© 2008 the mcgraw-hill companies, inc. chapter 4 human development
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© 2008 The McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc.
Chapter 4Human Development
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Nature and Nurture Influence Development Physical, Cognitive, and Socioemotional
Development in Childhood Adolescence Adulthood
Application: Health and Wellness
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Development
The pattern of continuity and change that occurs throughout the lifespan Physical processes Cognitive processes Socioemotional processes
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Development
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Nature and Nurture
Nature – Biological Inheritance Nurture – Environmental Experiences Optimal experiences – Individuals take
active roles in their own development Early Experience versus Later Experience
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Prenatal Development
Conception: Fertilization Zygote – fertilized egg
Germinal Period: Weeks 1-2 Embryonic Period: Weeks 3-8 Fetal Period: Months 2-9
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Prenatal Development
Teratogens: Agents that cause birth defects Rubella Thalidomide Heroin Alcohol: Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
Effects of teratogens depend on… Timing of exposure Genetic characteristics Postnatal environment
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Physical Development
Reflexes – genetically wired behaviors that are crucial for survival Grasping Sucking Stepping Startle
Few reflexes persist throughout life; most disappear as infants develop voluntary control over their behavior.
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Physical Development
Perceptual and Motor Skills Humans Infants and Imitation Preferential Looking
Give “choice” and measure preferences Habituation – Decrease in responding to a
stimulus after repeated presentations
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Brain Development
Myelination continues after birth Visual pathways: 6 months Auditory pathways: 4-5 years
Dramatic increase in synaptic connections Brain imaging techniques illuminate
developmental changes in the brain between 3-15 years postnatal
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Cognitive Development
Jean Piaget (1896-1980) Children actively construct their cognitive
world using… Schemas – concepts or frameworks that
organize information Assimilation – incorporate new info into
existing schemas Accomodation – adjust existing schemas to
incorporate new information
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Piaget’s Theory
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Piaget’s Theory
Sensorimotor Stage: Birth - 2 years Coordinate sensations with movements Object permanence
Preoperational Stage: 2 - 7 years Symbolic thinking Egocentrism Intuitive reasoning
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Piaget’s Theory
Concrete Operational Stage: 7 – 11 years Operational thinking (e.g., conservation) Classification skills Logical thinking in concrete contexts
Formal Operational Stage: 11-15 years Lasts through adulthood Abstract and idealistic thought Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
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Evaluating Piaget’s Theory
Some cognitive abilities emerge earlier than Piaget thought
Piaget placed too much emphasis on discrete stages and ignored individual differences
Culture and environment also influence development
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Socioemotional Development
Erik Erikson (1902-1994) Theory emphasizes lifelong development Eight psychosocial stages of development Each stage represents a developmental task
Crisis that must be resolved Personal competence or weakness
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Erikson’s Theory
First 4 Stages: Childhood1. Trust versus mistrust
2. Autonomy versus shame and doubt
3. Initiative versus guilt
4. Industry versus inferiority
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Erikson’s Theory
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Evaluating Erikson’s Theory
Development is a lifelong challenge
Adolescents more than just sexual beings
Primary focus on case-study research
Omitted important developmental tasks
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Infant Attachment
The close emotional bond between an infant and its caregiver
Typically develops during first year of life May provide important foundation for
subsequent development Attachment intensifies at 6-7 months
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Infant Attachment
Harry Harlow – Infant rhesus monkeys What matters? Nourishment or contact Choose between two surrogate “mothers”
Cold wire mother versus warm cloth mother Infants preferred cloth mother across situations
Contact comfort is critical to attachment
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Infant Attachment
Mary Ainsworth – Strange Situation Procedure: Caregivers leave infant alone
with stranger, then return Secure Attachment Insecure Attachment
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Temperament
An individual’s behavioral style or characteristic way of responding
Three clusters of temperament Easy, difficult, and slow-to-warm-up
Another perspective on temperament Effortful control, self-regulation, and negative
affectivity
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Parenting Styles
Authoritarian Parents are controlling and punitive Correlated with lack of initiative, poor
communication skills, social incompetence Authoritative
Parents encourage independence with limits Correlated with social competence, social
responsibility, and self-control
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Parenting Styles
Neglectful Parents are generally uninvolved Correlated with less social incompetence and
poor self-control Indulgent
Parents are involved, but place few limits Correlated with poor social competence, lack of
respect for others, poor self-control
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Parenting Styles
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Moral Development
Lawrence Kohlberg (1927-1987) presented moral dilemmas and analyzed responses
Preconventional Behavior guided by punishments and rewards
Conventional Standards learned from parents and society
Postconventional Standards of society and abstract principles (personal
moral code)
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Moral Development
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Evaluating Kohlberg’s Theory
Moral Reasoning ≠ Moral Behavior What we say and do are not always consistent
Women generally score lower than men Justice perspective (men)
Focus on the rights of the individual Care perspective (women) – Carol Gilligan
Focus on interpersonal communication Interconnectedness with other people
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Gender Development
Gender influenced by nature and nurture Biological Influences
Androgens – primary male sex hormones Estrogens – primary female sex hormones
Evolutionary Approach Social Role View
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Gender Development
Gender Roles – Expectations for how males and females should think, feel, and act
How do social experiences and culture influence gender development?
Traditional male and females gender roles Gender: Nature or Nurture?
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Intersection: Friendships
Research indicates that friendships Impact children’s self-esteem, well-being,
and school adjustment Comfort with giving or receiving help
appears related to one’s number of friends Learning to be a friend is an important
developmental skill
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Resilient Children
Resilience – A person’s ability to recover from or adapt to difficult times
Resilient children become capable adults Advantages possessed by resilient children
Individual factors Family factors Extrafamilial factors
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Resilient Children
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Understanding Adolescence
Transition from childhood to adulthood Balance positive and negative aspects Marked by the search for identity Roughly 75% are happy, enjoy life, believe
they can cope effectively with stress, and value school and work
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Physical Development
Puberty Rapid skeletal and sexual maturation Occurs two years earlier for girls than for boys
Testosterone (boys) Genital development, height, voice changes
Estrogen (girls) Breast, uterine, and skeletal development
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Cognitive Development
Piaget’s Formal Operational Stage Abstract, idealistic, and logical thought Hypothetical-deductive reasoning
Adolescent Egocentrism The belief that others are as preoccupied with
the adolescent as he or she is Sense of uniqueness Sense of invincibility risky behaviors
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Socioemotional Development
Erikson: Psychosocial Development Stage 5: Identity versus identity confusion
James Marcia’s Four Identity StatusesExploration and Commitment
Identity diffusion Identity foreclosure Identity moratorium Identity achievement
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Socioemotional Development
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Adult Development and Aging
Emerging Adulthood Five Key Features
1. Identity exploration
2. Instability
3. Self-focused
4. Feeling in-between
5. The age of possibilities Health and well-being generally improves
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Physical Changes in Adulthood Early Adulthood
Most reach the peak of physical development Middle Adulthood
Most lose height, many gain weight Menopause for women (late 40s or early 50s)
Late Adulthood Life expectancy has increased, life span has not
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Biological Theories of Aging
Both look within our body’s cells Cellular-Clock Theory
Maximum # of cell divisions are possible Predicts human life span of about 120 years
Free-Radical Theory Unstable oxygen molecules within cells Cause DNA and cell damage
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Alzheimer’s Disease
A progressive irreversible brain disorder characterized by a gradual deterioration in Memory, reasoning, language Physical functioning
Disease marked by pronounced Tangles (tied bundles of proteins) Plaques (deposits in brain’s blood vessels)
Acetylcholine deficiency
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Alzheimer’s Disease
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Cognitive Development
Early adulthood Marked by relative and reflective thinking Considerable variation influenced by education
Middle adulthood Crystallized intelligence increases
Our accumulated knowledge and verbal skills Fluid intelligence begins to decline
Our ability to reason abstractly
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Cognitive Development
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Cognitive Development
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Cognitive Development
Cross-Sectional versus Longitudinal Research Studies produce slightly different findings Peak performance for both types of intelligence may
actually occur in middle adulthood Late Adulthood
Speed of processing generally declines Memories fade and retrieval skills fail Wisdom (expert knowledge about life) might
actually increase in some individuals
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Socioemotional Development
Erikson’s Theory: Last 4 Stages5. Identity versus role confusion (adolescence)
6. Intimacy versus isolation
7. Generativity versus stagnation
8. Integrity versus despair
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Erikson’s Theory
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Marriage and Parenting
Women and men are marrying later Principles for Successful Marriages
Nurturing fondness and admiration Turning toward each other as friends Giving up some power Solving conflicts together
Parenting can Generativity (Erikson)
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Socioemotional Development
Midlife Crisis or Midlife Consciousness? Research reveals that midlife
Is not particularly tumultuous, mostly positive Is relatively low in experienced anxiety Adults show resilience and good coping skills Brings few illnesses, but poor physical fitness
Awareness of gap between young and old
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Socioemotional Development
Activity Satisfaction and Good Health Value Emotional Satisfaction
Spend time with family and friends Narrow Social Interactions
Restrict contact with less familiar individuals Positive Psychology and Aging
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Application: Health and Wellness
Development during adulthood marked by Physical and psychological decline Conscious awareness of aging
Coping with life’s difficulties Assimilation and accommodation (Piaget)
Victor Frankl – Life Themes
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Chapter Summary
Explain how psychologists think about development. Describe children’s development from prenatal stages to
adolescence. Identify the most important changes that occur in
adolescence. Discuss adult development and the positive dimensions
of aging. Discuss important factors in successful adult
psychological development.
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Chapter Summary
Development occurs across the lifespan and is influenced by both Nature – biological inheritance Nurture – environmental experience
Physical Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood
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Chapter Summary
Cognitive Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood
Socioemotional Development Childhood Adolescence Adulthood
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Chapter Summary
Piaget: Cognitive Development Schemas, assimilation, and accommodation Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete
operational, and formal operational stages Kohlberg: Moral Development
Shift from external internal moral code Preconventional, conventional, and
postconventional morality
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Chapter Summary
Erikson: Psychosocial Development Emphasizes lifelong development Eight psychosocial stages (crises) of
development Positive Psychology and Development
Most report being happy across the life span Coping, Life Themes, and Development