young - affectual trust and internal networks

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Affectual Trust and Internal Networks

Louise Young

University of Technology, Sydney, Australia

[email protected]

While trust is increasingly recognised as central to the functioning of relationships generally and to

business relationships in particular, there has been very little attention paid to the nature of the

experience of trust as distinct from its antecedents and outcomes. In addition, trust has remained a

relation-centric construct. This paper presents an affect-based framework for trust consisting of

cognitive and emotional elements. This is used to consider the internal network of an organisation

concerned with service delivery based on in-depth interviews with service providers talking about

their jobs and their employer. The affect-based framework, combined with theories of cognitive

balance, allow us to understand the importance of the trust context, in this case the context that hasled to distancing within this network and to consider the reasons for this distance.

Keywords: networks, trust, service, satisfaction, emotions, affects

Affectual Trust and Internal Networks

Social scientists have long recognised the centrality of trust. The ability to trust enables humans to

interact in close relationships and is essential for psychological health and development (Asch,1952; Barber 1983; Eriksson, 1959). Trust is also important in business context exchanges such as

buyer-seller relations, employee-employer and other internal relationships (Argyle 1972, Blau 1964,

Kanter 1977). Despite recognition of the centrality of trust in human behaviour, the nature of

trust remains unclear because as we have argued in earlier work (Young 1993, 1996, 2001, Albaum

and Young 1997, 2000) the focus of study has been on the antecedents and outcomes of trust.

The purpose of this paper is to develop a greater understanding of the nature of trust in the

properties of an internal network. The study focuses on the workers of a large Australian company

and specifically on the configuration and nature of the trust-rich and trust-deficient parts of their

network. Trust and its impact are considered within a framework that considers trust as a varyingaffect, that is, as an interacting set of emotions and assessments. Growing distrust and suspicion

are shown to be substantial influencers of some parts of the network with other, more positive

affects dominant in other parts of the network. The paper closes with a discussion of the value of

researching trust and balance in networks and the way managers might build trust.

An Alternative Conceptualisation of Trust

Most often trust has been considered in terms of the conditions that engender it and/or benefits that

arise from it. Typologies of trust differentiate it according to how much there is, what is based on

(e.g. contract, good will, etc. as per Sako 1997) longevity (short term or long term as per Meyersonet al 1996) or strength (fragility or resilience as per Ring 1996) rather than on its nature. Work


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considering the nature of trust is scarce. When trust is considered in the main two varieties are

considered: one is cognitive, calculative and rational; the other is emotional (Huemer 1998, Lewis

and Weingert, 1985; McAllister 1995, Ring 1992 and Williamson 1993).

A calculative view of trust owes its roots to the early experimental psychology work of Deutsch

(1958, 1962) and his colleagues who labelled as trust the calculated decision to cooperate. A focus

on the costs, benefits and probability of defection rather than the emotional or intuitive side of trust

has endured. Business literature presents emotional trust as impulsive and non-rational and as

associated with poorer quality decision-making (Williamson 1993). In contrast we argue this kind

of emotion free trust is not trust but only an economic calculus of costs and benefits (in line with

Williamson 1993). We assert that trust involves additional emotional attributes that make what we

call trust richer and more enduring (in line with Lewicki and Bunker 1996).

There is considerable work citing the centrality of emotions in effective human functioning

(Tomkins 1970). They play important roles in facilitating intuition and psychological and relational

health (Pinker 1997). It follows therefore that emotions will play important roles in business

relationships including those in the workplace and will be connected to or be part of to the trust and

distrust occurring there. A review of social science literature indicates that positive emotions have

been considered as components of trust, as antecedents or outcomes of trust and/or have been used

as synonyms of trust. Trust has been described in terms liking (e.g. Swan et al 1987), admiration

(e.g. Childers & Ruekert 1986), respect (e.g. Jackson 1985), faith (e.g. Zaltman and Moorman

1988), acceptance (e.g. Bonoma 1976) confidence (e.g. Luhmann 1979), and security (e.g. Zand

1978). Though there is little direct discussion of the centrality of emotion in business trust, some

literature moves towards the notion that emotions are important (Bagozzi et al 1999, Glaser 1991).

The variety of emotions used to describe trust also lends credence to there being multiple forms ofemotion-grounded trust. Hence, trust is envisaged here as an umbrella term incorporating in its

different manifestations differing forms and combinations of emotions and calculations.

Figure 1 summarizes what we argue is the process of the formation of interpersonal trust. The

figure depicts trust as emerging through the combining of certain emotions and cognitions. This is

denoted by the just-touching points of the two-way arrows (signifying their combination) at the

centre of the trust box.

Building on the discussions of Argyle (1991) and De Rivera (1984) emotions and hence forms of

trust are differentiated according to whether they function to allow the building, sustaining and/orenjoying of relationships. Examples of emotions that are of each type and have been reported as

similar to or components of trust are shown in each group (based on De Riveras Structural Theory

[1984]). As the figure indicates, these different types of emotions interact and/or combine with

each other depicted by three arrows leading from them to a circle. This is in line with authors

who argue that emotions can be inevitably linked, as are delight and happiness, or contingently

linked, as are anger and shame (Smedslund, 1988). Emotions can be compounded (Millenson, 1967)

yet can at the same time retain their separate identity (Appley 1990). (See Young [2001] for

further discussion of emotional factors of trust.)


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.

Figure 1: The Nature of Trust

Figure 1 also depicts what we argue are the cognitive elements of trust including the calculation of

costs, benefits, and risks associated with particular situations (Bagozzi et al 1999), the way that

others who are recipients of trust are perceived (Young and Wilkinson 1989) - with competence and

motivation being the perceptions most central to the development of trust (Butler 1991, Heider

1958, Lewis and Weigert 1985) - and assessment of the state of the focal relationship (Wilkinson

and Young 1994). These perceptions combine to form an overall assessment of a relationship

depicted by three arrows from each type of assessment leading to a circle.

As Figure 1 indicates, emotions influence assessments of risk and/or vice versa. If consistent, the

emotions of trust and the assessments of relational risk combine to form affectual trust, i.e. trust

that contains both emotion and cognition. If inconsistent, discomfort with emotions being

experienced relative to the situation will generate a different mix of emotions and/or reassessment of

the relational situation will occur (in line with the cognitive balance theories of Heider 1958 and

others). The two-way arrows leading from the centre of the trust box back to the circles denotingthe combination of emotions and calculations indicate this.

External Factors: Norms,environmental uncertainty, socialstructures, cultural predispositionto trust,Internal factors: predispositionto trust, personality

Trust

Relationship BuildingEmotions: Interest,Admiration, Respect andLiking

RelationshipSustaining Emotions:,

Affection, Gratitude,Security, Confidence,Acceptance

Relationship enjoyingemotions Appreciation,Contentment, Satisfaction,

Cognition/Calcula-tionof: costs, benefits, valueand risk,

Contextualisation i.e.embedding of present responseinto focal environment: relationshipdynamics (process of trust-building),history and relative levels of powerand trust

Perceptionof others: i.e.

motivation and competence inrecipient of trust

Benefits of trust: Transactioncost reduction, Relationship co-ordination, development andenjoyment, Job satisfaction, etc.


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The process of trust generation is evolutionary. As Figure 1 indicates, affectual trust results in

certain benefits (or costs) for a relationship and those participating in it. These in turn change the

nature and context of the relationship by changing the value placed on it, the expectations of those

involved and the conditions surrounding the relationship. Changed relational conditions in turn

create changed opportunities for trust (Young and Wilkinson 1997). Assessments of risk and the

recipient of trust may change because the relationship context (i.e. that which is assessed) has

changed and/or the emotions may change because stimuli that will engender emotions has changed,

as may have the source of trust. As the relationship context (i.e. history and surrounding

conditions) becomes richer, more complex trust-generating emotions experienced are likely to

develop. In early stages trust can evolve from being an amalgam of simple, exploratory emotions

enabling the decisions to take low-level risks. Simple forms of trust enable people to approach each

other and gain the experience necessary for stronger emotions, more sophisticated assessment and

higher risk choices (DeRivera 1984, Young 2001). Early stage emotions include the relationship

building emotions of interest and admiration with the likely associated cognitions concerned with

determining of level of competence, nature of motivation and congruence of goals (Heider 1958,

Young 2001). As the cycle continues, emotions of the relationship sustaining and enjoying types

may become more important. Alternatively, early disappointments may lead to decrease in

relationship building emotions of trust and movement to a cycle of indifference or distrust.

Balance in systems of relationships

Theories of cognitive balance are useful to further analyse the evolutionary state that we argue is

trust particularly in a network context. Theories of balance posit that certain conditions minimise

or eliminate stresses. Heiders balance theory (1958) argues that psychological and socialequilibrium is manifested in certain combinations of affect and/or cognition. The simplest social

balance is between two actors with one of two connections between them: the feeling or sense of

belonging1 that one entity has about the other and reciprocal connection. Balance theory argues that

both connections must be positive or both negative for the relationship to be balanced. Experiments

in psychology have tended to support this (eg. Willis 1963).

Heiders theory of balance is further concerned with the mix of links contained in relations between

interconnected entities. A number of factors contribute to the formation of positive linkages

between entities in relationships. including proximity, more frequent contact, familiarity, similarity

of beliefs and goals, predisposition towards certain sentiments and perception of potential benefits(Heider 1958). However a similar mix of factors can lead to the formation of negative linkages. For

example, familiarity and similarity of goals may lead to unhappiness when one party is not present

and ultimately can lead to dislike if the party continues to be absent. Similarly, goals may be alike

but congruently interdependent, i.e. the satisfaction of one partys goals precludes the satisfaction

of the others (Deutsch 1949), and this can lead to negative links.

Alternatives to balance are imbalance, where there is stress to change, and vacuous balance, where

there is absence of balance (this is distinct from imbalance) (Heider 1958, 202). Vacuous balance is

1Heider (1958) argues there are two basic types of connections that need to be considered in this context: sentiment

links and perceived connectedness, or as he calls it, unit bonding.


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associated with absence of trust (this is ambivalence or not trusting as distinct from distrusting) and

absence of unit formation (this is based on separation rather than disinclination or difference).

Balance can be used to consider relationships with three or more entities. According to Heider

(1958) conditions for balance and imbalance in a three entity system2 are

balance = all three relations are positive or two are negative and one is positive.3

imbalance = two relations are positive and one is negative

ambiguous = three negative relationships or three entities where a link is missing. Ambiguous

systems may be under stress to change or ambiguity may be a means of achieving balance.

Case Methodology

The case focuses on attitudes of the employees within a large Australian company most directly

involved with customer service provision.41 The organisations management are concerned with

what they perceive as a lack of trust in them by their employees. It is their belief that this may be

the cause of a resistance to ongoing changes in service protocols and that this in turn could lead to a

decline in service standards. They believe certain aspects of the internal network of the organisation

impede Managements efforts to build trust and reform the processes of the network.

Fifteen semi-structured, face-to-face interviews of 30-90 minutes with employees and one interview

with a senior manager were undertaken. These have been augmented with secondary information

from the organisation, union and media that address relations within this organisation. To maximise

the heterogeneity of employees interviewed, they have been selected so that different lengths of

employment, differing levels of job performance (according to management-based indicators) andpeople in different service-provision settings are represented. Upon completion of 15 interviews, it

was decided that this number was sufficient for analysis as views expressed were fairly uniform and

no new themes emerged after the first eight interviews (this is in line with the recommendations of

Patton 1990 for determining sample size).

An indirect/disguised interviewing approach has been used to avoid the over-reporting of trust

and/or the placing of trust into an unduly prominent position. Interviewers were briefed to avoid

using the word trust or distrust in questioning. Instead the instrument guided discussion

towards workplace atmosphere, including relations with colleagues, superiors and the organisation

generally and encouraged interviewees to speculate on the causes and evolution of this atmosphere.

For effective triangulation, two interviewers carried out interviews with the employees managed

by the author. Content analysis of completed interviews was conducted by another research

assistant with detailed analysis of her work being undertaken by the author. Findings emerging have

been analysed on a case-by-case basis for convergence and divergence with the theoretical frame,

with the other interviews and secondary information. This approach reduces the biases of a

particular researcher being introduced into the interviews and results and conforms to2

Heider (1958) alludes to larger systems but only examines three party systems in detail.3

The reasons for the positive negative combinations are explained in detail in Heider (1958, pg 202-212)

4

At this time the sponsoring organisation prefers not to be identified, so circumstances and data have been somewhatdisguised to respect their wishes and to further protect the privacy of employees participating.


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recommendations for source, interviewer and analytical triangulation in qualitative research (e.g. Yin

1994).5The Affects of the Employees and Their Drivers

Overall, there are few indications of trust. Informants used the word trust infrequently with some

never mentioning it and no one mentioning it more that a few times. Other emotions associated with

trust in empirical studies (Young 1996) were also infrequently mentioned, e.g. confidence,

appreciation and respect. The absence of trust or presence of distrust and suspicion is more often

commented on, with two-thirds of informants doing so. When positive emotions are mentioned,

relationship-enjoying emotions of trust rather then relationship sustaining or building that are

indicated to be present. However they are associated with the service providers jobs rather than

actors within the organization. Virtually all of those interviewed reported themselves to be enjoying

their jobs and most of these indicated they derive considerable satisfaction from working and expect

to continue to do so. As one informant said:

I actually enjoy going to work every day. I do. A lot of us really love our jobs.

Both positive and negative assessments of Management were made, though negative assessments

were in the majority. Most of the negative assessments related to the collective Managements

motivation. Positive motivation was more likely to be associated with specific managers. One

informant related as a significant event a story of the demonstration of positive motivation of a

supervisor. She was very homesick but was scheduled to work a number of days over the

Christmas period. With some trepidation she approached her supervisor and asked that the shift be

modified so she could go home for Christmas.

I said Please is there anything you can do? Can I swap any of these days?" And shelet me I really appreciated that. (T)hey do not have to do that. And that was

something that really meant a lot. Because she had no need to do that for me.This one action by a supervisor, both because of the perception of altruistic motivation that was

demonstrated and as it was beyond what was required, assisted in building trust (McAllister 1995).

Situational factors and Managements poor motivation were coupled in a number of informants

minds. High levels of uncertainty about job requirements and risk associated with job future (in line

with Meyerson, et al, 1996, Mayer, et al, 1995, Ring and Van der Ven 1992) were mentioned by a

number of respondents as significant situational factors and Managements perceived lack of

responsiveness and sympathy to these issues were seen as evidence of Managements lack of

positive motivation. Lack of employer competence was also mentioned (in line with Lewis and

Weigert 1985, Luhmann 1979), particularly with respect to poor management practices by the

employer organisation. About a third of those interviewed indicated their reasons for negative

feelings towards management were based on the way the organisation and specifically HRM

practices are organised and/or the resulting uncaring treatment to which they were subjected.

5

Triangulation is a common validation tool used in qualitative research. Multiple interviewers, sources of data beinganalysed separately and multiple analysts working independently with subsequent checks for convergence are all waysin which triangulation is used.


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Another third had both negative feelings and reported uncaring treatment but did not directly make a

link between them.

Proximity analysis (looking at what is what is discussed before, after and in conjunction with focal

statements) and causal analysis (looking at informant attributions of causation) were used to further

explore the situational factors that contributed to the emotional and cognitive responses to

Management in employees. Four factors emerged: unequal power, the presence of barriers to

relationship formation, the distant nature of the workplace culture and poorly regarded institutional

norms of this organisation as drivers of the perceived distrust of Management. All of these are

indicated to contribute a vicious rather than virtuous process of relationship development. It is

beyond the scope of this paper to discuss these at length (instead see Young and Daniel 2003).

Evolution and Balance of Trust

Balance theory tells us that symmetric relationships are likely to continue (Heider 1958).

Symmetry of trust could take a number of forms including mutual trusting and/or attribution of

trustworthiness to those who see you as trustworthy (Rotter 1971). Both perceived and actual

symmetry exist in this network but is negative. Informants, who reported Management as

disinterested in them, reported themselves as disinterested in aspects of their jobs and/or

disinterested in what Management thought of them. Those who saw Management as distrustful and

suspicious were likely to report themselves as suspicious of Management. Management reported

considerable suspicion of employees' motivation and competence with the one interview with a

senior manager reporting this as the general view.

Each of the above factors is likely to make some contribution to the generally suspicious

atmosphere that in turn influences both ongoing emotional responses to and assessment of the

situation. In this case, the negative outcomes of the relationship seem to create the conditions for

further negative emotions and assessment and to ensure that Management is viewed with increasing

rather than decreasing suspicion (as discussed by Wilkinson and Young 1994). This dysfunctional

process appears to be occurring in both Employees and Management. The interviews indicate that

most employees commenced their careers with positive emotions and cognitions towards

Management. Early interest and admiration by employees did not result in desired relationship

benefits management responsiveness and good work conditions as have been discussed.

Therefore these emotions failed to develop further in most informants, interest was replaced bydisinterest and uncaring and/or by suspicion. For a few informants emotions have evolved to more

actively negative emotions such as disappointment, dislike and resentment (De Rivera 1984). A

fairly typical story from an informant is of being very admiring of the organisation and its

management when joining. During her early years on the job as she perceived a continued lack of

interest by the organisation in her input and efforts, her admiration was replaced by disinterest,

more recently resentment has become prominent.

A number of factors appear to be working together to inhibit the development of trust in

Management in this workplace setting. In line with the results reported here, previous work hasemphasized the importance of personalised relationships (Wilkinson and Young 1994), perceptions


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of competence and positive motivation (Heider 1958, Young and Wilkinson 1989) the trust

perceived to be emulating from the other party (Rotter 1971), and acceptable levels of risk and

uncertainty (Warne and Holland 1999) as sources of trust. All are indicated to play inverse roles in

the development of distrust in this network.

Figure two summarises the reported affects in the form of an employees internal network. Not all

relationships included in the figure have been discussed in detail here (see instead Young and Daniel

2003). The network that Management perceives to exist for workers is of smaller scope (as

indicated by the darker grey ellipse) than is that described by the employees interviewed (as

indicated by the combined ellipses). In addition workers make the distinction between their

work/delivery of service and the customer and between individual managers and the organisations

Management as a whole, where Management does not (as indicated by the striped ellipses).

The management versus worker views of the network are also qualitatively different. The portion

of the network envisaged by management contains distrust/dislike relations (as indicated by the

minuses) and positive relations that for the purposes of Management work adversely in this case

unit bonding of union and workers so they can work against Management interests. The network as

perceived by the workers includes more positive aspects and indicated by the pluses. Liking of the

job and trust in direct supervisors are included here.


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Figure 2: The internal network of employees

The network relations perceived by Management and employees are different but both are balanced.

In the both views of the network dyads are symmetric (not depicted in Figure 2 but discussed

previously). In the Management view all triads are balanced as the three components are either all

positively linked or are linked via two negative and a positive link. Where there might have been

potential imbalance as would occur in the triad Worker-Job-Customer this is avoided by not

perceiving customers and jobs as separate entities - as occurs in the mind of employee - and hence

no triad exists.

When the network is viewed from the employees perspective there are relationships of differentvalance (e.g. Management perceives workers to have a negative relation to their job but workers

report a positive relation) but the triads are balanced. Sometimes the nature of the triad balance is

different. The colleague-worker-job triad is three positive links in the mind of workers and two

negatives and a positive according to Management reports. Another way imbalance is avoided is b y

ambiguity, i.e. the absence of links. For example there is distancing in the minds of employees

between Management and direct supervisors and hence no link between them. The positive link that

one might expect between them would place a Management-Supervisor-Worker triad into imbalance

(two positives and a negative link).

While this network can be seen as balanced, this does not mean there is unlikely to be furtherevolution. As discussed by Young and Johnston (1998) networks are likely to change if individual

Focal worker

Union

Organisation and itsmanagement

Direct supervisingmanagers

Customer

Colleagueworkers

Job, includingeffective servicedelivery

+

0 workers/

+ mngmnt

0-workers

+-mngmnt(0=ambivalent)

-

+ workers

- mngmnt

+

++

+

+ Mngmnt

- Workers

-

+ workers- mngmnt

Not differentiated byManagement,differentiated but not

linked by workers


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relationships within them change, then placing the triads of which they are part under stress. As

other connected relations (here we mean by this the other two relationships in the triad) diminish

in strength and/or positiveness, balance theory would hypothesize that the third relation is likely to

diminish as well. Figure 2 indicates via dashed lines the relationships that employees report to be

changing these include relations with customers and colleagues. The still-positive but changing

relations may explain the indications that for some the positive connection with their job is also

diminishing. Two informants report this. As one informant said when questioned about what the

organisation should be doing better:

I thought there would be more support from the company and more making it an

environment conducive to a Customer Services role, that is more productive and

supportive of what lengths we go to to satisfy customers

This respondent went on to comment that this lack of perceived support is gradually leading to less

commitment by employees. The lack of support and hence lack of Management commitment was

perceived by several informants to have the potential to diminish their job performance. One

informant who claimed it had already done so supported her argument by saying that when after

finishing work but while still present at the workplace:

.(C)ustomers are coming up to you and asking you questions. You tend to tune off.

And as they come to you you say, Oh, ask that person over there. You do pass

the buck.

The comment was then made that this would have been less likely to happen in the past.

It is our belief that the situational factors and the way they are linked, as depicted in Figure 2, have

led to a cycle of escalating distrust. One anomaly in the cycle of distrust is the positive emotionsassociated with the job. Present are relationship-enjoying emotions but these are associated with a

relationship to the job and to good quality relations with co-workers and are not translating into

positive emotions with respect to the other parts of the organisation. However when the objects of

trust and distrust are mapped into a network form and analysed using balance theory the reasons for

this become plain. The critical link in the network pattern depicted is a missing one. Negative

experiences with management appear to be largely unconnected in informants minds to feelings

about their job, hence the latter remain positive for the time being.

Implications and Future Research

This case illustrates the effectiveness of considering trust as an affect and balance theory as a means

of analysing connected, affectual relations. Emerging from the analysis is both an understanding of

the relationships and insight into ways in which network problems might be addressed. Using

balance theory highlights the need to address the building of trust of both parties as they are both

mired in distrust of the other and this is mutually reinforcing.

From the perspective of building worker trust, a starting point might be better information

provision to employees about what is happening in the organisation and better communication with

them. This has been shown to significantly enhance trust in other service-providing settings(Podadkoff et al 1996). If this is combined with Management demonstrating trustworthiness


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probably via initiatives showing positive motivation (as it is more quickly demonstrated than is

competence and may be the greater problem) and better information provision means that

Employees can assess this motivation more effectively (Krammer et al 1993). Initiatives focussing

on empowerment of employees could also be effective in developing trust (Krammer et al 1993).

The still-present job enjoyment and commitment could serve as an important part of the platform

upon which empowerment could be built. The job enjoyment still present indicates that employees

are likely to welcome the greater accountability empowerment would engender - if it is accompanied

by greater participation and the clear message that contributions are valued (Dobbs 1996).

Initiatives focussing on the building of mutual trust are also needed. Of central importance is to

develop greater personalisation between the employees and Management. At the organisational

level a greater opportunity for and appreciation of employees contribution should assist in this.

At a more individual level initiatives that allow specific supervisors to develop relationships with

and demonstrate positive motivation towards specific employees will be critical. In addition

exploration of ways to develop positive and clear associations in the minds of employees between

relationships with more personalised supervisors and distant management (i.e. seeing liked

immediate supervisors as representing more distant managers) is likely to be necessary. This might

be particularly effective in overturning the long-term suspicion in some that may not respond to

initiatives that are seen as purely organisationally driven.

Critical to this process is to balance the building of trust. Trust is based in part on how trusted one

believes oneself to be. Therefore remedies need to include programs to make employees

trustworthier in Managements eyes. Within this framework, activity aimed at changing the

perceptions of job-related risk (for example fear of losing the job for speaking out, being demoted,

not being valued, etc.) should be undertaken. Uncertainty makes more difficult the creation of trustyet paradoxically requires that there be more trust present to compensate for its presence (Daley

1991).

Critical to this organisation is provision of high quality service. This analysis has highlighted that

the relationship between Management and Employee trust and effective service delivery can be

complex as evidenced by apparently contradictory relationship between job satisfaction and

organisational distrust. Further work needs to consider the factors that most impact on service

quality delivered and the more precise role of trust in this dynamic with further in-depth interviews

to be undertaken if needed. In the longer term these issues might be explored in a large-scale survey

of service-providing employees. While this could be beneficial within large companies so as tocreate focussed profiles of trust, there is also a need to compare industries to enable exploration of

any situational factors that contribute to trust. We would also like to extend this work to a cross-

cultural context. It is argued that societal characteristics impact on individuals trust its nature,

propensity and role (Fukayama 1995).

Future research needs also to be concerned with whether high levels of concern with trust are

warranted. There is still very little evidence as to whether trust increases network productivity,

competitiveness or profitability. There are indications that it may play a more limited role than

psychologists would have us believe. It has been argued that often only very low levels of trust are

present in many interdependent relationships and yet some of these relationships functionreasonably well (Stannack 1999). Trust has been argued to be sometimes counter-productive


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(Hakansson and Snehota 2002?); a study in Germany showed too much workplace trust increased

the resistance to change (Kern 1999). Here, there are indications that job enjoyment and satisfaction

do not depend on trust. This may mean that quality provision of service is likely whether

Management is trusted or not. Indeed the challenges that these service providers jobs present,

perhaps the same challenges that cause disputes and distrust, may be the very thing that makes the

job interesting and satisfying. And job enjoyment and/or satisfaction rather than trust may be what

drives service delivery.

This is a case study of a single internal networks trust relations. However we believe that these

findings can be generalised in several ways. This work has illustrated the effectiveness of analysing

networks with a model that uses emotional cues to indicate the presence or absence of trust as well

as highlighting the issues that are associated with affiliated emotions and cognitions. This could be

applied in other settings where trust is missing. However, it is our belief that this approach would

be even more useful in settings where there are reasonable levels of trust as this approach allows the

subtleties of trust to be considered. Young (2001) argues that trust containing different emotions

emerges from different stimuli and that different forms of trust are likely to play different roles in

relationships. An understanding of this might enable trust engineering.

Such a conceptual structure also can have real value as a comparative framework in cross-cultural

research (see Dawson et al 1997 for an example of this applied to B2B market relationships). The

centrality of emotions to humans could make more credible comparisons of trust accross different

cultures. Using the more traditional approach of using only the environmental and cognitive

antecedents of trust is likely to result in significant methodological problems. However further

work will be needed as to universality and interpretability of emotional expressions and extent to

which they combine with cognitions to form affective trust.


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