第 卷 第 期 journal of southwest jiaotong university …
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西南交通大学学报
第 56 卷 第 3 期
2021 年 6 月JOURNAL OF SOUTHWEST JIAOTONG UNIVERSITY
Vol. 56 No. 3
June 2021
ISSN: 0258-2724 DOI：10.35741/issn.0258-2724.56.3.42
Review article
Social Sciences
PERCEPTION OF AGRICULTURAL SMALLHOLDER FARMERS ON
PUBLIC EXTENSION AND ADVISORY SERVICES IN ETHEKWINI
MUNICIPALITY, KWAZULU-NATAL PROVINCE
夸祖鲁-
纳塔尔省埃特克维尼市农业小农对公共推广和咨询服务的看法
Jabulani C. Nyawo a, *, B.C. Mubangizi b
a Discipline of Public Governance, University of KwaZulu-Natal
Durban, South Africa, nyаwо[email protected] b Discipline of Public Governance (SARChI Chair: Sustainable Local Livelihoods), University of KwaZulu-Natal
Durban, South Africa, mubаngizib@ukzn.аc.za
Received: March 11, 2021 ▪ Review: April 12, 2021 ▪ Accepted: May 20, 2021 ▪ Published: June 30, 2021
This article is an open-access article distributed under the terms and conditions of the Creative Commons
Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0)
Abstract
The government’s inability in South Africa to ensure that formulated programs, structures, and
policies adequately accommodate smallholder farmers hinders the sector’s ability to grow and develop.
This study examines the agricultural smallholder farmers’ perception of the service delivered by the
extension and advisory officers. The researchers obtained the primary data from fifteen focus group
discussions with the smallholder farmers and three senior government officials under the Department of
Agriculture & Rural Development who willingly responded to face-to-face semi-structured interviews.
Using thematic analysis, the authors found that the public extension &advisory Officers do not provide
substantial support to smallholder farmers seeking access to markets. The study results also show that the
agricultural smallholder farmers are dissatisfied with the public extension and advisory officers’ services.
Smallholder farmers continue to experience numerous challenges, although the extension and advisory
program was implemented to help farmers deal with some challenges for growth and sustainability. New
results are expected to provide empirical evidence regarding the performance of extension and advisory
officers on smallholder sectors’ development. Furthermore, study results can be used as guidelines for the
government when considering the best approaches and capacity building for smallholder farmers.
Keywords: South Africa, Markets, Agriculture, Extension Service, Smallholder
摘要 南非政府无法确保制定的计划、结构和政策充分适应小农，这将影响该部门的增长和发展能
500 Nyawo and Mubangizi / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University / Vol.56 No.3 June 2021
力。这项研究考察了农业小农对推广和咨询官员提供服务的看法。研究人员从与农业和农村发展
部下属的小农和三名高级政府官员的十五次焦点小组讨论中获得了主要数据，他们自愿回应了面
对面的半结构化访谈。通过专题分析，作者发现公共推广和咨询官员没有为寻求进入市场的小农
提供实质性支持。研究结果亦显示农业小农对公众推广及谘询人员的服务不满意。小农继续面临
许多挑战，尽管实施了扩展和咨询计划，以帮助农民应对增长和可持续性方面的一些挑战。预计
新的结果将为推广和咨询官员在小农部门发展方面的表现提供实证证据。此外，研究结果可以作
为政府在考虑小农的最佳方法和能力建设时的指导方针。
关键词: 南非, 市场, 农业, 推广服务, 小农
I. INTRODUCTION The agricultural sector is vital to rural
development. This sector contributes
exceptionally to alleviating poverty within
remote areas. The literature has widely
recognized the contribution of the farming sector
in developing countries at both the domestic and
international levels [1], [2], [3],[4]. Thus, the
practical and relevance of extension and advisory
services led by government operations in
partnership with relevant role-players are needed
and crucial. In South Africa, the extension and
advisory services have experienced a
fundamental change from a dualistic service to a
single combined service, focusing on both the
previously disadvantaged smallholder farmers
and the large-scale commercial farmers [6].
There are currently three types of extension and
advisory services: public, private, and Non-
Governmental Organisations.
This paper focuses on smallholder farmers
and public extension and advisory services. The
main reason for choosing general extension and
advisory services is that numerous smallholder
farmers largely depend on the government’s
support through the structure of extension and
advisory services. The South African agricultural
sector consists of a small number of highly
resourced commercial farmers and numerous
poorly resourced smallholder farmers.
Smallholder farmers, land and agrarian reform
beneficiaries, subsistence farmers,medium-scale
commercial farmers, and large-scale commercial
farmers are the client bases for public agriculture
extension & advisory services. The extension and
advisory officers should be trained to support
these clients through marketing and business
development, technical and advisory assistance,
regulatory services, training, capacity building,
information and knowledge management, and on-
and off-farm infrastructure [5]. Assisting farmers
through providing information, advice, education,
and training to make productive, efficient, and
sustainable use of their land and other
agricultural resources is the prominent role of the
extension and advisory services [6], [7].
While the public extension and advisory
officers are expected to perform numerous
functions, they are limited mainly by inadequate
resources[6], [8], [9]. Since 1994, the South
African government has implemented various
transformational policies for the agricultural
sector. Specific guidelines have been
implemented to address disparities and
inequalities, to create broader access to services
and markets within the farming industry [5].
However, the smallholder farmers continue to
experience inadequate access to the factors of
productions, finance, markets, infrastructure, and
the majority of them continues to utilize
traditional production techniques, which all
hampers the advancement of this sector [4]
[10],[11],[12],[13],[14]. The smallholder farming
sub-sectors' role is emphasized within South
Africa’s National Development Plan, which
allocated smallholder farmers with a mandate to
drive rural development and improve their
livelihoods [15]. Jordaanet et al. [3] assert that
smallholder farmers are distinctively placed to
play a vital role in stimulating the rural economy
and alleviating poverty in South Africa.
Numerous researchers believe that smallholder
farmers’ support and development are crucial for
addressing some of the issues experienced by
rural communities.
The support activities initiated by different
government institutions show little success in
developing and growing the smallholder sub-
sector in South Africa [1], [2], [3], [16]. A survey
conducted by Statistics South Africa (StatsSA) in
2010 shows that the government programs and
policies have focused on commercially-oriented
farmers with little coordination related to the
government’s activities for smallholder farmers
[17]. Public extension and advisory services’
preparedness and willingness to assist and
develop sustainable smallholder farmers become
crucial components in fulfilling government
501
objectives regarding the smallholder sub-sector.
The need for agricultural extension and advisory
services is thus vital. The agricultural extension
and advisory service is a critical structure that the
government created to attain its agricultural
developmental goals and precisely support the
smallholder sub-sector. These goals could be
achieved by providing appropriate agricultural
information and knowledge to enable and
capacitate land users and farmers towards
improved, sustainable and economic
development [18]. Several studies have
investigated the role of the extension and
advisory services towards the smallholder sub-
sector [18],[19],[20],[21],[22],[23],[24],[25],
[26],[27],[28] but there is a lack of studies
undertaken to assess the perceptions of the
smallholder farmers towards the extension and
advisory services in South Africa. Considering
various challenges the smallholder farmers face,
there is no doubt that there is still much to be
done in/by the public extension and advisory
services to ensure its relevance and effectiveness
towards the smallholder sub-sector. Thus,
assessing the value and significance of the public
extension and advisory services towards
smallholders' growth and development is
required. In light of this, the objectives are to (1)
assess the perception of agricultural smallholder
farmers regarding extension and advisory
services in KwaZulu-Natal, (2) establish the role
of public extension and advisory services in
assisting the smallholder farmers in dealing with
access to market challenges in KwaZulu-Natal
and (3) determine the level of access to public
extension and advisory services by agricultural
smallholder farmers in KwaZulu-Natal.
II. LITERATURE REVIEW
A. Infrastructural Development
Infrastructure development plays a critical
role in the social and economic development of
any country, which means that proper
infrastructure ensures that production,
distribution, and trade activities within the
country are facilitated effectively [29], [30], [31].
For instance, roads and transport infrastructure is
critical for farmers’ procurement of inputs and
produce distribution. Adequate market
infrastructure must be in place to support the
production system and trading of the farm make.
The infrastructure mainly contains extensive
services that facilitate production, purchasing,
processing, preservation, and trade within the
agricultural sector. In most cases, the farm
infrastructure is categorized as input-based
infrastructure, physical infrastructure, resource-
based infrastructure, and institutional [18], [30],
[31]. In the smallholder farming sector,
investment in infrastructure remains under-
resourced.
Proper infrastructure, especially in rural areas,
is critical for sustainable livelihoods and rural
development. According to Selepe et al. [30], the
infrastructure facilitates the production,
distribution, consumption, trade, and food
security in the rural economy. In many rural
parts of South Africa, smallholder farmers cannot
promptly move their produce to the markets due
to inadequate private and public transport access.
Furthermore, the lack of storage facilities,
modern irrigation systems, and other on-and-off
farm infrastructure affects the smallholder
sector’s functioning and prevents the smallholder
sub-sector from changing to a high-value market-
oriented production [32].
The government's ability to invest in
infrastructure, especially in rural areas, may
contribute to smallholder production’s rapid
growth [33], [34]. Due to globalization, it is
critical that governments plan, develop and
finance infrastructure across national borders to
ensure interlinkages among countries. Therefore,
long-term thinking and vision about the
infrastructure are crucial to ensure the long-term
outcomes needed to bring about the country’s
changes.
In most cases, agricultural production largely
depends on irrigation and rain-fed systems. In the
rain-fed regions, farming is the most considerable
activity. The rain-fed systems help ensure the
benefits of preventive prospects and cope with
the consequences of water shortage. The
significance of rain-fed agriculture differs
between countries, and rain-fed agriculture is
practiced on 80% of the world’s agricultural area
and its importance [35]. The rain-fed agricultural
system plays an essential role in the “production
of food for poor communities in developing
countries” [36]. Olayide, Tetteh, and Popoola
[37] also mentioned that rain-fed agricultural
production systems are vulnerable to seasonal
variability, which affects the livelihood outcomes
of farmers and landless laborers who depend on
this system for agricultural production. The
shortage of water for farming remains a central
dilemma for crop production and sustainable
development [38], [39], [40]. Several South
African studies show that climate variability and
climate change are among the main threats to
smallholder farmers’ well-being [40]. Farmers
who rely on the rain-fed system could yield low
crops as the “rainfall could not provide the right
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amount of water at the time required by the crops
throughout the growing period” [41]. Therefore,
farmers’ dependence on unpredictable rainfall is
one of the restraining factors for agricultural
productivity [37], [42].
The smallholder sub-sector typically depends
on rain-fed systems, as they do not have the
resources to utilize rain-fed and irrigation
systems. The government must ensure proper
planning, a careful selection of farm enterprises,
and more significant investment in infrastructure
in those areas where farmers depend heavily on
the rain-fed system for production. Higher
production and yields, lower vulnerability to the
seasonality of agricultural output, and a lower
risk of crop failure are some of the benefits of the
farming irrigation system [37]. Irrigation enables
farmers to adopt more diversified cropping
patterns and invest in high-value, market-oriented
production. Most large-scale commercial farmers
utilize irrigation production systems, while few
smallholder farmers use them as irrigation
systems demand high capital investments.
B. Smallholder Sub-Sector and Market Access
The South African government has identified
the smallholder sub-sector as the vehicle through
which poverty reduction and rural development
goals can be achieved. To achieve this, the
government has committed itself to support and
expand the number of farmers within this
sector[43], [44]. One of the government’s critical
objectives for the agricultural industry is to
support the smallholder farming sub-sector to
access markets, financing, infrastructural support,
training, and production inputs. Nevertheless, this
sub-sector lacks sufficient access to proper
markets, financing, and product quantity and
quality. Also, it faces agronomic challenges such
as seed quality and disease management and
insufficient support from the extension and
advisory services.
The smallholder sub-sector consists of
numerous farmers who engage in agricultural
activities. A study conducted by the FAO on the
state of food insecurity in 2015 noted that an
estimated 70% of smallholder farmers in Sub-
Saharan Africa primarily relied on agriculture as
their mainstay of livelihoods. A Community
Survey conducted by StatsSA in 2016 found that
there were 2.3 million households engaged in the
agricultural smallholder sub-sector. Most of these
farmers operate a small piece of land, which adds
up to approximately 14 million hectares of
agricultural land. Most of the smallholder farmers
are concentrated in the rural areas, where there is
low productive land with little or no
infrastructural support and water resources
[45],[46], [47]. Thamaga-Chatja and Morojele
[47] noted that women are responsible for almost
all the productive activities in farming and the
household. The lack of attention to their
empowerment results in severe time poverty
among women. It means that many women
mainly participate in the agricultural smallholder
sector. The smallholder sector’s feminization is
closely related to the domestic tasks that,
culturally, women are supposed to do,
particularly in the less developed rural areas [47].
Like in many developing countries, the
smallholder sub-sector in South Africa is
experiencing numerous challenges. These include
an absence of market information, a lack of
market transport, a shortage of infrastructure,
climate change, poor access to financing, and a
lack of vertical linkages in the marketing
agricultural value chain, which affect their
participation in the traditional markets [48], [49],
[50]. Due to these challenges, smallholder
farmers are stuck in a given market constraint not
to obtain a satisfying income from their products.
Their lack of access to low-cost financing also
means that they cannot purchase farm
infrastructure and inputs. Numerous rural areas
that depend on agriculture for their livelihood
have little or no access to formal credit in South
Africa [50]. A high default risk, uncertainty, and
the risk inherent in agricultural production and
marketing are some of the reasons why formal
credit institutions are not lending to smallholder
farmers [51]. The national food market system of
South Africa is characterized by a legal, well-
established, highly sophisticated marketing
system and informal marketing system. In the
agricultural sector, formal market systems are
those markets that are governed by high food
safety standards and quality, where the actions of
corporations can be observed [52], [53]. In
contrast, informal markets are found in temporary
settings and are not regulated or protected by law
[52], [53].
A small number of retail groups dominate the
well-established formal marketing system
through various supermarket formats that operate
mainly in the cities. This marketing system
involves legal, contractual agreements between
the production and distribution channels. Most
commercial farmers participate in the traditional
markets, with a few smallholder farmers. The
formal marketing system forces quality, quantity,
and proper packaging as requirements for all
products. These conditions are difficult for many
smallholder farmers to meet, so it is difficult for
them to participate fully in the traditional
503
markets. The informal marketing system involves
sales – primarily of small quantities of products –
directly from farmers to customers. These
informal markets are found in remote areas where
a small surplus of goods is sold to neighbors. The
informal trade system plays a crucial role in
South Africa, particularly for small-scale
enterprises.
The smallholder agricultural sub-sector in
South Africa faces the challenge of promoting its
fresh produce and being integrated within local,
regional and international markets [54]. Most
farmers within the smallholder sub-sector in
South Africa sell their produce at local markets,
while few farmers export their products to the
regional and global markets [55]. According to
Jari and Fraser [55], the fresh produce from
agricultural smallholder farmers is mostly “traded
to consumers and traders at the farm gate,
frequently through informal transactions where
prices and terms of exchange are unofficially
negotiated.”
The challenges and constraints affecting the
smallholder sub-sector have significant
implications for the farmers’ access to markets.
The lack of agricultural support systems and
structures and commercial value chain linkages
will affect this sector’s future and growth [56].
Yet, despite these problems, the smallholder
sector plays a vital role in improving household
food security, especially in enhancing nutrition.
The smallholder agricultural sub-sector has been
in existence for decades. However, few
improvements have been made since 1994. This
slow development shows a lack of government
commitment to design or redesign strategies or
introduce plans that will effectively integrate or
link the smallholder farmers to the agricultural
value chain system.
C. Agricultural Public Extension and
Advisory Services
The agricultural sector is the backbone of
most developing countries; it plays an essential
role in building a stable economy and reducing
inequalities while nurturing natural resources
[57]. The need for agricultural extension and
advisory services is thus crucial. The agricultural
extension and advisory service is a critical
structure created to attain its agricultural
developmental goals and precisely support the
smallholder sub-sector [18]. The ability of
farmers to adopt new farming methods, such as
contemporary agricultural and resource
management practices, technological change,
improved seeds, and inputs, can sustainably
improve agricultural productivity. With the
provision of agricultural extension and advisory
services, farmers can be informed about the latest
agricultural technologies, get help dealing with
adverse shocks, and acquire guidance on best
farming practices [20], [22]. Gêmo et al. [58]
define agriculture extension and advisory
services as a function of providing needed and
demand-driven knowledge and skills to rural
men, women, and youth in a non-formal,
participatory manner to improve their quality of
life. According to Anaetoet al. [21], agricultural
extension and advisory services have three
components: social component (involving better
training, leadership development, increased
passion for growth, better health of the
customers); educational component (involving
changing the behavior complex and attitude of
the people); and economic component (involving
better financial management, increased income of
the clientele, increased crop yield). Thus, the
agricultural extension and advisory services
incorporate all agriculture characteristics, which
provide appropriate information, connecting
farmers with sources of farming inputs, markets,
and credit facilities, and providing education
services to farmers.
In most cases, government institutions utilize
a top-down approach instead of a knowledge
sharing and facilitated learning approach when
delivering extension and advisory services to
farmers. In this case, as noted by Raidimi and
Kabiti [59], extension and advisory officers
“regard their clients as partners in the
development of new skills and generating
innovations rather than assuming the farmers to
be mere recipients of externally generated
scientific knowledge which may or may not be
suited to their livelihoods and farming context.”
Abdu-Raheem & Worth [27] noted that a change
of extension approach from a singular, narrowly
defined model of public provision transfer
services, which is broadly recognized, is required
in attaining effective and competitive agricultural
development.
In their line of function, particular extension
and advisory services have been unable to (1)
promote environmentally sustainable agricultural
practices, (2) responsively and efficiently linking
farmers to local and international markets, (3)
view agriculture as part of an all-embracing set of
rural growth strategies, (4) develop competence
among farmers, including training and
reinforcement of innovation developments, (5)
establish linkages between farmers and other
organizations [27]. Agricultural Research
Council [60] and Davis & Terblanché [61]
stipulate that the public extension and advisory
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services in South Africa do not have the required
education and training to respond to the
smallholder’s needs they are servicing
effectively. As a result, the smallholder’s level of
access to extension and advisory services
becomes inadequate. A well-trained, motivated
and dedicated extension and advisory officers
skilled in agricultural production and functional
extension and communication techniques are
needed in South Africa to support smallholder
farmers. Therefore, the provision of adequate
training of the extension and advisory officer and
the continual assessment of the extension and
advisory services’ training needs are critical
III. METHODS/MATERIALS
A. The Study Sample
Qualitative data were collected using a non-
probability purposive sample approach by
identifying critical senior government officials
and smallholder farmers involved in vegetable
production. The purposive sampling method was
chosen for this study because the researcher
wanted to select specific participants who were
knowledgeable about the subject matter under
investigation. Researchers identified and selected
smallholder farmers in five different rural areas:
Mbumbulu, Qadi, Mnini, Shangase, and Ximba.
In this study, three focus group discussions per
selected area were conducted. Thus, a total of 15
focus group discussions were shown. Each focus
group comprised four to ten smallholder farm
members. The total number of farms members
who participated in the study was 117. All the
focus group discussions took place within the
farms of the smallholders. Almost all smallholder
farms visited (14 out of 15) were dominated by
middle-aged women, with few participation by
middle-aged men and young people. In addition,
three senior government officials from the
provincial Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development participated in this study through
face-to-face semi-structured interviews. Mason
[75] notes that the sample size for qualitative
studies varies in terms of the number of
participants, and the ideal size for qualitative
studies is still up for debate. Mason [75] further
indicates that some researchers believe that the
sample size for qualitative studies should be
between “20-30 participants while others suggest
that it should be between 30-50 participants, and
others say between 30-60 participants.” In
addition, other researchers believe that the
sample size does not matter, and the data
collection process must continue until data
saturation is achieved. Thus, the sample size for
this study was relevant.
B. Data Collecting Methods
In this study, the interviewers interviewed all
three senior government officials. They
conducted fifteen focus group discussions with
the smallholder farmers over the value of
extension and advisory officers on smallholders’
development. The interviewers spent between 40-
60 minutes on each interview at the time of the
senior government official’s offices. Also, the
interviewers spent between 60-120 minutes on
each focus group discussion at a time of the
farmer’s farms. The interviews and focus group
discussions were semi-structured, which allowed
the researchers to ask more questions based on
the participants’ answers and their reactions to
the questions. The majority of the interviews and
focus group discussions were tape-recorded. A
notebook was also used to jot things down that
were not caught on tape, e.g., the expressions of
the participants, gender representation, and the
farmers' behaviors. The participants permitted the
researchers to tape-record the interviews and
focus group discussions. The researchers assured
participants’ confidentiality and anonymity. Also,
participants were guaranteed by the researchers
that the interview transcript and recordings would
be destroyed once the study results are obtained.
Thus, the data collected was coded without
identification by names and numbers.
C. Data Analysis
In qualitative studies, researchers analyze and
discuss what participants have said during the
interviews and are concerned about what
participants are not talking about for several
reasons: politics, religion, culture, power, safety,
etc. In this study, the researchers utilized a
thematic analysis tool to identify themes through
careful reading and re-reading the collected data.
When applying this type of analysis, the
collection and analysis of data occur
concurrently. This data analysis approach
allowed the researchers to code and identified the
main themes and sub-themes during and after the
interviews and focus group discussions. During
the transcription process, the researchers
highlighted all the repeated keywords to
formulate codes, articles, and sub-themes
relevant to the study. Initially, the researchers had
planned to conduct twenty-five focus group
discussions (five per identified areas). Still, due
to data saturation, the researchers conducted only
fifteen focus group discussions (three per
identified areas). In ensuring anonymity and
505
confidentiality, farmers’ responses from five
regions were coded as FG1, FG2, FG3, FG4&
FG5. i.e., all responses from farmers (three focus
groups) under area one were combined then
coded to FG1. On the other hand, government
officials’ responses were coded as GO1, GO2,
and GO3.
IV. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION The following section discusses and analyses
two broad themes that were developed during and
after data collection. The results are based on the
smallholder farmers found within the eThewkini
Metropolitan Municipality and senior
government officials within the provincial
Department of Agriculture and Rural
Development.
A. The Perception of Smallholder Farmers
and Their Access towards the Extension
and Advisory Services
The agricultural extension and advisory
services have a critical role to play in the context
of sustainable agricultural productivity growth.
Although agricultural extension and advisory
services focus on transferring appropriate
farming technologies and good farming practices,
there is a need to go beyond. Smallholders need
support in adopting a more market-oriented
approach, prioritizing marketing, food safety, and
linkages with agri-food industries [26]. The
agricultural smallholder farmers’ perceptions
about the extension and advisory services show
that the public extension officers are not doing
their job correctly. The responses below from
smallholders about the extension and advisory
services show that the government must re-look
the program if smallholders are to benefit from it:
The extension officers occasionally provide
advice related to agriculture, but we do not see its
benefit as she is not always around when we need
her. The extension officer’s service is not helpful
due to the lack of much broader knowledge or
information about what we are doing here on our
farm (FG1, 2020).
The extension officer should provide us with
relevant information about the agricultural sector
and make a positive contribution to our farms. It
should also be someone who can check whether
what we are doing is correct or not from the
beginning during plowing till the end when we
sell our produce. On this farm, the extension
officer only comes twice a week, providing us
with advice on using compost and where we can
get the growers (FG2, 2020).
The extension officer must provide us with
technical advice on the seeds we can use in
different seasons to ensure a quality product and
minimize the risk of producing less. On this farm,
we use our traditional knowledge of farming
without the extension officer’s assistance. Hence,
the extension officer is not helpful as we are not
receiving any advice related to our agricultural
activities (FG3, 2020).
The extension officer should be a person who
gives clear information on our farm regarding our
production. Someone who can tell us that we can
do better if we employ specific farm methods.
The extension officer does not help us with
anything, as we are still benefiting from the
training that we had received from one of the
companies that assisted us previously (FG4 and
FG5, 2020).
The findings of this study are in line with the
study conducted by von Loeper, Musango et al.
[62] on the challenges facing smallholder
farmers, where they found that the extension
officers in KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa only
visit the smallholder farmers once a year and the
educational levels of such officers remain low.
Furthermore, the findings of this study are also in
line with those of Sebeho and Stevens [28] on
farmers’ attitudes towards extension service
delivery. The researchers found that from 200
farmers surveyed, “47% of farmers meet their
extension officers once a month, while 10.5% of
farmers indicated they did not have any contact
with their extension officer at all”. Finally, the
findings of this study match those of the study
conducted by Myeni et al. [63] on the barriers
affecting the sustainable agricultural productivity
of smallholder farmers in the Eastern Free State
in South Africa. They discovered that many
“farmers (99%) did not have access to extension
services, with only 1% having access to
extension advisory on crop production.”
According to one of the participants from
government officials:
The department does not have enough human
resources for extension officers. Not every plot of
agricultural land has an extension officer, and
they are close to 2000 extension officers in the
province of KwaZulu-Natal (GO1, 2020).
Based on the above, one could say that the
extension officers’ lack of visibility on the
smallholders’ farms remains a significant
challenge. The farmers’ responses imply that they
are not receiving good guidance from the
extension officers, and they do not value the
assistance provided to them. Furthermore, this
study’s findings and those of the researchers
mentioned earlier are disturbing as institutional
and technical support such as extension and
advisory services are critical components for the
506 Nyawo and Mubangizi / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University / Vol.56 No.3 June 2021
smallholder farming sector’s success. A common
challenge for the government’s extension and
advisory services to support the smallholder
sector is their lack of human resources capacity
and the extension officers’ lack of knowledge.
Disseminating knowledge to smallholder
farmers is one of the critical roles that the
agricultural extension and advisory officers must
play in assisting the farmers in optimizing returns
[20], [25], [64]. Gido et al. [65] noted that
extension officers deliver information based on
the farming calendar during extension visits, such
that preliminary messages create a foundation for
messages to be delivered during subsequent
visits. Some of the agricultural extension and
advisory officers’ visits must provide information
to help the farmers improve their basic
production techniques, marketing strategies, crop
spacing, and land preparation. Based on the
above findings, it is clear that the extension
officers only play a minor role in disseminating
information about the municipal markets or any
other markets to the smallholder farmers to
ensure that they participate and access the
markets available to them.
There are specific critical competencies
required from extension and advisory services to
function effectively. Such competencies include
the ability of the extension and advisory services
to (1) build a strategic partnership and networks,
(2) manage stakeholders, (3) manage knowledge
effectively for the benefits of the smallholders,
(4) identify and use appropriate ICT, (5) to use
problem-solving and decision making
approaches, (6) explain the implication of culture
and diversity, including gender and youth [20],
[24]. When the extension and advisory officers
possess such competencies and perform their
duties effectively, farmers’ perceptions of
extension and advisory services might change.
The extension and advisory officers may not be
experts in all technical and functional fields. Still,
they must be in a position to know how to advise
and communicate information needed by the
farmers [61].
Developing mechanisms that will strengthen
the agricultural extension and advisory services
can enable the governments to provide significant
support to smallholder development. One of the
government officials highlighted that:
Through the extension officers, the
smallholder farmers should get help on their
products’ issues and critical aspects such as
formulation of business plan and grant funding
application through another external
stakeholder’s assistance. The department also
tries to give the farmers training around
compliance through Rural Development and
Agriculture Advisory and Extension Services
units to supply specific markets (GO3, 2020).
On the other hand, another government
officials indicated that:
Some of the department's challenges about the
extension services include the ability of the
extension officers to supply the department with
up-to-date information about smallholder
farmers. This information also reveals the
inability of extension officers to attend or be
available to all smallholder farmers due to a
shortage of extension officers - therefore, a high
number of smallholder farmers end up being
serviced through a low extension (GO2, 2020).
In South Africa, the Department of
Agriculture expects the extension and advisory
services to be critical for delivering its
agricultural agenda. The extension and advisory
officers are not well-equipped or skilled to ensure
that this plan is successful. Furthermore, the
government’s ability to hire knowledgeable and
capable extension officers and provide
appropriate training to the existing extension
officers remains challenging [1]. The study
findings show that the extension officers are
spread too thin to effectively cover all
agricultural smallholder farmers, hence their
inability to be available timeously to all farmers.
On the other hand, the findings show that the
extension officers require appropriate training to
provide the necessary support and advice to the
smallholders and relevant information to the
Department of Agriculture regarding
smallholders' policy formulation purposes.
Therefore, organizing training for existing
extension officers and hiring new extension
officers could close the smallholders' experience
with the extension and advisory officers. New
strategies and capacity are critical for extension
support services [24]. They are supposed to play
a much more significant role, such as brokering
and facilitating links and relationships within the
agricultural innovation system. It is also critical
that the farming sector training includes
entrepreneurial skills development to the
extension officers to respond and contribute
effectively to integrating smallholders into the
agriculture value chain. It is also critical for the
government to investigate whether the
smallholder sector’s support services are
appropriate from time to time. An efficient and
effective extension support service is essential to
ensure the smallholder sector’s promotion.
Davis and Terblanche [61] argue that the main
challenge facing the agricultural extension
services in developing countries is using a ‘one-
507
size-fits-all’ approach for sustainable extension
and rural development programs. Developing
location-specific extension approaches is critical
and in line with developing situation-specific
food security strategies [61]. The extension and
advisory services should provide information
about the market opportunities available to the
smallholder farmers or link the farmers to
markets. The discussion in the following two
sections centered on smallholder farmers’
participation in municipal markets and
extensions’ role in providing market information.
B. Engagement with the Local (Municipal)
Markets and the Role of the Extension and
Advisory Services on Providing Market
Information
Communication and negotiation skills are
vehicles through which selling and buying occur,
either at the formal or informal markets. The
smallholder farmers must explain, persuade, be
confident, influence adequately, and be ready to
exchange information clearly with buyers at the
markets. For smallholder farmers to effectively
negotiate and communicate appropriately with
the buyers, market information is crucial. In most
cases, most smallholder farmers lack access to
market information. Given the absence of
agricultural market information and traders’
opportunistic behavior, intermediaries and other
market actors tend to negotiate low prices with
the farmers for their produce. Njelekela and
Sanga [66] noted that such behavior encompasses
cheating on quality and quantity (especially the
use of scales that are not standard), which fails
the traders to establish long-term business
relations with farmers.
A lack of market information is not supposed
to be an issue for smallholders. The extension
and advisory services were designed to provide
access to the knowledge, technology, and report
critical for smallholder farmers to improve their
productivity, profitability, and quality lives.
Based on the study’s findings, a lack of
agricultural information will continue to be a
problem, as the extension officers cannot
accommodate and service all smallholder
farmers. All the smallholder farmers highlighted
that the extension and advisory services should
assist them in agricultural information. The
extension and advisory services must provide
face-to-face, smallholder farmers with relevant
agricultural information and knowledge in a
quality and timely manner to make an informed
decision [23]. The availability of markets and
market information gives farmers the power to
bargain and improve their incomes, seize market
opportunities through adjustment of production
plans and better allocate production factors, and
use the information to make informed choices
about marketing [66]. In addition to the extension
and advisory services as one of the
communication channels, almost all the
smallholder farmers (12 out of 15 farms)
mentioned that they sometimes (due to the
unavailability of extension officers) rely on
relatives or friends for agricultural market
information. However, face-to-face
communication through the extension and
advisory services surpassed all other
communication modes amongst the smallholder
farmers. The local sphere of government should
rectify “government failures in agriculture by,
among others, ensuring greater access to local
information and by mobilizing local social capital
for policy reinforcement” [67]. Besides
agricultural market information, smallholder
farmers need to receive data over an entire crop
cycle, including fertilizers, pesticides,
government schemes and policies, best farming
practices, crop diseases, land availability,
farming machinery or equipment, transportation,
and buyers and traders [68].
Having access to information on prices,
volumes, and characteristics of products provide
farmers with a better opportunity to participate in
the markets. Without the extension and advisory
service’s support to provide information, it is
difficult for the smallholder farmers to get this
information, as most of their labor concentrates
on producing crops. The researcher observed that
smallholder farmers’ inability to communicate
with the markets effectively affects their growth
and development. Although the provincial and
municipal institutions associated with agricultural
activities provide training around business
management skills, financial skills, and
marketing, the smallholder farmers’ inability to
communicate with the markets effectively
remains a considerable challenge. The language
of business is unknown to many of the
smallholder farmers; for instance, if the buyer
negotiates with the farmers and uses terms like
“volumes,” “quantity,” and “margins,” the buyer
will get a polite nod of the head but are unlikely
to be understood. The low purchasing power and
income, illiteracy, non-existence or inadequate
infrastructure, and lack of information contribute
to the lack of business langue to many
smallholder farmers [69]. In the literature, it has
been noted that numerous smallholder farmers
have limited education. In a recent study, Myeni
et al. [63] found that “about 37% of farmers had
attained secondary education, 29% had attained
508 Nyawo and Mubangizi / Journal of Southwest Jiaotong University / Vol.56 No.3 June 2021
primary education, 28% had no formal education,
4% had attained tertiary education, and only 2%
had attained adult education”. The literacy levels
amongst the smallholder farmers have an indirect
and direct impact on their productivity. New
information and environmental changes require a
certain level of formal training and education
[70].
Furthermore, the researcher observed that
middle-aged women are heavily involved in
producing crops on almost all the farms visited.
No one focuses on the activities related to
marketing, networking, or bookkeeping.
Smallholders’ geographical isolation from the
markets could be one of the barriers to obtaining
market-related information [71]. Below are some
of the responses from the farmers related to their
knowledge about the local (municipal) markets
and areas where they sell their fresh produce
products. It must be noted that in South Africa,
the city markets were created to enable
smallholder farmers to trade their products
without any complications:
We sell the fresh produce to the local agri-
hub, located +/- 80km from our farms. We
organized the local transport to transport new
produce products to the agri-hub center. The agri-
hub center sometimes assists us with the
arrangement of izimbewu (seeds) but not for free
as we buy it from them. We do not know
anything about the municipal markets to sell our
products and profit from them (FG1, 2020).
We regularly transport and sell our products
to Pietermaritzburg fresh produce market. We do
not make much profit due to transportation costs
and paying the commission to the market agent
(FG5, 2020).
We never took our fresh produce products to
the municipal markets because we are always
busy here on the farm, ensuring that the crops are
of good quality (FG2, 2018). We do not have
someone who can sell to the markets other than
selling through the farm gate. We can appreciate
it if anyone can purchase the bulk of the fresh
produce products directly on our farm (FG3,
2020).
We do not know anything about the municipal
markets- how it works, what is required to supply
the bulk market, what is needed to have space in
one of the city markets to sell the fresh produce
(FG3, FG4, 2020).
We sell our fresh produce to the local
community, and sometimes other customers
(from both local and outside the area) come to
collect the new produce products in bulk at our
farm gates, then sell it on their own to other
markets (FG1, FG2, FG3, FG4, FG5, 2020).
We sell our fresh produce product to the local
community, local supermarkets, and municipal
retail markets. The provincial department of
agriculture once provided us with information
about the municipal new produce markets’
operation, primarily how market agents work.
Although we received such information, we
never participated in the bulk market due to
transportation costs. Although there is a bulk
market, they also require a large volume of fresh
produce products to supply or participate in this
market. On the other hand, we do not produce in
large quantities because of the space and shortage
of production materials and tools at our farm
(FG5, FG2, 2020).
We once participated in the bulk market, and
we still utilize the space (renting it from the
municipality) in one of the municipal retail
markets to sell our products. But the problem
with this market is that the city allows the sales
of the products to take place on Mondays and
Thursdays - these are the days when it is quiet,
we do not generate much profit from it. On the
other hand, we are aware of the municipal fresh
produce market dominated mainly by municipal
agents. We have challenges with the municipal
new produce market: we lack packaging for our
product, transportation issues, and sometimes
quality issues. For instance, transport takes R1
200, the municipality charges 5% for us to supply
or sell within the municipal market, and the
agents charge 7% for marketing and selling our
products. Hence, it does not make sense for us to
participate in this fresh produce market as we do
not see its value (we end up losing money instead
of generating the profit from the sold produce) to
our farmers’ growth development. Therefore, it is
one reason why many smallholder farmers do not
want to participate in the municipal fresh produce
markets as it becomes expensive for us (FG2,
2020).
Smallholder farmers’ inability to gain
information regarding prices in urban areas or
any other markets often forces them to sell to the
local communities or traders at farm gate prices.
Due to issues related to a lack of information,
marketing, and transportation, the smallholder
farmers tend to favor farm gate sales [49], [54],
[55]. Trading at the farm gate affects the
smallholder farmers’ profitability, as local traders
have access to price and market information [72].
Smallholder farmers are geographically
dispersed, and their supply is small and
inconsistent; private traders either do not source
from them or require high margins to cover their
costs [26]. Factors such as a lack of transport,
small farm sizes, a lack of expertise regarding
509
managing quality and contractual agreements,
insufficient market information, and
unavailability of infrastructure facilities affect
farmers’ selection decisions regarding market
choices for their produce [49], [73].
Through joint initiatives or collaborative
processes amongst the different key stakeholders
such as the KZN Department of Agriculture &
Rural Development through extension and
advisory services and eThekwini Municipality
through the Business Support Unit, the farmers’
inability to speak the language of business could
be tackled by empowering and capacitating the
smallholder farmers in both business and
management skills. Furthermore, when the
government creates strategies for the smallholder
sub-sector, the down-up approach must be
employed to fully capture the input from farmers
for effective strategy implementation and the
promotion, development, and sustainability of
this sector. Also, the government officials’
perception of the smallholder sub-sector must
change. Most of them view this sector as
comprised of farmers who mainly produce for
consumption but not for profit and sustainability.
Such perception negatively affects the
implementation of those created plans and
strategies for smallholder sub-sector.
V. CONCLUSION Market access continues to be the main
challenge affecting most smallholder farmers.
Thus, adequate and relevant public extension and
advisory services are crucial in advising the
farmers. It becomes one of the government’s
responsibilities to ensure that the available
extension and advisory services adhere to quality
standards to ensure that smallholder farmers
receive the best services. A public extension and
advisory service that assists smallholder farmers
should be well-functioning and play a critical role
in the monitoring and evaluating projects and
intervention programs by providing lessons
learned from failures and successes of
implemented programs. Based on the study
findings, it is clear that the public extension and
advisory services do not add any value to the
agricultural smallholder farmers within South
Africa. The extension and advisory services have
not done what needs to be done to improve the
performance and sustainability of the smallholder
farmers. Therefore, it is necessary to research to
evaluate the value of the extension and advisory
services on smallholder farmers. Thus, the
government must assess and re-structure the
public extension and advisory services to ensure
that the farmers receive quality service.
Baiyegunhi et al. [9] and Lyne et al. [74]
conducted studies on the impact of private and
donor-funded extension services on smallholder
farmers. Their results show that the extension and
advisory services significantly contributed to the
smallholders’ net farm income. For practical and
relevant public extension and advisory services, it
is recommended that the government forge a
relationship with the private and non-
governmental organizations to learn about the
best approaches to employ for public extension
and advisory services.
Furthermore, the government must increase
the extension services’ capacity to implement the
plans and strategies created for smallholder
farmers effectively. Lastly, the agricultural
department must formulate reporting mechanisms
to ensure the extension and advisory officers’
accountability and visibility. The department
should also create a database of the smallholder
farmers assisted by the extension and advisory
officers so that other officials can do follow-ups
within the department to ensure the authenticity
of the reports produced by extension officers.
This study’s responses were only based on
smallholder farmers and government officials.
Thus, a broader investigation into the impact of
agricultural role players in the smallholder sub-
sector’s development and growth is required. The
theoretical implications of this study contribute to
public administration literature to understand
government processes and approaches on
smallholder farmers.
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