tem for assessment and management of tropical,University, Faculty of Fisheries, Bogor, Indonesia (in multispecies, multi-gear fisheries. Fishbyte (ICLARM)Indonesian). 1(1): 7-12.

Hiebert, M. 1991. The common stream. FarEastern Munro, J.L., Iskandar, and B.A. Costa-Pierce. 1990.Economic Review, 21 February, pp. 24-28. Fisheries of the Saguling Reservoir and a preliminary

ICLARM (International Center for Living Aquatic appraisal of management options. In Costa-PierceResources Management). 1992. ICLARM's strategy and Soemarwoto 1990b.for international research on living aquatic resources Paiva, M.P. 1976. Estimates of the potential fish produc-management. Manila. tion in large Brazilian reservoirs. Brazilian Central

ICOLD (International Commission on Large Dams). Electric Company, Directorate of Coordination, Rio1992. Dams and the environment. Geneva. de Janeiro (in Portuguese).

IOE (Institute of Ecology). 1985. Environmental impact Pantulu, V.R. 1979. A case study of the Pa Mong Project,analysis of the proposed Cirata dam. Padjadjaran Thailand: Environmental aspects. Paper presented atUniversity, Bandung, Indonesia (in Indonesian). seminar, Environment and Development and

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. 1992. Socioeconomic monitoring impact study Petr, T. 1970. Macroinvertebrates of flooded trees in theof the Cirata I project. Padjadjaran University, man-made Volta lake (Ghana) with special referenceBandung, Indonesia. to the burrowing mayfly (Povilla adusta) Navas.

IOE (Institute of Ecology) and ICLARM (International Hydrobiologica 36: 373-98.Center for Living Aquatic Resources Management). . 1985. Inland fisheries in multiple-purpose river1989. Development of aquaculture and fisheries for basin planning and development in tropical Asianresettlement of families from the Saguling and Cirata countries. FAO Fisheries Technical Paper 265. FoodReservoirs. Vol. 1, Executive summary and manage- and Agriculture Organization, Rome.ment plan. Bandung, Indonesia, and Manila. Pieterse, A-H. 1977. Biological control of aquatic weeds:

Kent, G. 1987. Fish, food and hunger: The potential offisheries Perspectives for the Tropics. Aquatic Botany 3: 133-41.for alleviating malnutrition. Boulder, Colo.: Westview. Ploskey, G.R. 1985. Impacts of terrestrial vegetation and

Kent, G., and H. Josupeit. 1989. The contribution of pre-impoundment clearing on reservoir ecology andfisheries to alleviating malnutrition in southern fisheries in the USA and Canada. FAO FisheriesAfrica. FAO Fisheries Circular 818. Food and Technical Paper 258. Food and AgricultureAgriculture Organization, Rome. Organization, Rome.

Li, J. 1988. The control and utilization of trash fishes in Quiros, R. 1989. Structures assisting the migrations ofreservoirs. Water Conservancy Fisheries 1: 1-6. non-salmonid fish: Latin America. FAO COPESCAL

Lin, F., Scott Guggenheim, and B.A. Costa-Pierce. Technical Paper 5. Food and AgricultureForthcoming. Experiences in Chinese reservoir fish- Organization, Rome.eries and some aspects of planning for fisheries in Rusydi and H. Lampe. 1990. Economics of floating netthe Shuikou hydroelectric project. World Bank, cage common carp culture in the Saguling Reservoir,Environment Department, Washington, D.C. West Java, Indonesia. In Costa-Pierce and

Lin, Y 1986. Evaluation of reservoir fishery productivity Soemarwoto 1990b.of Guangdong Province and survey on the tech- Sarnita, A.S. 1987. Introductions and stocking of fish inniques to improve fish production in reservoirs. lakes and reservoirs in Southeast Asian countries,ReservoirFisheries 7: 22-26. with special reference to Indonesia. In T. Petr, ed.,

Liu, J., Y. Zhitang, and D. Zegui. 1992. Present status Reports and papers presented at Indo-Pacific Fisheryand prospects for reservoir fisheries in China. In De Commission Expert Consultation on Inland FisheriesSilva 1988c. of the Larger Indo-Pacific Islands. FAO Fisheries

Marshall, B. 1984. Predicting ecology and fish yields in Technical Report 371. Food and AgricultureAfrican reservoirs from preimpoundment physico- Organization, Rome.

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Schmittou, H.R. 1992. Advancing fish production in Sutandar, Z., B.A. Costa-Pierce, Iskandar, Rusydi, and H.Indonesia using low-volume, high-density cage cul- Hadikusumah. 1990. The aquaculture resettlementture technology. Proceedings of the Agriculture option in the Saguling Reservoir, Indonesia: Its con-Development and Research Agency (Jakarta) 21: 21-31. tribution to an environmentally oriented hydropow-

Scudder, T. 1989. Conservation vs. development: River er project. In R. Hirano and I. Hanyu, eds.,basin projects in Africa. Environment 31(2): 4-9, Proceedings of the Second Asian Fisheries Forum. Manila:27-32. Asian Fisheries Society.

Sirmongkonthaworn, R., and C. Fernando. 1994. Suwartapradja, O.S., and H. Achmad. 1990. PopulationBiology of Clupeichthys aesarnensis in Ubolratana density and general socioeconomic conditionsReservoir, Thailand, with special reference to food around Saguling and Cirata Reservoirs. In Costa-and feeding habits. International Revue der Gesamten Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990b.Hydrobiologie 79: 95-112. Suwignyo, P. 1974. Fisheries production of the Selorejo

Soemarwoto, 0. 1990. Introduction. In Costa-Pierce Reservoir. Bogor Agricultural University, Faculty ofand Soemarwoto 1990b. Fisheries, Bogor, Indonesia (in Indonesian).

Soemarwoto, O., C. Roem, T. Herawati, and BA Costa- Thia-Eng, C. 1986. An overview of the fisheries andPierce. 1990. Water quality suitability of the Saguling aquaculture industries of Asia. In J.L. Maclean andand Cirata reservoirs for floating net cage aquacul- others, eds., Proceedings of the First Asian Fisheriesture. In Costa-Pierce and Soemarwoto 1990b. Forum. Manila: Asian Fisheries Society.

Sounder Raj, R., T. Franklin, and A. Sreenivasan. 1971. Tripathi, S.D. 1987. Personal communication. Director,Limnology and productivity of the Poondi Reservoir, Central Institute of Freshwater Aquaculture,Madras. Madras Journal of Fisheries 6: 101-12. Bhubaneswar, Orissa, India. April.

Sreenivasan, A. 1970. Limnology of tropical impound- Wadjowicz, Z. 1964. The development of ichthyofaunaments: A comparative study of the major reservoirs in dam reservoirs with small variations in water level.of Madras State, India. Hydrobiologia 36: 443-59. Ada Hydrobiologica 6(1): 61-79.

- 1977. Limnology studies on the Parambikulam- Walburg, C.G. 1976. Changes in the fish populations ofAliyar Project II: Limnology and fisheries of Lewis and Clark Lake, 1956-74, and their relation toTirumoorthy Reservoir (Tamil Nadu) India. Archiv water management and environment. ResearchfirHydrobiologie80(1): 70-84. Report 79. U.S. Department of the Interior, Fish and

. 1986. Inland fisheries under constraints from Wildlife Service.other uses of land and water resources: Indian sub- Yap, S.-Y 1987. Recent developments in reservoir fish-continent and Sri Lanka. FAO Fisheries Circular 797. eries research in Tropical Asia. Archiv furFood and Agriculture Organization, Rome. Hydrobiologica Ergebn. Limnologie 28: 295-303.

Supratomo. Personal communication. Perusaahan Zainal, Sutandar. 1993. Personal communication.Umum Listrik Negara (PLN, Indonesia State Electric Lecturer, Department of Aquaculture, PadjadjaranCompany), Bandung, Indonesia. September. University, Bandung, Indonesia. March.

56

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No. 375 Francis, Milimo, Njobvo, and Tembo, Listening to Farmers: Participatory Assessment of Policy Reform in Zambia'sAgriculture Sector

No. 377 Walsh and Shah, Clean Fuelsfor Asia: Technical Options for Moving toward Unleaded Gasoline and Low-Sulfur Diesel

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