http://arcmit01.uncw.edu/torkildsent/domaindesign.htm

 Domain of Instructional Design

  

Instructional Design is defined as “the process of specifying conditions for learning” (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 30).

Instructional Design is focused on the systematic process of learning. According to Dick and Carey, a systems point of view of learning is a process in which every component: teacher, learners, materials and learning environment work symbiotically toward the goal of successful learning. A system is simply a “set of interrelated parts, all of which work together toward a defined goal” (Dick & Carey, 2001, p. 2-3). This view takes into consideration that all parts of any given system work together with equal credence toward a common goal. Each part of the system has its own role and is equally as vital to the functioning of the system as whole. There are several models that an Instructional Designer may follow when designing instruction. The models as well as the processes embodied in all of the models are referred to as Instructional Systems Development or (ISD). (Dick & Carey, 2001, p. 4)

During the Instructional Design process the designer will ask and answer the following questions:

What are the important characteristics of the learners, learning environment and learning context?

What are the goals and objectives that need to be taught? What strategies are the most effective for the learners to master the objectives? How will the learner be assessed to determine if they mastered the objectives? What instructional delivery system will be the most effective for the objectives to

be met and are most appropriate to the design project?

Instructional Design is divided into four sub-domains or components that make up the design processes.

The first sub-domain, Instructional System Design, is defined as “an organized procedure that includes the systematic process of analyzing, designing, developing,

implementing and evaluating instruction” (Seels & Richey, 1998, p. 31). This step-by-step process of designing instruction can be illustrated in the Analysis,Design Development, Implementation, and Evaluation model as seen in the visual below. The ADDIE model provides a general framework, however, for other, more specific, Instructional Design projects instructional designers can choose from various models. While offering new steps and process, the majority of these models demonstrate the systematic processes of designing instruction.

A-Analysis: the process of defining what is to be learned D-Design: the process of specifying how it is to be learned D-Development: the process of authoring and producing the materials I-Implementation: the process of installing the project in the real world context E-Evaluation: the process of determining the impact of instruction

(Seels, B. & Glasgow, Z., 1998, p. 13).

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ADDIE Model

 

Figure 3: ADDIE Model

Image adopted from:

www.up.ac.za/academic/soba/SAAPAM/vol36n3/clapper.htm

The Instructional design process is systematic and is a result of a comprehensive and thorough analysis. The analysis process will guide every aspect of the design product. Analysis is a crucial phase of the Instructional Design Processes. This phase may also be referred to as a Needs Assessment. During the Needs Assessment or analysis

information about the learners, learning context and performance problem will be gathered and analyzed. This analysis information will allow the designer to identify the instructional goals. (Dick & Carey, 2001) The analysis phase consists of a comprehensive set of process and sub-steps in and of itself. However, it is a component of the instructional design process, therefore is a phase that is incorporated in all instructional design models.

There are many models that a designer may utilize to guide his/her analysis. A designer may choose a model to follow while considering: the specifics of the performance problem, the context of problem, the learners and any other pertinent information that may impact the development process. There are some differences evident among various instructional design models. However, in comparing and contrasting various phases it is apparent that the primary steps are consistent across all Instructional analysis models.

Figures 4, 5 and 6 are examples of Instructional Design models:

Reiser & Dick ISD Model

Figure 4: Reiser & Dick ISD Model

Image adopted from Reiser and Dick:

http://www.ic.arizona.edu/ic/edp511/fig1_isd.gif

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Smith & Ragan ISD Model

Figure 5: Smith & Ragan ISD Model

Image adopted from Smith and Ragan:

http://www.acs.ucalgary.ca/~edtech/688/getstart.htm

 

Seels & Glasgow ISD Model

Figure 6: Seels & Glasgow ISD Model Image adopted from Seels and Glasgow:

http://en.wikibooks.org/wiki/Instructional_Technology/Seels_and_Glasgow_Model_II

A widely accepted and implemented Instructional Systems Design Models is the Dick and Carey model of Instructional Design. An important part of this model is analysis phase in which the designer identifies goals, conducts instructional analysis which consists of learner, environmental and task analysis and generates learning or performance objectives for the instructional design phase.

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Dick & Carey Design Model

Figure 7: Dick & Carey ISD Model

Image adopted from:

http://www.dean.usma.edu/math/activities/cape/Instructional_Models/dc_design.html

As seen in Figure 7, the Dick and Carey model demonstrates that Instructional Designers engage in analysis prior to: designing and developing instruction, evaluating, revising, implementing and evaluating the instruction again. Similar to other Instructional Design models, the Dick and Carey model follows the general guidelines of the ADDIE model. This model is comprehensive and specific in that there are sub-steps of each phase of the ADDIE model that are more detailed.

Another Instructional Systems Design Model is the Kemp, Morrison and Ross Model (see Figure 8) of Instructional Systems Design. As seen below the Kemp, Morrison and Ross model presents the instructional design process as a circular process . This implies that the design processes do not function autonomously of one another. As evidenced by the format and organization of the model, each step is not only dependent upon the step before it and impacts the step after it , but at the same time they are impacted by the outer-ring processes. This model contains the steps of the design processes that are generally outlined in the ADDIEmodel.

Kemp, Morrison & Ross ISD Model

Figure 8 : Kemp, Morrison, & Ross ISD Model

Image adopted from:

http://web.ics.purdue.edu/~baterden/Model2.htm

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Although various Instructional Design Models are available for use, the instructional designer often follows the model that best suits the project specifications. Some instructional designers may choose to combine elements from more than one model. The primary concern of the designer is to use the model that will serve to solve the performance problem and is based on needs of the learners and the conditions.

Message Design:

Message design is the format in which the instructional message is relayed to the learner. It involves “planning for the manipulation of the physical form of the message” (Seels and Richey, p. 31).

Message design is the impetus for conveying the content of the instructional objectives. In essence, the message design will include the information that the learner will learn. However, there is much more to message design than simply writing the content. During every instructional design process some instructional messages are designed and delivered to the learner. Message design is an extremely deliberate combination of instructional theory paradigms and graphic design principles. Message design includes the processes of planning what the instructional message will include as well as what it looks like and how it is delivered: text, audio, video, and/or multimedia, etc.

In Instructional Design processes, message design is often driven by the results of the learner, environmental and contextual analyses. Designers try to infuse the multimedia message with the information derived from the analyses in order to produce and develop the most effective instructional messages to include in the product.Instructional designers often employ basic principles and theories of designing instructional messages. For example, a designer may consider the Three Assumptions of a Cognitive Theory of Multimedia Learning as described by Richard Mayer (Mayer, 2001) (See Table 1).

Table 1: Mayer’s Three Assumptions of Multimedia Learning

Assumption Description Implication in ISD

Dual Channels Learners have separate channels for processing visual and auditory information

Information input, storage, and recall is enhanced by presenting information in both visual and verbal form.

Limited Capacity Learners are limited in the

amount of information that they can process in each channel at one time

Images and words should be coupled when deemed to be an effective. They should serve to send the same message. Designers should not present too much verbal or visual information to a learner. Also designers should not present too much information for the learner to store in their working memory while learning; message design can impact this.

Active Processing Learners engage in active learning by attending to relevant incoming information, organizing selected information into coherent representations, and integrating mental representations with other knowledge

Designers should design instructional messages specifically for the ease of the learner to: select, organize and integrate the information by strategically using:

Font Type, Bold,Underlined, Italicized, size & color variances, etc.

Graphics Formatting-how the

information is laid out, spaced, organized

Advanced Organizers

 

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Instructional Strategies:

Instructional Strategies may be considered the “how to” or the guide on the manner in which the content will be developed, written and delivered. The strategies will be considered and planned according to: learner characteristics, learning outcomes and instructional goals. Therefore, the instructional strategies will vary according to each instructional design project. Information from instructional analysis will guide decision making in choosing instructional strategies for every instructional design project. Additionally, a designer will use this information to choose an instructional model that will meet the needs of the learners as well as the instructional goals.

In 1965, Robert Gagne published The Conditions of Learning which outlined the relationship between learning objectives and appropriate instructional design strategies . As an instructional theory, Gagne’s Conditions of Learning theory is based on cognitive information processing theories of learning. The model assists designers in designing instructional events particularly selection of instructional strategies. The basic principles of Gagne’s work should be considered and utilized during the design and development phase of Instructional Design. The general principles that are useful for instructional designers are:

A different type of instruction is necessary for different learning outcomes.

The particular procedures that make up instructional events vary according to each type of learning outcome.

Gagne identifies five categories of learning: Illustrates learning outcomes as well as the instructional strategy that can be implemented to meet the outcome.

Table 2: Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes & Conditions of Learning

Gagne’s Taxonomy of Learning Outcomes & Conditions of Learning

Taxonomy of Learning

OutcomesExample Critical Learning Conditions

Verbal Information Stating previously learned materials such as facts, concepts, principles, and procedures, e.g., listing the seven major symptoms of cancer

1. Draw attention to distinctive features by variations in print or speech.

2. Present information so that it can be made into chunks.

3. Provide a meaningful context for effective encoding of information.

4. Provide cues for effective recall and generalization of information.

Intellectual Skills : Discriminations: 1. Call attention to distinctive

Discriminations, Concrete Concepts, Defined Concepts, Rules, Higher Order Rules

Distinguishing objects, features, or symbols, e.g., hearing different pitches played on a musical instrument

Concrete Concepts: Identifying classes of concrete objects, features, or events, e.g., picking out all the green M&Ms from the candy jar

Defined Concepts: classifying new examples of events or ideas by their definition, e.g., noting "she sells sea shells" as alliteration

Rules: Applying a single relationship to solve a class of problems, e.g., calculating the earned run averages (ERA) of the Atlanta Braves

Higher Order Rules: Applying a new combination of rules to solve a complex problem, e.g., generating a balanced budget for a state organization

features.2. Stay within the limits of working

memory.3. Stimulate the recall of previously

learned component skills.4. Present verbal cues to the

ordering or combination of component skills.

5. Schedule occasions for practice and spaced review.

6. Use a variety of contexts to promote transfer.

Cognitive Strategies

Employing personal ways to guide learning, thinking, acting, and feeling, e.g., devising a corporate plan to improve customer relations

1. Describe or demonstrate the strategy.

2. Provide a variety of occasions for practice using the strategy.

3. Provide informative feedback as to the creativity or originality of the strategy or outcome.

Attitudes Choosing personal actions based on internal states of understanding

1. Establish an expectancy of success associated with the desired attitude.

and feeling, e.g., deciding to exercise daily as a part of preventive health care

2. Assure student identification with an admired human model.

3. Arrange for communication or demonstration of choice of personal action.

4. Give feedback for successful performance; or allow observation of feedback in the human model.

Motor Skills Executing performances involving the use muscles, e.g., doing a triple somersault dive off the high board

1. Present verbal or other guidance to cue the executive subroutine.

2. Arrange repeated practice.3. Furnish immediate feedback as to

the accuracy of performance.4. Encourage the use of mental

practice.

http://www.my-ecoach.com/idtimeline/theory/gagne.html

Information from: Driscoll, M. (1991) Psychology of Learning for Instruction. Allyn and Bacon.

There are various Instructional Design models that can be utilized in planning and applying instructional strategies . One of the most simplistic but valuable instructional strategies is the Select Organize Integrate (SOI) model proposed by Richard Mayer (Mayer, 2001). Mayer’s SOI model can be implemented for any type of learning outcome. This model includes:

S-Selecting Relevant Information O-Organizing Incoming Information I-Integrating Incoming Information

In pragmatic terms and from the learner’s perspective, selecting relevant information will include-choosing to attend to clearly important information to learn. This may be indicated by bold-faced, underlined, highlighted information or any other “indicator” that will say to the learner-“this is important”. Organizing information will include how the learner perceives the information that they are learning. In what fashion is the information presented to the learner? How is the information structured? This strategy may include an outline format or if the message is auditory, it may include a deliberate pause. The integration of information is essentially, how the learner “puts it all together”. This should include intentional and planned connections established by the designer. In other words, the designer should ensure, based on analysis data, that the content not only connects in and of itself but also that the learner connects the newly learned information with prior knowledge. Connections may be established in a number of ways, according to the specific design product. One example is using analogies. These

connections or integration of information will ensure learning takes place as instructional messages with no connections are just words.

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In Instructional Design processes the ARCS Model (Keller, 1987) may also be used to apply the basic principles and steps of making connections with the learners. The model is designed to increase learner motivation as without learner motivation the presentation of information is likely to be irrelevant. The ARCS Model of Learner Motivation (see Figure 9) demonstrates the general steps or guidelines that could be followed in considering the instructional strategies. The instructional strategies should be chosen for an instructional design product to improve learner motivation.

A-Attention-How are you going to gain and keep the attention of the learner? R-Relevance-How are you going to make the content relevant to the learner? C-Confidence-How are you going to make the learner feel as if they can and will

learn the material and master the learning objective? S-Satisfaction-How are you going to cause the learner to feel as if they have

gained something from the material and their learning? Is this material and learning personally meaningful and/or purposeful to the learner is some way?

ARCS Model of Motivation

Figure 9: ARCS Model of Motivation

Image adopted from:

http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw04/papers/refereed/lund/paper.htm

 

Learner Characteristics:

The learner characteristics are the driving force behind all instruction. If the learner characteristics are not accurately, thoroughly and effectively analyzed the instruction

may be irrelevant and ineffective. Learner characteristics should include any and all information that is relevant to the instructional design project. Typically, the following information will be utilized as a starting point for the learner analysis: age, socioeconomic background, entry behaviors, prior knowledge, attitude toward content, attitude toward delivery system, academic motivation for instruction, education and ability levels, learning preference/style, and attitude toward organization. This information may be adequate to begin an instructional design project. However, during the instructional analysis, the designer should determine if any other learner information would be pertinent and use that information as well. An instructional design project and product should always include some degree of learner analysis as effective instruction is learner centered.

Historically, Pedagogy or teaching has been content and teacher centered. However, the paradigm shift in education has resulted in moving from a more teacher centered approach of instruction to a more learner centered approach. Today, pedagogy is the art, science, or profession of teaching (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2006).

In 1973, Malcolm Knowles published the book, The Adult Learner: A Neglected Species in which Andragogy was originally defined as "the art and science of helping adults learn". It has since shifted to a more expansive meaning. The term now refers to learner-focused education for people of all ages. A straightforward depiction of Andragogy is to consider the learner at the center and the learning content surrounding them (see Figure 10).

Visual Comparison: Andragogy & Pedagogy

Figure 10: Visual Comparison: Andragogy & Pedagogy

Image adopted from:

http://ausweb.scu.edu.au/aw04/papers/refereed/lund/paper.htm

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An instructional designer that approaches instructional design from a learner centered point of view will consider the following general principles of Andragogy that are related to learners and their characteristics:

Learners Need:

To know why they are learning something To learn through experience and problem solving To explore topics of immediate value to them-useful, pragmatic Choices To focus on process, including social process Self-directedness, motivated by where the learning will get them (Knowles,

1973).

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Figure Index

 

 

 

Instructional Development

Seels and Richey (1994) define instructional development as “the process of translating the design specifications into physical form” (p. 35). The domain of instructional development is the process of using all of the information gathered during analysis and the instructional design phases and actually creating a product.

Instructional development may encompass many different product development specifications. In general, development includes the creation, use and addition of all planned assets that are included in a product deliverable. Assets may include any component of the instructional package that are planned and specified during the design phase. The product deliverables will act as the apparatus or vehicle in which effective instruction will be delivered to the learners.

Instructional Designers may choose the appropriate instructional design model that will guide the development phases of the project as well. The product will be created as specific to the project parameters. During instructional development a designer will create a first draft of a product then conduct a formative evaluation. After a thorough evaluation process, the product will be revised based on reviewing the instructional goals and analysis information. After final revisions the product can be delivered to the client for implementation.

Typical Instructional Development products may include, but are not limited to:

Instructional Manual Job Aids CD-Rom Computer Based Instruction (CBI) Web-Based Instruction Face to Face Instructors guide-including end user materials DVD Combination of any of the above-Integrated

Instructional product deliverables that are created during the development phase may fall into one of the four sub-domains of instructional development below.

Print Technology:

Print technology is “any medium or material produced through text, graphic or photographic representation and reproduction…” These technologies generate materials in hard copy form.” (Seels and Glasgow, 1998, p. 111) Print technology

materials may include written words, visuals or a combination of both. Some examples of print technologies are: manuals, and performance job aids. Print technology does not include interactivity but it does have advantages such as:

Easily portable and communicative-i.e. by fax May be reproduced in mass quantity-for a relatively low cost An unlimited capacity for volume of information “Low tech”-do not require technology skills or equipment to utilize Learner can pace and organize themselves in how they choose to use the

materials

Audiovisual Technology:

Audiovisual technology includes the use of technologies to deliver both auditory messages and visual messages at the same time. The audio and visual messages may be delivered in a variety of ways including: motion picture, films, audiotapes, DVD, VHS, and slides. Like print technology, audiovisual technology does not generally use interactivity. However the advantages of audiovisual technology are:

Tend to be easy to utilize and follow due to the linear nature of the instructional delivery

With the use of motion and visuals they are dynamic to the learner The designer can incorporate multiple learning theories in the use of audiovisual

technologies fairly easily Instructional messages are delivered through the use of multi-modalities-which is

more likely to reach learner by utilizing both the auditory and visual channel of information input

Computer-based Technology:

Computer-based technology is a way to produce and deliver instructional materials using micro-processor based resources such as a personal computer or laptop. Computer-based technologies store the information in a computer processor digitally and use the screen to deliver the information to the learner. Some examples of computer-based technology include: web-based training, electronic performance support systems, and computer-based instruction. A fairly ubiquitous example of computer-based technology is computer based instruction which may include: drill and practice, tutorials, instructional games and instructional simulations.

One principal advantage of computer based technology is the possibilities for learner interactivity. With the advances in technology learner interactivity with instructional materials has become quite impressive. If utilized properly, interactivity cannot only positively impact the effectiveness of instruction but it can also increase learner motivation and interest. Computer Based Technologies also makes it easier for a large quantity of people to reach the instruction across just about any geographic distance. Utilizing computer-based technologies also allows the designer a great deal of options

in organizing the delivery of the instruction. The content can be liner in nature, non-sequential, branched or a combination of various types of instruction. Therefore, the use of computer-based technologies allows for a great deal of flexibility in the design and delivery of instruction. 

Integrated Technology:

Integrated technology encompasses at least two primary types of delivery systems. Integrated technologies generally utilized computers as a means to connect the learner and the teacher as they are utilized for synchronous distance learning instruction. As computer systems are utilized as an apparatus to make the distance “connection” possible, other multimedia and audiovisual technologies may be utilized for instruction. For example, DVDs, websites, multimedia presentations may all be incorporated into the instructional design and delivery. The use of integrated technology also allows for a great number of possibilities for an instructional designer. While often times very expensive, there are many advantages to utilizing integrated technologies. The advantages are:

Can be utilized in a linear, non-linear, non-sequential and/or random delivery fashion

The learner has some control in how materials are utilized Allows for a highly interactive, dynamic learner experience Behavioral, Cognitive and Constructivist learning principles can all be employed

and/or combined

 

Introduction About Me History & Definition Domains Competencies Artifacts Resume References Works Cited Glossary

Figure Index

 

 

Utilization

The domain of utilization has grown out of the use of audiovisual materials in instruction throughout the twentieth century, while gaining particular popularity post World War II (Wikipedia, 2006). After an instructional product is designed and developed the instructional designer then ensures that the product is utilized as intended. Utilization encompasses the systematic implementation and use of the instructional activities that are designed and developed for the learners to consume. In simple terms, utilization means "to put to use" (Merriam Webster Dictionary, 2006). In the context of Instructional Technology, utilization also includes putting the instructional product into operation within the context of the project.

 

Media Utilization:

Seels and Richey define Media Utilization as "the systematic use of resources for learning" (1994, p.46). Instructional designers choose appropriate and effective medial assets during the design and delivery phases to convey their instructional messages. After they have done so, the designer ensures that the selected media is functioning and is accessible to the users of the product. Media Utilization is guided by the results of instructional analysis phase of instructional design process. During the analysis phase, learner characteristics, environmental issues along with learning outcomes and selected instructional strategies are used to identify media specifications. These specifications are then used to plan the delivery of instruction. Thus, media selection processes are not only governed by learning outcomes and the instructional design strategies but also by the learner characteristics and environmental constraints. Instructional designers often use different media selection models to guide them in their decision making.

One example of a media analysis model, created by William W. Lee and Diana Owens is a synthesis of work from the cognitive sciences, including the cognitive mapping work of M. David Merrill (1982) and the learning capabilities work of Robert Gagne (1985), the process engineering of Hammer and Champy (1994) and the Human Performance Enhancement principles of Thomas Gilbert (1996).

 

Media Analysis Model (Lee & Owens, retrieved 2006)

Figure 13: Media Analysis Model

Image adapted from:

http://www.astd.org/NR/rdonlyres/900E19EF-121E40BCBBBCCD15BD25F47F/0/WhitePaperMediaAnalysisFinal.pdf

From A Systematic Approach to Media Selection by William W. Lee and Diana Owens

Diffusion of Innovations: Diffusion of an Innovation, as depicted by Everett Rogers (1995) is "the process by which an innovation is communicated through certain channels over time among the members of a social system" (p.5). The goal of any instructional design project and/or product is to bring about some change to an organization or system. Implementing a change in any system can be challenging. Therefore, the implementation of a change is something that needs to be managed. The diffusion of an innovation is intended for the change to be adopted into the system. According to Rogers, the adoption process includes five stages:

Awareness Interest Evaluation Trial Adoption

Diffusing the innovation is a necessary step in successfully implementing the change. Specific communication modes and methods will be chosen in order to successfully execute the diffusion of the innovation. The diffusion plan and processes will vary depending upon the project; however the overall goal is to carefully plan awareness, interest, trial and adoption of the innovation so that it can be seamlessly infused into the organization. This will allow for the implementation of the innovation and without implementation it is impossible to determine if the change is effective and has an impact ( Rogers, 1995)

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Roger’s Diffusion of Innovation Theory and model clarifies five attributes of an innovation. Table 3 summarizes the five attributes of innovation.

Table 3: Roger's Five Attributes of the Diffusion of an Innovation

Attributes Description

Trialability The degree to which an innovation may be experimented with on a limited basis

Observability The degree to which the results of an innovation are visible to others

Complexity The degree to which an innovation is perceived as difficult to understand

Compatibility The degree to which an innovation is perceived as consistent with the existing values, past experiences, and needs of learners

Relative advantage The degree to which an innovation is perceived as better that the previous

 

Rogers also states that adopters of any new innovation or idea could be categorized as: Innovators, Early Adopters, Early Majority, Late Majority, and Laggards. The five categories, a brief description and the percentage of people that fall into that category are displayed in Table 4.

Table 4: Roger's Five Categories of Adopters

Category Description % of people

Innovators Venturesome, educated, multiple info sources, greater propensity to take risk

 

2.5%

Early Adopters Social leaders, popular, educated

13.5%

Early Majority Deliberate, many informal social contacts

34%

Late Majority Skeptical, traditional, lower socio-economic status

34%

Laggards Neighbors and friends are main info sources, fear of debt

 

16%

Source: Diffusion of Innovations by E. Rogers, 1995. Copyright 1995 by The Free Press.  

 

Implementation and Institutionalization:

Implementation occurs after the design process is completed and the product or innovation is essentially put into use in the organization. The diffusion plan should be completed and likely will continue throughout the implementation process. Implementation processes may occur for various length of time depending on the scope of the project. Implementation implies that not only has the innovation been adopted but that it is actually being utilized.

"Institutionalization is the continuing, routine use of the instructional innovation in the structure and culture of an organization" (Seels & Richey, p. 47). Institutionalization allows for the assimilation and daily use of an innovation by the organization. Institutionalization will occur after successful implementation of the innovation. Institutionalization implies that the innovation has been infused into the organization at such a level that it has become a part of the organization. Through careful planning and effective implementation processes, an instructional designer can ensure that an instructional innovation is integrated into the cultural norm of a system. For example, organization leaders may choose to adopt a new software program and train their staff to utilize it. Assuming that the product has been designed and developed and the training has been conducted and adopted, if the product is used on a regular basis it is "institutionalized".

 

Policies and Regulations:

"Policies and regulations are the rules and actions of society that affect the diffusion and use of instructional technology" (Seels & Richey, 1995, p. 47). Any organization has some level of policies, procedures and regulations that serve to govern the function and inner-workings of the organization. When designing instruction and implementing any changes into an organization it is important that policies and regulations that may pertain to the project and organization are carefully considered. Without this consideration and analysis an aspect of the design project could become contradictory to a preexisting policy or regulation that would negate the effectiveness of the project. For example, in an educational system there are specific terms of acceptable use. Prior to adopting a web-based instruction program the decision making body of the organization would need to review at least the acceptable use policy to ensure that the product fits the guidelines of the policy. In terms of instructional design projects, typical policies and regulations may include but are not limited to: copyright law, standards for equipment and programs, creation of teams to support instructional technology, Acceptable Use Policy, and Online Code of Conduct.

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Figure Index

 

 

 

Management

According to Seels and Richey, management is defined as "controlling Instructional Technology through planning, organizing, coordinating, and supervising" (1994, p. 49) . Management cannot be overlooked in Instructional Technology. It is an integral aspect of any process requiring organization and proper execution of steps in order to complete a project. Management of instructional design projects can encompass several activities or subtasks (Wikipedia, 2006). Examples of management subtasks may include but are not limited to:

Work breakdown structures Time-lines Budgeting Staffing Manage facilities Program Evaluation Organize access & delivery systems

As with managing any project, the broad goal is that all aspects of the project are supervised, organized and guided to ensure successful completion of the project activities, regardless of the scope. Management consists of four sub-domains as listed below.

Project Management:

"Project Management involves planning, monitoring, and controlling instructional design and development projects" (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 50). Project management, in very simple terms, may be described as organizing, planning, coordinating and supervising a project. Every project has a unique set of characteristics. Therefore, how a project is specifically managed can vary a great deal. However, the general skills and knowledge that are required for successful project management remain constant for any instructional design project. In planning, implementing and controlling any project, a designer should focus on ensuring that the project is: on time, completed to specification and under budget.

Some common responsibilities for Instructional Technologists to manage may include but are not limited to: creating and maintaining a schedule, negotiating, budgeting, evaluating progress, managing personnel, managing facilities and instructional delivery systems.

In addition to these specific job roles and responsibilities a project manager should have excellent leadership and communication skills. Quite often an instructional technologist is in charge of a team for a temporary period of time. Regardless, it is still imperative to the successful completion of the project that the manager leads the team efficiently and effectively. In order to do this effective leadership skills should be employed.

Based on my experience managing instructional projects, I belive that leadership skills in project management should include but certainly are not limited to: effective verbal and written communication, ability to achieve maximum potential out of your team, adapting to various personnel and situations with ease, the ability to think critically and problem solve issues as well as the ability to recognize unforeseeable risks and obstacles in the project and adapt to any situation that may arise.

Resource Management:

According to Seels and Richey, resource management is defined as "planning, monitoring, and controlling resource support systems and services" (1994, p.51). These management processes may come under the roles and responsibilities of managing the project as the resources are a part of the larger project. However, it is important to note that typical resources for instructional design projects include: personnel, budget, supplies, time and facilities, and instructional resources. These resources may be likened to one’s inputs of the project or the mechanisms that actually get the job done.

Delivery System Management:

"Delivery System Management involves: planning, monitoring, and controlling the method by which distribution of instructional materials is organized and it is also a combination of medium and method of usage that is employed to present instructional information to a learner" (Seels & Richey p. 51). In simple terms, Delivery System Management may be described as the management of the tools or equipment that will be utilized to actually deliver the instruction. A designer will need to make decisions related to hardware/software requirements, technical support, and guidelines.

Information Management:

Allison Rossett states, in the ASTD E-Learning Handbook, that "knowledge management (KM) is about delivering the right knowledge to the right people at the right time" (Rossett, retrieved 2006). Knowledge includes information and any information that is stored, transferred and processed by individuals is information that is available to learn. The general purpose of Information Management is to make information readily available to a user in a timely fashion. One reason information Management has become noteworthy and will continue to grow as an influential area of Instructional Technology is because of efficiency. As technology use becomes more integrated, knowledge management has allowed for rapid storage, retrieval and use of information. In pragmatic terms, Information Management can look very different depending on the situation and the project. However, since the ubiquity of technology, knowledge is

shared so readily that individuals across the globe can literally connect in seconds. This capability can be utilized in many ways during an instructional design project but more importantly it needs to be managed, again to achieve maximum effectiveness and efficiency of project completion.

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Evaluation

According to the definition, as provided in the Merriam Webster dictionary (2006), evaluation is" to determine the significance, worth, or condition of usually by careful appraisal and study". In Instructional Technology the purpose of evaluation is also to determine the worth of something through systematic analysis and study. However, as with all areas of Instructional Technology, the evaluation process is more prescribed, systematic and specifically focused on data in order to make sound decisions .

More specifically, in the field of Instructional Technology, evaluation is defined as "the process of determining the adequacy of instruction and learning" (Seels & Richey, 1994, p. 54).

There are four specific sub-domains of evaluation in Instructional Technology. They are described below.

 

Problem Analysis:

Best practices would dictate that instruction should only be designed, delivered and implemented if there is some sort of performance problem to be solved, regardless of degree or severity. In order to solve a performance problem the performance gap must be specifically identified. The performance gap is the difference between what is currently happening and what should be happening in any given situation. In order to accurately and effectively identify the performance gap a thorough problem analysis needs to be conducted at the beginning of the instructional design processes. Problem analysis includes: needs assessment, performance analysis, and a contextual analysis (Rossett, 1987). The needs assessment procedures are employed to specifically determine the gaps between the current performance and the ideal performance. Needs assessment procedures include a great deal of information gathering from a variety of sources pertaining to the performance problem. The performance analysis is employed to determine if the problem is an instructional problem that can be solved through instruction. This process may also be called Training Needs Assessment or (TNA) (Rossett, 1987). According to Allison Rossett, TNA (1987) is "the systematic study of a problem or innovation, incorporating data and opinions from varied sources, in order to make effective decisions or recommendations about what should happen next" (p.3).

According to Rossett (1987), in order to conduct a problem analysis a designer should complete each of the following steps:

Assess the context of the problem Determine purposes Select techniques and tools Develop a TNA Plan Develop stage Planner(s) Conduct the needs assessment Communicate results Use the results to make decisions

Common analysis techniques as described by Rossett (1987) include:

Extant Data Analysis-data describing employee performance Needs Assessment-opinions, optimals, actuals, feeling, causes, solutions Subject Matter Analysis-looking at the body of knowledge learners need Task Analysis-provides a specific description of optimal performance

Common analysis tools as described by Rossett (1987) include:

Interviewing Observing Facilitating groups Surveying-questionnaires

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Assessment of Learning Outcomes/Criterion Referenced Measurement:

Criterion referenced measurement are assessment items that are created specifically to measure if the learner has mastered a predetermined criteria as stated in a learning objective (Dick, Cary & Carey, 2001). Criterion referenced measurement will provide information on the degree to which the learner has mastered the content or objective of the instruction. (Seels & Richey, 1994). A predetermined mastery level or score is established to determine if the learner has mastered the content. Unlike norm-referenced measurement where learners are scored relative to the performance of other learner, criterion referenced measurements determines each learner's mastery against predetermined criteria (Wikipedia, 2006). Criterion-referenced measurements will allow the learner to know how well they perform relative to a standard as opposed to comparing learner to learner.

 

Formative Evaluation:

"Formative evaluation involves gathering information on adequacy and using this information as a basis for further development" (Seels & Richey p. 57). Formative evaluation is utilized in the early stages of product development. Formative evaluation

may be considered the "while in process" or during "formation" evaluation process. There are several purposes of formative evaluation, which include: (Dick & Carey, 2001)

Identify errors/problems in the instructional material Identify factors affecting learning outcomes Diagnose students’ learning problems Revise and improve the quality of material & learning Confirm students’ mastery of learning Measure the process of learning

During formative evaluation a designer will utilize the instructional materials to conduct a one to one evaluation then a small group evaluation and finally a field test will follow (Dick & Carey, 2001).

During these evaluation stages, the designer will observe the learners moving through the instructional content and record any changes that need to be made to instruction. Edits and improvements will be completed after each evaluation therefore instructional materials are revised several times, as needed. During a formative evaluation process both qualitative and quantitative data may be collected. The formative evaluation information is collected, analyzed and used specifically to make revisions and improvements. According to Dick and Carey, the formative evaluation information is not utilized solely to make revisions to the instruction. It is also used to "reexamine the validity of the instructional analysis and the assumptions about the entry behaviors and characteristics of learners" (Dick & Carey, 2001, p,8). During this critical stage in the instructional design process the designer will also reexamine the performance objectives, assessment items, and the instructional strategies.

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Summative Evaluation:

"Summative evaluation is a method of judging the worth of a program at the end of the program activities. The focus is on the outcome" (Bhola,1990).

A summative evaluation is conducted after implementation of an instructional product, project, or program. As in a "summary" of the cumulative parts of the instructional design implementation. Summative evaluation entails gathering information on adequacy of the instructional product or program and using this information to make decisions about the effectiveness of the instruction. During summative evaluation processes the designer will ask and answer the question-did the instruction solve the problem (Dick & Carey, 2001).

The purposes of a summative evaluation include:

Determining the worth and merit of a project or program Measure instructional material acceptance

Measure instructional material effectiveness Measure the impact of the instructional program Measure immediate learning outcomes Measure knowledge and skill acquisition (Dick & Carey, 2001) (Seels & Glasgow,

1998)

During the summative evaluation processes both qualitative and quantitative data gathered. The results of a summative evaluation may yield improvements in the instruction or program.

Donald Kirkpatrick's (1979) Four-Level Summative Evaluation Model may be utilized by a designer for summative evaluation. The model includes the stages of: reaction, learning, retention and results as seen in Figure 12.

Kirkpatrick's Evaluation Model

Figure 12: Kirkpatrick's Evaluation Model

Image adopted from:

http://coe.sdsu.edu/eet/Articles/k4levels/index.htm

1. Reactions-did the learners "like: the instruction? This may informally be referred to as the "smiley test".

2. Learning-did learning occur as intended? Did the learners master the performance objectives?

3. Transfer-did the learning transfer in the performance environment/context? Did the instruction yield a change in the learner's behavior?

4. Results-did the instructional program do what it was designed to do? What are the long term impacts and outcomes of the instruction?

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Another model that is utilized by evaluators is the Context, Input, Process, Product or CIPP Model of evaluation created by Daniel L. Stufflebeam (1983) (see Figure 13).

CIPP Model

Figure 13: CIPP Model

Image Adopted from:

http://wwledgebank.irri.org/cglrc/icraf/toolkit/The_CIPP_evaluation_model.htmw.know

1. Context-describes the organizational environment in which the innovation has been implemented

2. Input-describes the contributions into the system

3. Process-describes how the innovation is being implemented

4. Product-describes the output or outcome of the innovation

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