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36

1. Individual placement

Placement of individual children by informal meth-ods is the traclit ional approach. and what is mclst com-rnonly clone 1.11. The adoption worker finds a tam-ily l irr one child at a time an(l makes decisiolls one

child at a tirne. The process happens ln rcverse aswcll. A pnrspective acloptive purcrtI c()rne\ in sccking a

child. This process entails each wot'ker being fnrnil iarwith numerous case fi les. and nterviewing numcrousprospective adoptive parents. Thcrc are tlbvicltts advan-tages and clisaclvantages: It is a very personal approach.but thc wolker can only hanclle a l irnited number offami l ies. I t is not humanly possib lc to Inenta l ly . iugglcall thc available farnil ies sir.t.tultaneclusly. As a result,the worker rnust inevitably usc heuristics [9] to prc-

screen thc candiclates clown to a fairly arbitrary set ofcancliclate f:rrnil ie s fbr the chilcl undcr consicleratrtln.

Infirrrnal methocls are slow. and speed rlattct's. because of thc things we know about the harm donc ttrchildren who spcncl too rt.tuch tirne in insti lutions wait-ing l i l 'a home.

Dccision support systcms can seat'ch a large databasc ol'families to fincl a short l ist clf potential place-

ments tirr a child. So rather thirn evalurtitrg the Inalchbetween a child and a somer.l hat arbitrary sequenccof f irrri l ics unti l one is f irund rhat is "good enough".

[20] the chi ld 's rnatch wi th ev( ' ry one o l 'a systernat i -cally chosen short l ist of familics is evtluated. Bccausethe l ist is short and pre- selected using specifiecl rules.the social wrlrker can read all t le dossiers. look at thepictures. telephone them. This method can give bet-ter quality than the purely infirrmal systern. but it isnot ncccssarily taster becausc the worker wil l bc look-ing at rlany dossiers ftrr each t 'hilcl. and because theyhave been screened. f 'ewer of them can be eliminatedquickly. And the overall outcoines sti l l depend on theorder in which the children are considered. one at ati ine.

One example of this approach is the Christian Adop-tion Center website http://christ anadoptioncenter.com/in which a woman in a crisis pregnilncy can enter af'ew parameters about what kir,d clf family she wantsher child to grow up in, and tht: system responds withinfbrmation about those tamilios in the database whobest match these criteria. (The frmilies are already pre-

screened for general fitness to adopt; the matching isspecifically on compatibility wrth the speciflc child inneed. )

I-. Wltt, lot und D. Pollack / Dcci.skrt ntol.s to bentlit cl i l t lrcn nL'tding adoptittrt

1.l. Tha issue of importan<'c ri'cig,ltt,s

The relative importance of various criteria for screen-ing ti imil ies ancl nratching them to children [3,] l ] isan issue whose contentiousness has becn an unnec-cssary hindrance to fornralizing the adoption processand making it more transpilrcnt. However, because at-tributes tend to bc correlated in clusters. it is better t<lspend resources on getting a tnoclerately latge num-ber ol 'attributcs with an appt'oxitnate importance rat-ing of each onc rather than on rclining the irnportanceweights firr a smaller set o1' attl ' ibutes. Appendix Igivcs a numericll cxarnple using tcn families ratecl bytwo clif l 'ercnt agencies on seven dimensiot-ts t lf cttm-patibil i ty with one specitic child. These separate setsof wcights ale multiplied by each lamily's percentagescol'e on thc corresponding climension and summed togive two composite scores fi lr each flnti ly, one lbr eachol' the tw<l autholit ies.

Thc overall rating of each farri ly is calculatcd tts-ing importance wci-uhts that comc llom two vcry dit-lcrcnt agencies; thc resulting rank-ordering is not iclen-tical between authorit ies. but because ttf the corrclatit lnthc ranking is not wcu'thy of invcsting scarcc resollrcesand time-cclnsurning argumentation about the questionof which attribute is more important. lf you considerrnany attributcs it does not matter signil icantly whichyou considel of low or high. <lr of crit ical importance.Farnil ies which arc high on sotne ol your attributestend to be high on others, and vice vcrsa. ln firct. theyale going to come into clusters. Ftlt ' instance. access tomedical care and access to education are gtting to becolrelated with each clther, so you don't have to argueabout which is more important.

The lobustness of the qualitative aspects of the over-i l l l assessment with respect to changes in the irnpor-tance weights is closely related to the counterintuit iverobustness of linear rnodels in general docurnented b1'Dawes and Corrigan [-5].

1.2. Fuilure oJ' individual plucement approac'he.r

It is easy to document agenda effect I I 3, I 8] in whichthe order in which children are considered fbr place-

ment can afTect whether some children receive an ap-propriate placement at all. This is especially true if the"easiest" placements are considered first ("greedy al-gorithm") [21. When the number of children and fam-ilies under consideration at a time is small, the agendaeffect can be overcome by diligence on the part of hu-man decision makers, but when we try to address anr

reasonab le :out tant i i re . .

When r i : .cand ida te : . ,d i g i t s ) . i r i . ;t ious soci ;L- .and keep .',r n i nd . S l r c i : :ta l heur is t i . -

Bu t eve lchi ldren ln-forml t t ion, , ' .escapablc r;,,no logy. dc. . .t ime. A par : . .largc nurnhr-:people coor';large buleaL..tO COUn te f i r . :

workload I i :I t sourr t l . .

to one chr lu ,that you arc .colrccntrat I ;t :a t a t in te i r :job than rhr ' : :

Table I r. .,p lc . The nur :some "soft"cording to tl-..u a l b a s i s i r . lpeople uouici l y I , you n ru .nearly so sL,,l inear progr,,::sum of a l l th .is greiitest. r,. ::

The , : : :

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T. Whtrlett antl D. Pollack / Det:isirtn tottls to benefit t'hiltlren needing udoption38

The Adamses are 45 years old, which is moderately

outside what Country B (Natasha's country of origin)

considers icleal. so the matching has a score of 5Oo/o

on the criterion of parental age' This initial analysis is

termed "Global" because the fact that the Adams flm-

ily live in Country A and Natasha is in Country B is

ignored.Each of the criteria is given a relative weight to show

its importance: 2 lbr Child Age' 2 fbr Sex' 3 fbr Devel-

oprnental Hanclicap. 3 for Physical handicap' and 'l firr

Parent Age.

The last two inputs in the calculation of overall com-

patibil i ty are the minimum and maximum of all the

others. These values are usecl to implement the com-

mon sense notion that filr a match to be a good one

overall. the best characteristic of the match ought ttl

be especially good. ancl the worst ought not to be very

bad. In the example shown' the best criterion' with a

valueof n. rax{0 ' l 0 ' l '0 '5} - I ' is g iven an addi t ional

weight of 4 in acldit ion to the intrinsic imptrlt irnce of

whatever attribute is best t irr pirir ing i l parlicular family

with a particular chilt l . ancl the wt)rst attl ' ibute' with a

'l'able 2

value ol t t-- . : '

addit ion.i i . '

Th is ap : :

dard rneth,

Weighted .

a measurc

gether. an.l

one bacl r.

inate a pr::

cons idera t :

sic import. ,

to 1.0. an.i :

these resc.,.

average. S.

and rnintr:-.

p l ied t i r rc .

ues, and 'r.;

erage [16'dered ue t i

thc "soft i.

scores trt' .,

ind ica t to t t

rnethod i:

Uhi ld and lami lY databases

Sex Develop.handicap

PhysicalhandicaP

Mon(hswal t lng

Nat ional i tY MaK parent

agech i l d Agc(rnonths )

I

z3

,1

5

6

1

Al len

Botty

Duritri

Ekatcr in

lvan

Natasha

Pyotr

I

4

1

I

5

t 3

o

I

(l

2

I

21

3

l l

6

t 2

)1

36

36

M

li

M

F

M

F

M

( ,0

I

t.,

I

I

t ,

B

B

B

B

B

35

35

40

40.10

40.10

Acceptabledevelop.handicap

Acceptablephysicalhandicap

Parcnt age N a t i o n a l i t Y

Farnily Desired lge f)esiretl sex

35

4 )

l0

34

36

l91 1

U

t)

I

I

2

(.,I

I

J

.l

1

5

6

1

Washington

Adams

Jeflerson

Madison

Monroe

Kruschev

Corbachev

I

l ) .) l

30

I

t )1 l

M

M

F

F

t)

I

(,I

0

2

o

B

B

Allen

Betty

Drnitri

E,katerin

lvan

Natasha

Pyotr

(Wait l is t

(Wait l is tTable 3

Calculating a global sott match score

chi ld Age(m0nths)

Sex Devekrp.handicap

PhysicalhandicaP

NationalttY Maxparent age

Wait lirr toretgn

adoptionMontliswaiting

F

Desiredsex

Sex

I

2

2

Acceptabledevelop.handicap

0

Develop.handicap

0j

I

AcceptablephysicalhandicaP

I

PhysicalhandicaP

1

3

9

Parentage

Parentage

0 .5

4

B

NationalitY

A

Allen

Betty

Dmitrt

Ekaterln

Ivan

Natasha

Pyotr

(Wait Ii\t

(Wait hrt '

40 t2Natasha 36

Family Desiredage

Adams 12

ChiIdage

0

Weight 2

4'7%

Minimum

0

5

Maximum

T. Whalen untl D. Pollack / Dtcision tools to bene.fit cltildren needing ctdqttion

Table 6

Rcsul ts of g lobal s i rnul taneous matching

Washington Adanrs Jcflcrson Madison Monroe Kruschcr Gorbacher ' ( lnst i tut ion) ( lnst i tut ion)

Al len

Bctty

Dnr i t r i

Ekater i n

Ivan

N atasha

Pyotr

(Wr i t i ng l i s t )

(Wa i t r ng l i s t t

A l l e n

Wash ingk)n

BettyKruscher

(Wa i t l i s t )( l ns t i t u t i on )

A l l en

Botty

Drni t r i

Ekater i n

I l an

Natasha

Pvotr

(Wa i t l i s l

( f u i t l i s t r

A l l en

Betty

Drni t r i

Ekatcr i n

I van

Nalrsha

Pyotr

(Wa i t l i s r )

(W'ai t I is t r

The spee r-,est and lea. t ,and recent ::weighted a\ r.:user, who ()t-.- 'ConC€pt th;LI :and the ur)r-:

3. Nationalit

Now cbn' : .versus out\td;pose waitin,quntil i t is cer:placement frrrSevere develrr-a

[ )nr i t r iAtllttrs

l ikr ter inMonroe

I r t nN{adi son

NItasha

Ciorbachev

Pvr ) t r

. 'e l te rson

( W r l i t l i s l )

( l n s t i t u t i o n )

i ly at 9 l%. The match of Ekater in wi th the Monrocand thc match of Betty with the Jell 'ersons are next.

^t84%' and 86% r'cspectively. The next several matchesin numerical order involve a child and/or a fnmilythat is already "taken". unti l we reach the match be-tween Natasha and the Gorbachev firmily at 690/r, Atthis point. only Pyotr remains to be placed and only theAdams larnily is without a child, but al 4J(:/r.the rnatchbetween thenr is so pool'that Pyotl is better ol 'f 'wlrit ingin an institutit)n fi)r a better placenlent (scored aL 50c/r').

2. 2.. G I o ba I s int u I tun e t tu s o s.\ i t! ttttl c I t t

Table 6 shows the results i l l 'applying global simulta-neous assignment ("l inear programming") to the sarneset of sofi match scores that the greedy algorithm wasapplied to. The method works by finding the assign-ments that maximize the sum of the scores of selectedmatches. This method finds a frimily fbr each child inthe current data base, including Pyotr who is left with-out a family in the greedy algorithm.

2.3. The nefi ,step

The next step is not to pop the child onto an airplane,but to look at the dossiers for the selected pairs and seeif these matches make sense. Not that they are neces-sarily the very best for this child, not that they are nec-

essarily the vcry best f itr this f:rrnily, but do thcy rnakesense.

If you have sorne doubts you can tell the computer"No you can'1 put this child here, try again". The to-

tal rnatch score wil l never go up i l-you do that. Some-tirnes it wil l stay thc same and you wil l say "OK. it

dicln't cost me anything". Stlrnetimes the kltal match

score wil l go down and either you say. "Oh, I see. if I

don't allow that, then I am going tcl end up with somematch that is really bad down the l ine. and so I am go-

ing to go back and fbllow the first print out". Or. you

say "l know something the computer didn't know andI really don't want tct go with that match".

2.1. Imlslenentutiott

Simultaneous rnatching using the assignment prob-

lem of l inear programming is old technology that has

become very cheap and very prevalent. It used to berather expensive. used by only large very well funded

business. government, and military institutions. Now it

can be used by anybody. A person with responsibilityfor the process of placing orphaned or abandoned chil-

dren can go to the local Internet caf'e anywhere in theworld and find someone who can learn the method in

a few days. They may be seventeen years old, they aregoing to need a lot of guidance from people who un-derstand what the process is for, but the technology is

cheap and prevalent.

t 1 T. Whalen und D. Rillut'k / Decision tools to henefit children needing adoptirn

Table 8

Simul taneous global assignment u ' i th weight g iven to nat ional i ty

Washington Adarlrs

l l

JefTerson Madison Monroe Kruschev Gorbachev

3 , 1 5 6 1

( lnst i tut ion) ( lnst i tut i ( )n)

Al len

Betty

Drlritri

Ekaterin

Ivan

Natasha

Pyotr

(Wait l is t )

(Wait l is t )

'7 1c,1, 6'74/,

83% 63"/r

-5ll.l 54(I

66(h 46(/t

6rY/t 8l1t

61'/t 19'/(

u 0 % S l / r

5(Y/( 50(/.

5l['t 5O%

I

2

3

I

5

6

1

9'7cr

61%

68(/t

43(/t

16'lr

3J%

59''/r

5O%

5(l(/(

60(/c

58%

66./,

46%

.5I.i%

1l c/t

51t/(

5(\(,1

50q

65ct

84(r

49+

l2("1

45(/(

50(,1

62(/

5(Y'/r

5O%

83c/,'78./,

92c/,

61(/,'ll (/,

5ryL

5v/,5(Y/(

5O'lc

-55(/.

I l ( / r

51.,1

ll c/,

6(Y,1,

73%

58(,+

50.,(

50|/

50(/,

5O(/r

5(J(/.

501,

5U/t

5(Y/(

5O(/r

50(z

5(Y/.

5(Y'/(

5(Y/(

50c/(

50(/(

5(\LIr

5O'/r

50 / t

5(Yn

50(k

l . Comrn i t eJ :

2. Parentin-g ...

3 . Med i ca l r . . .

4. Educat ion . , -

5. Environrnr: : :

6. Pr ior at taci r : :

7. f lenct ic r . ' t , :

Washingkrn Adams Jc l le rson Mat l i son Monroe Kruschev ( i t r r h r c l t e r ( l l l s l i l t l l i ( ' n ) ( l n \ l i l l l l i ( ' n ) process drlu.gle child rnia comple\ ,,:t ics are cle.,:less Zelencreach chaf t r i i r

bad perfon:-,g(x)d perf()nlness; c lcarL\of vu lnerat . ,weighted a\ rbc tcmpcrecter of exce 1. .fu l " [27. p iacteristic \,:where a seri

With apprwelf'are ase:lolganlzit t l rr :1.world. \ \ 'h; i

& f O $ O l n 9 I r '

thilt sontc' r,:senior deci ' .p laces u r l1 ' ,

the childrenof focusingIt or nol. r--organlzatra:..Of$OI1 lZet l r t i '

some of th-would mir\;loads. Such ,,do at lea-st ".

Appendir 1.

Each per;,t lve assessnta

Al len Al lcnWashington

Uetty

Dr)r i t r i

likaterin

lvan

Natasha

Pyotr

(Wait l is t )

(Wait l is t )

Bet tyMonnlc

Drni t r iKruschev

Ekater infirxblchev

I van

Madison

Natasha( lnst i tut ion )

Pvotr

Jc l l e rson

(Wait l is t )Adair.)s

(Wait I is t )( Inst i tut ion )

3.l. Compntmise between global and nilional

Using pooled simultaneous matching, it is easy tomake domestic adoption a plus f'actor among all theother considerations. A country that considers inter-national placement a "last resort" wil l put a heavierweight on that consideration than a country that con-siders domestic placement merely desirable. In the hy-pothetical case of fifty domestic families and 100 chil-dren, the fifty domestic families will all get a child if

they are qualified even if there are far more foreignfamilies in the families database, but the other fiftychildren can also find homes. albeit abroad, quickly.

Table 8 illustrates this principle in the contextof the seven child, seven family database. The ruleof l2 months waiting in Country B before internationaladoption is treated as one more criterion like gender or

age. As a result, the matches between the four Coun-

try B children who have not satisfied the waiting rule

and Country A families is not zero as it was in Table 6.

but it is less than it was in Table 4. As a result, only

one Country B child. Natasha, is left without a per-

manent placement, and she has a much better chance

than in Table 6 to be placed among the next group ofprospective parents.

4. Conclusion

If the compatibility between a needy child and a

willing family could be accurately measured on a sin-gle scale, the fact that there are so many orphaned

and abandoned children and a large but limited pool

of qualified families would still make the assignment

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